2023

BET
MÓDULO 1, 2
Biologia e Ecologia Tropical

Propósito e Objetivos
Numa era, por vezes designada de antropoceno, em que o impacto da atividade humana se verifica a todos os
níveis, aquela em a biodiversidade está desaparecendo a velocidade alarmante e onde os serviços de
ecossistemas são colocados em perigo, vislumbra-se que o estudante deva, para além de conhecer os processos
que habitualmente são apreendidos no âmbito da ecologia tropical, ser capaz de identificar as causas daquelas
alterações mas também as possíveis ações que possam ser tomadas para desacelerar, parar ou mesmo reverter
a perda do capital natural ainda existente. Neste contexto a UC ultrapassa o propósito da Biologia e Ecologia
Tropical interligando-se com a Biologia de Conservação.

Objetivos
Centrada na Ecologia Tropical mas interligada com o impacto da ação humana na Biosfera e na Biologia da
Conservação, pretende-se que o estudante seja capaz de:
1. Conhecer diversidade biológica em ecossistemas terrestres e aquáticos de regiões tropicais (ex. floresta,
savana, deserto, recifes de coral);
2. Identificar processos e conceber estratégias direcionadas para o estudo daqueles ecossistemas;
3. Dar resposta ao desafio associado à conservação de biodiversidade e à salvaguarda dos serviços dos
ecossistemas.
São propostos, para alcançar estes objetivos, a exploração de 13 tópicos (ver abaixo) a partir de textos (livros,
capítulos de livros, artigos), filmes, seminários e exemplos de projetos de conservação. É ainda proposto que o
estudante possa explorar, através de pesquisa direcionada, temas relacionados com aqueles tópicos e
desenvolva no processo competências individuais e/ou de trabalho em equipa. Ao conhecimento de estratégias
associadas ao estudo mas também à proteção de biodiversidade. É também esperado que se desenvolvam
competências destinadas à transmissão daquele conhecimento.

Módulos
Módulo 1. Ecologia Tropical: Introdução (Página 2);
Módulo 2. Biomas e Ecossistemas tropicais terrestres. Florestas tropicais, Savana tropical, Deserto (Página
7);
Módulo 3. Ciclo da água, ciclos biogeoquímicos, poluição, desflorestação e alterações climáticas;
Módulo 4. Biodiversidade (ex: Insetos, Vertebrados: aves, mamíferos);
Modulo 5. Mangais, Recifes de coral. Tartarugas marinhas, Elasmobrânquios;
Módulo 6. Comportamento animal;
Módulo 7. Interações: Predação, Herbivoria, Parasitismo, Mutualismo;
Módulo 8. Parasitas. Doenças infeciosas e parasitárias - impacto na conservação de biodiversidade (Ex. Ébola,
HIV, Tuberculose, Malária);
Módulo 9. Metodologias;
Módulo 10. Serviços dos ecossistemas;
Módulo 11. Ameaças à biodiversidade;
Módulo 12. Economia da Biodiversidade;
Módulo 13. Conservação de biodiversidade sensu lato, parques e reservas.

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Módulo 1. Ecologia Tropical

‘Tropical ecology is the study of all aspects of the ecology of tropical areas, which are those found approximately
23.5’ (23.27º - N, Tropic of Cancer; S, Tropic of Capricorn) ‘degrees either side of the Equator. Notable tropical
ecosystems include the rainforests of Amazonia, Africa and South East Asia, savannah grasslands and coral reefs’
(Nature, 2021; https://www.nature.com/subjects/tropical-ecology).

Ecologia (Ecology)
‘Estudo das relações entre organismos e o ambiente’. Pode envolver o estudo de organismos (componente
biótica), de florestas, lagos ou mesmo todo o planeta e a componentes abióticas (componentes físicas e químicas
do meio). Informações obtidas/mensuradas pelos ecologistas incluem a contagem de indivíduos, taxas de
reprodução, ou taxas de processos como fotossíntese ou de decomposição. Os ecologistas passam
frequentemente tanto tempo a avaliar componentes não biológicas do ambiente como a temperatura ou química
do solo, quanto o que dispensam a estudar organismos. Os ecologistas estudam inter-relações que vão do
indivíduo até fatores que influenciam processos à escala global (Ex. indivíduo, populações, comunidades,
interações, ecossistema, paisagem, região, biosfera’ (Moles, 2016).

Objetivos
Descrever os níveis de organização ecológica; Distinguir questões colocadas aquando do estudo daqueles níveis;
Explicar como o conhecimento de um nível de organização ecológica ajuda a guiar a investigação num outro nível
de organização.

Conceitos
Abundância – Número total de indivíduos, biomassa ou de espécies presentes numa área definida.
Biodiversidade – Termo que compreende todos os aspetos da diversidade biológica, incluindo diversidade
genética, comportamento, fisiológica, anatómica, de espécies e de ecossistemas.
Biosfera – Porção da terra que suporta a vida. Conjunto de todos os ecossistemas.
Bioma – Distinguem-se primeiramente pelas plantas que predominam e pelo clima ao qual estão associadas.
Consistem, primeiramente, em formações distintas de plantas como floresta tropical chuvosa e o deserto.
Bottom-up control – Controlo exercido por fatores físicos e químicos, como temperatura ou nutrientes sobre
comunidades ou ecossistemas.
Clima e tempo – Ambos se referem às condições atmosféricas (temperatura, humidade, precipitação, direção e
velocidade do vento). Tempo corresponde às condições atmosféricas num curto período de tempo e num local
específico. Clima corresponde à média das condições atmosféricas e sua varição num longo período de tempo.
Comunidade – A associação de espécies/todos os organismos que habitam uma mesma área e que interagem
entre si.
Ecossistema – Comunidade biológica e todos os fatores abióticos que influenciam essa comunidade.
Estrutura da comunidade – Atributos de uma comunidade, como sejam o número de espécies ou a distribuição
de indivíduos entre as espécies de uma comunidade.
Habitat – x
Nicho – Fatores ambientais que influenciam o crescimento, a sobrevivência, e a sobrevivência de uma espécie.
Paisagem – Área heterogénea constituída por diferentes formações organizadas em padrões diversos.
População – Conjunto de indivíduos de uma mesma espécie que habita uma área específica.
Realm – x

Molles, M.C., Jr.. 2016. Ecology: Concepts & Applications. 7th. McGraw Hill Education, New York. ISBN 978-0-
07-783728-0

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 ?
Pereira, M.J., Azeiteiro, U.M.. 2003. Ecological notes on the species of Phacus Dujardin (Euglenophyta) from
the central region of Portugal. Acta Oecologica, 24: S33-S48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1146-609X(03)00006-
7

Galetti, M., Moleón, M., Jordano, P., Pires, M.M., Guimarães Jr., P.R., Pape, T., Nichols, E., Hansen, D., Olesen,
J.M., Munk., M., de Mattos, J.S., Schweiger, A.H., Owen-Smith, N., Johnson, C.N., Marquis, R.J., Svenning, J.-C..
2018. Ecological and evolutionary legacy of megafauna extinctions. Biological Reviews, 93: 845-852.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/brv.12374

‘Understanding how a species utilises its habitat, and the processes that give rise to its movements and patterns
of space use, is critical for its conservation. Southern Ground-hornbills Bucorvus leadbeateri are listed as
Endangered in South Africa, as a result of habitat loss and persecution. The National Species Recovery Plan lists
reintroductions as a suitable conservation action, but highlights “understanding the exact habitat requirements of
Southern Ground-hornbills” as a knowledge gap.’ (Combrink et al., 2020)

Combrink, L., Combrink, H.J., Botha, A.J., Downs, C.T.. 2020. Habitat preferences of Southern Ground-
hornbills in the Kruger National Park: implications for future conservation measures. Scientific Reports, 10:
16195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73236-4

Southern ground-hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri)

https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/facts/southern-ground-hornbill

We need your help

https://www.sanparks.org/scientific-services/our-stories/citizen-science-project-to-monitor-southern-ground-
hornbills-gets-underway-in-kruger-and-mapungubwe

‘A nossa espécie tem alterado rapidamente o ambiente terrestre no entanto não compreendemos completamente
as consequências dessas alterações. Por exemplo, a atividade humana tem aumentado a quantidade de azoto
que cisrcula na biosfera, alterado a cobertura terrestre e aumentado a concentração de CO 2. Alterações como
estas podem ameaçar a diversidade de vida na terra e colocar em perigo o sistema de suporte da nossa vida.’
(Molles, 2016)

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For 38 years, the QNP lost about 301,761.7ha, corresponding to 41.67% of the total QNP coverage land. The main
causes are associated with intensive agriculture, human settlements, population growth, illegal exploitation
of forest resources and miners inside of the Quirimbas National Park.

Mucova, S.A.R., Leal Filho, W., Azeiteiro, U.M., Pereira, M.J.. 2018. Assessment of Land Use and Land Cover
Changes from 1979 to 2017 and Biodiversity & Land Management Approach in Quirimbas National Park,
Northern Mozambique, Africa. Global Ecology and Conservation, 16: e00447.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2018.e00447

Climate change poses a significant threat to global biodiversity, but freshwater fishes have been largely ignored in
climate change assessments. Here, we assess threats of future flow and water temperature extremes to ~11,500
riverine fish species. In a 3.2 °C warmer world (no further emission cuts after current governments’ pledges for
2030), 36% of the species have over half of their present-day geographic range exposed to climatic extremes
beyond current levels. Threats are largest in tropical and sub-arid regions and increases in maximum water
temperature are more threatening than changes in flow extremes. In comparison, 9% of the species are projected
to have more than half of their present-day geographic range threatened in a 2 °C warmer world, which further
reduces to 4% of the species if warming is limited to 1.5 °C. Our results highlight the need to intensify (inter)national
commitments to limit global warming if freshwater biodiversity is to be safeguarded.

Fig. 2 Spatial patterns of climate change threat. Potentially affected fraction (PAF) of freshwater fish species due
to exposure to water flow and temperature extremes beyond current levels, for different global warming levels and
two dispersal assumptions. Patterns are based on the median PAF across the GCM–RCP combinations at a five

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arcminutes resolution (~10km). Gray denotes no data areas (no species occurring or no data available). Source
data are provided as Supplementary Data 2 and 3.

Barbarossa, V., Bosmans, J., Wanders, N., King, H, Bierkens, M.F.P., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Schipper, A.M.. 2021.
Threats of global warming to the world’s freshwater fishes. Nature Communications, 12: 1701.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-21655-w

Figure 1. Plotting extent of flooding caused by Idae Tropical Cyclone (red area on the map). Coperni- cus Sentinel
data (2019) processed by ESA, CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO (European Commission/Copernicus Emergency Management
Service).

Mucova, S.A.R., Azeiteiro, U.M., Filho, W.L., Lopes, C.L., Dias, J.M., Pereira, M.J.. 2021. Approaching Sea-Level
Rise (SLR) Change: Strengthening Local Response to Sea-Level Rise and Coping with Climate Change in
Northern Mozambique. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 9: 205.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse9020205

Molles, M.C., Jr.. 2016. Ecology: Concepts & Applications. 7th. McGraw Hill Education, New York. ISBN 978-0-
07-783728-0

The Anthropocene Epoch

‘Officially, the current epoch is called the Holocene, which began 11,700 years ago after the last major ice age.
However, the Anthropocene Epoch is an unofficial unit of geologic time, used to describe the most recent period
in Earth’s history when human activity started to have a significant impact on the planet’s climate and ecosystems.
The word Anthropocene is derived from the Greek words anthropo, for “man,” and cene for “new,” coined and
made popular by biologist Eugene Stormer and chemist Paul Crutzen in 2000.’
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/anthropocene

Paul J. Crutzen
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1995

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www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1995/crutzen/facts/

The Anthropocene Project (2;11)

https://theanthropocene.org/film/

Worldometers (www.worldometers.info) , Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. World
Population Prospects: The 2019 Revision (https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/).

Daskin, J.H., Pringle, R.M.. 2018. Warfare and wildlife decline in Africa’s protected areas. Nature, 553:
328.332. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature25194

A Year in Gorongosa 2020 (51’07’’)

Narrado em português com legendas em inglês
Alguns tópicos
Introdução a ecossistemas, biodiversidade, conservação, relações tróficas, serviços dos ecossistemas
comportamento, métodos (telemetria, drones, etc.)
https://vimeo.com/496987386

Bibliografia:
Molles, M.C., Jr.. 2016. Ecology: Concepts & Applications. 7th. McGraw Hill Education, New York. ISBN 978-0-
07-783728-0
Barbarossa, V., Bosmans, J., Wanders, N., King, H, Bierkens, M.F.P., Huijbregts, M.A.J., Schipper, A.M.. 2021.
Threats of global warming to the world’s freshwater fishes. Nature Communications, 12: 1701.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-21655-w
Combrink, L., Combrink, H.J., Botha, A.J., Downs, C.T.. 2020. Habitat preferences of Southern Ground-
hornbills in the Kruger National Park: implications for future conservation measures. Scientific Reports, 10:
16195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73236-4
Daskin, J.H., Pringle, R.M.. 2018. Warfare and wildlife decline in Africa’s protected areas. Nature, 553:
328.332. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature25194
Galetti, M., Moleón, M., Jordano, P., Pires, M.M., Guimarães Jr., P.R., Pape, T., Nichols, E., Hansen, D., Olesen,
J.M., Munk., M., de Mattos, J.S., Schweiger, A.H., Owen-Smith, N., Johnson, C.N., Marquis, R.J., Svenning, J.-C..
2018. Ecological and evolutionary legacy of megafauna extinctions. Biological Reviews, 93: 845-852.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/brv.12374
Mucova, S.A.R., Leal Filho, W., Azeiteiro, U.M., Pereira, M.J.. 2018. Assessment of Land Use and Land Cover
Changes from 1979 to 2017 and Biodiversity & Land Management Approach in Quirimbas National Park,
Northern Mozambique, Africa. Global Ecology and Conservation, 16: e00447.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2018.e00447
Mucova, S.A.R., Azeiteiro, U.M., Filho, W.L., Lopes, C.L., Dias, J.M., Pereira, M.J.. 2021. Approaching Sea-Level
Rise (SLR) Change: Strengthening Local Response to Sea-Level Rise and Coping with Climate Change in
Northern Mozambique. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 9: 205.
http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse9020205
Pereira, M.J., Azeiteiro, U.M.. 2003. Ecological notes on the species of Phacus Dujardin (Euglenophyta) from
the central region of Portugal. Acta Oecologica, 24: S33-S48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1146-609X(03)00006-
7

Our Planet
Netflix (Full free) (49:27)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GfO-3Oir-qM

Paul J. Crutzen
The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1995
www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1995/crutzen/facts/

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Módulo 2. Biomas e Ecossistemas tropicais terrestres. Florestas tropicais, Savana tropical, Deserto;

Objetivos
Identificar as principais características que diferenciam os vários biomas terrestres. Conhecer sua distribuição.
Reconhecer as variações de precipitação e temperatura ao longo do tempo e no espaço geográfico. Identificar
clima associado a cada um, o solo, as principais inter-relações entre biodiversidade. Reconhecer possível impacto
da atividade humana nos ecossistemas terrestres. Identificar serviços, diversidade biológica e interações de
espécies chave nos ecossistemas tropicais terrestres. Qual o padrão associado à posição do Sol em relação aos
Trópicos de Cancer e Capricórnio. Como é que o Sol determina os padrões de circulação atmosférica e influencia
as diferenças de precipitação. Ser capaz de interpretar um diagrama climático. Explicar o efeito de Coriolis na
direção do vento.

Palavras-chave
Bioma, Biomas terrestres, Tipologia dos ecossistemas, Ecossistemas tropicais, Floresta tropical, Floresta tropical
húmida, Floresta tropical seca, Savana, Desertos. Padrões de variação climática, Circulação atmosférica,
Precipitação, Temperatura, Solo, Vegetação, Diagramas climáticos.
Solo, Predadores, Competidores, Parasitismo,

Biomes are distinguished primarily by their predominant plants and are associated with particular climates. They
consist of distinctive plant formations such as the tropical rain forest biome and the desert biome. Because tropical
rain forest and desert are characterized by very different types of plants and animals and occur in regions with very
different climates, the natural histories of these biomes differ a great deal. The student of ecology should be aware
of the major features of those differences.
Natural history, the study of how organisms in a particular area are influenced by factors such as climate, soils,
predators, competitors, and evolutionary history.

Temperature, Atmospheric Circulation, and Precipitation

‘Much of earth’s climatic variation is caused by uneven heating of its surface by the sun. This uneven heating
results from the spherical shape of the earth and the angle at which the earth rotates on its axis as it orbits the sun.
Because the earth is a sphere, the sun’s rays are most concentrated where the sun is directly overhead. However,
the latitude at which the sun is directly overhead changes with the seasons. This seasonal change occurs because
the earth’s axis of rotation is not perpendicular to its plane of orbit about the sun but is tilted approximately 23.5º
away from the perpendicular (fig. 2.3). Because this tilted angle of rotation is maintained throughout earth’s orbit
about the sun, the amount of solar energy received by the Northern and Southern Hemispheres changes
seasonally. During the northern summer the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun and receives more solar
energy than the Southern Hemisphere. During the northern summer solstice on approximately June 21, the sun is
directly overhead at the tropic of Cancer, at 23.5º N latitude.

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Figure 2.3 The seasons in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. (Moles, 2016; pag. 14).

During the northern winter solstice, on approximately December 21, the sun is directly overhead at the tropic of
Capricorn, at 23.5º S latitude. During the northern winter, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted away from the sun and
the Southern Hemisphere receives more solar energy. The sun is directly overhead at the equator during the spring
and autumnal equinoxes, on approximately March 21 and September 22 or 23. On those dates, the Northern and
Southern Hemispheres receive approximately equal amounts of solar radiation.
Between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, seasonal variations in temperature and day length are slight, while
precipitation may vary a great deal. What produces spatial and temporal variation in precipitation?
Heating of the earth’s surface and atmosphere drives circulation of the atmosphere and influences patterns of
precipitation. As shown in figure 2.4 the sun heats air at the equator, causing it to expand and rise. This warm,
moist air cools as it rises. Since cool air holds less water vapor than warm air, the water vapor carried by this rising
air mass condenses and forms clouds, which produce the heavy rainfall associated with tropical environments.
Eventually, this equatorial air mass ceases to rise and spreads north and south. This high-altitude air is dry, since
the moisture it once held fell as tropical rains. As this air mass flows north and south, it cools, which increases its
density. Eventually, it sinks back to the earth’s surface at about 30º latitude and spreads north and south. This dry
air draws moisture from the lands over which it flows and creates deserts in the process. Air moving from 30º
latitude toward the equator completes an atmospheric circulation cell at low latitudes.
The patterns of atmospheric circulation shown in figure 2.4b suggest that air movement is directly north and south.
However, this does not reflect what we observe from the earth’s surface as the earth rotates from west to east.

Figure 2.4 (a) Solar-driven air circulation. (b) Latitude and atmospheric circulation. (Moles, 2016; pag. 15).

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Climate Diagrams
Climate diagrams were developed by Heinrich Walter (1985) as a tool to explore the relationship between the
distribution of terrestrial vegetation and climate. Climate diagrams summarize a great deal of useful climatic
information, including seasonal variation in temperature and precipitation, the length and intensity of wet and dry
seasons, and the portion of the year during which average minimum temperature is above and below 0º C. climate
diagrams summarize climatic information using a standardized structure. The months of the year are plotted on
the horizontal axis, beginning with January and ending with December for locations in the Northern Hemisphere
and beginning with July and ending with June in the Southern Hemisphere. Temperature is plotted on the left
vertical axis and precipitation on the right vertical axis. Temperature and precipitation are plotted on different scales
so that 10 C is equivalent to 20 mm of precipitation. Climate diagrams for wet areas such as tropical rain forest
compress the precipitation scale for precipitation above 100 mm so that 10 C is equivalent to 200 mm of
precipitation. With this change in scale, rainfall data from very wet climates can be fit on a graph of convenient
size. This change in scale is represented by darker shading in the climate diagram for Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
(fig. 2.7a). Notice that the precipitation at Kuala Lumpur exceeds 100 mm during all months of the year. Because
the temperature and precipitation scales are constructed so that 10 C equals 20 mm of precipitation, the relative
positions of the temperature and precipitation lines reflect water availability. Theoretically, adequate moisture for
plant growth exists when the precipitation line lies above the temperature line. These moist periods are indicated
in the figure by blue shading. When the temperature line lies above the precipitation line, potential evaporation rate
exceeds precipitation. These dry periods are indicated by gold shading in the climate diagram.

Figure 2.6 Structure of climate diagrams. (Moles, 2016; pag. 16).

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 (Trewin, 2014)

Trewin, B.. 2014. The climates of the Tropics, and how they are changing. The State of the Tropics, Essay 1,
Section 2 – The Ecosystem. 39-51.

Raven. P-H., Gereau, R.E., Phillipson, P.B., Chatelain, C., Jenkins, C.N., Ulloa, C.U.. 2020. The distribution of biodiversity
richness in the tropics. Science Advances, 6(37): eabc6228. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abc6228

Biomas
Áreas/regiões caracterizadas pelo tipo de biodiversidade que nela existe (ex, plantas, animais) que e cuja
presença e distribuição está condicionada pelas características climáticas (ex. temperatura, precipitação) e solo
(biomas terrestres) da região. Ex. Floresta tropical húmida, Floresta tropical seca, Savana tropical, Deserto)
(Moles, 2016).

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Major African Biomes

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Keith, D.A., Ferrer-Paris, J.R., Nicholson, E. and Kingsford, R.T. (eds.). 2020. The IUCN Global Ecosystem
Typology 2.0: Descriptive profiles for biomes and ecosystem functional groups. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2020.13.en https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/49250

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Tropical Rain Forest

Our Planet – Jungles (50:57)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=um2Q9aUecy0

Our Planet – Forests (48:17)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JkaxUblCGz0

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Geography
Most rain forest occurs within 10º of latitude north or south of the equator. Outside this equatorial band are the rain
forests of Central America and Mexico, southeastern Brazil, eastern Madagascar, southern India, and northeastern
Australia.

Climate
The global distribution of rain forests corresponds to areas where conditions are warm and wet year-round (see
fig. 2.10). Temperatures in tropical rain forests vary little from month to month and often change as much in a day
as they do over the entire year. Average temperatures are about 25º-27º C, lower than average maximum summer
temperatures in many deserts and temperate regions. Annual rainfall ranges from about 2,000 to 4,000 mm, and
some rain forests receive even more precipitation. In a rain forest, a month with less than 100 mm of rain is
considered dry.

Figure 2.10 Tropical rain forest geography and climate. (Moles, 2016; pag. 20)

Soils
Heavy rains gradually leach nutrients from rain forest soils and rapid decomposition in the warm, moist rain forest
climate keeps the quantity of soil organic matter low. Consequently, rain forest soils are often nutrient-poor, acidic,
thin, and low in organic matter. In many rain forests, more nutrients are tied up in living tissue than in soil. Some
rain forests, however, occur where soils are very fertile.

Biology
Many organisms in the rain forest have evolved to use the vertical dimension provided by trees. Trees dominate
the rain forest landscape and average about 40 m in height. However, some reach 50, 60, or even 80 m tall. These
rain forest giants are often supported by well-developed buttresses. The diversity of rain forest trees is also
impressive. 1 ha of tropical rain forest may contain up to 300 tree species.
A single rain forest tree may support several thousand species of insects, many of which have not been described
by scientists.
Rain forest ecology is marked by intricate, complex relationships between species. In the tropical rain forest there
are plants that cannot live without particular species of ants, mites that make their homes in the flowers of plants
and depend on hummingbirds to get them from flower to flower, and trees and vines that compete continuously for
light and space.

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 Figure 2.11 An epiphyte mat in the tropical rain forest canopy. Epiphyte mats store a substantial fraction of the
nutrients in tropical rain forests and support a high diversity of plant and animal species. (Moles, 2016; pag. 21)

Molles, M.C., Jr.. 2016. Ecology: Concepts & Applications. 7th. McGraw Hill Education, New York. ISBN 978-0-
07-783728-0

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Figure 2.1 Profile diagram of the forest at Ulu Dapoi, Tinjar, Borneo. A plot 60m× 8m (200× 25 feet) is shown.
Turner, I.M.. 2004. The Ecology of Trees in the Tropical Rain Forest. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
ISBN 0-511-04148-9 eBook

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T1.1 Tropical subtropical lowland rainforests BIOME: TROPICAL-SUBTROPICAL FORESTS REALM:
TERRESTRIAL

KEY ECOLOGICAL DRIVERS: Precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration with low intra- and inter-annual
variability, creating a reliable year-round surplus, while closed tree canopies.

Keith, D.A., Young, K.R., Corlett, R.T.. 2020. Tropical subtropical lowland rainforests BIOME: TROPICAL-
SUBTROPICAL FORESTS REALM: TERRESTRIAL. In: D.A. Keith, J.R. Ferrer-Paris, E. Nicholson and R.T.

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Kingsford (eds.) (2020). The IUCN Global Ecosystem Typology 2.0: Descriptive profles for biomes and ecosystem
functional groups. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.

Keith, D.A., Ferrer-Paris, J.R., Nicholson, E. and Kingsford, R.T. (eds.). 2020. The IUCN Global Ecosystem
Typology 2.0: Descriptive profiles for biomes and ecosystem functional groups. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
https://doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.CH.2020.13.en https://portals.iucn.org/library/node/49250

Tropical Forests – Biomes (14:29’)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E6WdEyt93vA

Tropical Dry Forest

During the dry season, the tropical dry forest is all earth tones; in the rainy season, it’s an emerald tangle (fig. 2.12).
Life in the tropical dry forest responds to the rhythms of the annual solar cycle, which drives the oscillation between
wet and dry seasons. During the dry season, most trees in the tropical dry forest are dormant. Then, as the rains
approach, trees flower and insects appear to pollinate them. The pace of life quickens. Eventually, as the first
storms of the wet season arrive, the trees produce their leaves and transform the landscape.

Geography
Tropical dry forests occupy a substantial portion of the earth’s surface between about 10º and 25º latitude
(fig. 2.13). In Africa, tropical dry forests are found both north and south of the central African rain forests. In the
Americas, tropical dry forests are the natural vegetation of extensive areas south and north of the Amazon rain
forest. Tropical dry forests also extend up the west coast of Central America and into North America along the west
coast of Mexico. In Asia, tropical dry forests are the natural vegetation of most of India and the Indochina peninsula.
Australian tropical dry forests form a continuous band across the northern and northeastern portions of the
continent.

Figure 2.12 Tropical dry forest during the wet and dry seasons. (Moles, 2016; pag. 22)

Climate
The climate of tropical dry forests is more seasonal than that of tropical rain forests. The three climate diagrams
shown in figure 2.13, for example, show a dry season lasting for 6 to 7 months, followed by a season of abundant
rainfall, lasting 5 to 6 months. The climate diagrams also indicate more seasonal variation in temperature compared
to tropical rain forest.

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 Figure 2.13 Tropical dry forest geography and climate. (Moles, 2016; pag. 22)

Soils
The soils of many tropical dry forests are of great age, particularly those in the parts of Africa, Australia, India, and
Brazil. The soils of tropical dry forests tend to be less acidic than those of rain forests and are generally richer in
nutrients. However, the annual pulses of torrential rain make the soils of tropical dry forest highly vulnerable to
erosion.

Biology
The plants of the tropical dry forest are strongly influenced by physical factors. For example, the height of the dry
forest is highly correlated with average precipitation. Trees are tallest in the wettest areas. In the driest habitats,
all trees drop their leaves during the dry season; in wetter areas over 50% may be evergreen. As in the tropical
rain forest, many plants produce animal-dispersed seeds. However, wind-dispersed seeds are also common. Many
dry forest birds, mammals, and even insects make seasonal migrations to wetter habitats along rivers or to the
nearest rain forest.

Molles, M.C., Jr.. 2016. Ecology: Concepts & Applications. 7th. McGraw Hill Education, New York. ISBN 978-0-
07-783728-0 (Moles, 2016)

Tropical Savanna
Stand in the middle of a savanna, a tropical grassland dotted with scattered trees, and your eye will be drawn to
the horizon for the approach of thunderstorms or wandering herds of wildlife (fig. 2.15).

Geography
Most tropical savannas occur north and south of tropical dry forests within 10º to 20º of the equator. In Africa south
of the Sahara Desert, tropical savannas extend from the west to the east coasts, cut a north–south swath across
the east African highlands, and reappear in south-central Africa (fig. 2.16). In South America, tropical savannas
occur in south-central Brazil and cover a great deal of Venezuela and Colombia. Tropical savannas are also the
natural vegetation of much of northern Australia in the region just south of the tropical dry forest. Savanna is also
the natural vegetation of an area in southern Asia just east of the Indus River in eastern Pakistan and northwestern
India.

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Climate
As in the tropical dry forest, life on the savanna cycles to the rhythms of alternating dry and wet seasons (see
fig. 2.16). Here, however, seasonal drought combines with another important physical factor, fire. The rains come
in summer and are accompanied by intense lightning. This lightning often starts fires, particularly at the beginning
of the wet season when the savanna is tinder dry. These fires kill young trees while the grasses survive and quickly
resprout. Consequently, fires help maintain the tropical savanna as a landscape of grassland and scattered trees.
The savanna climate is generally drier than that of tropical dry forest.

Figure 2.15 Tropical savanna and herbivores in East Africa. The tropical savanna landscape is partially maintained
by periodic fires that help control the density of woody vegetation. (Moles, 2016; pag. 24).

Soils
Soil layers with low permeability to water play a key role in maintaining many tropical savannas.

Biodiversity
Trees don’t completely dominate the landscape. Consequently, a greater proportion of the biological activity on the
savanna takes place near ground level. Frequent fires have selected for fire resistance in the savanna flora. The
few tree species on the savanna resist fire well enough to be unaffected by low-intensity fires.
The tropical savanna is populated by wandering animals that move in response to seasonal and year-to-year
variations in rainfall and food availability.
The African savanna is also home to a host of well-known mobile consumers, such as elephants, wildebeest,
giraffes, zebras, lions, and, again, humans (see fig. 2.15 ).

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Figure 2.16 Tropical savanna geography and climate. (Moles, 2016; pag. 25)

Molles, M.C., Jr.. 2016. Ecology: Concepts & Applications. 7th. McGraw Hill Education, New York. ISBN 978-0-
07-783728-0 (Molles, 2016)
Savannah (8:45)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mle5gmEpYys
African Savannah (2:10)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sDkOvg98hc8
Savannah Biome 2 (8:44)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mle5gmEpYys
Life on the African Savannah (5:03)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9bQNRVyI4I0

Anderson, T.M., White, S., Davis, B., Erhardt, R., Palmer, M., Swanson, A., Kosmala, M., Packer, C.. 2016. The
spatial distribution of Africa savannah herbivores: species associations and occupancy in landscape
context. Philosophical Transactions Royal Society B, 371: 20150314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0314

Malhi, Y., Gardner, T.A., Goldsmith, G.R., Silman, M.R., Zelazowski, P.. 2014. Tropical Forests in the
Anthropocene. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour., 39: 125-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-030713-
155141

Desert
Our Planet – From Deserts to Grasslands (50:54)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XmtXC_n6X6Q

Deserts National Geographic (3:52)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n4crvs-KTBw

In the spare desert landscape, sculpted by wind and water, the ecologist grows to appreciate geology, hydrology,
and climate as much as organisms (fig. 2.18). In the desert, drought and flash floods, and heat and bitter cold,
often go hand in hand. Yet, the often repeated description of life in the desert as “life on the edge” betrays an

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outsider’s view. Life in the desert is not luxuriant, but it does not follow that living conditions there are necessarily
harsh. For many species, the desert is the center of their world, not the edge. In their own way, many desert organ-
isms flourish on meager rations of water, high temperatures, and saline soils. To understand life in the desert, the
ecologist must see it from the perspective of its natural inhabitants.

Geography
Deserts occupy about 20% of the land surface of the earth. Two bands of deserts ring the globe, one at about 30º
N latitude and one at about 30º S ( 8 fig. 2.19 ). These bands correspond to latitudes where dry subtropical air
descends (see fig. 2.4 ), drying the landscape as it spreads north and south. The Namib of southwestern Africa,
where air circulating across a cool ocean delivers a great deal of fog to the coast but little rain.

Figure 2.18 Life on the edge. Sparse desert vegetation stabilizes a patch of soil at the edge of a field of giant
dunes in the Namib Desert in southwestern Africa. (Moles, 2016; pag. 26)

Climate
Environmental conditions vary considerably from one desert to another. Whatever their mean annual rainfall,
however, water loss in deserts due to evaporation and transpiration by plants exceeds precipitation during most of
the year.
Drought conditions prevail during all months and that during some months average temperatures exceed 30º C.
Shade temperatures greater than 56 8 C have been recorded and sometimes fall to -20º C (see fig. 2.19 ).

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Figure 2.19 Desert geography and climate. (Moles, 2016; pag. 27)

Soil
Desert plants and animals can turn this landscape into a mosaic of diverse soils. Desert soils are generally so low
in organic matter that they are sometimes classified as lithosols, which means stone or mineral soil.

Biology
The desert landscape presents an unfamiliar face to the visitor from moist climates. Plant cover is absent from
many places, exposing soils and other geological features. The plants themselves look unfamiliar. Desert
vegetation often cloaks the landscape in a gray-green mantle. This is because many desert plants protect their
photosynthetic surfaces from intense sunlight and reduce evaporative water losses with a dense covering of plant
hairs. Other plant adaptations to drought include small leaves, producing leaves only in response to rainfall and
then dropping them during intervening dry periods, or having no leaves at all ( fig. 2.20 ). Some desert plants avoid
drought almost entirely by remaining dormant in the soil as seeds that germinate and grow only during infrequent
wet periods.

Molles, M.C., Jr.. 2016. Ecology: Concepts & Applications. 7th. McGraw Hill Education, New York. ISBN 978-0-
07-783728-0

Hot Deserts – Secrets of World Climate (12:03)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=itnYTE-3u-o

Deserts – Biomes 4 (15:00)

Biome The living Landscapes of Earth, Part 4: Deserts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSx1wP18hRE

Namib: Surviving the Sand Sea Documentary (50:00)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqbOgx_FCbw

Mucina, L.. 2019. Biome: evolution of a crucial ecological and biogeographical concept. New Phytologist,
222: 97-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/npr.15609

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Bibliografia:
Chapin, III, F.S., Matson, P.A., Vitousek, P.M.. 2011. Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology. 2º Ed.
Springer, New York. ISBN 978-1-4419-9503-2 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-9504-9
Kricher, J.. 2011. Tropical Ecology. Princeton University, Princeton. Viii + 632 p. ISBN 978-0-691-11513-9
Molles, M.C., Jr.. 2016. Ecology: Concepts & Applications. 7th. McGraw Hill Education, New York. ISBN 978-0-
07-783728-0
Turner, I.M.. 2004. The Ecology of Trees in the Tropical Rain Forest. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
ISBN 0-511-04148-9 eBook
Wilson, J.W., Primack, R.B.. 2019. Conservation Biology in Sub-Saharan Africa. Open Book Publishers,
Cambridge. http://dx.doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0177

Artigos
Anderson, T.M., White, S., Davis, B., Erhardt, R., Palmer, M., Swanson, A., Kosmala, M., Packer, C.. 2016. The
spatial distribution of Africa savannah herbivores: species associations and occupancy in landscape
context. Philosophical Transactions Royal Society B, 371: 20150314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0314
Ashton, P.S., Seidler, R. (2014). On the Forests of Tropical Asia: Lest the memory fade. Kew, UK: Royal
Botanic Gardens.
Corlett, R.T., Primack, R.B. (2011). Tropical Rain Forests: An Ecological and Biogeographical Comparison.
Second Edition. Chichester, UK: Wiley- Blackwell.
Malhi, Y., Gardner, T.A., Goldsmith, G.R., Silman, M.R., Zelazowski, P.. 2014. Tropical Forests in the
Anthropocene. Annu. Rev. Environ. Resour., 39: 125-159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-030713-
155141
Mucina, L.. 2019. Biome: evolution of a crucial ecological and biogeographical concept. New Phytologist,
222: 97-114. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/npr.15609
Raven. P-H., Gereau, R.E., Phillipson, P.B., Chatelain, C., Jenkins, C.N., Ulloa, C.U.. 2020. The distribution of
biodiversity richness in the tropics. Science Advances, 6(37): eabc6228.
https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abc6228
Trewin, B.. 2014. The climates of the Tropics, and how they are changing. The State of the Tropics, Essay 1,
Section 2 – The Ecosystem. 39-51.

Vídeos
Frontiers in Tropical Ecology, Conservation and Society in the Anthropocene. ATBC2017 (1:27:16)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sj5VekoANUA

Our Planet – Forests (48:17)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JkaxUblCGz0
Our Planet – Jungles (50:57)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=um2Q9aUecy0
Tropical Forests – Biomes (14:29’)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E6WdEyt93vA

Our Planet – From Deserts to Grasslands – Netflix Narrado por David Attenborough (50:54)
Namib 15:40-20:50; Savannah 22:30 – 29:38 (Serengeti); India (43:40)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XmtXC_n6X6Q

Deserts – Biomes 4 (15:00)

Biome The living Landscapes of Earth, Part 4: Deserts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TSx1wP18hRE
Hot Deserts – Secrets of World Climate (12:03)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=itnYTE-3u-o
Types of Deserts National Geographic (3:52)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n4crvs-KTBw
Namib: Surviving the Sand Sea Documentary (50:00)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqbOgx_FCbw

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