Agenda Acvariu v3

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acvariu
n 99 de pagini, actualizat la 28. mai. 2011
Cuprins
Animalia. Arthropoda. Crustacea. Palaemonidae 1
Family description....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1
Palaemonetes spp. Ghost Shrimp...........................................................................................................................................................................................................2
Animalia. Arthropoda. Crustacea. Cambaridae 4
Cambarellus patzcuarensis.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................5
Animalia. Mollusca. Gastropoda. Neritidae 6
Neritina natalensis sp. !ebra. !ebra Nerite Snail................................................................................................................................................................................."
Animalia. Mollusca. Gastropoda. Ampullariidae 8
Family description....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................#
Pomacea maculata $%mpullaria Gi&as'. (ystery Snail.........................................................................................................................................................................11
Pomacea canaliculata $%mpullaria %ustralis'........................................................................................................................................................................................12
Animalia. Chordata. Amphibia. Pipidae 13
Family description..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................1)
*ymenochirus boett&eri. +roscu,a &ri. - decedat..................................................................................................................................................................................14
Animalia. Chordata. Actinopterygii. Characiormes. Characidae. 16
Family description..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................16
Paracheirodon innesi. Neon tetra..........................................................................................................................................................................................................1#
Animalia. Chordata. Actinopterygii. Cypriniormes. Cobitidae !"
Family description..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................2.
Chromobotia macracanthus/ Clo0n loach.............................................................................................................................................................................................22
+otia almorhae $+otia lohachata'/ 1oyo loach.......................................................................................................................................................................................24
Animalia. Chordata. Actionpterygii. Cypriniormes. Cyprinidae !6
+alantiocheilos melanopterus. +ala $Colour2ul' shar3..........................................................................................................................................................................24
Crossocheilus siamensis. Siamese al&ae eater. ..................................................................................................................................................................................).
Animalia. Chordata. Actinopterygii. Cyprinodontiormes. Poeciliidae. 3!
Family description..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................)2
Poecilia reticulata. Guppy......................................................................................................................................................................................................................))
5iphophorus maculatus. Platy...............................................................................................................................................................................................................)5
5iphophorus hellerii. Green S0ordtail...................................................................................................................................................................................................)"
Animalia. Chordata. Actinopterygii. Perciormes. Cichlidae. 3#
Family description..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................)4
Pterophyllum scalare. %n&el2ish............................................................................................................................................................................................................45
(i3ro&eopha&us ramirezi. 6am cichlid.................................................................................................................................................................................................4#
7abidochromis caeruleus/ 7emon yello0 lab.........................................................................................................................................................................................5.
Animalia. Chordata. Actinopterygii. Perciormes. $sphronemidae. %1
+etta splendens. Siamese 2i&htin& 2ish. ...............................................................................................................................................................................................5)
Animalia. Chordata. Actinopterygii. &iluriormes. Callichthyidae %6
Corydoras aeneus/ +ronze corydoras...................................................................................................................................................................................................5#
Corydoras paleatus. Peppered corydoras.............................................................................................................................................................................................6.
Corydoras sterbai. Sterba8s corydoras..................................................................................................................................................................................................62
Corydoras sch0artzi/ Sch0artz8s cat2ish...............................................................................................................................................................................................6)
Corydoras arcuatus/ S3un3 Corydoras or %rched corydoras................................................................................................................................................................64
Corydoras panda/ Panda corydoras......................................................................................................................................................................................................65
*oplosternum littorale. *oplo Cat2ish....................................................................................................................................................................................................6#
Animalia. Chordata. Actionpterygii. &iluriormes. 'oricariidae ("
Family description..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................".
9tocinclus :estitus. ;0ar2 9tto/ ;0ar2 or (id&et suc3ermouth cat2ish. .............................................................................................................................................."4
%ncistrus dolichopterus ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................."6
Plantae. Angiosperms. (8
Cabomba a<uatica................................................................................................................................................................................................................................."#
%nubias &racilis......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................"4
*y&rophila an&usti2olia - =illo0 *y&ro..................................................................................................................................................................................................#.
Ceratopteris thalictroides - =atersprite.................................................................................................................................................................................................#2
>lodea....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................#4
+acopa monnieri....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................#5
(icrosorum pteropus. ?a:a 2ern............................................................................................................................................................................................................#"
Cladophora ae&a&ropila/ ?apanese (oss +alls....................................................................................................................................................................................#4
)i*erse #"
Primul ac:ariu........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4.
S2aturi pe scurt.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................4)
Ciclul %zotului.........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................45
Animalia. Arthropoda. Crustacea. Palaemonidae
Family description
Scienti2ic classi2ication
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Crustacea
Class: Malacostraca
Order: ecapoda
Infraorder: Caridea
Superfamily: Palaemonoidea
!amily: Palaemonidae
Palaemonidae is a family of crustaceans of the order ecapoda" #hey belong to the infraorder Caridea$ %hich
contains the true shrimp& %hile some fresh%ater palaemonid species are 'no%n as (pra%ns($ the family belongs
to the suborder Pleocyemata li'e all true shrimp$ %hereas the true pra%ns are members of the suborder
endrobranchiata"
#%o subfamilies are distinguished: the Palaemoninae are less diverse phylogenetically$ but more diverse
ecologically" #hey are mainly carnivores that eat small invertebrates and can be found in any a)uatic habitat
e*cept the deep sea" #he most significant palaemonine genus is Macrobrachium$ %hich contains commercial
species such as Macrobrachium rosenbergii"
#he Pontoniinae have a higher evolutionary diversity$ but almost all of them inhabit coral reefs$ %here they
associate %ith certain invertebrates such as sponges$ cnidarians$ mollus's and echinoderms" #his group includes
cleaner shrimps as %ell as parasites and commensals" #hey generally feed on detritus$ though some are
carnivores and hunt tiny animals"
Genera
#he family contains +,- genera$ divided unevenly bet%een t%o subfamilies:.+/
+" Palaemoninae 0afines)ue$ +1+2
3" Pontoniinae Kingsley$ +145
modi2icat la 2#. mai. 2.11
Palaemonetes spp. Ghost Shrimp
Species Pro2ile and Care @n2ormation
!resh%ater Invertebrate
Scientific 6ame : Palaemonetes sp"
Common 6ames : 7lass Shrimp$ 7rass Shrimp
Care 8evel : 9asy
Si:e : + ; 3 inches <, ; 2 cm=
8ife span : + ; 3 years$ sometimes longer
p> : ?"2 ; 1
#emperature : ?2@! ; 1A@! <+1@C ; 34@C=
Origin B >abitat : !ound in multiple places throughout 6orth America$ mostly farm raised for the pet fish trade
9:er:ie0
#he 7host Shrimp is a cool little fresh%ater shrimp that you may be interested in 'eeping if you have the right
tan' setup" #hey are sometimes called the (7lass Shrimp( because they have a semi;translucent body" #his is a
very ine*pensive shrimp to purchase and should live for a year or t%o and sometimes even longer"
#hey are fre)uently used by fishermen as fish bait and they are considered pests by clam farmers %ho spend lots
of money trying to eradicate them from their clam farms" !or hobbyists$ they can provide an interesting addition
to a tan' stoc'ed %ith smaller$ less aggressive fish species" 8arger fish may find them irresistible and %ill Cust
love eating them"
7host Shrimp need to build a borro% to feel secure so you %ill need to provide a sand or very small si:ed gravel
substrate that %ill allo% them to create a shelter for themselves" Dou may be able to 'eep multiples provided that
you have a tan' large enough to support multiples" Dou may see some aggressive behavior amongst them around
breeding time"
#his is a some%hat decent scavenger and %ill go after all fish foods placed into the tan'" Ma'e sure they are
getting enough to eat by dropping in a sin'ing shrimp pellet or algae %afer every once in a %hile"
If you have your ghosties in a tan' %ith fishes that need treatment for diseases you %ill need to remove the
shrimps to a separate tan' %hile medicating" Ee%are especially of any medications containing copper" 0un
activated carbon through the a)uarium filter and ma'e sure you remove all of the medications before introducing
them bac' into the tan'"
#emperament B Eehavior : Sometimes %ill eat baby fish$ they are usually food for other fish$ sometimes %ill
fight among themselves if the tan' is too small and there are too many of them"
Ereeding B Mating B 0eproduction : If you put several of them in your tan' then they %ill mate and the female
%ill carry small eggs in her belly %hich you can see" >appens %ithout you doing anything" If you %ant to raise
the young then you need to move the female to a separate tan' before she has her babies and add the appropriate
amount of a)uarium salt"
#an' Si:e : 2 gallons <+5 liters=
Compatible #an' Mates : Fse caution %hen selecting tan' mates if you %ant to 'eep them" 8arger fish may find
them irresistible and eat them" Smaller$ peaceful fish species may be able to co;e*ist %ith them"
!ish isease : !resh%ater !ish isease
#hey are not very susceptible to disease but are susceptible to chemicals that treat fish diseases" 8oo' for
%arnings stating (not good for invertebrates on the bottle(" Stay a%ay from using any copper based medications
in a tan' %ith ghost shrimps"
iet B !ish !ood : Omnivorous ; %ill eat almost anything you feed it and also a good bottom feeder" #his is not
an effective algae eater"
#an' 0egion : Fsually stays close to its burro% in the sand or gravel"
7ender : >ard to determine$ no noticeable e*ternal differences bet%een males and females" !emales %ill carry
the eggs"
Animalia. Arthropoda. Crustacea. Cambaridae
Family description
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Malacostraca
Order: ecapoda
Infraorder: Astacidea
Superfamily: Astacoidea
!amily: Cambaridae$ >obbs$ +5-3
Genera
Earbicambarus
Eouchardina
Cambarellus
Cambaroides
Cambarus
istocambarus
!allicambarus
!a*onella
>obbseus
Orconectes
Procambarus
#roglocambarus
Cambaridae is the largest of the three families of fresh%ater crayfish$ %ith over -AA species".+/ Most of the
species in the family are native to 6orth America east of the 7reat ivide$ such as the invasive species
Procambarus clar'ii and Orconectes rusticus$ %ith fe%er species living in 9ast Asia and Gapan$ such as :arigani
<Cambaroides Caponicus="
A 3AA? molecular study suggested that the family Cambaridae may be paraphyletic$ %ith the family Astacidae
nested %ithin it$ and the status of the genus Cambaroides remains unclear".3/
Cambarellus patzcuarensis.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Malacostraca
Order: ecapoda
!amily: Cambaridae
7enus: Cambarellus
Species: C" pat:cuarensis
Einomial name
Cambarellus pat:cuarensis
Hillalobos$ +5-,
Cambarellus pat:cuarensis is a crayfish in the family Cambaridae".+/
;escription
It has a body measuring -I2 centimetres <+"?I3"A in=$ including cla%s" Most specimens found in the %ild are
bro%n$ sometimes %ith a gray or blue tint" Cambarellus pat:cuarensis var" (Orange( <Me*ican d%arf crayfish$
sometimes Me*ican d%arf orange crayfish= is an orange;coloured mutation often held in a)uariums$ but this
form is rarely found in the %ild".3/
;istribution
#he species is named after 8a'e PJt:cuaro$ at an altitude of 3$A,2 metres <?$?44 ft= in MichoacJn$ Me*ico" As
%ell as 8a'e PJt:cuaro$ C" pat:cuarensis also occurs in springs in Chapultepec$ Opopeo and #:urumutaro".,/
@n the a<uarium
#emp: 33;3-@C <43;42@!=
Ph: 4"1
7>: +3;+2
I essentially use tap %ater to breed them"
7enetics: It %illBcan interbreed %ith other Cambarellus species li'e monte:umae$ puer$ shufeldtti$ etc"
#his outstanding loo'ing crayfish is commonly 'no%n as orange d%arf cray" It can sho% different varieties of
tones of orange" #hey can be molted or striped" #heir origin is not %ell 'no%n" Some people say the Cambarellus
pat:cuarensis sp" Orange %as selectively bred in 7ermany from the %ild form of the Cambarellus pat:cuarensis
%hich is from Me*ico" Others say this %ild form of C pat:cuarensis %as interbred in 7ermany %ith another
d%arf cray in order to get their beautiful color" I have had the Cambarellus pat:cuarensis sp" Orange for around a
year no%" 0ecently I have been able to breed them and am currently on my fourth batch at the moment"
Animalia. Mollusca. Gastropoda. Neritidae
Family description
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: 7astropoda
<unran'ed=: clade 6eritimorpha
clade Cycloneritimorpha
Superfamily: 6eritoidea
!amily: 6eritidae$ 0afines)ue$ +1+2
;i:ersity
About ++A fresh%ater species.+/ some brac'ish %ater species and some fully marine species
6eritidae$ common name the nerites$ is a ta*onomic family of small to medium;si:ed salt%ater and fresh%ater
snails %hich have a gill and a distinctive operculum$ marine$ brac'ish %ater and fresh%ater gastropod mollus's
in the order 6eritoida"
#he family 6eritidae includes marine genera such as 6erita$ marine and fresh%ater genera such as 6eritina$ and
fresh%ater and brac'ish %ater genera such as #heodo*us"
A dish of coo'ed nerites from the 0aCang 0iver$ Sara%a'$ Malaysia"
#he common name (nerite( as %ell as the family name 6eritidae and the genus name 6erita$ are derived from
the name of 6erites$ %ho %as a sea god in 7ree' mythology"
Neritina natalensis sp. "Zebra". Zebra Nerite Snail
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: 7astropoda
clade Cycloneritimorpha
Superfamily: 6eritoidea
!amily: 6eritidae
7enus: 6eritina
Species: 6" natalensis
Einomial name: 6eritina natalensis$ 0eeve$ 8"A"$ +1-2
9:er:ie0
#he Kebra 6erite Snail is one of the most$ if not the most$ popular nerite snail in the hobby" Its coloration is a
beautiful golden shell %ith blac' Cagged;edged stripes running do%n" It is one of the larger nerite snail %ith a
si:e ranging from +B3( to a full inch in si:e" I have seen some rather large ones"
#his species occurs in Africa: in Kenya$ Mo:ambi)ue$ Somalia$ South Africa$ and #an:ania".
6eritina natalensis is a species of small fresh%ater snail %ith an operculum$ an a)uatic gastropod mollus' in the
family 6eritidae$ the nerites"
+reedin&
One do%nside to the Kebra 6erite Snail$ and this applies to most other nerite snails$ is its inability to breed in
pure fresh%ater" #he Kebra 6erite Snail re)uires brac'ish %ater in order to breed successfully" Some hobbyists
have been some%hat successful in breeding nerite snails but it does not seem that the young snails survive for
too long" Some may loo' at this as a plus$ meaning that the Kebra 6erite %ill not over populate a tan' and
become another pest in the a)uarium"
%ppearance
#he Kebra 6erite Snail is typically blac' and gold$ or sometimes a gold;lime coloration" #he coloration pattern is
not a s%irl but rather the color e*tends in lines from the very bac' tip of the snail" #he Kebra 6erite Snail is one
of the most popular$ if not the most$ due to this beautiful coloration and pattern"
Feedin&
Another plus for the Kebra 6erite Snail is its algae eating abilities" #his snail %ill clean your tan' glass spotless
and also clean algae off of roc's and even leaves" Many hobbyists purchase the Kebra 6erite Snail more because
of its algae eating abilities than its visual loo's" It is recommended that you supplement their diet %ith algae
%afers or similar type food since the #rac'ed 6erite Snail may not be able to sustain itself solely on algae in the
tan'" #his species is also larger than other nerite snails and %ill not be able to successfully eat algae off of small
leaves due to its %eight"
+eha:ior
#he Kebra 6erite Snail can tend to escape from a tank and ma'e its %ay outside of the tan'" It is considered a
tidal snail and can live outside of %ater" Simply pic' them up and put them bac' inside of the tan'$ they %ill
survive as long as they have not been out of the tan' for too long" It is recommend to keep an eye on them and
look around the tank occasionally for possible escapes" It is thought that %hen the snail is uncomfortable it %ill
escape$ but %ill not %hen happy" It is also an e*tremely docile creature and does not bother any other a)uarium
inhabitants"
A peaceful snail$ %ill not bother tan' inhabitants" >o%ever$ should not be 'ept %ith aggressive fish that may
attac' it such as 8oaches or Pufferfish"
Animalia. Mollusca. Gastropoda. Ampullariidae
Family description
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: 7astropoda
<unran'ed=: clade Caenogastropoda
informal group Architaenioglossa
Superfamily: Ampullarioidea
!amily: Ampullariidae$ G" 9" 7ray$ +13-.3/
iversity: +A2;+4A fresh%ater species.,/$ 5 genera.+/$ more than +2A nominal species.+/
Synonyms: Pilidae
Ampullariidae$ common name the apple snails$ is a family of large fresh%ater snails$ a)uatic gastropod mollus's
%ith a gill and an operculum" #his family is in the superfamily Ampullarioidea and is the type family of that
superfamily".-/
#he Ampullariidae are unusual because they have both a gill and a lung$ the mantle cavity being divided in order
to separate the t%o types of respiratory structures" #his adaptation allo%s these snails to be amphibious"
Genera
Ampullariidae are probably of 7ond%anan origin".+/ #he diversification of Ampullariidae started probably after
the separation of African Plate and South American Plate".+/ #he oldest 'no%n ampullariids from Africa and
Asia are +?A millions years old".+/ #he oldest 'no%n ampullariids from America are 2A millions years old".+/
#he sister group of Ampullariidae has not been clearly identified yet".+/
;istribution
7enera Asolene$ !elipponea$ Marisa$ and Pomacea are 6e% Lorld genera <native to South America$ Central
America$ the Lest Indies and the Southern F"S"A"=".+/ #he genera Afropomus$ 8anistes$ and Saulea are found in
Africa".+/ #he genus Pila is native to both Africa and Asia".+/
>colo&y
Apple snails are e*ceptionally %ell adapted to tropical regions characteri:ed by periods of drought alternating
%ith periods of high rainfall" #his adaptation is reflected in their life style& they are moderately amphibious" #hey
have an operculum %hich enables the snail to seal the shell entrance to prevent drying out %hile they are buried
in the mud during dry periods"
One of the more typical adaptations of apple snails is the branchial respiration" #he snail has a system
comparable to the gills of a fish <at the right side of the snail body= to breathe under %ater as %ell as a lung <at
the left side of the body= to respirate air" #his lungBgill combination e*pands the action radius of the snail in
search for food" It is part of the snailMs natural behaviour to leave the %ater %hen the food supply belo% the
surface becomes inade)uate"
Several apple snail genera <Pomacea$ Pila and AsoleneBPomella= deposit eggs above the %aterline in calcareous
clutches" #his remar'able strategy of a)uatic snails protects the eggs against predation by fish and other a)uatic
inhabitants" Another anti;predator adaptation in the apple snail genera Pomacea and Pila$ is the tubular siphon$
used to breathe air %hile submerged$ reducing vulnerability to attac'ing birds" #he apple snailMs usual enemy is
the 8imp'in"
Apple snails inhabit various ecosystems: ponds$ s%amps and rivers" Although they occasionally leave the %ater$
they spend most of their time under %ater" Fnli'e the pulmonate snail families$ apple snails are not
hermaphroditic$ but gonochoristic& i"e" they have separate genders"
%s a common a<uarium animal
Apple snails are popular a)uarium pets because of their attractive appearance and si:e" Lhen properly cared for$
some apple snail species can reach +2 cm <2"5 in= diameter" Apple snails include species that are the biggest
living fresh%ater snails on 9arth"
#he most common apple snail in a)uarium shops is Pomacea bridgesii$ also called Pomacea diffusa$ <the spi'e;
topped apple snail=" #his species comes in different colours from bro%n to albino or yello% and even blue$
purple$ pin'$ and Cade$ %ith or %ithout banding" Another common apple snail is Pomacea canaliculata& this snail
is bigger$ rounder and is more li'ely to eat a)uatic plants$ %hich ma'es it less suitable for most a)uaria" #his
species can also have different shell and body colours" #he (giant ramshorn snail( <Marisa cornuarietis= although
not al%ays recogni:ed as an apple snail due to its discoidal shape$ is also a popular a)uatic pet" Occasionally$ the
!lorida apple snail <Pomacea paludosa= is found in the a)uarium trade and these are often collected in the %ild
from ditches and ponds in !lorida" #he giant Pomacea maculata is rarely used as an a)uarium species"
Apple snails are often sold under the name (golden <ivory$ blue$ blac'"""= mystery snail( and they are given
incorrect names li'e Ampullarius for the genus instead of Pomacea and %rong species names li'e gigas instead
of maculata"
#hese snails sometimes become inactive <especially %hen first introduced to a ne% tan'$ probably from the
stress of moving from one habitat to another=$ and may not move for several days$ but once the snail is
acclimated it becomes active again"
Feedin& habits
In captivity$ as %ell as eating vegetables and fish food pellets$ apple snails %ill also eat other foods if they are
available" #hey %ill sometimes eat brine shrimps and other fro:en foods$ or dead fish and insects" 7enerally$
they %ill also eat any of the microscopic vegetation that gro% on the tan' roc's or %alls" Snails %ill climb out of
the %ater to reach food that is above the %aterline" Eecause of their ability to do this they have become a
nuisance in Asia$ %here they feed on crops"
Aimes o2 acti:ity
In captivity$ apple snails are most active at night" uring the day they usually retreat to some%here shaded"
Lhen it is night time$ the apple snail becomes active and engages in behaviors relating to feeding$ as %ell as
mating and laying eggs"
In an a)uarium that is %ell;lit$ the e*terior of the shell of apple snails may gro% filamentous green algae" #his is
one possible source of food for Cuvenile snails"
Aemperature
#he optimal a)uarium %ater temperature for apple snails is bet%een +1 to 31 @C <?- to 13 @!=" Apple snails are
more active and lively in the higher part of this temperature range" In these higher temperatures$ the snails tend
to eat$ cra%l and gro% faster" At the lo%er end of the temperature range$ +1 @CB?- @!$ the snails may become
inactive"
%s a pest
In the +51As$ Pomacea canaliculata %as introduced in #ai%an to start an escargot industry".1/ It %as thought that
such food culture could provide valuable proteins for farmers$ %ho primarily live on a rice diet" >o%ever$ the
snails did not become a culinary success" Additionally the imported snails <li'e the native apple snail population$
Pila= %ere able to transfer a parasite called Angiostrongylus cantonensis" #his parasite can infect humans if snails
are eaten that have not been thoroughly coo'ed first"
Instead of becoming a valuable food source$ the introduced snails escaped and became a serious threat to rice
production and the native ecosystems" uring the +51As the introduced snails rapidly spread to Indonesia$
#hailand$ Cambodia$.5/ >ong Kong$ southern China$ Gapan and the Philippines$ and there are indications that
they are currently invading Australia"
>a%aii e*perienced the same introduction of Pomacea for culinary purposes$ and its taro industry is no%
suffering because of it"
7enera Marisa$ Pila and Pomacea <e*cept of Pomacea diffusa and e*cept of native Pomacea paludosa= are
already established in the FSA$ and are considered to represent a potentially serious threat as a pest$ an invasive
species %hich could negatively effect agriculture$ natural ecosystems$ human health or commerce" #herefore it
has been suggested that these genera be given top national )uarantine significance in the FSA".+A/
6evertheless$ apple snails are considered a delicacy in several regions of the %orld$ and they are often sold in
9ast and Pacific Asian mar'ets for consumption"
%s a bio-control a&ent
Pomacea and Marisa species have been introduced to Africa and Asia in an attempt to control other medically
problematic snails in the family Planorbidae: Eulinus species and Eiophalaria species$ %hich serve as
intermediate hosts for trematoda parasites" #hese parasites can cause s%immers itch and schistosomiasis$ a
disease that affects over 3AA million people in tropical regions" One of the species introduced as bio;agent is
Marisa cornuarietis& this snail competes %ith other snails and also directly preys on other species"
Pomacea maculata (Ampullaria Gigas. !ystery Snail
Origin: South America
Se*ing: Monoecious
#emperature: Immaterial
Attitude: 9ats day and night
Security: Carries it on bac'
!oods: Any food on bottom
Later: 6eeds hard %ater
Incubation: 3 to , %ee's
Erood Si:e: About +AA eggs
Ereeding: 9ggs laid above %ater
Appeal" Mystery snails add an element of intrigue to your a)uaria" #heir %aving tentacles and ever;che%ing
radula <scraping tongue= loo' rather interesting" #hey also clean up e*cess food I a service that 'eeps tan's
healthy" Cleaning up e*cess food puts them in the (must 'eep( category"
!ood" In the %ild$ mystery snails eat algae$ plant leaves$ and anything else they find on the bottom" In captivity$
mystery snails eat the same thing <if they have to= but prefer fish food I a much more nutritious menu" Oddly
enough$ they do best in planted a)uaria" #hey che% on plant leaves a little bit but much prefer fish food"
7ood Mi*ers" Mystery snails get along %ith anything e*cept fish eggs" <#hey %ill finish off a spa%n of angel
eggs overnight"= On the other side of the coin$ nippy fish torture them unmercifully by che%ing on their
tentacles and eyestal's" Keep them a%ay from snail eaters such as clo%n loaches$ cichlids$ and puffers"
Apple Snails: Ampullaria gigas loo's Cust li'e a mystery snail but gro%s much larger I as big as a standard
baseball" Apple snails are unbelievably prodigious plant eaters" Apple snails eat plants A6 sponge filters"
#rapdoor Snails" #he trapdoor snails <livebearing snails 'ept in fish ponds= also loo' much li'e mystery snails"
#rapdoor snails$ unli'e the Ampullariae$ breathe under%ater thru their gills" #hey are also destructive plant
eaters in your a)uaria" #rapdoor snails do fine in plant;free a)uaria" Pond 'eepers use them to control algae"
Later" Mystery snails thrive in hard$ al'aline %ater <li'e comes out of our es Moines faucets ;; carbonates 33A
ppm=" Soft$ acid %ater tends to dissolve their shells <ma'e pits in them or turn them %hite=" Add 6ovA)ua to
remove the chlorine and any heavy metals" Salt and copper both %ill stress andBor 'ill mystery snails"
Snail Killers" #he commercial snail poisons <and some medications= 'ill mystery snails because they contain
copper" Le find these only partially effective" And %hen they %or'$ you have a layer of dead snails on your
a)uarium floor" Most people %ant to 'ill the little fast;reproducing pond snails as opposed to the more desirable
mystery snails"
Snor'elers" Since they breathe air$ mystery snails can live in lo% o*ygen %aters" Still$ they prefer clean %ater"
#hey ta'e in o*ygen at the %aterNs surface thru an e*tendible air tube"
Ereeding" #%o mystery snails 'ept together %ill usually figure out ho% to breed on their o%n" #he secretO
8o%er your %ater level three to five inches" #hey cra%l out of the %ater and lay their eggs above the %ater line"
#he egg mass loo's li'e pin' froth nearly as large as your little finger" Keep them humid and they hatch in t%o
to three %ee's" #he babies fall into the %ater and roc' and roll from day one" #hey gro% best %hen 'ept in
tan's separate from the adults" 8ittle ones cra%l inside the shells of adult mysteries and irritate them" #ypical
'ids"
Pomacea canaliculata (Ampullaria Australis
http:BB%%%"oceanoblu"comBstoc'listBschedaB,1ABampullaria;australis;gialla
Of the 2A species of Pomacea officially recogni:ed$ only t%o are readily available on our mar'et: Pomacea
Eridges <0eeve$ +12?= and Pomacea canaliculata <8amarc'$ +1+5=" !rom time to time there are also imported
some magnificent specimens of Pomacea paludosa <Say$ +135=$ a species that$ being originally from !lorida$ is
particularly %idespread among American hobbyists" #he misleading and obsolete scientific names by %hich
these molluscs are mar'eted <eg Ampullarius cuprina$ Ampullarius australis$ etc""= Fnfortunately create some
confusion among hobbyists$ no% tired of doing (a bundle of all the snailsM and %ant to 'no% %hich species
actually belong to their Pomacea$ given also the different food preferences of these gastropods" >o%ever$ the
anatomical differences bet%een the three species mentioned above are numerous and easy to find simply by
observing the shells <for easy identification see dra%ing belo%="

ra%ings by 9" S%ord"
In particular$ to distinguish P" bridgesi by P" canaliculaia can be especially useful for those %ho plan to house
them in a)uariums populated by plants" In this case$ P" canaliculata species is the least desirable$ since it sho%s a
greater tendency to eat fresh vegetables$ %hile P" bridgesi prefer detritus$ algae and dead leaves in the process of
decomposition"
Animalia. Chordata. Amphibia. Pipidae
Family description
8o%er Cretaceous to 0ecent
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Subclass: 8issamphibia
Superorder: Eatrachia
Order: Anura
Suborder: Mesobatrachia
!amily: Pipidae
#he Pipidae are a family of primitive$ tongueless frogs" #he thirty species in the family Pipidae are found in
tropical South America <genus Pipa= and sub;Saharan Africa <four other genera="
#hese frogs are e*clusively a)uatic and have numerous morphological modifications befitting their habitat" !or
e*ample$ the feet are completely %ebbed$ the body is flattened$ and a lateral line system is present.+/" In
addition$ pipids possess highly modified ears for producing and receiving sound under%ater" #hey lac' a tongue
or vocal cords$ instead having bony rods in the laryn* that help produce sound" #hey range from - to +5
centimeters <+"? to 4"2 in= in body length".3/
#he fossil record for pipids is relatively good %ith t%elve e*tinct species 'no%n" Si* of these are placed in the
e*tant genus Penopus$ the remainder in e*tinct genera" #hese fossils are 'no%n from Africa$ South America$ and
Middle 9ast bac' to the 8o%er Cretaceous".3/
Genera
>ymenochirus ; %arf cla%ed frogs
Pseudhymenochirus ; MerlinMs cla%ed frog
Penopus ; Common cla%ed frogs
Silurana ; #ropical cla%ed frogs
Pipa ; Surinam toads
"ymenochirus boettgeri. #roscu$a gri. % decedat
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
!amily: Pipidae
7enus: >ymenochirus
Species: >" boettgeri
Einomial name: >ymenochirus boettgeri$ <#ornier$ +15?=
>ymenochirus boettgeri$ also 'no%n as Congo %arf Cla%ed !rog or %arf African !rog$ is a species of frog in
the Pipidae family" It lives in central Africa" #his species is also bred and sold as an a)uatic pet" As pets$ %arf
African !rogs can live peacefully among other fish in an a)uarium" #hese frogs can be fed regular fish fla'es$
although they especially li'e to eat free:e;dried blood%orms and the elodea plant" >o%ever$ if you do choose to
add this critter to your a)uarium$ ma'e sure the tan' is coveredQ#his species is not afraid to and %ill Cump out
of its tan'"
Eroastele din salbaticie se confrunta cu o scadere a numarului si cu e*tinctia$ in mare parte din cau:a activitatilor
umane" in pacate$ piata animalelor de companie contribuie la acuti:area cri:ei e*tinctiei amfibienilor si la
raspandirea unei infectii devastatoare cu ciuperca Chytrid" in aceasta cau:a ar trebui sa cumperi numai broaste
de care esti sigur ca sunt specii captive locale si care au fost testate pentru aceasta infectie"
urata de viata: in Cur de 2 ani"
imensiunea si aspectul: Eroastele pitice ating$ la maturitate$ o lungime de 3$2 I ,$1 cm" e obicei$ ele au o
culoare gri;maroniu deschis$ cu puncte mai inchise" Chiar daca uneori au o culoare mai deschisa$ varietatea
albinoasa este specifica broastelor africane cu gheare$ care sunt mai mari$ si nu apare la broastele pitice"
Eroastele africane cu gheare tinere seamana la aspect cu broastele pitice& uita;te daca au membrane intre degetele
din fata& broastele pitice au picioarele din fata palmate$ spre deosebire de broastele mai mari"
%c:ariul pentru broastele pitice
Eroastele pitice nu au nevoie de un acvariu urias I iti trebuie in Cur de -$2 litri de apa pentru fiecare broasca" Pot
fi tinute in grupuri sau cu o comunitate de pesti care sa fie de apro*imativ aceeasi marime$ dar trebuie sa ai griCa
ca si acvariul sa fie corespun:ator ca dimensiuni" 9vita acvariile inalte$ adanci$ deoarece broastele trebuie sa iasa
cu usurinta la suprafata$ pentru a respira" 8asa un gol de aer intre suprafata apei si capacul acvariului" e
asemenea$ acvariul trebuie sa aiba un capac potrivit$ pentru ca broastele vor incerca sa iasa"
%pa si sistemul de 2iltrare
Pune in acvariu numai apa fara clor <foloseste picaturi de deduri:are de la maga:inul de animale=" !iltrarea nu
este strict necesara daca in acvariu ai doar broaste <schimba partial apa in mod frecvent=$ dar daca adaugi si pesti$
va fi necesar un filtru" !oloseste un filtru care tulbura foarte putin apa$ deoarece broastelor le place apa
statatoare$ si asigura;te ca nu pot ramane blocate in orificiile de aspiratie sau in spatele gurii de asipratieBfiltrului"
broasca pitica
#emperatura: intre 3-;34 C"
Substratul
Poti pune nisip sau pietris fin pe fundul acvariului" 6u folosi pietre prea mari& in ca: contrar$ broastele isi pot
prinde picioarele" Ar trebui sa te asiguri ca animalutele nu pot ingera nisipul sau pietrisul odata cu mancarea"
aca se intampla asta$ poti incerca un alt tip de pietris sau le poti hrani dintr;o farfurioara pe care o pui in apa$
peste pietris <foloseste o pipeta pentru a pune mancarea direct pe farfurioara din apa="
Plantele si decorul
Eroastelor pitice le place sa aiba locuri unde sa se ascunda" Pune in acvariu plante naturale sau plante din matase"
e asemenea$ ofera;le locuri in care sa se ascunda$ prin folosirea decoratiunilor din acvariu$ a unui lemn plutitor
sau a unor mici ghivece din teracota$ ase:ate pe margine" #oate decorurile <inclusiv plantele artificiale= trebuie sa
fie netede$ pentru a nu rani pielea delicata a broastelor"
*ranirea broastelor pitice
Eroastele pitice se hranesc cu ce gasesc pe fundul acvariului" Poate fi folosita hrana vie$ congelata sau hrana
uscata congelata si probabil ca cel mai bine este sa;i oferi o combinatie intre acestea" Hiermi rosii$ viermi
tubife*$ purici de balta <daphnia=$ creveti de apa sarata$ viermi negri$ sau rame maruntite <cat sa poata fi
inghitite=" Eroastele pitice inghit mancarea intreaga" 0areori accepta hrana sub forma de fulgi& unele din ele
accepta hrana granulata <cumpara doar granule speciale pentru broaste=$ dar acestea pot murdari apa foarte
repede"
%lte obser:atiiB
R Eroastele pitice pot fi tinute in grupuri$ dar si cu pesti tropicali" Pestii ar trebui sa fie cam la fel de mari ca si
broasca$ dar$ daca sunt mai mici$ broastele vor incerca sa ii manance$ iar daca sunt mai mari$ ei vor incerca sa
manance broastele"
R Asigura;te ca nu folosesti niciodata sapun pentru a spala acvariul sau galeata sau orice alte obiecte pe care le
folosesti la intretinerea acvariului" Amfibienii au tegumentul poros si sunt foarte sensibili la substantele chimice
si la detergent" Eroastele pitice nu trebuie apucate cu mana"
R Maturitatea se*uala este atinsa la apro*imativ 5 luni" Masculilor le cresc glande care arata ca niste mici
umflaturi ro: sau albe$ in spatele picioarelor din fata" Masculii vor incepe si sa cante <sa faca :gomot=$ in
incercarea de a atrage partenera" !emelele tind sa fie putin mai mari decat masculii si au o umflatura
proeminenta in :ona in care se afla cloaca$ intre picioarele din spate
Animalia. Chordata. Actinopterygii. Characiormes. Characidae.
Family description
#emporal range: Fpper Miocene ; 0ecent.+/
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Superclass: Osteichthyes
Class: Actinopterygii
Subclass: 6eopterygii
Infraclass: #eleostei
Superorder: Ostariophysi
Order: Characiformes
!amily: Characidae
Subfamilies
Agoniatinae
Aphyocharacinae
Eryconinae
Characinae
Cheirodontinae
Clupeacharacinae
7landulocaudinae
Iguanodectinae
0hoadsiinae
Serrasalminae <disputed=
Stethaprioninae
#etragonopterinae
#he Characidae$ characids or characins are a family of fresh%ater subtropical and tropical fish$ belonging to the
order Characiformes" #he name (characins( is the historical one$ but scientists today tend to prefer (characids( to
reflect their status as a by and large monophyletic group at family ran'" #o arrive there$ this family has
undergone much systematic and ta*onomic change" Among those fishes that remain in the Characidae for the
time being are the tetras$ comprising the very similar genera >emigrammus and >yphessobrycon$ as %ell as a
fe% related forms such as the cave and neon tetras" !ish of this family are important as food and also include
popular a)uarium fish species".3/
#hese fish vary in length$ though many are less than , centimetres <+ in=" #he smallest species.citation needed/
gro%s to a ma*imum length of +, millimetres <A"2 in=".+/
#hese fish inhabit a %ide range and a variety of habitats" #hey originate in the Americas$ ranging from
south%estern #e*as and Me*ico through Central and South America".3/ Many of these fish come from rivers$ but
for e*ample the blind cave tetra even inhabits caves"
Systematics
#his family has undergone a large amount of systematic and ta*onomic change" More recent revision has moved
many former members of the family into their o%n related but distinct families ; the pencilfishes of the genus
6annostomus are a typical e*ample$ having no% been moved into the 8ebiasinidae$ the assorted predatory
species belonging to >oplias and >oplerythrinus have no% been moved into the 9rythrinidae$ and the sabre;
toothed fishes of the genus >ydrolycus have been moved into the Cynodontidae" #he formner subfamily
Alestiinae %as promoted to family level <Alestiidae= and the subfamilies Crenuchinae and Characidiinae %ere
moved to the family Crenuchidae".3/
#he piranhas and relatives <li'e these is' #etras$ Myleus schomburg'ii= might be a distinct family
Other fish families that %ere formerly classified as members of the Characidae$ but %hich %ere moved into
separate families of their o%n during recent ta*onomic revisions <post;+55-= include Acestrorhynchidae$
Anostomidae$ Chilodontidae$ Citharinidae$ Ctenoluciidae$ Curimatidae$ istichodontidae$ 7asteropelecidae$
>emiodontidae$ >epsetidae$ Parodontidae$ and Prochilodontidae".citation needed/
#he larger piranhas %ere originally classified as belonging to the Characidae$ but various revisions place them in
their o%n related family$ the Serrasalmidae" #his reassignment has yet to enCoy universal acceptance$ but is
gaining in popularity among ta*onomists %or'ing %ith these fishes" 7iven the current state of flu* of the
Characidae$ a number of other changes %ill doubtless ta'e place$ reassigning once;familiar species to other
families" Indeed$ the entire phylogeny of the Ostariophysi ; fishes possessing a Leberian apparatus ; has yet to
be conclusively settled" Fntil that phylogeny is settled$ the opportunity for yet more upheavals %ithin the
ta*onomy of the characoid fishes is considerable"
A large number of ta*a in this family are incertae sedis" #he relationships of many fish in this family I in
particular species traditionally placed in the #etragonopterinae$ %hich had become something of a (%astebin
ta*on( I are poorly 'no%n$.3/ a comprehensive phylogenetic study for the entire family is needed".+/ #he genera
>yphessobrycon$ Astyana*$ >emigrammus$ Moen'hausia$ and Eryconamericus include the largest number of
currently recogni:ed species among characid fishes that are in need of revision&.,/ Astyana* and
>yphessobrycon in the usual delimitation are among the largest genera in this family".3/ #hese genera %ere
originally proposed bet%een +12- and +5A1 and are still more or less defined as by Carl >" 9igenmann in +5+4$
even though diverse species have been added to each genus since that time" #he anatomical diversity %ithin each
genus$ the fact that each of these generic groups at the present time cannot be %ell;defined$ and the high number
of species involved are the maCor reasons for the lac' of phylogenetic analyses dealing %ith the relationships of
the species %ithin these generic (groups(".,/
Paracheirodon innesi. Neon tetra
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Characiformes
!amily: Characidae
7enus: Paracheirodon
Species: P" innesi
Einomial name: Paracheirodon innesi$ <Myers$ +5,?= .+/
#he neon tetra <Paracheirodon innesi= is a fresh%ater fish of the characin family <family Characidae= of order
Characiformes" #he type species of its genus$ it is native to blac'%ater or clear%ater streams in southeastern
Colombia$ eastern Peru$ and %estern Era:il$ including the tributaries of the SolimSes %here the %ater is bet%een
3AI3? @C <?1I45 @!=".3/ It is not found in the %hite%ater rivers of Andean origin" Its bright colouring ma'es the
fish visible to conspecifics in the dar' blac'%ater streams$.,/ and is also the main reason for its popularity as a
tropical fish"
;escription
#he 6eon #etra has a light;blue bac' over a silver;%hite abdomen" #he fish is characteri:ed by an iridescent blue
hori:ontal stripe along each side of the fish from its nose to the base of the adipose fin$ and an iridescent red
stripe that begins at the middle of the body and e*tends posteriorly to the base of the caudal fin" Most$ if not all$
%ill develop an olive green sheen lining their bac's" #he fish is completely transparent <including fins= e*cept
for these mar'ings" uring the night$ the blue and red become silver as the fish restsQit reactivates once it
becomes active in the morning" It gro%s to appro*imately , cm <+"3 in= in overall length" Se*ual dimorphism is
slight$ the female having a slightly larger belly$ and a bent iridescent stripe rather than the maleMs straight stripe"
>conomics
#he 6eon #etra %as first imported from South America and %as described by reno%ned ichthyologist r"
7eorge S" Myers in +5,?$ and named after r" Lilliam #" Innes" P" innesi is one of the most popular a)uarium
fish$ having been bred in tremendous numbers for the trade" Most neon tetras available in the Fnited States are
imported from >ong Kong$ Singapore$ and #hailand$ %here they are farm raised$ or to a lesser e*tent <T2U=
from Colombia$ Peru$ and Era:il$ %here they are collected from the %ild" uring a single month$ an average of
+"1 million neon tetras %ith an estimated value of V+42$AAA are imported into the Fnited States for the a)uarium
trade".-/ Lith the e*ception of home a)uarists and a fe% commercial farms that breed neon tetras
e*perimentally$ captive breeding on a commercial scale is none*istent in the Fnited States"
@n the a<uarium
Lhile commercially bred neon tetras have adapted %ell to a %ide range of %ater conditions$ in the %ild they
inhabit very soft$ acidic %aters that are usually cooler than the 32 @C <44 @!= most tropical a)uaria are
maintained at".3/ 6eon #etras can have a lifespan of up to +A years$ normally about 2 in an a)uarium"
6eon tetras are considered easy to 'eep in a community a)uarium that is at least ?A cm <3- inches=$ %ith a p> of
?"AI4"1 and K> of +"AI3"A" >o%ever$ they %ill die if traumati:ed by dramatic changes to their environment"
#hey tend to be timid and$ because of their small si:e$ should not be 'ept %ith large or aggressive fish %ho may
bully or simply eat them" !ish that mi* %ell in an a)uarium are other types of tetras$ such as the rummy;nose
tetra$ cardinal tetra$ and glo%light tetra$ and other community fish that live %ell in an ideal #etra %ater condition"
Mid;level feeders$ they are best 'ept in schools of si* or more$ for the shoaling effect %hen they move around
the tan'" #hey shoal naturally in the %ild and are thus happier$ more brightly colored$ and more active %hen 'ept
as a shoal as opposed to singly and feel more secure" #heir colour and the iridescent stripe may become dim at
night$ and can be virtually invisible after a period of dar'ness" #he color may also fade during a period of stress$
such as human intervention into the tan'" 6eons are best 'ept in a densely planted tan' %ith subdued light and an
ideal temperature of 3+I34 @C <4AI1+ @!= to resemble their native Ama:on environment"
Nutrition
6eon tetras are omnivores and %ill accept most fla'e foods$ if sufficiently small$ but should also have some
small foods such as brine shrimp$ daphnia$ free:e;dried blood%orms$ tubife*$ %hich can be stuc' to the side of
the a)uarium$ and micro pellet food to supplement their diet" A tropical sin'ing pellet is ideal as most brands of
these include natural color enhancers that bring out the color in neon tetras" Some fro:en foods including fro:en
blood %orms add variety to their diet"
+reedin&
#he male is slender$ and the blue line is straighter" #he female is rounder$ producing a bent blue line" Some say
that the females loo' plumper %hen vie%ed from above but this is disputed" >o%ever$ the MstraightnessM of the
line and the plumpness of the female might occasionally be due to the eggs she is carrying"
#o breed 6eon #etras$ place a pair of the species in a breeding tan' %ithout any light$ and gradually increase the
lighting until spa%ning occurs" Other inducers include mos)uito larvae and a hardness of less than - degrees"
Some also recommend letting the level of nitrates rise$ then do at least 2AU %ater change to simulate the fresh
rain the tetras get in their natural habitat$ the Ama:on" It is recommended that everything you place in the
a)uarium be sterili:ed$ as %ell as the a)uarium top" Eecause the adults %ill often eat ne%ly;hatched fry$ it is best
to remove them as soon as the eggs have been laid" #he eggs are especially sensitive to light" 9ggs %ill hatch
%ithin 3- hours of the laying" !ry can be fed infusoria$ especially rotifers and egg yol' for + to - %ee's$
follo%ed by nauplii of brine shrimp$ shaved cattle liver$ and formulated diets" !ry %ill achieve their adult
coloration at appro*imately one month of age" Adults can spa%n every t%o %ee's"
;isease
Fnfortunately$ neon tetras are occasionally afflicted by the so;called (6eon #etra isease( <6#= or
Pleistophora$ a sporo:oan disease caused by Pleistophora hyphessobryconis" espite being a %ell;'no%n
condition$ it is currently incurable and often fatal to the fish"
#he disease cycle begins %hen microsporidian parasite spores enter the fish after it consumes infected material
such as the bodies of a dead fish$ or live food such as tubife*$ %hich may serve as intermediate hosts" #he
disease is most li'ely to be passed on from ne%ly ac)uired fish$ %hich have not been )uarantined"
Symptoms:
0estlessness"
!ish begins to lose coloration"
As cysts develop$ the body may become lumpy"
!ish has difficulty s%imming"
In advanced cases the spine may become curved"
Secondary infections such as fin rot and bloating"
6ote that there is a so;called (false neon disease($ %hich is bacterial$ and sho%s very similar symptoms" It is
impossible for the home a)uarist to determine for certain the difference bet%een 6# and false 6# on the
basis of visible symptoms alone$ %ithout laboratory bac'up" #his disease has also been confused %ith
Columnaris <mouth rot$ mouth fungus$ Mfle*M="
#o date$ there is no 'no%n cure: the only MtreatmentM is the immediate removal of diseased fish to preserve the
remaining fish$ but no %ay to save the diseased fish" #he use of a diatom filter$ %hich can reduce the number of
free parasites in the %ater$ may help"
Animalia. Chordata. Actinopterygii. Cypriniormes. Cobitidae
Family description
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Cypriniformes
Superfamily: Cobitoidea
!amily: Cobitidae
Subfamilies
Cobitinae
Botiinae
Cobitidae is the family of the true loaches$ %hich are Old Lorld fresh%ater fish" #hey occur throughout 9urasia
and in Morocco$ and inhabit riverine ecosystems" #oday$ most (loaches( are placed in other families <see belo%="
Eut more than +AA species remain in the Cobitidae$ %hile the number of genera has almost doubled to nearly ,A
in the past fe% years.%henO/ due to ne% discoveries and divisions of older genera" 6e% species are being
described regularly".+/
;escription and ecolo&y
#he body forms of Cobitidae range from vermiform I %orm;shaped$ long and thin I to fusiform I spindle;
shaped$ cylindrical and tapering to%ard the ends" Most true loaches do not have true scales$ and li'e many other
Cypriniformes or catfishes$ they have barbels at their mouths <usually ,;? pairs=" Some other traits typically
found in this family are a small bottom;facing mouth suited to their scavenging benthic lifestyle$ an erectile
spine belo% the eye$ and a single ro% of pharyngeal <throat= teeth"
#rue loaches are mostly scavengers and are omnivorous$ usually not very pic'y about their food" #hey may eat
a)uatic crustaceans$ insects and other small invertebrates as %ell as scraps of organic detritus" Many live in
eutrophic %aters of generally poor )uality and feed on tubife* %orms and similar benthos associated %ith such
habitat" Some of these loaches have adapted to lo% o*ygen levels in %arm$ muddy rivers or dirty ponds by being
able to gulp up atmospheric o*ygen from the air" Some species$ particularly from the genera Cobitis and
especially Misgurnus are sensitive to changing air pressure" #hey change their behavior accordingly$ and as these
changes in activity are usually follo%ed by a change in %eather$ they are commonly 'no%n as (%eatherfishes( or
(%eather loaches("
Eecause of their scavenging nature and their ability to adapt to many fresh%ater ecosystems$ some Cobitidae
have been introduced to foreign lands %here they may pose problems to local %ildlife as invasive
species.verification needed/.citation needed/" Other true loaches$ many of them migratory fish$ have been
seriously affected by habitat destruction$ chemical pollution and damming$ and are considered threatened species
today" Some migratory species are popular a)uarium fish and since they are very hard to raise in captivity$
overfishing has seriously depleted once;common stoc's in several cases"
Systematics
#he other (loaches( used to be included in this family$ but no%adays are recogni:ed as %ell;distinct members of
the order Cypriniformes" #ogether %ith the suc'ers <Catostomidae=$ the (loaches( made up the superfamily
Cobitoidea" >o%ever$ the suc'ing loaches <7yrinocheilidae= %ere easily recogni:able as relatives of the suc'ers"
.3/
9ventually it %as reali:ed that the hillstream loaches$ though more similar to the true loaches than the other t%o
presumed Cobitoidea$ are nonetheless distinct enough to be better regarded a full;blo%n family Ealitoridae" And
as it seems the (suc'ing Cobitoidea( are )uite distant indeed$ perhaps even mar'edly closer to the Cyprinidae$
and thus the old superfamily Catostomoidea %arrants revalidation" !inally$ the pu::ling mountain carps %ere
most often considered a distinct family Psilorhynchidae in recent times" Eut in a number of systematic schemes$
they %ere placed in the Ealitoridae <or Ealitorinae$ %hen these %ere included in the Cobitidae=" In fact$ they
seem to be loachli'e carps and belong in the Cyprinidae".,/
#he true loaches can be subdivided into t%o subfamilies$ the typically fusiform Eotiinae and the typically
vermiform Cobitinae:
Clo%n loaches <Chromobotia macracanthus$ formerly Eotia macracantha: Eotiinae=
9uropean Leatherfish$ Misgurnus fossilis <Cobitinae=
7ongota 8oach$ Somileptes gongota <Cobitinae=
Cse by humans
Some true loaches are popular as food fish in 9ast Asian countries such as Gapan" #hese are of importance in the
fisheries or being raised in a)uaculture" Small species may occasionally be caught for bait"
%s a<uarium 2ish
Many of the more brightly;colored species$ in particular Eotiinae$ are popular %ith fresh%ater a)uarists and are
therefore of importance in the a)uarium trade" #he more colorful tropical species that are 'ept as pets are mainly
South Asian and Southeast Asian Eotiinae" Cobitidae often encountered in a)uarium trade include:
Clown Loach, Chromobotia macracanthus
oCo 8oach$ Misgurnus anguillicaudatus
>orseface 8oach$ Acantopsis choirorhynchus
S'un' 8oach$ Dasuhi'ota'ia morleti
Kuhli 8oach$ Pangio 'uhlii
Yoyo Loach, Botia almorhae
Kebra 8oach$ Eotia striata
Eengal 8oach$ Eotia dario
Eurmese Eorder loach$ Eotia 'ubotai
Cultural re2erences
8oaches of some sort have been present in several video games:
In the 6intendo ?- game #he 8egend of Kelda: Ocarina of #ime$ the largest fish you can catch is the
(>ylian loach(" 9very time you enter the fishing pond as an adult in Ocarina of #ime$ there is a + in - <32 pc=
chance this fish %ill be present in the pond" It has a long lo% dorsal fin unli'e Cobitidae and loo's much li'e a
mi* bet%een a Misgurnus true loach and the 6orthern Sna'ehead <Channa argus= %hich is not a loach& both
these fishes are )uite familiar across 9ast Asia"
#he >ylian loach is also present in the fishing minigame in 6intendo 7amecubeBLii game #he 8egend
of Kelda: #%ilight Princess"
8oaches also appear in the 6intendo S game Animal Crossing: Lild Lorld and its Lii se)uel$ Animal
Crossing: City !ol'" #hey are small fish found in rivers from March to May" 6ot rare$ one specimen sells for a
mere ,AA bells <as much as a blac' bass=& thus it is apparently not I as the player character %onders %hen
catching one I a >ylian loach" #he icon$ though very restricted in resolution$ is a correct depiction of a Cobitinae
loach %ith a color pattern resembling some 9ast Asian species of Cobitis"
Sha'espeareMs >enry IH$ Part + Act 3 has: (Lhy$ they %ill allo% us neMer a Cordan$ and then %e lea' in
your chimney& and your chamber;lie breeds fleas li'e a loach"( #his might be a misprint$ or an obsolete term for
a dovecote$.-/ then as today notorious for (breeding( Ceratophyllus columbae fleas" Or it might indeed refer to
the fish: the Spined 8oach <Cobitis taenia=$ native to 9ngland$ is very prolific$ and the phrase can be ta'en to
imply ("""hosts fleas as abundantly as the Spiny 8oach spa%ns(".2/
Chromobotia macracanthus& Clo'n loach
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
!amily: Cobitidae
Subfamily: Eotiinae
7enus: Chromobotia$ Kottelat$ 3AA-
Species: C" Macracanthus
Einomial name: Chromobotia macracanthus <Elee'er$ +123=
#he clo%n loach$ Chromobotia macracanthus$ is a tropical fresh%ater fish belonging to the Cobitidae <loach=
family" It is the sole member of the Chromobotia genus" It originates in inland %aters in Indonesia on the islands
of Sumatra and Eorneo" It is a popular fish in the fresh%ater a)uarium trade and is sold %orld%ide".+/
AaDonomy and namin&
#he fish %as first described as Cobitis macracanthus by Pieter Elee'er in +123" In +515$ its scientific name %as
changed to Eotia macracanthus".3/ In 3AA-$ r" Maurice Kottelat divided the Eotia genus$ containing -4
different species$ into seven separate genera$ resulting in the clo%n loach being placed in a genus of its o%n$
Chromobotia".,/
#he genus Chromobotia derives its name from the 7ree' %ord chromo$ meaning (colour($ and the regional
Asian %ord botia$ meaning (%arrior( or (soldier(& the specific epithet Macracanthus is derived from the 7ree'
%ord macros$ meaning (large( and the 8atin %ord acanthus$ meaning (thorny($ referring to the large spine belo%
each of the fishMs eyes" #he common name$ (clo%n loach( comes from the fishMs bright colors and stripes <many
tropical fish %ith stripes that stand out are commonly called (clo%n(= as %ell as from its habit of MentertainingM
a)uarium o%ners %ith strange habits$ such as s%imming upside do%n$ or Mplaying dead"M
;escription and beha:ior
Information about the ma*imum si:e of the clo%n loach varies$ %ith some estimates ranging from ++ to +-
inches <31 to ,? cm=$ and %ith typical adult si:es ranging from 4 to +A inches <+1 to 3? cm=".-/ #he fishMs body is
long and laterally compressed$ %ith an arched dorsal surface and a flat ventral surface" Its head is relatively large
and its mouth faces do%n%ard %ith thic'$ fleshy lips$ and four pairs of barbels" #he barbels on the lo%er Ca% are
small and difficult to see" Clo%n loaches can ma'e a clic'ing sound %hen they are happy or angry"
#he body is %hitish;orange to reddish;orange$ %ith three thic'$ blac'$ triangular$ vertical bands" #he anterior
band runs from the top of the head and through the eye$ the medial band lies bet%een the head and the dorsal fin$
and %raps around to the ventral surface$ and the posterior band covers almost all of the caudal peduncle and
e*tends to the anal fin" #here is some regional color variation %ithin the species& the pelvic fins on fish from
Eorneo are reddish orange and blac'$ %hile the pelvic fins on fish from Sumatra are entirely reddish orange".2/
#he fish is se*ually dimorphic$ %ith females being slightly plumper than males" In addition$ the tips of the tail on
the male curve in%ards slightly$ %hereas the females have straight tips".3/
#he fish has a movable spine that lies in a groove belo% the eye$ %hich may be e*tended as a defense
mechanism" #he spine may cause a painful %ound$ but is not venomous" It also may be used as a predation tool
as it is set close to the mouth"
;istribution and habitat
Clo%n loaches are native to the islands of Sumatra and Eorneo in Indonesia" Clear stream environments provide
the optimal habitat for clo%n loaches$ but biannual monsoon flooding forces the fish to move into flooded flood
plains$ or mur'y or blac'%ater rivers or la'es$ for 4I1 months of the year$ and clo%n loaches are commonly
found in the flood plains of hilly areas".?/ Ereeding adults migrate to smaller %ater%ays to spa%n annually".-/
In its native habitat$ the fish is found in %ater %ith a temperature range of 44 to 1? @! <32 to ,A @C=$ a p>
bet%een 2"A and 1"A$ and %ater hardness bet%een 2 and +3 d>".+/
@n the a<uarium
A harmless$ very active and sociable fish$ clo%n loaches are best 'ept in groups of ,;- or more" ue to their
potentially large si:e$ a ?A to +AA gallon <3,A to ,1A litre= a)uarium should be the minimum si:e used"
#hese fish have bifurcated subocular <located under the eyes= spines$ %hich are used as a defense mechanism
and for obtaining prey" If a loach deploys its spines %hile caught in a net$ untangling it is difficult and can result
in inCury to the handler or the fish" A)uarists recommend that large specimens are double or triple bagged$ or
placed in a solid container %hen being moved"
Lhen 'ept in groups smaller than 2$ clo%n loaches may spend lots of time hiding under obstacles in the %ater"
#iger barbs and Panda corydoras associate happily %ith clo%n loaches$ and the three fish may school together"
Clo%n loaches ma'e clic'ing noises %hen they are e*cited or during feeding" #his sound is produced by the
grinding of their pharyngeal teeth" Sometimes clo%n loaches s%im on their sides$ or upside do%n$ and appear ill$
or lie on their sides on the bottom of the tan' and appear to be dead" #his is normal behaviour so the a)uarist
should be a%are of it to avoid removing healthy fish from the a)uarium"
If clo%n loaches do not come out of hiding$ there are some easy things to adCust so that the clo%n loaches %ill be
more comfortable" A good tan' setup for a clo%n loach should include ample shade$ real plants$ hiding places
and other peaceful fishes".4/ Ma'e sure the environment is not too bright initially" Provide shade from tan'
lighting" #he tan' should not be ne*t to a %indo% unless ample shade is provided" Lindo% tan's %ith ample sun
%ill allo% Chromobotia to %arm themselves and do their dominant color dances %ith more splendor as they
flash in and out of sunlight slicing through openings in natural cover" An e*ample tan' %ill have a po%erhead to
create a current for them to s%im against as %ell as cover to stay under %hile doing so as in a mountain broo' of
clear %ater %ith current rushing do%n bet%een boulders" In fact$ clo%ns sho% a strong preference for larger
roc's ta'en directly from mountain streams too s%ift to allo% algae gro%th" #hey %ill pec' at these roc's often
and al%ays sleep under and on them"
Clo%n loaches are 'een observers of other fish in the a)uarium& they observe and react accordingly" If other fish
are s'ittish and hide$ clo%ns %ill observe this and do the same" Ma'e sure that other fish in your community tan'
are docile and not prone to hide" Chromobatia %ill all sleep together under anything they can fit under in your
a)uarium"
Eecause clo%n loaches come from rivers and streams$ they are accustomed to having other fishes and plants in
their environment" 6ot having plants andBor other fishes can cause clo%n loaches to become stressed and to go
into hiding" 9specially on introduction to a ne% tan'$ it is important that lots of placid$ active smaller fish are
present" Fntil you 'no% %hat fish company they li'e best$ use many colors and varieties of ine*pensive
minno%s" Another important thing to remember is that since they do come from a fast moving river environment$
they need a tan' %ith lots of clear$ %ell filtered and fast moving %ater %hich can be achieved %ith proper
filtration and the use of po%erheads" Stream roc's should allo% resting bac' eddies as %ell as shade and cover"
Eefore introducing clo%n loaches to your tan'$ ma'e sure the fish you currently have are compatible because
aggressive fish %ill stress your clo%n loaches and may need to be removed" Clo%n loaches are particularly
susceptible to Ichthyophthirius <ich=$or %hite spot disease$ so they must be %atched closely %hen initially
introducing them to a tan' and %hen ne% fish are added" ue to having little or no scales at all$ a reduced dosage
may be re)uired %hen using certain types of medication$ possibly reducing the effectiveness"
A variety of food should be provided for clo%n loaches$ and their behaviour should be observed during feeding"
In a community tan' other fish may ta'e the food before it reaches the bottom$ %here the clo%n loaches
normally feed" >o%ever" %ith a tan' supported %ith natural environments$ Clo%ns are very noisy surface feeders
%ho %ill assert themselves to ta'e the most and the best of blood%orm" Most clo%n loaches accept commercial
fla'e food and sin'ing pellets as their dietary staple$ but thrive %ith a variety of food: live <%orms$ brine shrimp$
small snails=$banana $plant matter$ free:e;dried <tubife* %orms$ especially if it is fortified= and fro:en brine
shrimp <al%ays tha% fro:en food to a)uarium temperature="
#otia almorhae (#otia lohachata& (oyo loach
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
!amily: Cobitidae
Subfamily: Eotiinae
Einomial name: Eotia almorhae$ 7ray$ +1,+
Other 6ames: Almorha 8oach$ Pa'istani 8oach$ 0eticulated 8oach$ D;8oach
Origin: 6orth and 69 India$ Eangladesh
Adult Si:e: ,;2 inches <4 ; +, cm=
Social: Active$ generally peaceful
#an' 8evel: Eottom d%eller
Minimum #an' Si:e: 3A gallon
iet: Omnivore$ eats most foods
Ereeding: 9gglayer
Care: Intermediate
p>: ?"2 ; 4"2
>ardenss: to +3 d7>
#emperature: 42;1? ! <3-;,A C=
;escriptionB
9ver %onder ho% the Do Do loach got its nameO If you havenMt already spotted it$ youMll slap your forehead %hen
you notice the pattern of DMs and OMs adorning the flan's of this lively loach" #he letters are most clear %hen the
loach is young$ giving %ay to a more solidly reticulated pattern as the fish matures"
Eoth se*es are similar" >o%ever$ males are generally more slender than the females$ %ho become noticeably fat
%hen full of eggs" Males also may sho% a red color around the barbels"
#he mouth of the Do Do loach points do%n%ard$ and sports four pair of barbels" Lhen e*cited itMs coloration can
fade out$ and it is not unusual for it to play dead$ much li'e itMs cousin the Clo%n loach" #he Do Do has great
character$ and has been 'no%n to recogni:e$ and become e*cited$ %hen seeing itMs o%ner"
Another interesting behavior e*hibited by the Do Do loach$ is the clic'ing sound it ma'es %hen feeding on the
surface" It does so by s%allo%ing air and forcing it through the gills"
*abitatECareB
#he Do Do loach hails from still %aters in India and Pa'istan$ and prefers %arm$ soft$ acidic %ater" Perform
fre)uent %ater changes$ and 'eep the lighting subdued"
Keep a shoal of at least three$ preferably more" o not 'eep them %ith large or aggressive tan'mates" Other
small catfish$ or small peaceful fish are suitable companions for Do Dos" Provide them %ith plenty of places to
hide$ preferably ones that are not too roomy$ as they prefer snug fitting places"
Lhen first introduced to the tan'$ Do Dos are nervous and may hide" Once acclimated$ they %ill spend more time
in the open" #hey are most active at night$ and enCoy borro%ing into the substrate" If you thin' you are missing
one$ donMt be supervised if you find it hiding in the gravel
;ietB
Doyo loaches are easy to feed" #heyMll eat almost anything they are offered$ from fla'e to fro:en to free:e dried
foods" A fe% sin'ing pellets fed Cust before turning the lights out$ %ill )uic'ly be devoured"
#hey are peculiarly fond of live foods$ and %ill gorge themselves on blood%orms and brine shrimp" #hey also
%ill consume any snails they find in the tan'$ suc'ing them right out of their shells" #o maintain good health$
provide a variety of foods"
+reedin&B
Although they have not been bred in captivity$ it is not unusual for mature females to fill %ith eggs"
Animalia. Chordata. Actionpterygii. Cypriniormes. Cyprinidae
Family description
#emporal range: 9ocene ; Present
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Superfamily: Cyprinioidea
!amily: Cyprinidae
Subfamilies
Acheilognathinae
Cultrinae
Cyprininae
anioninae
7obioninae
>ypophthalmichthyinae
8abeoninae <disputed=
8euciscinae
Psilorhynchinae
0asborinae <polyphyleticO=
S)ualiobarbinae <disputed=
#incinae
#he family Cyprinidae$ from the Ancient 7ree' 'yprWnos <XYZ[\]^_$ (carp(=$ consists of the carps$ the true
minno%s$ and their relatives <for e*ample$ the barbs and barbels=" Commonly called the carp family or the
minno% family$ its members are also 'no%n as cyprinids" It is the largest family of fresh;%ater fish$ %ith over
3$-AA species in about 33A genera" #he family belongs to the order Cypriniformes$ of %hose genera and species
the cyprinids ma'e up t%o;thirds".+/
!ollo%ing the discovery that the relatively un'no%n mountain carps are a peculiar lineage of cyprinids$ they
have been included tentatively as subfamily Psilorhynchinae".3/
;escription
Cyprinids are stomachless fish and the Ca%s are toothless" !ood can be effectively che%ed by the gill ra'ers of
the speciali:ed last gill bo%" #hese pharyngeal teeth allo% the fish to ma'e che%ing motions against a che%ing
plate formed by a procession of the s'ull" #he pharyngheal teeth are species specific and are used by specialists
to determine the species" Strong pharyncheal teeth allo% fish li'e the common carp and ide to eat hard baits li'e
snails and bivalves"
>earing is a %ell;developed sense$ since the cyprinds have the Leberian organ$ three speciali:ed vertebra
processions that transfer motion of the gas bladder to the inner ear" #his construction is also used to observe
motion of the gas bladder due to atmospheric conditions or depth changes" #he cyprinids are physostomes
because the pneumatic duct is retained in adult stages and the fish are able to gulp air to fill the gas bladder or
they can dispose e*cess gas to the gut"
#he fish in this family are native to 6orth America$ Africa$ and 9urasia" #he largest cyprinid in this family is the
7iant Earb <Catlocarpio siamensis=$ %hich may gro% up to , metres <5"1 ft=" #he largest 6orth American species
is the Colorado Pi'eminno% <Ptychocheilus lucius=$ of %hich individuals up to ? feet <+"1 m= long and %eighing
over +AA pounds <-2 'g= have been recorded"
On the other hand$ many species are smaller than 2 centimetres <3"A in=" As of 3AA1$ the smallest 'no%n
fresh%ater fish is a cypriniform$ anionella translucida$ reaching +3 millimetres <A"-4 in= at the longest".,/ All
fish in this family are egg;layers and most do not guard their eggs$ ho%ever$ there are a fe% species that build
nests andBor guard the eggs" #he bitterling;li'e cyprinids <Acheilognathinae= are notable for depositing their eggs
in bivalve molluscs$ %here the young gro% up until able to fend for themselves"
Proud angler %ith +4 'g Mirror Carp <Cyprinus carpio=
Most cyprinids feed mainly on invertebrates and vegetation probably due to the lac' of teeth and stomach$ but
some species li'e the Asp speciali:e in fish" Many species ide$ common rudd %ill eat small fish ho%ever %hen
reaching a certain si:e" 9ven small species li'e the moderlieschen eat larvae of the common frog in artificial
circumstances"
Some fishes$ such as the grass carp$ are speciali:ed in eating vegetation$ some$ such as the common nase$ eat
algae from hard surfaces$ some$ such as the blac' carp$ speciali:e in snails$ and some$ such as the silver carp$ are
speciali:ed filter feeders" !or this reason$ they are often introduced as a management tool to control various
factors in the a)uatic environment$ such as a)uatic vegetation and diseases transmitted by snails"
6elationship 0ith humans
Cyprinids are highly important food fish& they are fished and farmed across 9urasia" In land;loc'ed countries in
particular$ cyprinids are often the maCor species of fish eaten because they ma'e the largest part of biomass in
most %ater types e*cept for fast flo%ing rivers" In non;landloc'ed countries they are not very much appreciated
due to the high number of bones" In 9astern 9urope they are often prepared %ith traditional methods li'e drying
and salting" #he prevalence of ine*pensive fro:en fish products made this less important no% than it %as in
earlier times" 6onetheless$ in certain places they remain popular for food as %ell as recreational fishing$ and
have been deliberately stoc'ed in ponds and la'es for centuries for this reason".-/
Cyprinids are popular for angling especially for match fishing <due to their dominance in biomass and numbers=
and fishing for common carp because of its si:e and strength"
Several cyprinids have been introduced to %aters outside their natural range to provide food$ sport$ or biological
control for some pest species" #he Common Carp <Cyprinus carpio= and the 7rass Carp <Ctenopharyngodon
idella= are the most important of these$ for e*ample in !lorida" In some cases$ these have become invasive
species that compete %ith native fishes or disrupt the environment" Carp in particular can stir up sediment$
reducing the clarity of the %ater and ma'ing it difficult for plants to gro%".2/
6umerous cyprinids have become important in the a)uarium hobby$ most famously the 7oldfish$ %hich %as
bred in China from the Prussian Carp <Carassius <auratus= gibelio=" !irst imported into 9urope around +431$ it
%as much fancied by Chinese nobility as early as ++2A A and after it arrived there in +2A3$ also in Gapan" In the
latter country$ from the +1th century on%ards the Common Carp %as bred into the ornamental variety 'no%n as
'oi I or more accurately nishi'igoi <=$ as 'oi <= simply means (Common Carp( in Gapanese"
Other popular a)uarium cyprinids include danionins$ rasborines and true barbs".?/ 8arger species are bred by the
thousands in outdoor ponds$ particularly in Southeast Asia$ and trade in these a)uarium fishes is of considerable
commercial importance" #he small rasborines and danionines are perhaps only rivalled by characids and poecilid
livebearers in their popularity for community a)uaria"
One particular species of these small and undemanding danionines is the Kebrafish <anio rerio=" It has become
the standard model species for studying developmental genetics of vertebrates$ in particular fish".4/
>abitat destruction and other causes have reduced the %ild stoc's of several cyprinids to dangerously lo% levels&
some are already entirely e*tinct" In particular$ 8euciscinae from south%estern 6orth America have been hit hard
by pollution and unsustainable %ater use in the early;mid 3Ath century& most globally e*tinct Cypriniformes
species are in fact 8euciscinae from the south%estern Fnited States and northern Me*ico"
Systematics
#he massive diversity of cyprinids has so far made it difficult to resolve their phylogeny in sufficient detail to
ma'e assignment to subfamilies more than tentative in many cases" It is obvious that some distinct lineages e*ist
I for e*ample$ Cultrinae and 8euciscinae$ regardless of their e*act delimitation$ are rather close relatives and
stand apart from Cyprininae I$ but the overall systematics and ta*onomy of the Cyprinidae remain a subCect of
considerable debate" A large number of genera are incertae sedis$ too e)uivocal in their traits andBor too little;
studied to permit assignment to a particular subfamily %ith any certainty".1/
Part of the solution seems that the delicate rasborines are the core group$ consisting of minor lineages that have
not shifted far from their evolutionary niche$ or have co;evolved$ for millions of years" #hese are among the
most basal lineages of living cyprinids" Other (rasborines( are apparently distributed across the diverse lineages
of the family".5/
#he validity and circumscription of proposed subfamilies li'e 8abeoninae or S)ualiobarbinae also remains
doubtful$ although the latter do appear to correspond to a distinct lineage" #he sometimes;seen grouping of the
large;headed carps <>ypophthalmichthyinae= %ith Penocypris$ on the other hand$ seems )uite in error" More
li'ely$ the latter are part of the Cultrinae".5/
#he entirely paraphyletic (Earbinae( and the disputed 8abeoninae might be better treated as part of the
Cyprininae$ forming a close;'nit group %hose internal relationships are still little 'no%n" #he small African
(barbs( do not belong in Earbus sensu stricto I indeed$ they are as distant from the typical barbels and the typical
carps <Cyprinus= as these are from 7arra <%hich is placed in the 8abeoninae by most %ho accept the latter as
distinct= and thus might form another as of yet unnamed subfamily" >o%ever$ as noted above$ ho% various minor
lineages tie into this has not yet been resolved& therefore such a radical move$ though reasonable$ is probably
premature".+A/
#he #ench <#inca tinca=$ a significant food species farmed in %estern 9urasia in large numbers$ is unusual" It is
most often grouped %ith the 8euciscinae$ but even %hen these %ere rather loosely circumscribed$ it al%ays stood
apart" A cladistic analysis of 6A se)uence data of the S4 ribosomal protein intron + supports the vie% that it is
distinct enough to constitute a monotypic subfamily" It also suggests that it may be closer to the small 9ast Asian
Aphyocypris$ >emigrammocypris$ and Daoshanicus" #hey %ould have diverged roughly at the same time from
cyprinids of east;central Asia$ perhaps as a result of the Alpide orogeny that vastly changed the topography of
that region in the late Paleogene$ %hen their divergence presumably occurred".3/
#alantiocheilos melanopterus. #ala (Colour)ul shar*.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
!amily: Cyprinidae
7enus: Ealantiocheilos
Species: E" melanopterus
Einomial name: Ealantiocheilos melanopterus <Elee'er$ +12+=
#he Eala shar'$ Ealantiocheilos melanopterus$ also 'no%n as the tricolor shar'$ silver shar'$ or shar' minno%$ is
a fish species of the family Cyprinidae$ and is one of the t%o species in the genus Ealantiocheilos" #his species is
not a true shar'$ but is commonly called a (shar'( because of its torpedo;shaped body and large fins"
9:er:ie0
#he Eala shar' occurs in the Me'ong and Chao Phraya 0iver basins$ Malay Peninsula$ Sumatra$ and Eorneo"
#hese fish have a silver body %ith blac' margins on their dorsal$ caudal$ anal$ and pelvic fins"#hey have big eyes
to see better to catch their prey" #he Eala shar' %ill gro% to a ma*imum length of +3 inches but ta'es a long
time to do so" Eala shar's are found in mid%ater depths in large and medium;si:ed rivers and la'es" #hey feed
on phytoplan'ton$ but mostly on small crustaceans$ rotifers$ and insects and their larvae".3/
@n the a<uarium
Eala shar's are popular a)uarium fish".,/ #hese fish are generally peaceful and good companions to many other
types of tropical fish".,/ #he nic'name (shar'( is used because of their torpedo shaped bodies and long fins"
#hey are not actual shar's" Eala shar's are %idely available in most pet stores$ but these fish may gro% to a si:e
too large for the home a)uarium" Also the bala shar' is a Cumper fish and may inCure itself on the lid of a tan'".,/
#hey are a hardy fish that %ill tolerate temperature changes$ p> changes$ and other factors to %hich other fish
may be sensitive" #he %ater p> should be ?"AI1"A" #he preferable %ater hardness for this species is soft to
medium <2"AI+3"A d7>=" Later temperature should be 'ept bet%een 33I31@C <43I13@!=".3/ #he Eala shar'
prefers be 'ept in groups of t%o or more specimens <although they can survive alone=".3/ #hese fish re)uire a
covered a)uarium as they are very s'illed Cumpers".,/
Hery young Eala shar's are sometimes 'ept in small a)uaria" >o%ever$ given their adult si:e$ schooling
behavior$ and s%imming speed$ the fish )uic'ly gro% to need much more room" >obbyists continue to debate
over acceptable minimum tan' si:es$ but generally recommend at least a ? foot tan'" !ishEase lists a minimum
of +2A cm <2 ft=".3/ Many believe the fish is simply too large and too active to be 'ept in commercial a)uaria at
all& only enormous$ custom;built tan's are acceptable$ if any tan' at all is" Indoor ponds are also considered
feasible housing options and may be better suited to the average a)uarist" #his fishMs habitat is often destroyed$
ma'ing these fish rare in the %ild"
E" melanopterus is listed as an endangered species by the IFC6 0ed 8ist".+/ It has become rare or e*tinct in
many river basins of its native range".3/ In anau Sentarum <Eorneo=$ fishermen already reported in +55, and
+552 that the populations have decreased dramatically after +542$ for no clear reason" !ishermen mentioned
overfishing for the a)uarium;fish trade or forest fires in +542 and the resulting pollution as possible causes" #he
species is apparently e*tirpated in the Eatang >ari basin <Sumatra= and it seems that all individuals of E"
melanopterus e*ported from Indonesia and #hailand by the a)uarium;fish trade are captive bred".-/ #here really
good fish to ta'e care of and maybe %e can all %or' together and 'eep the species alive"
Crossocheilus siamensis. Siamese algae eater.
Siamese algae eater
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
!amily: Cyprinidae
7enus: Crossocheilus
Species: C" siamensis
Einomial name: Crossocheilus siamensis
<Smith$ +5,+=
9:er:ie0
#he Siamese algae eater <SA9=$ Crossocheilus siamensis$ is a species of fresh%ater fish in the carp family$
Cyprinidae" #his bottom;d%elling tropical fish is found in mainland Southeast Asia that includes the Chao
Phraya and Me'ong basins as %ell as the Malay Peninsula" #heir natural habitats are streams and rivers as %ell
as flooded forests during the rainy season" #he Siamese algae eater should not be confused %ith the !lying fo*
<9pal:eorhynchos 'alopterus= or the !alse siamensis <7arra cambodgiensis="
#he Siamese algae eater <9pal:eorhynchos siamensis or Crossocheilus siamensis= has a blac' hori:ontal stripe
e*tending from opercle to tail" #he genuine 9pal:eorhynchos siamensis alias Crossocheilus siamensis %ithout
ma*illary barbels and %ith deeply fringed H;shaped upper lip is rarely encountered in the a)uarium trade"
Closely related is the 0ed;algae eater Crossocheilus langei$ a species that is %idely sold as the Siamese algae
eater" It has a bright bro%nish elongate body %ith a slightly flat belly" It has a prominent bro%n;blac' hori:ontal
stripe e*tending from nose to tail" #his fish may gro% up to the length of +? centimeters" It possesses small
ma*illary barbels and an unfringed shallo%ly arcuate upper lip" #%o other similar species are traded as Siamese
algae eaters$ namely Crossocheilus atrilimes$ a species that li'es to eat Gava moss rather than red algae$ and an
undescribed species of Crossocheilus"
It is a slender$ grayish;bro%n fish %ith a distinctive blac' hori:ontal stripe" Ma*imum length is +2 cm <?(= and
might be obtained in t%o years$ if the conditions are optimal" 6ormally #hey gro% slo%er and donMt al%ays reach
that si:e in captivity" #hey can live over +A years" All the fins are transparent or slightly mil'y %ithout any
yello% or reddish sheen" #he blac' band goes from nose to the for' of the tail and its edges are :ig;:agged"
Lhen a fish is stressed or fighting the blac' color fades significantly" Fnderparts are silvery %hite and there is
no light stripe over the blac'$ but the %hole upper body is bro%nish and every scale has a dar' edge$ %hich ma'e
the top loo' reticular" Some dar' scale edges might be seen under the blac' stripe" It has a pair of thin$ for%ard;
pointing barbels but they might be pressed against the chee's %hen fish is s%imming or resting" #he long blac'
stripe is also easy to see in young fishes$ but the scale edge pattern and :ig;:ag edges are not clearly visible until
the fish reaches the length of 2;4 cm <3;,(=& the ones that are normally seen in 9uropean shops are about ,;2 cm
<+;3(= long" Adult females are often slightly fatter than males$ no other se*ual differences are 'no%n"
+eha:ior
It is an active and fast s%immer$ %hich thrives best in schools but can also be 'ept alone or in pairs" It is a strong
Cumper and should not be 'ept in uncovered tan'$ because it %ill eventually Cump" Siamese Algae 9aters often
chase one another but they never get hurt in these fights"
#he fish is a good Cumper" #he lid of the tan' should be properly closed leaving no large hole for the fish to Cump
out of the tan'"
Siamese Algae 9aters %ill often school together$ but are also content living solo" Lhen t%o are 'ept together$
they %ill often establish their o%n territory as they mature" #hey can be a long;lived fish$ ten years e*perienced"
C" siamensis has a peculiar resting position: it doesnMt lie flat on its belly but 'eeps its body propped up %ith its
tail$ pelvic and pectoral fins" Doung fish sometimes rest on broad leaves$ adult specimens prefer resting on
bottom or dense$ lo% plants li'e Cryptocorynes" #he s%im bladder is not very developed$ so the fish canMt stay in
mid%ater but it must be in constant motion or it sin's"
Compatibility
As they are not aggressive$ they can be 'ept in any community tan' big enough" #heir active behavior might
stress some sensitive species li'e d%arf cichlids and prevent them from spa%ning" #hey should not be 'ept %ith
0ed;tailed Shar's <9pal:eorhynchus bicolor= unless the a)uarium is large and %ell planted$ because that species
is very aggressive to%ards all its relatives"
%<uarium care
#hey prefer %ater temperature range of 3-I3?@C$ a p> range of ?"2;1"A$ and a %ater hardness of 2;3A d>"
Eecause the red algae eaters are effective at controlling the tan' algae$ many a)uarists li'e to place them in
heavily;planted tan's %ith strong lightings that promote the gro%th of algae" Fnli'e other a)uarium algae eater
fishes$ the red algae eater is valued for its ability to eat red algae" #he fish$ ho%ever$ are opportunistic feeders
and %ill eat pellets and most other food$ a tendency that strengthens %ith age"
>ardness should be less than 3A d>" Later should be clean and o*ygenated$ because they come from bright and
fast;flo%ing streams" #hey eat algae$ including red algae and all 'ind of live and prepared foods" It is very rare
that they harm plants in their tan' if they are given enough green food" #hey also eat algae %hen they are mature$
but seem to prefer fla'e food" 8iisaMs fish eat uc'%eed <8emna minor= but have never touched any other plants"
#hey havenMt yet been bred in captivity$ so all the specimens are caught from nature" It appears that the fish are
seasonal and are not al%ays available in the shops" Minimum tan' si:e for a pair of adult Siamese Algae 9aters is
+AA liters <32 gallons=" #he a)uarium should be long and have lots of living plants"
Animalia. Chordata. Actinopterygii. Cyprinodontiormes. Poeciliidae.
Family description
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Cyprinodontiformes
!amily: Poeciliidae$ 7arman$ +152
Poeciliidae is a family of fresh;%ater fish %hich are live;bearing a)uarium fish <they give birth to live young="
#hey belong to the order Cyprinodontiformes$ tooth;carps$ and include %ell;'no%n a)uarium fish li'e the guppy$
molly$ platy$ and s%ordtail" #he original distribution of the family %as South eastern Fnited States to 6orth of
0io de la Plata Argentina$ and central and southern Africa$ including Madagascar" >o%ever$ due to release of
a)uarium specimens and the %idespread use of species of the genera Poecilia and 7ambusia for mos)uito
control$ poeciliids can today be found in all tropical and subtropical areas of the %orld"
7i:e-bearin&
Although the %hole family Poeciliidae is 'no%n as (live bearers($ there are egg;scattering species %ith e*ternal
fertili:ation in addition to the true live;bearing `viviparousa and (ovoviviparous( species$ %hich have internal
fertili:ation and the eggs hatch before being laid$ so that the female gives birth to live young" All African species
are egg;layers$ and <%ith the e*ception of the members of the genus #omeurus= all American species are
livebearers" #his distribution suggests that Poeciliidae predate the split bet%een Africa and South America +AA
million years ago$ that live;bearing subse)uently evolved in South America" Poeciliids coloni:ed north America
through the Antilles %hile they %ere connected -- million years ago" Poeciliids then moved to central America
by the Aves land bridge" Lhen south America reconnected to central America , million years ago there %as
some dispersal south%ard$ but South American species did not move into central America".+/
Among the live;bearing species there are differences in the mode and degree of support the female gives the
developing larvae& although many members of the family Poeciliidae are considered to be lecithotrophic
<meaning that the mother provisions the oocyte %ith all the resources it needs prior to fertili:ation$ so that the
egg is independent of the mother=$ but others are matrotrophic <literally means (mother feeding(: the mother
provides the maCority of resources to the developing offspring after fertili:ation="
Members of the genus Poeciliopsis$ for e*ample$ sho% variable reproductive life history adaptations"
Poeciliopsis monacha$ P" lucida$ and P" prolifica form part of the same clade %ithin the genus Poeciliopsis"
>o%ever$ their modes of maternal provisioning vary greatly" P" monacha can be considered to be lecithotrophic
because it does not really provide any resources for its offspring after fertili:ation ; the pregnant female is
basically a s%imming egg sac" P" lucida sho%s an intermediate level of matrotrophy$ meaning that to a certain
e*tent the offspringMs metabolism can actually affect the motherMs metabolism$ allo%ing for increased nutrient
e*change" Poeciliopsis prolifica is considered to be highly matrotrophic$ and almost all of the nutrients and
materials needed for fetal development are supplied to the oocyte after it has been fertili:ed" #his level of
matrotrophy allo%s Poeciliopsis to carry several broods at different stages of development$ a phenomenon
'no%n as superfetation" Eecause the space for developing embryos is limited$ viviparity reduces brood si:e"
Superfetation can compensate for this loss by 'eeping embryos at various stages and si:es during development"
Poeciliopsis elongata$ P" turneri$ and P" presidionis form another clade %hich could be considered an outgroup to
the P" monachaBP"lucidaBP"prolifica clade" #hese three species are very highly matrotrophic ; so much so that in
+5-4 C" 8" #urner described the follicular cells of P" turneri as (pseudo;placenta$ pseudo;chorion$ and pseudo;
allantois("
Poecilia reticulata. Guppy
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
!amily: Poeciliidae
7enus: Poecilia
Species: P" reticulata
Einomial name
Poecilia reticulata$ Peters$ +125
Synonyms
Acanthocephalus guppii
A" reticulatus
7irardinus guppii
7" petersi
7" poeciloides
7" reticulatus
>aridichthys reticulatus
>eterandria guppyi
8ebistes poecilioides
8" reticulatus
Poecilia poeciloides
Poecilioides reticulatus
#he guppy <Poecilia reticulata=$ also 'no%n as the millionfish$.+/ is one of the most popular fresh%ater a)uarium
fish species in the %orld" It is a small member of the Poeciliidae family <females -I? centimetres <+"?I3"- in=
long$ males 3"2I,"2 centimetres <+"AI+"- in= long= and li'e all other members of the family$ is live;bearing"
;istribution
7uppies are native to Antigua and Earbuda$ Earbados$ Era:il$ 7uyana$ 6etherlands Antilles$ #rinidad and
#obago$ the F"S" Hirgin Islands and Hene:uela".,/.-/
>o%ever$ guppies have been introduced to many different countries on all continents$ e*cept Antarctica"
Sometimes this has occurred accidentally$ but most often as a means of mos)uito control$ the hope being that the
guppies %ould eat the mos)uito larvae slo%ing do%n the spread of malaria" In many cases$ these guppies have
had a negative impact on native fish faunas".2/
.edit/ 9cology and behavior
7uppies e*hibit se*ual dimorphism" Lhile %ild;type females are grey in body colour$ males have splashes$
spots$ or stripes that can be any of a %ide variety of colors"
6eproduction
7uppies are highly prolific livebearers".?/ #he gestation period of a guppy is 3+I,A days$ %ith an average of 31
days$ varying according to %ater temperature" Males possess a modified tubular anal fin called a gonopodium
located directly behind the ventral fin %hich is fle*ed for%ard and used as a delivery mechanism for one or more
balls of spermato:oa" #he male %ill approach a female and %ill fle* his gonopodium for%ard before thrusting it
into her and eCecting these balls" After the female guppy is inseminated$ a dar' area near the anus$ 'no%n as the
gravid spot$ %ill enlarge and dar'en" Gust before birth$ the eyes of fry may be seen through the translucent s'in in
this area of the femaleMs body" Lhen birth occurs$ individual offspring are dropped in se)uence over the course of
an hour or so"
7uppies prefer %ater temperatures of about 3? @C <45 @!= for reproduction" #he female guppy has drops of
bet%een 3I2A fry at a time$ typically ranging bet%een 2 and ,A" After giving birth$ the female is ready for
conception again %ithin only a fe% hours" 7uppies have the ability to store sperm up to a year$ so the females
can give birth many times %ithout depending on the presence of a male" !rom the moment of birth$ each fry is
fully capable of s%imming$ eating$ and avoiding danger" If not 'ept separate$ the older$ mature guppies %ill eat
the fry so the use of a breeder bo*$ net breeder$ or a separate 3AI-A litres <-I5 imp gal& 2I++ FS gal= tan' is
recommended" 8ive plants may be used as hiding places for the fry"
Doung fry ta'e roughly three or four months to reach maturity" In the a)uarium$ they are usually fed finely
ground fla'e foods$ baby brine shrimp or$ unless they are put in a separate tan'$ uneaten food from the adults" In
addition$ they nibble on algae"
7uppies have been selectively bred to produce a variety of colors and patterns" In the %ild$ male guppies are dull
blac' or bro%n in colour %ith some coloured spots %hile females are fully dull grey" #he %ild guppies that
sho%ed the most colours in each generation %ere bred to produce the (fancy guppies( seen in pet stores and
guppy sho%s today"
#he guppy has been successfully hybridised %ith various species of molly <Poecilia latipinnaBvelifera=$ eg" male
guppy and female molly" >o%ever$ the hybrids are al%ays males and appear to be infertile".4/ #he guppy has
also been hybridised %ith the 9ndlerMs livebearer <Poecilia %ingei= to produce fertile offspring"
Genetics
7uppies have 3, pairs of chromosomes including + pair of se* chromosomes".1/
Selective breeding has produced many different strains$ such as the sna'es'in and grass varieties" A strain is
defined as guppies that sho% the same characteristics"
@n the a<uarium
#he guppy prefers a hard %ater a)uarium and can %ithstand levels of salinity up to +2AU that of normal sea
%ater$.5/ %hich has led to them being occasionally included in marine tropical community tan's$ as %ell as in
fresh%ater tropical tan's" 7uppies are generally peaceful$ though nipping behaviour is sometimes e*hibited
bet%een male guppies or to%ards other top s%immers li'e platys and s%ordtails and occasionally other fish %ith
prominent fins such as angelfish" Its most famous characteristic is its propensity for breeding$ and it can breed in
both fresh %ater and marine a)uariums".+A/
7uppies bred by a)uarists produced variations in appearance ranging from colour consistency to various tail
forms"
Lell;fed adults do not often eat their o%n young$ although sometimes safe :ones are re)uired for the fry"
Specially designed livebearer birthing tan's$ %hich can be suspended inside the a)uarium$ are available from
a)uatic retailers" #hese also serve to shield the pregnant female from further attention from the males$ %hich is
important$ because the males %ill sometimes attac' the females %hile they are giving birth" It also provides a
separate area for the ne%born young as protection from being eaten by their mother" >o%ever$ if a female is put
in the breeder bo* too early$ it may cause her to have a miscarriage" Lell;planted tan's that offer a lot of barriers
to adult guppies %ill shelter the young )uite %ell" Gava moss$ duc'%eed <8emna minor and other 8emna
species=$ and Later Listeria are all e*cellent choices" A continuous supply of live food$ such as aphnia$ %ill
'eep adult fish full and may spare the fry %hen they are born"
+iphophorus maculatus. Platy.
Scientific 6ame: Piphophorus maculatus
Other 6ames:7olden Moon Platy$ Moonfish$ Common Platy
!amily: Poeciliidae
Origin: 7uatemala$ >onduras$ Me*ico
Adult Si:e: + ; 3 inches <,"2 ; 2 cm=
Social: Peaceful$ suitable for community tan'
#an' 8evel: Mid d%eller
Minimum #an' Si:e: 2 gallon
iet: Omnivore$ eats most foods
Ereeding: 8ivebearer
Care: 9asy
p>: 4"A ; 1"3
>ardenss: +A;32 d7>
#emperature: ?-;44 ! <+1;32 C=
;escription
Eelieve it or not$ everyone doesnNt immediately see %here this fish gets its name" 8oo' closely at the tail area$
and it %ill soon become obvious" 6ear the base of the tail is a large round spot upon %hich are perched t%o
smaller round bearsN that give it the spitting image of the popular isney character$ Mic'ey Mouse"
#he fish itself may be pale yello% to gold$ red to orange$ or even bluish in color" #he fins may range from pale
yello% to red or blac' tinged" espite the color variations$ all are the same species of fish"
8i'e all live bearing fish$ males and females e*hibit se*ual dimorphism$ meaning males and females have
e*ternally visible physical differences" !emales are generally larger$ and sometimes are less vibrantly colored
than the male" Males are easily recogni:ed by the presence of the gonopodium"
*abitatECare
8i'e other platys the Mic'ey Mouse Platy tolerate a %ide range of conditions$ and are suitable for even small
a)uariums" #hey %ill gra:e on vegetation$ so 'eep that in mind if you have live plants" #he ideal substrate is
small to medium si:ed and dar'er in color$ %hich also servers as a good contrast to sho% off the pretty colors of
this fish
Later conditions are not critical" Al'aline %ater of moderate hardness is ideal$ %hich is very similar to most city
tap %ater" #he temperate of a typical community tan'$ 4?;41 degrees !$ %ill do )uite nicely for the Mic'ey
Mouse Platy"
;iet
Hirtually any food %ill be accepted by the Mic'ey Mouse Platy$ including the standard fla'e foods" A varied diet
including plenty of vegetable matter$ %ill insure good health" !resh produce such as lettuce$ spinach$ coo'ed
peas or :ucchini$ %ill be readily accepted" In lieu of fresh veggies$ try spirulina"
8ive foods$ such as brine shrimp$ glass%orms and blood%orms$ are a good supplement" !ro:en or free:e dried
varieties of the same foods are a good alternative"
+reedin&
#he Mic'ey Mouse Platy is se*ually mature as early as four months of age$ %hich means young fish should be
se*ed and seperated %hen they are very young" !emale platys %ho mate %ill retain sperm pac'ets and can
continue to give birth %ithout mating again for a number of months
Once mating has occured$ and the eggs are fertili:ed$ it ta'es about ,A days for the fry to emerge" #he
temperature can slo% do%n or speed up the process <%armer %ater shortens the gestation period=" #ypical broods
are -A;?A fry$ %hich are born live"
As the fry develop$ the belly of the female %ill become larger" 9ventually the eyes of the fry can be seen through
the stretched belly of the mother" As birthing time dra%s near$ you should be prepared to shelter and protect the
fry" Other%ise the parents$ and any other fish in the tan'$ %ill eat most$ if not all of them"
One option is to place female in a breeding trap Cust before birth" #he trap is designed so the fry fall through slits
that are too small for the mother to follo%" #he negatives of this is that the small trap is stressful for the mother$
and must be done before she begins giving birth"
Another method is to have a separate birthingBnursery tan' that is heavily planted %ith fine leafed vegetation" As
the fry are born$ they hide in the plants" Once the mother had given birth to all her fry$ she is removed$ thus
protecting the fry"
#he fry are fully formed very tiny fish" Initially they need very fine foods to feed upon" !reshly hatched brine
shrimp are ideal$ but li)uid or po%dered fry food %ill do fine" !eedings are re)uired several times per day$ %hich
means debris %ill build up more )uic'ly in the tan'$ thus re)uiring daily %ater changes"
+iphophorus hellerii. Green S'ordtail.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
!amily: Poeciliidae
7enus: Piphophorus
Species: P" hellerii
Einomial name: Piphophorus hellerii$ >ec'el$ +1-1
Common 6ames : Elac' S%ordtail$ 7old #u*$ 7reen$ 8yretail$ 6eon$ 0ed Simpson$ Spotted$ 0ed Helvet
S%ordtails$ Elac' Helvet$ Eeli:e$ Atoyac
It is often designated P" helleri <%ith one (i(=$ but authorities consider this an orthographic error and the spelling %ith t%o (i(s is the valid specific
epithet" ue to interbreeding %ith the southern platyfish or (platy$( most (s%ordtail( in the a)uarium are hybrids to some degree"
9:er:ie0
S%ordtail Care 8evel : 9asy$ good fish for fresh%ater fish beginners
Si:e : Fp to 2 inches <+, cm=
p> : 4 ; 1
#emperature : 43@! ; 13@! <33@C ; 31@C=
Later >ardness : 5@ to +2@ d>$
8ifespan : , ; 2 years
Origin B >abitat : Central America
#emperament B Eehavior : #he s%ordtail is a tough litte fish" #hey can ta'e care of themselves %hen there are
bigger fish in the tan'" #he males may become aggressive to%ards other males"
Ereeding B Mating B 0eproduction : #hey are livebearers$ so it is fairly easy for them to breed" Ee sure to give a
lot of floating cover for the baby s%ords" #ry to put the babies in a separate tan' other%ise the adult fish %ill eat
them" Chec' out this breeding s%ordtails article for more information"
#an' Si:e : +A gallon or larger
Compatible #an' Mates : onMt 'eep %ith tropical fish big enough to eat them" #hey should be able to handle
themselves %ith many fish their same si:e or larger"
!ish isease : !resh%ater !ish isease ; iagnose$ Symptoms and #reatment
iet B !ish !ood : Omnivore but they need some greens in their diet" #hey %ill ta'e fla'e$ free:e dried and live
foods" On a daily basis$ fla'es are usually recommended" Once a %ee'$ feed them live foods li'e blood%orms or
brine shrimps" #hey %ill also eat algae tablets"
Piphophorus >elleri is closely related to Piphophorus Maculatus <Platy="
#an' 0egion : All over the tan'
7ender : 9asy to determine ; the male has a signature long anal fin"
#he 7reen s%ordtail <Piphophorus hellerii= is a species of fresh%ater fish in family Poeciliidae of order
Cyprinodontiformes" A live;bearer$ it is closely related to the southern platyfish or (platy( <P" maculatus= and
can crossbred %ith it" It is native to an area of 6orth and Central America stretching from Heracru:$ Me*ico$ to
north%estern >onduras"
#he male green s%ordtail gro%s to a ma*imum overall length of +-cm <2"2in= and the female to +? cm <?", in="
#he name (s%ordtail( is derived from the elongated lo%er lobe of the maleMs caudal fin <tailfin=" Se*ual
dimorphism is moderate$ %ith the female being larger than the male but lac'ing the (s%ord(" #he %ild form is
olive green in color$ %ith a red or bro%n lateral stripe and spec'les on the dorsal and$ sometimes$ caudal fins"
#he maleMs (s%ord( is yello%$ edged in blac' belo%" Captive breeding has produced many color varieties$
including blac'$ red$ and many patterns thereof$ for the a)uarium hobby"
#he green s%ordtail prefers s%ift;flo%ing$ heavily;vegetated rivers and streams$ but is also found in %arm
springs and canals" Omnivorous$ its diet includes both plants and small crustaceans$ insects$ and annelid %orms"
P" hellerii has become a nuisance pest as an introduced species in a number of countries" It has caused ecological
damage because of its ability to rapidly reproduce in high numbers" !eral populations have established
themselves in southern Africa$ including 6atal$ Madagascar and eastern #ransvaal in South Africa and OtCi'oto
8a'e in 6amibia" Significant populations have also established themselves along the east coast of Australia" One
of the most popular tropical a)uarium fish$ the green s%ordtail has been bred into various hybrid forms for the
a)uarium hobby due to its hardiness and suitability for community tan's"
#he malesM beautiful elongated caudal fins have been found to significantly affect their chances at mating" #he
presence of a %ell;endo%ed male spurs the maturity of females %hile it inhibits the maturity of Cuvenile males in
the vicinity of the %ell;endo%ed male
+readin&
S%ordtails are livebearers$ %hich means they give birth to already formed fry" #here are a fe% %ays to
differentiate males from females" #he first and most obvious is to loo' at the tail of the fish" If it is long and in
shape of a s%ord$ it is a male" >o%ever$ %hen young$ this diphormism is not al%ays obvious and male
S%ordtails are %ell 'no%n to be late developpers" #he presence of a gonopodium in the male species is another
%ay to tell males from females" 7onopodiums are e*tension of the anal fin rays that the male uses to fertili:e the
female" !emales$ in conterpart$ have a gravid patch at the end of their belly right under the anal fin" #his patch
gets bigger as she gets ready to give birth" !ermales are also usually bigger than males" ItMs been said that females
can sometimes change se* after breeding a fe% times" Opinions are divided on this subCect" I actually have had a
fe% females that changed se* after after a %hile but IMm not sure if they %ere actual females or really late
developping males" Some hobbyist also believe that females become males %hen there is a male shortage" All
these facts remain to be proven"
Piphophorus >elleri is one of the easiest tropical fish to breed" !emales can give birth to , to ? batchs of fry %ith
only one fertili:ation <3A to 1A fry every time ; spa%ning is appro*" 3 hours long=" A happy female %ill give birth
every - to ? %ee's and the gestation period last appro*imately , to - %ee's" It is a very prolific fish"
S%ordtails %ill breed in pretty much any 'ind of %ater" #hey usually prefer hard and alcalin %ater and do very
good in our municipal tap %aters" As soon as the female give birth$ remove the parents from the tan' as they
%ould eat the fry" #he best %ay is to have a small tan' ready for the fry to be isolated" #his tan' %ill have a
small sponge filter$ hidding places and Cava mossBplants" If the parents can not be removed from the tan'$ ma'e
sure to have a lot of Gava Moss and hidding places for the fry to hide from their parentsBother fish" !eed the fry
%ith crushed fla'es and do %ater changes on a regular basis$ this %ill help the youngs to gro% rapidly"
As a curiosity$ Piphophorus helleri and Piphophorus maculates
<platy female and *ipho male= can cross as sho%n" PiphoMs
original form is green$ so;called (green s%ordtail($ but after
repeated selctions appeared more color varieties <about +AAA= of
%hich recall the most common: *ipfo red$ red %ith red eyes$
*ipfo yello%$ *ipfo %agtail <blac' tail=$ red rot <golden tail and a
golden longitudinal stripe on the body=$ red gold$ red #u*edo
<halh blac' and half red=$ berliner <one color %ith blac' dots=$
*ipfo neon$ *ipfo sch%ar:$ rot albino$ doppel$ etc""
Animalia. Chordata. Actinopterygii. Perciormes. Cichlidae.
Family description
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Perciformes
Suborder: 8abroidei
!amily: Cichlidae$ >ec'el$ +1-A
Subfamilies
Astronotinae
Cichlasomatinae
Cichlinae
9troplinae
7eophaginae
>eterochromidinae
Paratilapiinae
Pseudocrenilabrinae
Ptychochrominae
0etroculinae
Cichlids <play Bcsd'lddB= are fishes from the family Cichlidae in the order Perciformes" Cichlids are members of a
group 'no%n as the 8abroidei along %ith the %rasses 8abridae$ damselfish Pomacentridae$ and surfperches
9mbiotocidae".+/ #his family is both large and diverse" At least +$,AA species have been scientifically described$
.3/ ma'ing it one of the largest vertebrate families" 6e% species are discovered annually$ and many species
remain undescribed" #he actual number of species is therefore un'no%n$ %ith estimates varying bet%een +$,AA
and ,$AAA".,/
;escription
Cichlids span a %ide range of body si:es$ from species as small as 3"2 centimeters <+ in= in length <e"g"$ female
6eolamprologus multifasciatus= to much larger species approaching + meters <, ft= in length <e"g"
Eoulengerochromis and Cichla=" As a group$ cichlids e*hibit a similar diversity of body shapes$ ranging from
strongly laterally compressed species <such as Altolamprologus$ Pterophyllum$ and Symphysodon= to species
that are cylindrical and highly elongate <such as Gulidochromis$ #eleogramma$ #eleocichla$ Crenicichla$ and
7obiocichla=".-/ 7enerally$ ho%ever$ cichlids tend to be of medium si:e$ ovate in shape and slightly laterally
compressed$ and generally similar to the 6orth American sunfishes in morphology$ behavior$ and ecology".2/
Many cichlids$ particularly tilapia$ are important food fishes$ %hile others are valued game fish <e"g" Cichla
species=" #he family also includes many familiar a)uarium fish$ including the angelfish$ oscars$ and discus".-/.?/
Cichlids have the largest number of endangered species among vertebrate families$ most in the haplochromine
group".4/ Cichlids are particularly %ell 'no%n for having evolved rapidly into a large number of closely related
but morphologically diverse species %ithin large la'es$ particularly #anganyi'a$ Hictoria$ Mala%i$ and 9d%ard"
.1/.5/ #heir diversity in the African 7reat 8a'es is important for the study of speciation in evolution".+A/ Many
cichlids that have been introduced into %aters outside of their natural range have become nuisances$ such as
tilapia in the southern Fnited States".++/
%natomy and appearance
Cichlids share a single 'ey trait: the fusion of the lo%er pharyngeal bones into a single tooth;bearing structure" A
comple* set of muscles allo%s the upper and lo%er pharyngeal bones to be used as a second set of Ca%s for
processing food$ allo%ing a division of labor bet%een the (true Ca%s( <mandibles= and the (pharyngeal Ca%s("
Cichlids are efficient feeders that capture and process a very %ide variety of food items" #his is assumed to be
one reason %hy they are so diverse".-/ Cichlids vary in body shape$ ranging from compressed and disc;shaped
<such as Symphysodon=$ to triangular <such as Pterophyllum=$ to elongate and cylindrical <such as Crenicichla="
#he features that distinguish them from the other 8abroidei include:.3/
A single nostril on each side of the forehead$ instead of t%o"
6o bony shelf belo% the orbit of the eye"
ivision of the lateral line organ into t%o sections$ one on the upper half of the flan' and a second along the midline of the flan' from about
half%ay along the body to the base of the tail <e*cept for genera #eleogramma and 7obiocichla="
A distinctively shaped otolith"
#he small intestineMs left;side e*it from the stomach instead of its right side as in other 8abroidei"
AaDonomy
Kullander <+551= recogni:es eight subfamilies of cichlids: the Astronotinae$ Cichlasomatinae$ Cichlinae$
9troplinae$ 7eophaginae$ >eterochromidinae$ Pseudocrenilabrinae$ and 0etroculinae".+,/ Cichlid ta*onomy is
still debated$ and classification of genera cannot yet be definitively given" A comprehensive system of assigning
species to monophyletic genera is still lac'ing$ and there is not complete agreement on %hat genera should be
recogni:ed in this family".+3/
As an e*ample of the classification problems$ Kullander.+-/ placed the African genus >eterochromis
phylogenetically %ithin neotropical cichlids$ although later papers concluded other%ise" Other problems center
upon the identity of the putative common ancestor for the 8a'e Hictoria superfloc'$ and the ancestral lineages of
#anganyi'an cichlids"
Comparisons.+2/ bet%een a morphologically;based phylogeny.+?/ and analyses of gene loci.+4/ produce
differences at the genus level" #here remains a consensus that the Cichlidae as a family is monophyletic".+1/.+5/
One problem that transformed cichlid ta*onomy is related to dentition$ %hich had been used as a classifying
characteristic" In many cichlids$ tooth shape changes %ith age$ due to %ear$ and cannot be relied upon" 7enome
se)uencing and other technologies transformed cichlid ta*onomy".3A/
6an&e and habitat
#ilapia mariae$ caught on a hoo' and line$ in Australia" Originally from Africa$ the species established feral
populations in Australia".3+/
Cichlids are the most species;rich non;Ostariophysan family in fresh%aters %orld%ide" #hey are most diverse in
Africa and South America" It is estimated that Africa alone hosts at least +$?AA species".+3/ Central America and
Me*ico have appro*imately +3A species$ as far north as the 0io 7rande in southern #e*as" Madagascar has its
o%n distinctive species <O*ylapia$ Paratilapia$ Paretroplus$ Ptychochromis$ and Ptychochromoides=$ only
distantly related to those on the African mainland".3/.33/ 6ative cichlids are largely absent in Asia$ e*cept for
nine species in Israel$ 8ebanon and Syria <Astatotilapia flaviiCosephi$ Oreochromis aureus$ O" niloticus$
Sarotherodon galilaeus $ #ilapia :illii$ and #ristramella spp"=$ one in Iran <Iranocichla=$ and three in India and Sri
8an'a <9troplus=".+3/ If disregarding #rinidad and #obago <%here the fe% native cichlids are members of genera
that are %idespread in the South American mainland=$ the three species from the genus 6andopsis are the only
cichlids from the Antilles in the Caribbean$ specifically Cuba and >ispaniola" 9urope$ Australia$ Antarctica$ and
6orth America north of the 0io 7rande drainage have no native cichlids$ although in !lorida$ Me*ico$ Gapan and
northern Australia feral populations of cichlids have become established as e*otics".3+/.3,/.3-/.32/.3?/.34/.31/
Although most cichlids are found at relatively shallo% depths$ several e*ceptions do e*ist" #hese include species
such as Alticorpus macrocleithrum and Pallidochromis to'olosh do%n to +2A metres <-5A ft= belo% the surface
in 8a'e Mala%i$.35/.,A/ and the %hitish <non;pigmented= and blind 8amprologus lethops$ %hich is believed to
live as deep as +?A metres <23A ft= belo% the surface in the Congo 0iver".,+/
Cichlids are less commonly found in brac'ish and salt%ater habitats$ though many species tolerate brac'ish
%ater for e*tended periods& Cichlasoma urophthalmus$ for e*ample$ is e)ually at home in fresh%ater marshes
and mangrove s%amps$ and lives and breeds in salt%ater environments such as the mangrove belts around barrier
islands".-/ Several species of #ilapia$ Sarotherodon$ and Oreochromis are euryhaline and can disperse along
brac'ish coastlines bet%een rivers".+3/ Only a fe% cichlids$ ho%ever$ inhabit primarily brac'ish or salt %ater$
most notably 9troplus maculatus$ 9troplus suratensis$ and Sarotherodon melanotheron".,3/ #he perhaps most
e*treme habitats for cichlids are the %arm hypersaline la'es %here the members of the genera Alcolapia and
ana'ilia are found" 8a'e Abaeded in 9ritrea encompasses the entire distribution of " dinicolai$ and its
temperature ranges from 35 to -2 @C <1- to ++, @!=".,,/
Lith the e*ception of the species from Cuba and >ispaniola$ cichlids have not reached any oceanic island and
have a predominantly 7ond%anan distribution$ sho%ing the precise sister relationships predicted by vicariance:
Africa;South America and India;Madagascar".,-/ #he dispersal hypothesis$ in contrast$ re)uires fresh%ater
cichlids to have negotiated thousands of 'ilometers of open ocean bet%een India and Madagascar %ithout
coloni:ing any other island or$ for that matter$ crossing the Mo:ambi)ue Channel to Africa" 9*posure of
Malagasy cichlids to salt%ater is +AAU fatal after +3 hours$ ho%ever".,2/
Feedin&
Many cichlids are primarily herbivores feeding on algae <e"g" Petrochromis= and plants <e"g" 9troplus suratensis="
Small animals$ particularly invertebrates$ are only a minor part of their diet"
Other cichlids are detritivores and eat all types of organic material& among these species are the tilapiines of the
genera Oreochromis$ Sarotherodon$ and #ilapia"
Other cichlids are predatory and eat little or no plant matter" #hese include generalists that catch a variety of
small animals$ including other fishes and insect larvae <e"g" Pterophyllum=$ as %ell as variety of specialists"
#rematocranus is a speciali:ed snail;eater$ %hile Pungu maclareni feeds on sponges" A number of cichlids feed
on other fish$ either entirely or in part" Crenicichla are stealth;predators that lunge from concealment at passing
small fish$ %hile 0hamphochromis are open %ater pursuit predators that chase do%n their prey".,4/
Paedophagous cichlids such as the Caprichromis species eat other speciesM eggs or young$ in some cases
ramming the heads of mouthbrooding species to force them to disgorge their young".,?/.,1/.,5/.-A/ Among the
more unusual feeding strategies are those of Corematodus$ ocimodus evelynae$ Plecodus$ Perissodus$ and
7enyochromis spp"$ %hich feed on scales and fins of other fishes$ a behavior 'no%n as lepidophagy$.-+/.-3/.-,/
along %ith the death;mimic'ing behaviour of 6imbochromis and Parachromis species$ %hich lay motionless$
luring small fish to their side prior to ambush".--/.-2/
#his variety of feeding styles has helped cichlids to inhabit similarly varied habitats" Its pharyngeal teeth <teeth
in the throat= afford cichlids so many (niche( feeding strategies$ because the Ca%s pic' and hold food$ %hile the
pharyngeal teeth crush the prey"
6eproduction
Cichlids have highly organi:ed breeding activities"
+rood care
All species sho% some form of parental care for both eggs and larvae$ often nurturing free;s%imming young
until they are %ee's or months old"
Communal parental care$ %here multiple monogamous pairs care for a mi*ed school of young have also been
observed in multiple cichlid species$ including Amphilophus citrinellus$ 9troplus suratensis$ and #ilapia rendalli"
.-?/.-4/.-1/ Comparably$ the fry of 6eolamprologus brichardi$ a species that commonly lives in large groups$
are protected not only by the adults$ but also by older Cuveniles from previous spa%ns".-5/
Several cichlids$ including discus <Symphysodon spp"=$ some Amphilophus species$ 9troplus and Faru species
feed their young %ith a s'in secretion from mucous glands".-/.2A/
Parental care falls into one of four categories:.2A/ substrate or open brooders$ secretive cave brooders <also
'no%n as guarding speleophils.2+/=$ and at least t%o types of mouthbrooders$ ovophile mouthbrooders and
larvophile mouthbrooders".23/
9pen broodin&
Open or substrate brooding cichlids lay their eggs in the open$ on roc's$ leaves$ or logs" 9*amples of open
brooding cichlids include Pterophyllum$ Symphysodon spp$ and Anomalochromis thomasi" Male and female
parents usually engage in differing brooding roles" Most commonly$ the male patrols the pairMs territory and
repels intruders$ %hile females fan %ater over the eggs$ removing the infertile and leading the fry %hile foraging"
>o%ever$ both se*es are able to perform the full range of parenting behaviours".23/
Ca:e broodin&
Secretive cave spa%ning cichlids lay their eggs in caves$ crevices$ holes$ or discarded mollusc shells$ fre)uently
attaching the eggs to the roof of the chamber" 9*amples include Pelvicachromis spp"$ Archocentrus spp$ and
Apistogramma spp".2A/ !ree;s%imming fry and parents communicate in captivity and in the %ild" !re)uently
this communication is based on body movements$ such as sha'ing and pelvic fin flic'ing" In addition$ open and
cave brooding parents assist in finding food resources for their fry" Multiple neotropical cichlid species perform
leaf;turning and fin;digging behaviors".23/
9:ophile mouthbroodin&
Ovophile mouthbrooders incubate their eggs in their mouths as soon as they are laid$ and fre)uently mouthbrood
free;s%imming fry for several %ee's" 9*amples include many 7reat 0ift Halley la'es <8a'e Mala%i$ 8a'e
#anganyi'a and 8a'e Hictoria= endemics$ e"g": Maylandia$ Pseudotropheus$ and #ropheus$ along %ith some
South American cichlids such as 7eophagus steindachneri"
7ar:ophile mouthbroodin&
8arvophile mouthbrooders lay eggs in the open or in a cave and ta'e the hatched larvae into the mouth"
9*amples include some variants of 7eophagus altifrons$ and some Ae)uidens$ 7ymnogeophagus$ and
Satanoperca".-/.2A/ Mouthbrooders$ %hether of eggs or larvae$ are predominantly females" 9*ceptions that also
involve the males include eretmodine cichlids <genera Spathodus$ 9retmodus$ and #anganicodus=$ some
Sarotherodon species$ Chromidotilapia guentheri$ and some Ae)uidens species".-/.23/.2,/ 0are paternal
mouthbrooding occurs$ for e*ample$ in Sarotherodon melanotheron".2-/ #his method appears to have evolved
independently in several groups of African cichlids".+3/
(atin&
Cichlids mate either monogamously or polygamously".-/ #he mating system of a given cichlid species is not
consistently associated %ith its brooding system" !or e*ample$ although most monogamous cichlids are not
mouthbrooders$ Chromidotilapia$ 7ymnogeophagus$ Spathodus and #anganicodus are all monogamous
mouthbrooders" In contrast$ numerous open or cave spa%ning cichlids are polygamous& e*amples include
Apistogramma$ 8amprologus$ 6annacara and Pelvicachromis".-/.22/
Population status
In 3A+A$ the International Fnion for Conservation of 6ature classified +1- species as vulnerable$ 23 as
endangered$ and +A? as critically endangered".2?/ At present$ the IFC6 (only( lists Dssichromis sp" nov"
(argens( as e*tinct in the %ild$ and (only( si* species are listed as entirely e*tinct$ but it is ac'no%ledged that
many more possibly belong in these categories <for e*ample$ >aplochromis aelocephalus$ >" apogonoides$ >"
dente*$ >" dichrourus and numerous other members of the genus >aplochromis have not been seen since the
+51As$ but are maintained as Critically 9ndangered in the small chance that tiny Ibut currently un'no%nI
populations survive=".2?/
7a3e Fictoria
Eecause of the introduced 6ile perch <8ates niloticus= and %ater hyacinth$ deforestation that led to %ater
siltation$ and overfishing$ many 8a'e Hictoria species have been %iped out or drastically reduced" Ey around
+51A$ la'e fisheries yielded only + percent cichlids$ a drastic decline from 1A percent in earlier years".24/
About t%o;thirds of endemic cichlids <appro*imately ,AA species=$ especially bottom feeders$ became
endangered or e*tinct" Some survivors have adapted by becoming smaller or hybridi:ing %ith other species".24/
Satellite la'es such as 8a'e 9d%ard and 8a'e Kyoga have not been as strongly affected$ ho%ever$ and harbor an
array of similar species"
Food and &ame 2ish
Although cichlids are mostly small; to medium;si:ed$ many are notable as food and game fishes" Lith fe% thic'
rib bones and tasty flesh$ artisan fishing is not uncommon in Central America and South America$ as %ell as
areas surrounding the African rift la'es".24/
#he most important food cichlids$ ho%ever$ are the tilapiines of 6orth Africa" !ast gro%ing$ tolerant of stoc'ing
density$ and adaptable$ tilapiine species have been introduced and farmed e*tensively in many parts of Asia and
are increasingly common a)uaculture targets else%here"
!armed tilapia production is about +$2AA$AAA tonnes <+$-1A$AAA 8#& +$?2A$AAA S#= annually %ith an estimated
value of FSV+"1 billion$.25/ about e)ual to that of salmon and trout"
Fnli'e those carnivorous fish$ tilapia can feed on algae or any plant;based food" #his reduces the cost of tilapia
farming$ reduces fishing pressure on prey species$ avoids concentrating to*ins that accumulate at higher levels of
the food chain and ma'es tilapia the preferred (a)uatic chic'ens( of the trade".24/
Many large cichlids ma'e good game fish" #he strong$ hard;fighting peacoc' bass <Cichla species= of South
America is one of the most popular sportfish" It %as introduced in many %aters around the %orld" In !lorida$ this
fish generates millions of hours of fishing and sportfishing revenue of more than FSV1 million a year".?A/ Other
cichlids preferred by anglers include the Oscar$ Mayan cichlid <Cichlasoma urophthalmus=$ and Caguar guapote
<Parachromis managuensis=".?A/
%<uarium 2ish
Although not particularly hardy$ the discus$ Symphysodon spp"$ has been popular among a)uarium enthusiasts"
Since +5-2$ cichlids have become increasingly popular as a)uarium fish".-/.2A/.23/.?+/.?3/.?,/.?-/ Many
cichlids are small to medium;si:ed$ easy to feed %ith a range of prepared fish foods$ breed readily$ and practice
brood care$ ma'ing good a)uarium fish".2A/
#he most common species in hobbyist a)uaria is Pterophyllum scalare from the Ama:on 0iver basin in tropical
South America$ 'no%n in the trade as the (angelfish(" Other popular or readily available species include the
oscar <Astronotus ocellatus=$ convict cichlid <Archocentrus nigrofasciatus= and discus <Symphysodon spp"=".-/
Cichlids can be 'ept in a)uaria %ith other fish& ho%ever$ many cichlids eat smaller fish".2A/ Conversely$ some
cichlids$ such as Apistogramma or Gulidochromis spp"$ can be timid" In such cases the use of dither fish is
recommended".-/
*ybrids and selecti:e breedin&
Some cichlids readily hybridi:e %ith related species$ both in the %ild and under artificial conditions".?2/ Other
groups of fishes$ such as 9uropean cyprinids$ also hybridi:e".??/ Fnusually$ cichlid hybrids have been put to
e*tensive commercial use$ in particular for a)uaculture and a)uaria".?/.?4/ #he hybrid red strain of tilapia$ for
e*ample$ is often preferred in a)uaculture for its rapid gro%th" #ilapia hybridi:ation can produce all;male
populations to control stoc' density or prevent reproduction in ponds".?/
%<uarium hybrids
#he most ubi)uitous a)uarium hybrid is perhaps the blood parrot cichlid %hich is a cross of several species$
especially from genus Amphilophus" Lith a bea';shaped mouth$ an abnormal spine$ and an occasionally missing
caudal fin <'no%n as the (love heart( parrot cichlid=$ the fish is controversial among a)uarists" Some have called
blood parrot cichlids (the !ran'enstein monster of the fish %orld"(.?1/ Another notable hybrid$ the flo%erhorn
cichlid$ %as very popular in some parts of Asia from 3AA+ until late 3AA,$ and is believed to bring good luc' to
its o%ner".?5/ #he popularity of the flo%erhorn cichlid declined in 3AA-".4A/ O%ners released many specimens
into the rivers and canals of Malaysia and Singapore %here they threaten endemic communities".4+/
6umerous cichlid species have been selectively bred to develop ornamental a)uarium strains" #he most intensive
programs have involved angelfish and discus$ and many mutations that affect both coloration and finnage are
'no%n".-/.43/.4,/ Other cichlids have been bred for albino$ leucistic$ and *anthistic pigment mutations$
including oscars$ convicts and Pelvicachromis pulcher".-/.2A/ Eoth dominant and recessive pigment mutations
have been observed".+A/ In convict cichlids$ for e*ample$ a leucistic coloration is recessively inherited$.4-/
%hile in Oreochromis niloticus niloticus red coloration is caused by a dominant inherited mutation".42/
#his selective breeding may have unintended conse)uences" !or e*ample$ hybrid strains of Mi'rogeophagus
ramire:i have health and fertility problems".4?/ Similarly$ intentional inbreeding can cause physical
abnormalities$ such as the notched phenotype in angelfish".44/
Pterophyllum scalare. Angel)ish.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Perciformes
!amily: Cichlidae
Subfamily: Cichlasomatinae
#ribe: >eroini
7enus: Pterophyllum$ >ec'el$ +1-A
Einomial name: Pterophyllum altum <Pellegrin$ +5A,=$ Pterophyllum leopoldi <7osse$ +5?,=$ Pterophyllum
scalare <Schult:e$ +13,=
Pterophyllum is a small genus of fresh%ater fish from the family Cichlidae 'no%n to most a)uarists as
(Angelfish(" All Pterophyllum species originate from the Ama:on 0iver$ Orinoco 0iver and 9sse)uibo 0iver
basins in tropical South America" #he three species of Pterophyllum are unusually shaped for cichlids being
greatly laterally compressed$ %ith round bodies and elongated triangular dorsal and anal fins" #his body shape
allo%s them to hide among roots and plants$ often on a vertical surface" 6aturally occurring angelfish are
fre)uently striped longitudinally$ colouration %hich provides additional camouflage" Angelfish are ambush
predators and prey on small fish and macroinvertebrates" All Pterophyllum species form monogamous pairs"
9ggs are generally laid on a submerged log or a flattened leaf" As is the case for other cichlids$ brood care is
highly developed"
*istory
#he fresh%ater angelfish %as first tal'ed about by 8ichtenstein in +13-" Eeing scientifically named
Pterophyllum scalare <pronounced: #erM;o;fill( lum s'a;laMre=$ the meaning of Pterophyllum is& (%inged leaf("
It %as not until the late +53As to early +5,As that the angelfish %as bred in captivity in the Fnited States"
In +5?, another species of Pterophyllum %ere discovered$ P" leopoldi$ this species %as described by 7osse" In
the beginning they %ere first described under another name$ %ith P" leopoldi becoming the valid scientific name"
Prior to that a species by the name of Pterophyllum altum had been discovered in +5A? by Pellegrin" #here may
still be undiscovered species in the Ama:on 0iver" 6e% species of fish are discovered %ith increasing fre)uency$
and$ li'e P" scalare and leopoldi$ the differences may be subtle" Scientific notations describe the P" leopoldi as
having 35I,2 scales in a lateral ro% and straight predorsal contour" Lhereas$ the P" scalare is described as having
,2I-2 scales in a lateral ro% and a notched predorsal contour" #he leopoldi sho% the same coloration as scalare"
8eopoldi can sho% a faint stripe bet%een the eye stripe and the first complete body stripe and a third incomplete
body stripe bet%een the t%o main <complete= body stripes that e*tends three;fourths the length of the body"
Lhereas$ the scalareMs body does not sho% the stripe bet%een the eye stipe and first complete body stripe at all$
and the third stripe bet%een the t%o main body stripes rarely e*tends do%n%ard more than a half inch$ if even
present" #he leopoldi fry develop three to eight body stripes$ %ith all but one to five fading a%ay as they mature$
%hereas scalare only have t%o in true %ild form throughout life"
Angelfish %ere bred in captivity for some ,A years prior to leopoldi being described& possibly longer outside the
Fnited States"
P. altum
#his Pterophyllum altum has adapted %ell to life in captivity" Pterophyllum altum$ also referred to as the Altum
Angelfish$ eep Angelfish$ or Orinoco Angelfish$.+/ occurs strictly in the Orinoco 0iver Easin and the Fpper
0io 6egro %atershed in Southern Hene:uela$ Southeastern Colombia and e*treme 6orthern Era:il".3/ #he
species is the largest of the genus and specimens e*ceeding 2A cm in height <from tip of dorsal to tip of anal fin=
have been reported in the %ild& in a)uariums$ specimens are 'no%n to have gro%n to over -A cm" Its natural base
color is silver but %ith three bro%nishBred vertical stripes and red striations into the fins" #he species may sho%
red spotting and a blueish green dorsal overcast %hen mature and %hen aroused e*hibits a blac' operculum spot"
Characteristic of this species is an acute incision or notch above the nares <supraorbital indention=" All true
Orinoco Altum specimens sho% this trait$ %hereas commercial hybrids product of crosses to Pterophyllum
scalare$ that are occasionally performed by breeders to sell them as (Orinoco Altum($ may not e*hibit the trait or
it may appear in a lesser degree" #he true %ildcaught Orinoco Altum is among the most challenging among
tropical fish to breed in captivity" Most Altum Angels are more fre)uently found in the %ell o*ygenated$
e*tremely soft %aters of Fpper and Middle Orinoco tributaries shed from the 7uiana Shield >ighlands$
preferring a p> range bet%een -"2 to 2"1" #hese are very transparent blac'%aters %ith almost nil conductivity"
#emperature range in these %aters is bet%een 41 and 1- @! <3? and 35 @C=" #hey are also found in the Atabapo
0iver and Inirida 0iver floodplain$ do%n the Casi)uiare and 7uainea floodplain %here the 0io 6egro is born$
before entering Era:ilian territory" Fnli'e P" scalare <mentioned above= %hich prefer to spa%n on the submerged
leaves of plants and trees in the flooded rainforest$ P" altum prefers to spa%n on submerged roots and tree
branches in a moderate %ater current" #his species is recommended for intermediate to advanced a)uarists due to
the detailed maintenance it re)uires for proper health" Pterophyllum altum is the national fish of Hene:uela and
an image of the fish appears on some currency bills of that country"
Pterophyllum leopoldi
Pterophyllum leopoldi$ also referred to as the teardrop angelfish$ long;nosed angelfish$.,/ d%arf angelfish$ or
0oman;nosed angelfish$.-/ is a river d%elling angelfish species that originates from rivers in the Ama:on 0iver
basin along the SolimSes 0iver$ Ama:on 0iver$ and 0upununi 0iver".2/ It is distinguished from other members
of the Pterophyllum genus by the absence of a pre;dorsal notch and by the presence of a blac' blotch at the
dorsal insertion on the -th vertical bar".,/ #he species %as originally described as Plata*oides leopoldi in +5?,
by G"P" 7osse$.?/ and is fre)uently misidentified as P" dumerilii %hen the species is imported in the a)uarium
trade".4/ P" leopoldi is the smallest of the angelfish species and the most aggressive"
Pterophyllum scalare
#he species most commonly referred to as angelfish or fresh%ater angelfish$.1/ is the most common species of
Pterophyllum held in captivity" Its natural habitat Ama:on 0iver basin in Peru$ Colombia$ and Era:il$ particularly
the Fcayali$ SolimSes and Ama:on rivers$ as %ell as the rivers of AmapJ in Era:il$ the Oyapoc' 0iver in !rench
7uiana and the 9sse)uibo 0iver in 7uyana" It is found in s%amps or flooded grounds %here vegetation is dense
and the %ater is either clear or silty".5/ Its native %ater conditions range from a p> of ?"A to 1"A$ a %ater
hardness range of 2 ; +, d>$ and %ater temperature ranging from 3- to ,A @C <42 to 1? @!=".5/ It %as originally
described as Keus scalaris in +13,$ and has also been described be several different names$ including Plata*
scalaris$ Plata*oides dumerilii$ Pterophillum eime'ei$ Pterophyllum dumerilii$ and Pterophyllum eime'ei".+A/
Angelfish are one of the most commonly 'ept fresh%ater a)uarium fish$ as %ell as the most commonly 'ept
cichlid" #hey are pri:ed for their uni)ue shape$ color and behavior" Many hobbyists consider angelfish to be a
relatively intelligent fish$ able to recogni:e their o%ners"
@n the a<uarium
#he most commonly 'ept species in the a)uarium is Pterophyllum scalare" Most of the individuals the a)uarium
trade are captive;bred" Sometimes$ Pterophyllum altum is available" Captive bred P" altum is available but
occasionaly" Pterophyllum leopoldi is the hardest to find in the trade"
Angelfish are 'ept in a %arm a)uarium$ ideally around 1A @! <34 @C=" #hey %ill do best if fed a mi*ture of fla'e$
fro:en and live food" Care should be ta'en to not overfeed$ they %ill continue to eat even %hat they do not need
to" #his %ill lead to a buildup of fats resulting in inactivity and early death" Angelfish %ill do best if 'ept in an
acidic environment$ p> should be belo% 4"2 <note: 4"2 is still slightly al'aline ; acidic is defined as belo% 4"A="
All angelfish %ill prefer %ater %ith a p> of at most 4"A" #hough most Pterophyllum scalare %ill thrive in a %ide
range of p> values" 9ven though angelfish are a member of the Cichlid family they are generally peaceful$
ho%ever& the general rule (big fish eat little fish( applies" Aggressive fish should not be 'ept %ith angelfish
because their flo%ing fins are vulnerable to fin nipping" Some smaller more aggressive fish may even nip at the
fins of these fish"
+reedin&
P" scalare is relatively easy to breed in the a)uarium$ although one of the results of generations of inbreeding is
that many breeds have almost completely lost their rearing instincts resulting in the tendency of the parents to eat
their young" In addition$ it is very difficult to accurately identify the gender of any individual until they are
nearly ready to breed"
Angelfish pairs form long;term relationships %here each individual %ill protect the other from threats and
potential suitors" Fpon the death or removal of one of the mated pair$ breeders have e*perienced both the total
refusal of the remaining mate to pair up %ith any other angelfish and successful breeding %ith subse)uent mates"
epending upon a)uarium conditions$ P" scalare reaches se*ual maturity at the age of si* to t%elve months or
more" In situations %here the eggs are removed from the a)uarium immediately after spa%ning$ the pair is
capable of spa%ning every seven to ten days" Around the age of appro*imately three years$ spa%ning fre)uency
%ill decrease and eventually cease"
Lhen the pair is ready to spa%n$ they %ill choose an appropriate medium upon %hich to lay the eggs and spend
one to t%o days pic'ing off detritus and algae from the surface" #his medium may be a broad;leaf plant in the
a)uarium$ a flat surface such as a piece of slate placed vertically in the a)uarium$ a length of pipe$ or even the
glass sides of the a)uarium" #he female %ill deposit a line of eggs on the spa%ning substrate$ follo%ed by the
male %ho %ill fertili:e the eggs" #his process %ill repeat itself until there are a total of +AA to more than +$3AA
eggs$ depending on the si:e and health of the female fish" As both parents care for the offspring throughout
development$ the pair %ill ta'e turns maintaining a high rate of %ater circulation around the eggs by s%imming
very close to the eggs and fanning the eggs %ith their pectoral fins" In a fe% days$ the eggs hatch and the fry
remain attached to the spa%ning substrate" uring this period$ the fry %ill not eat and %ill survive by consuming
the remains of their yol' sacs" At one %ee'$ the fry %ill detach and become free;s%imming" Successful parents
%ill 'eep close %atch on the eggs until they become free;s%imming" At the free;s%imming stage$ the fry can be
fed ne%ly;hatched brine shrimp <Artemia spp"= or micro%orms" It is generally accepted that brine shrimp are the
superior choice for fast gro%th rates of fry"
P" altum is notably difficult to breed in an a)uarium environment"
Compatibility 0ith other 2ish
In pet stores the fresh%ater angelfish is typically placed in the semi;aggressive category$ but that might prove
false %ith some fish" !or e*ample$ platies$ tetras and plecos all are compatible %ith angelfish$ although some
tetras and barbs %ill usually nip at their long fins"
Strains of Angelfish
Most strains of angelfish available in the fish'eeping hobby are the result of many decades of selective breeding"
!or the most part$ the original crosses of %ild angelfish %ere not recorded and confusion bet%een the various
species of Pterophyllum$ especially P" scalare and P" leopoldi$ is common" #his ma'es the origins of (omestic
angelfish( unclear" omestic strains are most li'ely a collection of genes resulting from more than one species of
%ild angelfish combined %ith the selection of mutations in domesticated lines over the last ?A or more years" #he
result of this is a domestic angelfish that is a true hybrid %ith little more than a superficial resemblance to %ild
Pterophyllum species" It %ould be inaccurate to say that they accurately represent any species of %ild angelfish$
although they most resemble P" scalare and are fre)uently referred to as such"
omestic angelfish have been bred and crossbred for several decades" #here are hundreds of mutations of little
importance by themselves" Much of the research into the 'no%n genetics of P" scalare is the result of the research
of r" Goanne 6orton$ %ho published a series of +1 articles in !resh%ater and Marine A)uarium <!AMA=
Maga:ine" #hose articles are reprinted at http:BBtheangelfishsociety"orgBgenetics"htm "
""" more on %i'ipedia
!i*rogeophagus ramirezi. ,am cichlid.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Perciformes
!amily: Cichlidae
Subfamily: 7eophaginae
7enus: Mi'rogeophagus
Species: M" ramire:i
Einomial name: Mi'rogeophagus ramire:i <Myers f >arry$ +5-1=.+/
Synonyms
Apistogramma ramire:i
Microgeophagus ramire:i
Papiliochromis ramire:i
Papilochromis ramire:i.3/.,/
Mi'rogeophagus ramire:i is a species of fresh%ater fish endemic to the Orinoco 0iver basin$ in the savannahs of
Hene:uela and Colombia in South America".3/ #he species has been e*amined in studies on fish behaviour.-/
and is a popular a)uarium fish$ traded under a variety of common names including 0am$ Elue ram$ 7erman blue
ram$ Asian ram$ Eutterfly cichlid$ 0amire:Ms d%arf cichlid$ %arf butterfly cichlid and 0amire:i" #he species is a
member of the family Cichlidae and is included in subfamily 7eophaginae"
#he species is named after Manuel 0amire:$ an early collector and importer of the species for the a)uarium
trade" 7eorge S" Myers and 0" 0" >arry <+5-1= originally described the species as Apistogramma ramire:i
though the species %as later moved to and from various genera including: Microgeophagus$ Papiliochromis$
Pseudoapistogramma and Pseudogeophagus"
%ppearance and seDual dimorphism
Lild ram cichlids are often more colorful than the tan' bred counterparts$ %hich suffer from poor breeding and
also being inCected %ith hormones for more color$ although this ma'es as many as one in four males infertile"
Male specimens of the ram usually have the first fe% rays of the dorsal fin e*tended$ but breeding has made
some females also sho% this" #here is also the fact that$ %hen close to spa%ning$ female rams have a pin' or red
blush on the abdomen" !emales also have a blue sheen over the spot Cust belo% the dorsal fin$ and males do not
sho% this" Males reach a ma*imum length of seven centimeters$ and females are usually slightly smaller" <Please
note that the blac' spot method of se*ing does not apply for the golden and electric blue varieties of the species"=
Fnli'e their relatives in the genus Apistogramma$ the natural habitat of M" ramire:i occurs in the %arm$ <32"2;
35"2 @C$ 41;12 @!=$ acidic <p> 2= %ater courses in the llanos savannahs of Hene:uela and Colombia".2/.4/.+A/
#he %ater at sites %here M" ramire:i has been found is generally slo%;flo%ing$ contains fe% dissolved minerals$
and ranges in color from clear to dar'ly stained %ith tannins".2/ #he species is typically found %here cover in
the form of a)uatic or submersed vegetation is available".2/
6eproduction
Once se*ually mature$ the species forms monogamous pairs prior to spa%ning".4/ #he species is 'no%n to lay its
small A"5 ; +"2 mm$ adhesive eggs on flattened stones or directly into small depressions dug in the gravel".2/
8i'e many cichlids$ M" ramire:i practices biparental brood care %ith both the male and the female playing roles
in egg;tending and territorial defense".2/.4/ #ypical clutch si:e for the species is +2A;,AA eggs$.2/.?/ though
larger clutches up to 2AA have been reported".+A/ Parental M" ramire:i have been observed to fan %ater over
their eggs %hich hatch in -A hours at 35 @C <1-"3 @!=" #he larvae are not free;s%imming for 2 days after %hich
they are escorted by the male or the female in a dense school for foraging".2/
@n the a<uarium
#he ram cichlid is a popular cichlid for the tropical fresh%ater$ community a)uarium although it is not
necessarily the easiest cichlid to maintain in many situations".2/ #his is because the species is often 'ept %ith
other fish that are more assertive$ aggressive or overly active".2/.4/ #he species is innately shy and is best 'ept
%ith passive dither fish$ such as neon or cardinal tetras".4/ #he species %ill readily e*hibit breeding behaviours
in %ater of p> 2"A;?"2$ though softer %ater encourages more regular spa%ning".2/.4/.+A/ It is easier to maintain
the species in larger a)uaria as the species is intolerant of common a)uarium pollutants such as nitrate".4/ #he
a)uarium should be decorated to mimic the natural environment and is best decorated %ith several densely
planted regions of a)uatic plants$ separated by open %ater".?/ #he species is prone to filial cannibalism of its
brood if distressed".4/ As the %ater must be free of pollutants$ a)uarium filtration is important$ though %ater
movement should not be e*treme" 0emoving and replacing small amounts of %ater changes assists %ith
minimising the )uantities of these pollutants and should be conducted regularly".+A/
6umerous strains of M" ramire:i have been developed in Asia for the fish'eeping hobby" #hese include
numerous *anthistic forms$ 'no%n as gold rams$ along %ith larger$ high;bodied and long;finned varieties".2/.4/
.+-/ Many of these varieties suffer from lo%er fertility$ health problems or reduced brood care in comparison to
%ild;type specimens"
-abidochromis caeruleus& -emon yello' lab
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Perciformes
!amily: Cichlidae
7enus: 8abidochromis
Species: 8" caeruleus
Einomial name: 8abidochromis caeruleus$ !ryer$ +52?
8abidochromis caeruleus is a species of cichlid fish that is endemic to the central %estern coastal region of 8a'e
Mala%i in 9ast Africa" It is also 'no%n as lemon yello% lab$ the blue strea' hap$ the electric yello% or yello%
prince$ depending on the colour morph" A naturally occurring yello%;coloured variant from 6'hata Eay is one of
the most popular cichlids amongst a)uarium hobbyists"
#his species is a maternal mouthbrooder$ meaning the eggs are carried$ hatch$ and develop in the motherNs mouth
<buccal cavity=$ for about three %ee's" #hese fish are ovophiles and the male %ill e*cavate a pit in the sand
%ithin his territory$ in %hich the female lays the eggs& the female then ta'es these eggs into her mouth for
fertili:ation"
9lectric yello%s inhabit %ater %ith a p> bet%een 4"1 and 1"5 and an ideal temperature range of 3,I3? @C <4,"-I
41"1 @!="
%<uarium care
9lectric yello%s are peaceful compared to most other African cichlids" espite this$ li'e all cichlids from 8a'e
Mala%i$ they are best 'ept in specialist cichlid a)uariums %ith other Mbuna" As %ith most cichlids$ electric
yello%s should not be 'ept %ith fresh%ater community a)uarium species such as Kebra anios or 6eon #etras$
they may nip the finnage of other species$ and are not recommended for fresh%ater community a)uariums
because of the differences in the natural habitats bet%een cichlids and other fish species" In an a)uarium setting$
their natural habitat of roc's and caves should be emulated" #heir diet should consist mostly of prepared cichlid
pellets or fla'es$ supplemented %ith foods li'e 'rill$ brineshrimp$ and Spirulina fla'es" 0estrain from feeding
these cichlids feeder goldfish$ as they are li'ely carrying diseases that %ill cause harm to your cichlids
Animalia. Chordata. Actinopterygii. Perciormes. $sphronemidae.
Family description
7ourami
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Perciformes
Suborder: Anabantoidei
!amily: Osphronemidae$ Elee'er$ +125
Subfamilies
Eelontiinae
Macropodusinae
Osphroneminae
8uciocephalinae
7ouramis are a family$ Osphronemidae$ of fresh%ater perciform fishes" #he fish are native to Asia$ from
Pa'istan and India to the Malay Archipelago and north;easterly to%ards Korea" #he name (gourami( is also used
for fish of the families >elostomatidae and Anabantidae" (7ouramis( is an e*ample of a redundant plural"
7ourami is already plural$ in its original language"
Many gouramis have an elongated ray at the front of their pelvic fins" Many species sho% parental care: some
are mouthbrooders$ and others$ li'e the Siamese fighting fish <Eetta splendens=$ build bubble nests" Currently$
about 5A species are recognised$ placed in - subfamilies and about +2 genera"
#he name Polyacanthidae has also been used for this family" Some fish no% classified as gouramis %ere
previously placed in family Anabantidae" #he subfamily Eelontiinae %as recently demoted from the family
Eelontiidae" As labyrinth fishes$ gouramis have a lung;li'e labyrinth organ that allo%s them to gulp air and use
atmospheric o*ygen" #his organ is a vital innovation for fishes that often inhabit %arm$ shallo%$ o*ygen;poor
%ater"
%s 2ood
7iant gouramis$ Osphronemus goramy$ are eaten in some parts of the %orld" In Indonesia they are often deep;
fried and served in s%eet;sour sauce$ chili sauce$ and other spices" Canned$ fried gourami are available in China$
and throughout the %orld in oriental supermar'ets" Lhich species the can contains is uncertain$ ho%ever& the
illustration on the lid of the can of one product depicts the moonlight gourami$ #richogaster microlepis"
@n the a<uarium
7ouramis$ particularly the tri;spot and d%arf$ are often 'ept in home a)uariums" As labyrinth fish$ they %ill often
stay near the top of the tan'" #hough often considered peaceful$ they can 'ill almost all other smaller or long;
finned fish" >o%ever$ this usually does not apply to the common types as mentioned above" Lhen they are
aggressive$ they shred other fishesM fins to the point that the victim can not s%im and thus dies" #he males of
many members of this family li'e to spar$ thus caution must be ta'en %hen 'eeping males together" Aggression
can also occur %hen the fish are too cro%ded$ and they compete for the available space" 7ouramis %ill eat either
prepared or live foods"
Compatibility
epending on the species$ male gouramis are aggressive& they also may be fin nippers$ and generally may bother
other fish in the tan'"
In some species$ %hen t%o males are put in a tan' together they %ill fight constantly" Other$ more peaceful$
gouramis may sho% mild to moderate signs of aggression$ but are usually able to live together" Male gouramis
%ill ignore many species$ such as danios$ mollies$ silver dollars$ and plecostomus catfish$ but %ill often sho%
aggression to%ard species %ith long$ flo%ing fins li'e male guppies$ goldfish$ and bettas$ because they display a
long tail and bright colors$ presenting competition for impressing a female gourami" !emale gouramis sometimes
bother other fish but usually 'eep to themselves"
Species
#here are about 5? species in +2 genera"
#etta splendens. Siamese )ighting )ish.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Perciformes
!amily: Osphronemidae
7enus: Eetta
Species: E" splendens
Einomial name
Eetta splendens$ 0egan$ +5+A
#he Siamese fighting fish <Eetta splendens=$ also 'no%n as the betta and simply as the fighter$ is a popular
species of fresh%ater a)uarium fish" #he name of the genus is derived from i'an bettah$ ta'en from a local
dialect of #hailand <Siam=".+/ #he %ild ancestors of this fish are native to the rice paddies of #hailand$
peninsular Malaysia and Cambodia and are called pla;'ad or trey 'rem <(fighting fish(= in #hai"
;escription
E" splendens usually gro% to an overall length of about 2 cm $ though some varieties reach 2;1 inches in
length.citation needed/" Although 'no%n for their brilliant colors and large$ flo%ing fins$ the natural coloration
of E" splendens is a dull green and bro%n$ and the fins of %ild specimens are relatively short" >o%ever$
brilliantly colored and longer finned varieties <i"e" Heiltail& elta& Superdelta& and >alfmoon= have been
developed through selective breeding"
#his species lives appro*imately 3I2 years in captivity$ generally bet%een ,;-$ rarely 2I? years$ fed %ith
anabolics 4I5 years.citation needed/"
#he fish is a member of the gourami family <family Osphronemidae= of order Perciformes$ but %as formerly
classified among the Anabantidae" Although there are nearly 2A other members of the Eetta genus$ E" splendens
is the most popular species among a)uarium hobbyists$ particularly in the Fnited States"
;iet
Siamese fighting fish have upturned mouths and are primarily carnivorous surface feeders$ although some
vegetable matter may be eaten" In the %ild$ they feed on :ooplan'ton including crustaceans and the larvae of
mos)uitoes and other insects$ such as flies$ cric'ets$ or grasshoppers".citation needed/ !ish %ho feed on a %ide
range of foods live longer$ have richer colors$ and heal fin damage more )uic'ly".citation needed/ #ypically$
commercial betta pellets are a combination of mashed shrimp meal$ %heat flour$ fish meal$ brine shrimp$
blood%orms$ and vitamins" #hese fish %ill also eat live or fro:en blood%orms$ mos)uito larvae$ brine shrimp or
daphnia"
6eproduction and early de:elopment
#he male betta %ill flare his gills$ t%ist his body$ and spread his fins if he is interested in the female" #he female
%ill dar'en in color$ then curve her body bac' and forth as a response" Males build bubble nests of various si:es
and thic'nesses at the surface of the %ater" #he act of spa%ning itself is called a (nuptial embrace($ for the male
%raps his body around the female& around +A;-+ eggs are released during each embrace$ until the female is
e*hausted of eggs" #he male$ in his turn$ releases milt into the %ater$ and fertili:ation ta'es place e*ternally"
uring and after spa%ning$ the male uses his mouth to retrieve sin'ing eggs and deposit them in the bubble nest
<during mating the female sometimes assists her partner$ but more often she %ill simply devour all the eggs that
she manages to catch=" Once the female has released all of her eggs$ she is chased a%ay from the maleMs territory$
as it is li'ely that sheMll eat the eggs due to hunger".3/ >enceforth$ the eggs remain in the maleMs care" >e
carefully 'eeps them in his bubble nest$ ma'ing sure none fall to the bottom$ and repairing the bubble nest as
needed" Incubation lasts for 3-I,? hours$ and the ne%ly;hatched larvae remain in the nest for the ne*t 3I, days$
until their yol' sacs are fully absorbed" After%ards the fry leave the nest and the free;s%imming stage begins" It
is common practice in the a)uarium hobby to remove the male at this point$ so that he %ould not eat his young
<although it has been suggested that this danger is overrated=" In this first period of their lives$ E" splendens fry
are totally dependent on their gills& the labyrinth organ %hich allo%s the species to breathe atmospheric o*ygen
typically develops at , to ? %ee's of age$ depending on the general gro%th rate$ %hich can be highly variable" E"
splendens can reach se*ual maturity at an age as early as , months"
E" splendens can be hybridi:ed %ith E" imbellis$ Eetta sp" Mahachai and E" smaragdina$ though %ith the latter
the fry tend to have lo% survival rates" As %ell as these hybrids %ithin the Eetta genus$ there have been reports
of the inter generic hybridi:ing of Eetta splendens and Macropodus opercularis; the Paradise !ish"
Colours
E" splendens have been affectionately nic'named (#he Ge%el of the Orient( due to their beauty and %ide range
of colours %hich are produced through selective breeding.citation needed/"
Lild fish only e*hibit strong colours %hen agitated".citation needed/ >o%ever$ breeders have been able to ma'e
this colouration permanent$ and a %ide variety of hues breed true" A %ide variety of colours are available to the
a)uarist such as red$ blue$ tur)uoise$ orange$ yello%$ green$ bright blue %ith pin' highlights$ cream and even true
%hite <the (Opa)ue( %hite$ not to be confused %ith albino=" #he shades of blue$ tur)uoise and green are slightly
iridescent$ and can appear to change color %ith different lighting conditions or vie%ing angles& this is because
these colors <unli'e blac' or red= are not due to pigments$ but created through refraction %ithin a layer of
translucent guanine crystals" Ereeders have also developed different colour patterns such as marble and butterfly$
as %ell as metallic shades li'e copper$ gold$ or platinum <these %ere obtained by crossing E" splendens to other
Eetta species="
Ereeders around the %orld continue to develop ne% varieties" Often$ the male of the species are sold
preferentially in stores because of their beauty$ compared to the females" 0ecently$ breeders have developed in
females the same range of colors previously only bred in males" >o%ever$ females never develop fins as sho%y
as males of the same type and are often more subdued in colouration"
#he true albino betta has been feverishly sought after since one recorded appearance in +534$ and another in
+52," 6either of these %ere able to establish a line of true albinos" In +55-$ a hobbyist named #ana'a claims to
have successfully bred albino bettas" .3/
Aail shapes
Ereeders have developed several different tail shapes:
Heiltail <non;symmetrical tail$ only t%o rays=
Cro%ntail <highly frilled or Cagged rays$ e*tended spiny rays$ also called fringetail=
Combtail <less e*tended version of the cro%n tail$ derived from breeding cro%n and veil tails=
Eo*ty:ard <full moon shape %ith red flairs=
>alf;moon <large tail fin that forms a +1A;degree or larger circle segment=
Short;finned fighting style <sometimes called (pla'at(=
ouble;tail <the tail fin is split into t%o lobes and the dorsal fin is significantly elongated=
elta tail <tail span is less than half;moon %ith sharp edges=
!antail <a rounded delta tail=
>alfsun <Combtail %ith anal fin going +1A degrees$ li'e a halfmoon=
0osetail <halfmoon %ith so much finnage that it overlaps and loo's li'e a rose=
+eha:ior
Males and females flare or puff out their gill covers <opercula= in order to appear more impressive$ either to
intimidate other rivals or as an act of courtship" Other reasons for flaring their gills is that they are startled by
movement or change of scene in their environment" Eoth se*es %ill display hori:ontal bars <unless they are too
light a color for this to sho%= if stressed or frightened& ho%ever$ such a color change$ common in females of any
age$ is very rare in mature males" !emales often flare their gills at other females$ especially %hen setting up a
pec'ing order" !lirting fish behave similarly$ %ith vertical instead of hori:ontal stripes indicating a %illingness
and readiness to breed <females only=" Eettas sometimes re)uire a place to hide$ even in the absence of threats"
#hey may set up a territory centered on a plant or roc'y alcove$ sometimes becoming highly possessive of it and
aggressive to%ard trespassing rivals"
On average$ males are more aggressive" #he aggression of this fish has been studied by ethologists and
comparative psychologists".,/ Siamese fighting fish %ill even respond aggressively to their o%n reflections in a
mirror& use of a mirror avoids the ris' of physical damage inherent in actual conflict$ although it can lead to
stress in some individuals" 8i'e other fish$ the fighter may respond to the presence of humans and become
trained to respond to feeding cues <such as a hand placed over the %aterMs surface=" #hey are )uite curious and
%ill %atch humans going about their business nearby" Lhen plant leaves reach the surface$ they are useful for
males to base their bubble nests on"
Aan3s and Aan3 (ates
In captivity$ male E" splendens are best housed alone since$ as their name implies$ they %ill aggressively attac'
and 'ill <or be 'illed by= another male in their territory" Similarly$ if housed %ith a female$ they %ill tend to
MharassM and stress the female %ith continued spa%ning" !emale bettas can be 'ept together in groups of three in
larger tan's %ith hiding places for the less;aggressive females" Male bettas have been successfully housed in
large community tan's %ith other fish that have similar tropical temperature and %ater )uality re)uirements"
Eettas might harass and nip at other species that are colorful or have long$ flo%ing fins$ and may be nipped at
themselves by aggressive tan' mates" Careful research should be carried out before selecting tan' mates" .-/
Although many retail pet shops mar'et ama:ingly small (bo%ls( for E" splendens and the fish can$ in fact$
survive in a small container for periods of time$ for optimum health and vigor larger tan's should be considered"
An ideal environment for a single male specimen should have a volume of 3"2 gal <5"2 liters= and up is better for
your fish" .2/
@n popular culture
#he Siamese fighting fish has been used as the default bac'ground in the beta and release candidate versions
of the Lindo%s 4 operating system$ in an apparent reference to the name (Eetta(" A similar %allpaper also used
in the pre;releases of Lindo%s 1"
In the movie !rom 0ussia %ith 8ove$ the Games Eond villain Elofeld compared the strategy of SP9C#09 to
three Siamese fighting fish <Eetta=fighting each other" #here$ t%o %ill fight each other to the death %hile the
third %ill %ait its turn$ symboli:ing the conflict bet%een the FSA and the Soviet Fnion as the t%o fighting fishes
and SP9C#09 as the third %aiting fish"
#he title of S"9" >intonMs novel 0umble !ish$ is an eponymous reference to %hat 0usty Games and the
Motorcycle Eoy call the breed" In !rancis !ord CoppolaMs film adaptation$ everything but the Siamese fighting
fish appear in blac' and %hite"
#%o cartoon fish& Milo <voice provided by Kyle Massey= and his brother Oscar <voice provided by Gustin
0oiland= t%o of the main characters of the ne% isney Channel original series$ !ish >oo's are half betta fish"
A Siamese !ighting !ish can be seen in the 3AA5B3A+A film (Ead 8ieutenant: Port of Call 6e% Orleans( !ound
by lead actor 6icolas Cage$ in a glass of %ater left on a des'$ at a home %here a mass murder %as carried out"
Animalia. Chordata. Actinopterygii. &iluriormes. Callichthyidae
Family description
#emporal range: 8ate Paleocene ; 0ecent
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Siluriformes
Superfamily: 8oricarioidea
!amily: Callichthyidae$ Eonaparte$ +1,1
7enera
Aspidoras
Callichthys
Corydoras
ianema
Hoplosternum
8epthoplosternum
Megalechis
Erochis
Scleromysta*
Callichthyidae is a family of catfishes <order Siluriformes=$ called armored catfishes due to the t%o ro%s of bony
plates <or scutes= running do%n the length of the body" #his family contains some of the most popular fresh%ater
a)uarium fish$ such as the Corydoras"
AaDonomy
#he family derives its name from the 7ree' %ords 'allis <beautiful= and ichthys <fish=".+/ Callichthyidae is one
of si* families in the superfamily 8oricarioidea" It is sister to a clade formed by Scoloplacidae$ Astroblepidae$
and 8oricariidae".3/ Lithin the family Callichthyidae$ there are t%o subfamilies %ith eight genera and about +44
species".,/ #hey account for about 4U of all catfish" Most of these species are in the genus Corydoras$ the largest
catfish genus".3/
#he subfamily Corydoradinae includes about 5AU of the species in the family Callichthyidae and is one of the
most diverse siluriform assemblages in the 6eotropics$ %ith appro*imately +4A valid species".-/ It includes t%o
tribes$ Aspidoradini and Corydoradini" Aspidoradini contains Aspidoras and Scleromysta*$ %hile Corydoradini
contains Corydoras and Erochis.2/.?/" Some believe that the genus Erochis should be synonymi:ed %ith
Corydoras".-/
#he subfamily Callichthyinae contains Callichthys$ ianema$ >oplosternum$ 8epthoplosternum$ and
Megalechis" According to a +554 paper$ Callichthys is the most basal member of the subfamily".4/ In a 3AA-
study$ different relationships among the callichthyines %ere found: ianema g >oplosternum form the most
basal clade$ and Callichthys is sister to 8epthoplosternum g Megalechis".1/
Fossil record
#he first 'no%n fossil species of callichthyid is Corydoras revelatus from Salta$ Argentina of the late Paleocene"
.5/.+A/ #his species is tentatively placed in Corydoras$ but is unambiguously a member of the subfamily
Corydoradinae".-/ It indicates that the lineages leading to the t%o callichthyid subfamilies occurred at least by
the late Paleocene".-/ It also suggests an earlier differentiation of loricarioids in comparison to other catfishes$ or
a lac' of older fossils of other 6eotropical groups".-/
A fossil identified as >oplosternum sp" has also been identified from the middle Miocene in the 8a Henta
formation$ Magdalena 0iver basin$ Colombia".+A/
;istribution
#he 6eotropical family Callichthyidae is found in most South American river drainages <ParanJ;Paraguay$ Sho
!rancisco$ Atlantic Coastal basins in Era:il$ Ama:on$ Orinoco$ Maracaibo$ Magdalena=$ as %ell as in a fe% rivers
in Panama" #hey present highest diversity in the head%aters of the Ama:onas drainage and those rivers draining
the 7uiana Shield".3/
#he subfamily Corydoradinae has a predominantly cis;Andean distribution north of the 0io de 8a Plata system$
in Argentina".-/ 0epresentatives of the Corydoradinae are found in several fresh%ater environments$ ranging
from fastflo%ing piedmont streams %ith sandy or roc'y bottom to lo%land pools %ith muddy bottom".-/
;escription
Callichthyids are fairly small catfish$ and range in si:e from some tiny Corydoras species that do not e*ceed 3
centimetres <A"45 in= to >oplosternum littorale$ %hich some sources list as gro%ing to a length of up to 3-
centimetres <5"- in= #8".3/.++/ #he mouth is small and ventral %ith one or t%o pairs of %ell;developed barbels"
.,/ #he dorsal and pectoral fins have strong spines$ and there is a spine at the anterior border of the adipose fin"
#he scutes that give these fish their namesa'e are one of the most obvious characteristics of these fish" #he body
has t%o ro%s of overlapping bony plates on each side".,/ #hese plates are arranged so they overlap along the
ro%s as %ell as bet%een the ro%s$ giving full protection but at the same time allo%ing some freedom of
movement" #hese scutes connect %ith the solid bones of the head$ and the head itself may be covered %ith bony
plates" #he upper ro% of lateral scutes may either meet on the bac' or there may be a narro% bare area that may
be filled in %ith small oval or roundish bony platelets"
Species of the Corydoradinae are of small si:e <ma*imum about 5 centimetres <,"2 in= in standard length= and
are easily distinguished from other callichthyids by their deep bodies and short ma*illary barbels".-/
>colo&y
8iving habits are varied& the family includes both bottom foraging and mid;%ater species" Callichthyids inhabit a
%ide range of habitats$ from small$ s%ift$ o*ygen;rich cree's to big rivers and flooded areas" #heir habitats may
even included s%ampy and muddy habitats %here o*ygen may be virtually absent".3/ Callichthyids survive in
these conditions by breathing air& air is collected at the %ater surface and s%allo%ed" #he intestines are used to
absorb o*ygen$ and the air is e*pelled from the anus".3/ #he anterior digestive intestine pac'ages digesta into a
string of slightly compressed boluses$ creating an air channel in the digestive intestine thus allo%ing air to pass
unimpeded" #he posterior intestine is modified for respiration into a thin;%alled and highly vasculari:ed
structure by reduction of the thic'ness of the epithelium$ submucosa and muscle layers& though highly modified
to absorb air$ it is inefficient for digestive purposes" Air moving through the digestive tract facilitates the
movement of digesta to the rectum".+3/ Fnli'e other catfish such as loricariids or trichomycterids that may
breathe air only under hypo*ic conditions$ callichthyids breathe air under all %ater conditions".3/ Some
callichthyids are able to absorb air through their hindgut to move short distances on land".,/ Air stored in their
digestive tract also accounts for 42U of the necessary air for neutral buoyancy".3/
Ereeding habits are also variable" Corydoradines breed over the substrate <such as roc's$ logs$ or leaves= as most
catfish" >o%ever$ the members of the subfamily Callichthyinae are 'no%n for building and guarding floating
foam nests <see bubble nest=& >oplosternum littorale is reported to have the most comple* nest structure".+,/
#hese floating nests are made of foam and vegetal debris" Spa%ning and caring for the eggs and larvae ta'es
place in these nests".3/.+-/ Parental care in callichthyines is by the male".+2/ In Corydoras and >oplosternum$
fertili:ation of eggs involves sperm drin'ing& the female and male form the (#;position( %ith the femaleMs mouth
over the maleMs genital opening$ and then the female drin's the sperms$ releasing the sperm and eggs
simultaneously".+?/
6elationship to humans
Some species are )uite common in South America and are fished commercially" #hey are usually coo'ed in their
bony armor".3/ Some callichthyids$ especially species of Corydoras$ are popular as ornamental fish in the
fish'eeping hobby".3/
Corydoras aeneus& #ronze corydoras
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Siluriformes
!amily: Callichthyidae
Subfamily: Corydoradinae
7enus: Corydoras
Species: C" aeneus
Einomial name: Corydoras aeneus <7ill$ +121=
Synonyms
>oplosoma aeneum" 7ill$ +121"
Corydoras microps" 9igenmann f Kennedy$ +5A,"
Corydoras vene:uelanus" Ihering$ +5++"
Corydoras macrosteus" 0egan$ +5+3"
Corydoras schult:ei" >olly$ +5-A"
#he bron:e corydoras <Corydoras aeneus=$ bron:e catfish$ lightspot corydoras or %avy catfish is a tropical
fresh%ater fish in the (armored catfish( <Callichthyidae= family" It is %idely distributed in South America on the
eastern side of the Andes$ from Colombia and #rinidad to the 0eo de la Plata basin".+/ #hey %ere originally
described as >oplosoma aeneum by #heodore 7ill in +121 and have also been referred to as Callichthys aeneus"
%ppearance and anatomy
#he adult si:e is ?i cm for males and a slightly larger 4 cm for females <3i to 3j inches=" #heir average life
span is +A years" It has a yello% or pin' body$ %hite belly$ and is blue;grey over its head and bac'" Its fins are
yello% or pin' and immaculate" In common %ith most Corydoras the dorsal$ pectoral and adipose fins have an
additional sharp barb and have a mild poison %hich causes fish %hich try to attac' them to get stung" A
bro%nish;orange patch is usually present on the head$ Cust before the dorsal fin$ and is its most distinctive feature
%hen vie%ed from above in the stream"
>colo&y
#hey are found in )uiet$ shallo% %aters %ith soft bottoms that can sometimes be heavily polluted by clouds of
disturbed mud from the bottom$ but it also inhabits running %aters".+/ In its native habitat$ it inhabits %aters %ith
a temperature range of 32 @C to 31 @C <44 @! to 13 @!=$ p> ?"A;1"A$ and hardness 2 to +5 7>".+/ 8i'e most
members of the Corydoras genus$ these catfish have a uni)ue method of coping %ith the lo% o*ygen content that
prevails in such environments" In addition to utili:ing their gills li'e any other fish$ they rapidly come to the
surface of the %ater and dra% air in through their mouth" #his air is then absorbed through the %all of the
intestine and any surplus air is e*pelled through the vent".+/ It typically stays in schools of 3A to ,A individuals"
.+/ It feeds on %orms$ benthic crustaceans$ insects$ and plant matter".+/
6eproduction
0eproduction occurs %ith the onset of the rainy season$ %hich changes the %ater chemistry".+/ !emales spa%n
+AI3A egg;clutches %ith multiple males at a time$ but an entire egg clutch is inseminated by sperm of a single
male".3/
Eron:e cories have a uni)ue method of insemination" Lhen these fish reproduce$ the male %ill present his
abdomen to the female" #he female %ill attach her mouth to the maleMs genital opening$ creating the %ell;'no%n
(#;position( many Corydoras e*hibit during courtship" #he female %ill then drin' the sperm" #he sperm rapidly
moves through her intestines and is discharged together %ith her eggs into a pouch formed by her pelvic fins"
#he female can then s%im a%ay and deposit the pouch some%here else alone" Eecause the #;position is
e*hibited in other species than Cust C" aeneus$ it is li'ely that they also e*hibit this behavior".,/ In the %ild$ eggs
are laid on %ater%eeds".3/
Males do not form territories or compete over females& interference bet%een males might only happen %hen t%o
males present their abdomens simultaneously" On the other hand$ females do not choose bet%een males" Mating
is more or less random& therefore$ male reproductive success is directly related to courtship fre)uency".3/
#he eggs of C" aeneus e*hibit a uni)ue surface pattern %ith small villi;li'e protuberances %hich resemble
attaching;filaments of teleost eggs" #hese structures allo% the eggs to be adhesive and stic' to a specific place or
to each other" #he presence of these structures may be related to the turbid habitat in %hich this species lives".-/
@n the a<uarium
Eron:e corys are probably the most popular Corydoras species".2/ It is annually bred and shipped in large
)uantities all over the %orld.?/ It is easily bred and is produced in commercial )uantities in the Fnited States$
9urope$ and Singapore" Most of the available fish are therefore domestic strains" Lild imports are reported to be
less easy to breed"
#hey are a hardy and useful a)uarium fish despite having a coloration that is by no means stri'ing or unusual"
Many a)uarists are fascinated by the habits of these fish" #hey ceaselessly comb the bottom of the a)uarium for
food and therefore disturb it slightly$ sending up detritus and %aste material that has settled loosely on the
bottom" #hey prefer being 'ept in groups of 2 or more$ being sociable fish and are ideal fish for a community
tan'".+/ Other Corydoras species can be placed in the same a)uarium$ and despite the strong resemblance many
species bear to one another$ the species %ill tend to separate out and only move about among their o%n 'ind"
Corydoras aeneus is not particular about the composition of the %ater" Ade)uate conditions are a temperature
range of 3A to 31 @C <?1 to 13 @!=$ p> of ?"A;1"A$ and hardness of 3I,A 7>" #he %ater should have no salt
added to it".2/ A fairly dense gro%th of plants %ith a number of possible hiding places is greatly appreciated"
Corys are easy to feed$ they are omnivores eating all fla'e and pelleted food and also live and fro:en foods"
Lhen it comes to sperm$ then the female glues the eggs$ only a fe% in number$ to the chosen substrate and then
<sometimes= )uic'ly touches them %ith her mouth" After several acts of spa%ning$ %hich span a total of t%o to
three hours$ one female %ill have produced up to 3AA eggs" !re)uently$ t%o males are used for each female$ as
one male has difficulty fertili:ing all the eggs" #he eggs gradually gro% dar'er in color$ and Cust prior to hatching
<ranging from three days at 31 @C to a %ee' at 3A @C= they turn dar' bro%n" #he fry 'eep to the bottom of the
tan'$ feeding on detritus and any fine foods available" #he parents may spa%n again %ithin t%o to three %ee's"
%lbino corydoras
#he albino variety is an albino variety of the bron:e corydoras that has
been developed for the a)uarium trade$ %ith a pale pin' or orange body
and red eyes" It is physically similar to normally;colored individuals$
although some breeders report that the fry are a little slo%er to develop"
.citation needed/ Others say that the albinos are practically blind and that
the males are some%hat sterile$ although this may be due to e*tensive
inbreeding".citation needed/ Albino bron:e corys are fre)uently inCected
%ith bright dye <via a needle= and sold in a)uariums" #his controversial
practice is 'no%n as (painting( or (Cuicing( fish".citation needed/
Corydoras paleatus. Peppered corydoras
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Siluriformes
7enus: Corydoras
Species: C" paleatus
Einomial name: Corydoras paleatus <Genyns$ +1-3=
Synonyms:
Callichthys paleatus" Genyns$ +1-3"
Corydoras maculatus" Steindachner$ +145"
Corydoras marmoratus" Steindachner$ +145"
Corydoras microcephalus" 0egan$ +5+3"
Silurus )uadricostatus" 8arrakaga$ +53,"
Silurus 4;radiatus" 8arrakaga$ +53,"
Corydoras paleatus is a species of catfish <order Siluriformes= of the family Callichthyidae" Its common names
include peppered cat$ pepper cory or salt f pepper cory".+/ It originates from the lo%er ParanJ 0iver basin and
coastal rivers in Fruguay and Era:il".+/
;escription
#his fish species reaches about 2"5 centimetres <3", in= S8".+/ #he male is smaller than the female and in
proportion to body length$ the dorsal fin and pectoral fins are longer on the male than the female".3/
>colo&y
Corydoras paleatus is found in ponds.+/$ and feeds on %orms$ crustaceans$ insects$ and plant matter".+/
C" paleatus has been 'no%n to produce sound& it does this by abduction of its pectoral fins" #his is used by males
during courtship and intrapersonal communication$ and by both se*es and Cuveniles %hen distressed".3/
In reproduction$ males do not behave aggressively to%ard each other$ nor do they monopoli:e mating areas or
females".3/ #he #;position is involved in courtship$ as %ith many other Corydoras species".3/
@n the a<uarium
It is a very good choice for the community a)uarium$ as it is a hardy$ good loo'ing$ and peaceful fish" #hey can
be successfully 'ept %ith other small$ peaceful a)uarium fish li'e live bearers$ danios and tetras" It is sometimes
seen in the shops as an albino form$ although this is similar to other albino corys <see the C" aeneus albino form="
It gro%s to around 4"2cm$ and is easily bred at home"
#hese fish have sensitive barbels and one should have the proper substrate for them" #o 'eep their barbels
<%his'ers= in the best condition one re)uires the fine gravel that loo's li'e coarse salt" #his is available in %hite
and bro%n$ both loo' good" Ee%are that fry are difficult to spot on the bro%n gravel" 7ravel %ith sharp edges
%ill cut their barbels <until they are gone=" #heir barbels are important for finding food$ and thus remaining
healthy"
#hese fish prefer a planted tan' %ith temperatures around 3A to 3- degrees Celsius although they can ta'e lo%er
temperatures than this" #heir high temperature tolerance seems poor and ,A lC is the highest safe temperature"
#hey li'e to nibble on the algae that gro%s on floating plants$ but are not a speciali:ed algae eating catfish" #he
lighting must not be too bright and you need to set up hiding places$ such as bog%ood <also 'no%n as mopani
%ood= for them as they li'e to hide from the light during certain parts of the day" Also provide heavily planted
areas$ %here the light is minimi:ed as they li'e dar'er areas due to their bottom feeding nature"
!eed them on a mi*ed diet of sin'ing pellets$ algae %afers$ fro:en and live food$ such as blood%orm or daphnia"
#hey may also occasionally enCoy a bit of blanched spinach$ %hich you can attach to plants %ith a peg or the side
of the glass %ith special magnetic clips" Dou may also see them dart )uic'ly to the top of the tan'$ this is natural
because they can use atmospheric o*ygen to supplement %hat their gills e*tract from the %ater" #hey %ill do this
more fre)uently %hen %ater )uality is starting to deteriorate$ so 'eep an eye on them$ they are good indicatorsm
Spa0nin&
#he males initiate the courtship ritual$ %hich entails chasing the females around the tan'" #he female darts a%ay
and the males search for her and find her a fe% moments later" #he males shiver all over the female and may lie
do%n on top of her" Lhen she is ready to spa%n she turns to the male ne*t to her and pounds furiously belo% his
ventral fin" #he male releases his seed and the female catches it in her mouth" #he female cups her ventral fins
and lays a fe% eggs <normally about -= in them" She no% starts cleaning a spot on the glass to lays her eggs on"
Corydoras are egg depositors and lay their eggs all over the a)uarium" !avourite spots include the heater$ filter
tubes and the glass$ although$ occasionally eggs are also laid on plants"
After depositing a group of eggs closely together$ the female rests for a fe% moments" #he males regroup and
start chasing each other and then resume chasing the female" #he males are so relentless in this pursuit that they
try to mate %ith the female even %hile she is busy laying her eggs" #he spa%ning lasts more than an hour and
many eggs are laid"
0aising the !ry
#he eggs should hatch in about si* days" Lell fed Peppered Catfish do not usually eat their babies" At first the
babies %ill eat mainly the proto:oan organisms in the tan'$ but %ill soon be able to eat fry foods"
Corydoras sterbai. Sterba.s corydoras.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Siluriformes
7enus: Corydoras
Species: C" sterbai
Einomial name: Corydoras sterbai$ Knaac'$ +5?3
SterbaMs corydoras <Corydoras sterbai= is a member of the South American Corydoras genus of fresh%ater
a)uarium catfish and one of the most popular species of Corydoras due to its attractive mar'ings" SterbaMs Cory
is distinguishable from other Corydoras species as it has %hite spots on its head from eyes do%n to snout" It is
occasionally confused %ith Corydoras haraldschult:i& the difference is that the latter has a pattern of blac' dots
on a %hite bac'ground on the head$ C" sterbai has a pattern of %hite dots on a blac' bac'ground" C" sterbai has
recently become available in an albino form and a blac' form"
8i'e many Corydoras species$ SterbaMs cory is a shoaling catfish$ and thus should ideally be 'ept in groups of 2
or more" In the %ild it can be found in Era:il and thus$ %ild caught fish prefer soft$ acidic %ater" >o%ever$
SterbaMs cory is a hardy fish and tan' bred specimens have adapted to a %ider range of %ater conditions"
>o%ever$ li'e almost all fish it %ill not tolerate high levels of nitrates" Fnli'e some other catfish they are not
good algae eaters$ but are good at (cleaning up( leftover food and detritus from the substrate" Coryodras sterbai
are relatively small for catfish$ gro%ing to a ma*imum si:e of only 3 I 3"? inches"
@n the a<uarium
In captivity Corydoras sterbai readily accepts a %ide variety of prepared and fro:en foods" !la'e food is a good
staple diet <%hich %ill only be consumed once it has fallen to the bottom= as are sin'ing pelletsB%afers" #hey
relish live and fro:en foods such as blood%orm$ daphnia and mos)uito larvae$ but ideally should only be fed
such foods once a %ee' due to the high amount of protein in them"
It is often problematic to feed Corydoras in a)uaria %ith fast feeding mid;%ater fish such as tetras as fla'e and
sin'ing pellets are consumed by such fish before they have hit the bottom and sometimes$ even %hile lying on
the substrate" >o%ever$ this problem can be overcome by placing pellets and fla'e on the a)uarium substrate in
caves or under bog%ood$ or other such areas %hich are not regularly fre)uented by mid;%ater fish"
#he compatibility of C" sterbai is one of their main selling points as %ith all other Corydoras species as they are
very peaceful catfish and can be 'ept %ith other peaceful fish" #hey should not be 'ept %ith overly aggressive
bottom d%ellers$ particularly if there is competition over substrate space as there %ould be in small tan's or
tan's %ith a large amount of (furniture(" Ideal companions %ould be similar si:ed tetras or particularly$ d%arf
cichlids"
Ideally Corydoras sterbai should be housed %ith a fine substrate such as sand or gravel in order to avoid doing
damage to their delicate barbels" >o%ever$ large gravel %ill suffice as long as it is not sharp edged" #heir only
other re)uirement is that shade be provided for them$ by means of overhanging roc'$ large leaved plants$ arching
bog%ood andBor caves"
Ereeding is not too difficult& good diet together %ith repeated %ater changes and drops of temperature are
usually sufficient" >o%ever$ raising the fry is not easy due to its high sensitivity"
Corydoras sch'artzi& Sch'artz.s cat)ish
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Siluriformes
7enus: Corydoras
Species: C" sch%art:i
Einomial name: Corydoras sch%art:i
Sch%art:Ms catfish$ Corydoras sch%art:i$ is a tropical fresh%ater fish belonging to the Corydoradinae sub;family
of the Callichthyidae family" It originates in inland %aters in South America$ and is found in the Purus 0iver
basin in Era:il" It %as originally described by !" 0nssel in +5?,"
#he fish %ill gro% in length up to +"2 inches <,"5 centimeters=" It lives in a tropical climate in %ater %ith a ?"A ;
1"A p>$ a %ater hardness of 3 ; 32 d7>$ and a temperature range of 43 ; 45 @! <33 ; 3? @C=" It feeds on %orms$
benthic crustaceans$ insects$ and plant matter" It lays eggs in dense vegetation and adults do not guard the eggs"
#he female holds 3;- eggs bet%een her pelvic fins$ %here the male fertili:es them for about ,A seconds" Only
then does the female s%im to a suitable spot$ %here she attaches the very stic'y eggs" #he pair repeats this
process until about +AA eggs have been fertili:ed and attached"
Sch%art:Ms catfish is of commercial importance in the a)uarium trade industry"
Corydoras arcuatus& S*un* Corydoras or Arched corydoras
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Siluriformes
7enus: Corydoras
Species: C" arcuatus
Einomial name: Corydoras arcuatus
Origin:South;America$ Peru$ 8oreto$ 0io Pacaya$ tributaries of 0io Fcayali and 0io Davari" 9cuador$ 6apo$ 0io
Dasuni$ 0io 6apo tributary" Colombia$ 0io Ca)ueta$ 0io Ama:onas" Era:il$ Ama:onas$ 0io Purus system f 0io
Ipi*una"
9tymology: Arcuatus$ bent$ referring to the bent stripe over the body"
Synonyms:6one"
!irst import:Fn'no%n$ the fish %as originally described from a)uarium specimens
escription:Eodycolor yello%ish beige %ith a light goldgreen shine$ long blac' stripe over the body$ spines
melinated$ rest of the fins transparent"Occasionally the blac' stripe looses some of itMs intensity$ especially
bet%een the eye and the dorsal fin
Care:A ?A cm tan' %ith good filtration$ although no strong current is neccessary for the animals %ell;being"
Lildcaught specimens need lots of hideouts to reduce stress$ and time to get used to the tan'" After that they can
be 'ept easily in a tan'" ItMs better for the fish if they are 'ept in large groups of 1 or more fish"Corydoras
arcuatus
#emperature: 3A;3?
!eeding: As described above %ildcaught specimens are very shy and easily scared fish" If you decide to 'eep
them in a community tan' ma'e sure they get enough to eat"
Si:e:?"A cm
p>: ?"2;4"A >ardness: 3;3A
Ereeding: !eed lots of live food<artemia$ daphnia$ mos)uitolarvae= for one or t%o %ee's" o a -A;2AU
%aterchange %ith aged %ater %hich should reduce the %atertemperature 2 degrees or more$ temperatures of +?
degrees are not a problem" " o this every other day for a period$ until they start to breed" 8arge eggs are
produced" As described in the general section this may Cust be a seasonal issue"
Additional: #his seems to be the short roundsnouted corydoras" It occurs sympatrically %ith itMs longsnout
version C" 6arcissus
Corydoras panda& Panda corydoras
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Siluriformes
7enus: Corydoras
Species: C" panda
Einomial name
Corydoras panda
6iCssen f Isbroc'er$ +54+
Corydoras panda is a species of catfish belonging to the genus Corydoras$ of the !amily Callichthyidae$ and is a
native member of the riverine fauna of South America" It is found in Peru$ most notably in the >uanaco region$
%here it inhabits the 0io A)uas$ the 0io Amarillae$ a tributary of the 0io Pachitea$ and the 0io Fcayali river
system" #he species %as first collected by >"0" 0ichards in +5?1$ and %as named Corydoras panda by 6iCssen
and Isbroc'er in +54+" #he specific name is an allusion to the appearance of the fish$ %hich possesses large blac'
patches surrounding the eyes$ reminiscent of those found on the 7iant Panda" Accordingly$ the common names
for this fish$ %hich is a popular a)uarium species$ are Panda Corydoras and Panda Catfish"
Physical description
Corydoras panda has an off;%hite to pin'ish;orange ground colour$ and %hen observed under certain lighting
conditions$ a faint greenish iridescence is present upon the flan's and the operculum" #he fins of the fish match
the body in ground colour$ upon close inspection being seen to be hyaline or translucent %ith coloured fin rays$
%ith the dorsal fin being mar'ed by a conspicuous blac' blotch that covers almost the entire fin area" #he caudal
peduncle is mar'ed %ith a blac' band$ this blac' band encircling the caudal peduncle from dorsal to ventral
surface" #he adipose fin$ supported by a small fin spine$ sometimes contains blac' pigmentation" #he head is the
same ground colour as the body$ %ith a blac' mas' surrounding the eyes$ descending vertically from the
fontanel$ over each eye$ and ending in a triangular %edge immediately before the ventral surface of the head" #he
pectoral fins are positioned immediately behind the operculum$ and are usually oriented hori:ontally %hen the
fish is at rest$ e*tended in a manner similar to the %ings of an aeroplane" #he pelvic fins are positioned upon the
ventral surface of the fish$ located some %ay behind the pectoral fins" #he first ray of the dorsal fin emanates
from the body at appro*imately its point of greatest elevation$ and a vertical line dra%n do%n%ards from this
point meets the attachment point of the pelvic fins" #he anal fin is located far to the rear of the ventral surface of
the body$ the attachment point of the first fin ray being some%hat for%ard of the blac' caudal peduncle mar'ing
described above"
In common %ith all other members of the !amily Callichthyidae$ the body surface is covered$ not %ith scales$
but %ith bony plates 'no%n as scutes" #he lines of demarcation bet%een individual scutes can be seen upon close
e*amination of this and almost all other Callichthyid fishes$ and in the case of some specimens of this species$
are highlighted by additional blac' pigment"
#he fish possesses$ in common %ith almost all Corydoras species$ three pairs of barbels ; one pair of ma*illary
barbels and t%o pairs of rictal barbels"
A fully mature adult specimen of this species attains a standard length of 22 millimetres <3"+ inches=: this is the
length attained by mature females$ %hich gro% larger than mature males$ and also possess more rounded body
outlines"
*abitat
Corydoras panda inhabits clear river %aters that are relatively fast;flo%ing$ %ell;o*ygenated$ and flo%ing over
substrates that may comprise soft sand or fine gravel" #hese rivers are usually %ell vegetated %ith assorted
species of a)uatic plants" #he pro*imity of the home rivers of the fish to the Andes mountain range$ and the
replenishment of those rivers %ith melt%aters from Andean sno%s at higher altitudes$ has led the fish to be
adaptable to cooler temperatures than the norm for MtropicalM fishes ; the temperature range of the fish is +?@C to
31@C$ though the fish e*hibits a mar'ed preference for the cooler regions of this temperature spectrum$
particularly in captivity" Indeed$ the fish can$ for limited periods$ survive temperatures as lo% as +3@C$ though
captive rearing at such lo% temperatures is ill;advised" #he native %aters of Corydoras panda are conse)uently
mineral;deficient$ %ith a neutral to slightly acid p>$ and replication of such conditions in captivity are
recommended for successful maintenance"
%<uarium (aintenance
As has already been cited above$ the species has a preference for cooler than normal %aters %hen compared to
many other popular tropical fish species$ and conse)uently$ if it is intended to maintain the fishes in a
McommunityM a)uarium setting$ companions should be chosen that share the fishMs tolerance or preference for
cooler temperatures$ around 33@C <43@!= being a good choice of maintenance temperature for the species" 7iven
the cleanliness of the fishMs native %aters$ scrupulous attention to %ater )uality in the a)uarium is considerably
more important for this fish than for the more domesticated Corydoras species such as C" paleatus or C" aeneus"
Additionally$ scrupulous attention to a)uarium substrate cleanliness is a must$ as the fishes are intolerant of poor
a)uarium maintenance in this area$ and succumb to stress and disease rapidly if their a)uaria are not 'ept to a
high standard" espite this$ the species remains highly popular %ith a)uarists$ upon account of the appearance of
the fish$ and its lively$ vivacious behaviour in a %ell;planned a)uarium setting"
8i'e many other Corydoras species$ the Panda Catfish is a highly gregarious fish$ and in common %ith several
other smaller Corydoras species such as C" habrosus and C" pygmaeus$ manifests a distinct need for numerous
companions of its o%n species in order to thrive$ and can thus be described as being more avo%edly social than
some of the larger members of the genus" A minimum of eight individuals should be housed in the same
a)uarium$ and if space permits$ this number should be revised up%ards$ as the fish e*hibits a very definite
preference for grouping together %ith others of its species" #hey also associate themselves easily %ith the Clo%n
loach and school together in currents %here sufficient numbers of their o%n species is lac'ing"
An a)uarium for this species should be %ell furnished$ ideally %ith a mi*ture of live a)uatic plants$ and solid
furnishings providing caves$ sheltered areas and hiding places to give the fish security" !loating plants to provide
additional areas of shade are also %elcomed by the fish"
8i'e all Corydoras species$ the fish feeds primarily upon animal matter" #he a)uarist is advised$ ho%ever$ that
the traditional use of Corydoras catfishes as putative MscavengersM in an a)uarium setting %ill be detrimental to
the %ell;being of this species ; it re)uires high )uality foods for long;term maintenance$ and a varied diet"
Ideally$ the fish should be given live foods at least intermittently$ and %ill dine enthusiastically upon such items
as Elood%orms <larvae of Chironomus midges=$ aphnia$ cultivated Erine Shrimp <Atermia salina=$ and #ubife*
%orms" #he latter$ ho%ever$ should be cultivated in order to minimise the ris' of introducing pathogenic
organisms to the a)uarium$ as #ubife* live in unsanitary conditions in the %ild" !ree:e dried #ubife* may be
preferable$ as the ris' of introduction of disease is eliminated" >igh )uality fla'e foods are also appreciated$
particularly those containing shrimp or other similar matter"
#he lifespan of Corydoras panda in the a)uarium has not been systematically determined$ but given the longevity
of other Corydoras species in the a)uarium$ it is reasonable to assume that %ell;cared for specimens %ill enCoy a
lifespan in e*cess of +A years$ and fre)uently in e*cess of +2 years"
6eproduction
Corydoras panda follo%s$ %ith a fe% minor deviations$ the standard model for breeding for the genus" Stimulus
for breeding consists of the influ* of cooler$ o*ygenated %aters into their habitat$ usually corresponding in the
%ild %ith the onset of the rainy season" >o%ever$ %hile some Corydoras species re)uire a temperature drop in
the a)uarium for spa%ning to be stimulated$ in the case of Corydoras panda$ the temperature drop appears to
matter much less$ as specimens have spa%ned in the a)uarium %ithout a temperature drop" #he addition of ne%$
clean$ o*ygenated %ater appears to be the primary stimulus for this species" In the %ild$ the appearance of ne%
%ater courtesy of the rains is follo%ed by an increase in the populations of assorted food organisms$ and feeding
upon these conditions the fishes for breeding"
Once conditioned fishes are stimulated into spa%ning$ males begin chasing females energetically" !emales begin
developing eggs %ithin their reproductive tracts$ and %hen MripeM <laden %ith eggs=$ become receptive to the
attentions of the males" 9ventually$ one male %ill succeed in courting a female$ using his barbels to provide
stimulation to the female$ usually beginning %ith caresses of the femaleMs caudal peduncle$ follo%ed by caresses
of the fontanel and the front of the head" if the female is receptive$ then the male positions himself before the
female$ so that the femaleMs mouth is in close pro*imity %ith one of the maleMs pectoral fins" #he male then clasps
the femaleMs barbels bet%een the pectoral fin and the body$ and this stimulates the female to press against the
maleMs side" Lhen seen from above$ the fishes form a M#M shape %hen conCoined thus$ hence the term M# positionM
has become conventional in a)uarium circles %hen describing the breeding of Corydoras catfishes"
Once the male and female are in the M# positionM$ the pressing of the female against the maleMs body stimulates his
release of sperm" #hough the e*act mechanism of fertilisation has yet to be scientifically documented$ from the
observations of a)uarists %ho have been successful in breeding Corydoras catfishes$ it seems li'ely that the
female ta'es the maleMs sperm through her mouthparts$ and directs them through the gills$ in a current that carries
the sperm to her pelvic fins" At this point$ the female releases a single egg <occasionally t%o=$ and purses her
pelvic fins in order to provide a receptacle for the freshly e*truded egg$ %hich is then fertilised"
One difference observed bet%een the adoption of the M# positionM in Corydoras panda$ %hen compared to other
Corydoras species$ is that the e*ercise is fre)uently more acrobatic in appearance$ %ith the M# positionM being
adopted in mid;%ater$ some distance above the substrate$ rather than resting upon the substrate as is the case %ith
the maCority of other Corydoras"
Once the female is carrying a fertilised egg %ithin her pelvic fins$ she then see's an egg deposition site" #he
choice of such a site is fre)uently$ though not al%ays$ a mass of fine leaved a)uatic vegetation" In the a)uarium$
the plant 'no%n as Gava Moss$ Hesicularia dubayana$ is of considerable utility as an egg repository for Corydoras
catfishes$ even though the plant is not a South American native$ and Panda Catfish females %ill choose large
clumps of this plant readily as safe deposition sites for fertilised eggs" #he female is fre)uently pursued by one
or more males as she see's the deposition site$ each male presumably see'ing to be the chosen mate to fertilise
the ne*t egg" Fp to 32 eggs may be produced by a single female during a single spa%ning$ %hich may ta'e place
over four to five hours"
;e:elopment
!ertile Corydoras panda eggs re)uire appro*imately ,;- days development time before hatching$ if 'ept at a
temperature of 33@C" #his development time %ill vary %ith temperature$ ta'ing longer in cooler %ater"
Fpon hatching$ the fry are - millimetres long$ translucent$ but already possessing the basic ground colour of the
species$ and upon close e*amination$ possess fully formed barbels" 9ven ne%ly hatched fry possess at least some
hint of the adult eye patches$ and as the fry gro%$ these patches dar'en and become more prominent" 9ven so$ at
Cust - millimetres in length$ the fry are practically invisible against typical a)uarium gravel unless seen to movem
#he fry ta'e appro*imately - %ee's to develop to the point %here the finfold$ a continuous undifferentiated
membrane resembling that seen at the posterior of a tadpole$ has differentiated into the unpaired fins <dorsal$ anal
and caudal fins=" uring this time$ si:e %ill have increased to appro*imately 1 or 5 millimetres$ and the fish %ill
begin to develop colour changes leading to that of the adult fish" !rom this point$ the caudal peduncle patch and
dorsal fin patch %ill begin to appear$ but the body %ill also be seen to be covered in fine blac' Mpepper dotsM
bet%een these blac' patches" Only after a period of +A to +3 %ee's$ at %hich point the fish has assumed a si:e of
+3 to +- millimetres$ %ill the fish attain the colouration of the adult$ and be in all respects a perfect miniature of
the parents"
!ry of this species are particularly sensitive to changes in %ater chemistry and to elevated temperatures" Lhile
adult fishes can %ithstand temperatures of 31@C$ fry %ill die of heat stress if e*posed to temperatures above
3?@C$ and their chances of survival are enhanced if the %ater temperature is 'ept at 33@C or belo%" Later
changes made to a nursery a)uarium during the first 3+ days of life of the fry ; the critical period during %hich
they manifest the greatest sensitivity to their environment ; must be gradual$ and the incoming %ater conditioned
to match that of the e*isting a)uarium %ater %here possible before the %ater change ta'es place" Lhile the fry
are li'ely to develop best if given infusoria as part of their feeding rpgime$ it is possible to raise fry to adulthood
entirely upon prepared foods"
"oplosternum littorale. "oplo Cat)ish
Temporal range: Middle Miocene - Recent
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Siluriformes
Subfamily: Callichthyinae
7enus: >oplosternum$ 7ill$ +121
#ype species: Callichthys laevigatus$ Halenciennes$ +1,-
Species
>oplosternum littorale
>oplosternum magdalenae
>oplosternum punctatum
Synonyms:
Cascadura$ 9llis$ +5+,
Cataphractops$ !o%ler$ +5+2
9llisichthys$ Miranda 0ibeiro$ +53A
iasternum$ !ran:$ 3AA+
9:er:ie0
Origin: Ama:on 0iver and tributaries
Ma*imum Si:e: Possible 1 inches" Si* more li'ely"
>ousing: +A gallons to start$ then move to larger )uarters
Substrate: Immaterial
Peculiarity: Air breathers
Se*ual ifferences: Males sport thic'er pectoral fins as they mature
#emperature: +1C ; 35C
Attitude: Peaceful" 7ood scavenger"
Security: Shy at first" Adapts rapidly"
!oods: >eavy eater
Ereeding Comments: Eubble nesters" Males very protective"
@n the a<uarium
Appeal" Anyone that sees young hoplos cannot help but be struc' by their attractive appearance I a bit li'e an
elongated corydoras catfish$ %hich they resemble in many %ays" #hey cost about t%ice as much as corys$ %hich
means theyNre still affordable" Since %e only see them part of the year$ %e assume they are a seasonal catfish"
Si:e" >oplo catfish usually hit the mar'et place at about t%o inches ;; an e*cellent si:e for most community
tan's" Ma*ing out at si* inches after about four years in a large tan'$ these guys fit into your tan' for the long
haul"
Space" Eecause hoplo catfish eventually gro% to about si* inches$ youNll %ant to sooner or later house them in a
35 or larger a)uarium"
7roups" Dou can 'eep your hoplos singly$ but they seem to enCoy hanging around %ith their o%n 'ind I not in
the tight formations of neon tetras but more li'e the cory cats" #hey are more active than most corydoras catfish"
Later" Originally from Ama:onia$ hoplo catfishes probably came from %aters %ith a p> belo% 4"A" 6o prob"
#hey adapt very )uic'ly to a %ide variety of p> levels"
>oplos e*plore these ornaments but <li'e the American bisons= prefer the %ide open spaces"
#an' ecor" 8i'e most catfishes$ your hoplo catfish %ill e*plore all the noo's and crannies in your a)uarium"
>o%ever$ much li'e cories$ your hoplo catfish %ill often come front and center and loaf in plain site" #hey are
not hiders and couldnNt care less ho% you decorate your tan'" If you provide caves$ they %ill e*plore them"
>o%ever$ they are only part;time spelun'ers"
Substrate" Dour hoplo catfishNs spotted pattern helps it blend into nearly any multi;colored bottom" #hey sho%
up best over solid colors" Some hoplo o%ners li'e to display them over %hite sand to ma'e them `pop out"a
!oods" !eed your ne% hoplos %hatever the rest of your fish are cho%ing on: fla'es$ pellets$ %afers$ food stic's$
fro:en$ free:e;dried$ or live foods" Maybe feed a little of each" #hey eat them all %ith relish" Still$ they never
seem to put on e*cess %eight" 8i'e most catfishes$ they prefer to munch at the night shift cafeteria" Also li'e
other catfishes$ they )uic'ly adapt to your feeding schedule I usually %ithin a %ee'"
Se*ing" Once they mature$ the male hoplos develop thic'er pectoral fins" #he females probably get plumper"
ItNs been so many decades since INve seen an adult$ I canNt remember"
Air Ereathers" >oplo catfish <li'e their cory cousins= breathe air" #his means you can 'eep them in %armer <lo%
o*ygen levels= %ater %ith %arm %ater fish li'e discus and uarus" >o%ever$ serious discus breeders %ill not mi*
other fish %ith their discus"
#emperature" Eut you donNt have to hot up your hoplos" As long as you 'eep them bet%een ?2 and 12 <+1C ;
35C=$ theyNre happy little scavengers"
#an' Mates" !eel free to 'eep your hoplo catfishes %ith same si:e South$ Central$ and 6orth American cichlids"
!e% South American catfishes %ill co;e*ist %ith African cichlids" >oplos %ill co;e*ist %ith most species" #hey
are ideal in unheated goldfish a)uaria"
Ereeding" Oddly enough$ cool %ater can trigger them to breed" 0ain <cooler %ater= trips their spa%ning trigger
in the %ild" #he only time %e sa% them breed$ the male built his bubble nest under a floating yello% lid off a
can of >ersheyNs Chocolate Syrup" #he o%ner insisted the yello% color %as one of the spa%ning triggers"
Males are very protective of their nest and eggs" Dou %ill probably need to remove the female"
8ast Comments" Clean %ater is essential to 'eeping most catfishes" Fse a good filtration system and donNt
e*pect your hoplo catfish to clean up all of your over feeding mista'es"
Animalia. Chordata. Actionpterygii. &iluriormes. 'oricariidae
Family description
#emporal range: Fpper Miocene ; 0ecent.+/
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Siluriformes
Superfamily: 8oricarioidea
!amily: 8oricariidae$ 0afines)ue$ +1+2
Subfamilies
elturinae
>ypoptopomatinae
>ypostominae
8ithogeneinae
8oricariinae
6eoplecostominae
8oricariidae is the largest family of catfish <Order Siluriformes=$ %ith almost 4AA species and ne% species being
described each year" 8oricariids originate from fresh %ater habitats of Costa 0ica$ Panama$ and tropical and
subtropical South America" #hese fish are noted for the bony plates covering their bodies and their
suc'ermouths" Several genera are sold as (plecos($ notably the suc'ermouth catfish$ >ypostomus plecostomus$
and are popular as a)uarium fish"
Common names
>ypostomus plecostomus$ the original plecostomus"
Members of the family 8oricariidae are commonly referred to as suc'ermouth armoured catfishes$ armoured
catfish$ MplecosM or simply MplecsM& a shortened form of the species name plecostomus".3/
#hese names are used practically interchangeably %hen referring to the 8oricariidae" #he name (Plecostomus(
and its shortened forms have become synonymous %ith the 8oricariidae in general$ since Plecostomus
plecostomus <no% called >ypostomus plecostomus= %as one of the first species imported into the fish'eeping
hobby" #his can cause some confusion as some unrelated fish may also be called plecostomus$ such as the
(Eorneo Plecostomus($ %hich are actually balitorid fishes".,/
In their native range$ these fish are 'no%n as cascudos or acares".-/
7-numbers
Some types of loricariids are often referred to by their M8;numberM& this has been become common since imports
of loricariid catfish from South America often included specimens that had not been ta*onomically described"
Currently 8;numbers are used not only by fish'eeping enthusiasts but by biologists since they represent a useful
stopgap until a ne% species of fish is given a full ta*onomic name".2/ It should be noted that in some cases t%o
different 8;numbered catfish have turned out to be different populations of the same species$ %hile in other cases
multiple <but superficially similar= species have all been traded under a single 8;number"
AaDonomy and e:olution
Eecause of their highly speciali:ed morphology$ loricariids have been recogni:ed as a monophyletic assemblage
in even the earliest classifications of the Siluriformes$ meaning that it consists of a natural grouping %ith a
common ancestor and all of its descendents".?/ 8oricariidae is one of seven families in the superfamily
8oricarioidea$ along %ith Amphiliidae$ #richomycteridae$ 6ematogenyidae$ Callichthyidae$ Scoloplacidae$ and
Astroblepidae" Some of these families also e*hibit suc'ermouths or armor$ although never together as in
8oricariids".3/
#his is the largest catfish family$ including about ?1- species in around 53 genera$ %ith ne% species being
described each year".3/ >o%ever$ this family is in flu* and revisions are li'ely".3/ !or e*ample$ the subfamily
Ancistrinae is accepted in as late as the 3AA? edition of 6elsonMs !ishes of the Lorld& it later becomes grouped as
a tribe because of its recognition as a sister group to the Pterygoplichthyini".3/.-/.4/ Fnder Ambruster$ si*
subfamilies are recogni:ed: elturinae$ >ypoptopomatinae$ >ypostominae$ 8ithogeneinae$ 8oricariinae$ and
6eoplecostominae".4/.1/
Monophyly for the family is strongly supported$ e*cept$ possibly$ the inclusion of 8ithogenes".5/ 8ithogenes is
the only genus %ithin the subfamily 8ithogeneinae" #his genus and subfamily$ the most basal group in
8oricariidae$ is the sister group to the rest of the family".+A/ 6eoplecostominae is the most basal group among
the loricariids %ith the e*ception of 8ithogeneinae".++/ >o%ever$ the genera of 6eoplecostominae do not appear
to form a monophyletic assemblage".+3/ #he t%o subfamilies 8oricariinae and >ypoptopomatinae appear to be
generally regarded as monophyletic" >o%ever$ the monophyly and composition of the other subfamilies are
currently being e*amined and %ill li'ely be altered substantially in the future".5/ >ypostominae is the largest
subfamily of 8oricariidae" It is made up of five tribes" !our of the five tribes$ Corymbophanini$ >ypostomini$
Pterygoplichthyini$ and 0hinelepini$ include about 3- genera" #he fifth and largest tribe$ Ancistrini <formerly
recogni:ed as its o%n subfamily=$ includes ,A genera".+,/
8oricariid fossils are e*tremely rare".+-/ #he fossil record of 8oricariidae e*tends bac' to the upper Miocene".+/
Lithin the superfamily 8oricarioidea$ 8oricariidae is the most derived& in this superfamily$ there is a trend
to%ard increasingly comple* Ca% morphology$ %hich may have allo%ed for the great diversification of the
8oricariidae$ %hich have the most advanced Ca%s".+2/
#he family 8oricariidae is vastly distributed over both sides of the Andes& on the other hand$ most species are
generally restricted to small geographic ranges".+?/ 8oricariids are found in fresh %ater habitats of Costa 0ica$
Panama$ and South America" Species occur in s%ift;flo%ing streams from the lo%lands up to ,$AAA metres in
elevation".3/ #hey can also be found in a variety of other fresh%ater environments".,/ #hey can be found in
torrential mountain rivers$ )uiet brac'ish estuaries$ blac' acidic %aters$ and even in subterranean habitats".?/
;escription and biolo&y
#his family has e*tremely variable color patterns and body shapes".?/ 8oricariids are characteri:ed by bony
plates covering their body$ similar to the bony plates in callichthyids <In 8atin$ lorica means corselet=".+4/ #hese
fish e*hibit a ventral suc'ermouth %ith papillae <small proCections= on the lips" Lhen present$ the adipose fin
usually has a spine at the for%ard edge".3/ #hese fish have$ %hen they are present$ a uni)ue pair of ma*illary
barbels".3/.?/ #hese fish have relatively long intestines due to their usually herbivorous or detrivorous diets".3/
#he body is characteristically depressed in this family".?/ #aste buds cover almost the entire surface of the body
and fin spines".+1/ #he length can range from , centimetres <+"3 in= in some Otocinclus to over +AA centimetres
<,5 in= in Pana)ue$ Acanthicus$ and Pterygoplichthys".+?/
One of the most obvious characteristics of the loricariids is the suc'ermouth" #he modified mouth and lips allo%
the fish to feed$ breathe$ and attach to the substrate through suction" It %as once believed that lips could not
function as a suc'er %hile respiration continued as the inflo%ing %ater %ould cause the system to fail& ho%ever$
it has been demonstrated that respiration and suction can function simultaneously" Inflo%ing %ater passing under
the suc'er is limited to a thin stream immediately behind each ma*illary barbel& the ma*illae in loricariids
support only small ma*illary barbels and are primarily used to mediate the lateral lip tissue in %hich they are
embedded$ preventing failure of suction during inspiration.vague/" #o achieve suction$ the fish pressed its lips
against the substrate and inflates its mouth$ causing negative pressure".+5/
Also$ unli'e most other catfish$ the prema*illae are highly mobile$ and the lo%er Ca%s have evolved to%ards a
medial position %ith the teeth pointed rostroventrally& these are important evolutionary innovations".+2/ #he fish
rotates its lo%er and upper Ca%s to scrape the substrate" #he lo%er Ca%s are most mobile".+5/
8oricariid catfishes have evolved several modifications of the digestive tract that function as accessory
respiratory organs or hydrostatic organs" #hese comple* structures %ould have been independently evolved a
number of times" #his includes an enlarged stomach in the Pterygoplichthyini$ >ypostomus$ and 8itho*us$ a F;
shaped diverticulum in 0hinelepini$ and a ring;li'e diverticulum in Otocinclus" >o%ever$ even loricariids %ith
an unmodified stomach have a slight ability to breathe air".3A/
Considerable se*ual dimorphism occurs in this family$ most pronounced during the breeding season" !or
e*ample$ in 8oricariichthys$ the male has a large e*pansion of its lo%er lip$ %hich it uses to hold a clutch of
eggs".+1/ Ancistrus males have snouts %ith fleshy tentacles".+1/ In loricariids$ odontodes develop almost
any%here on the e*ternal surface of the body and first appear soon after hatching& odontodes appear in a variety
of shapes and si:es and are often se*ually dimorphic$ being larger in breeding males".+1/ In most Ancistrini
species$ sharp evertible chee' spines <elongated odontodes= are often more developed in males and are used in
intraspecific displays and combat".+1/
#he omega iris allo%s 8oricariids to adCust the amount of light that enters their eye"
Fnusually for bony fish$ many species have a modified iris called an omega iris" #he top part of the iris descends
to form a loop %hich can e*pand and contract called an iris operculum& %hen light levels are high$ the pupil
reduces in diameter and the loop e*pands to cover the center of the pupil giving rise to a crescent shaped light
transmitting portion".3+/ #his feature gets its name from its similarity to an upside;do%n 7ree' letter omega <q="
#he origins of this structure are un'no%n$ but it has been suggested that brea'ing up the outline of the highly
visible eye aids camouflage in %hat are often highly mottled animals".3+/ Species in the tribe 0hinelepini are an
e*ception among loricariids$ having a normal$ circular iris".33/ #he presence or absence of the iris operculum
can also be used for identification of species in the subfamily 8oricariinae".?/
Genetics
As of 3AAA$ only 2? loricariid species have been cytogenically investigated".-/ It has been sho%n that 3n r 2- is
the basal diploid number of chromosomes this family".3,/ #here is a %ide variation in the chromosome number
in this fish group$ ranging from 3n r ,? in the 8oricariinae$ 0ineloricaria latirostris$ to 3n r 5? in a species of
Fpsilodus <>emipsilichthys=".3,/ Most members of the Ancistrini and Pterygoplichthyini have 23 chromosomes"
.-/ Karyotypic evolution by means of centric fusions and centric fissions seems to be a common feature among
loricariids& this is demonstrated by a higher number of biarmed chromosomes in species %ith lo%er diploid
number and many uniarmed chromosomes in species %ith higher diploid numbers".3-/ Studies conducted %ith
representatives of some genera of >ypostominae sho%ed that %ithin this group$ the diploid number ranges from
3n r 23 to 3n r 1A" >o%ever$ the supposed %ide 'aryotypic diversity that the family 8oricariidae or the
subfamily >ypostominae %ould present is almost e*clusively restricted to the genus >ypostomus$ and the
species from the other genera had a conserved diploid number".++/ It has been found in some species that there is
a KKBKL se*;determination system".-/.3-/
>colo&y
#he suc'ermouth e*hibited by these catfish allo% them to adhere to obCects in their habitats$ even in fast;flo%ing
%aters".?/ #he mouth and teeth also are adapted to feed on a variety of foods such as algae$ invertebrates$ and
detritus".?/ Some species$ notably the Pana)ue$ are 'no%n for *ylophagy$ or the ability to digest %ood".32/
Most species of 8oricariids are nocturnal animals" Some species are territorial$ %hile others$ such as Otocinclus$
prefer to live in groups".,/
Air;breathing is %ell 'no%n among many loricariids" #he ability to breathe air is dependent on the ris' of
hypo*ia faced by a species& torrent;d%elling species tend to have no ability to breathe air$ %hile lo%;land$ pool;
d%elling species such as those of >ypostomus have a great ability to breathe air".3A/ Pterygoplichthys are 'no%n
for being 'ept out of %ater and sold alive in fish mar'ets$ surviving up to ,A hours out of %ater".3A/ 8oricariids
are facultative air breathers& they %ill only breathe air if under stress and %ill only use their gills in situations
%hen o*ygen levels are high" #he dry season is a li'ely time for this& there %ould be little food in the stomach$
%hich %ould allo% its use for air breathing".3A/
8oricariids e*hibit a %ide range of reproductive strategies$ including cavity spa%ning$ attachment of eggs on the
underside of roc's$ and egg;carrying".+1/ Parental care is usually %ell;developed and the male guards the eggs
and sometimes the larvae".+1/ #he eggs hatch after bet%een - and 3A days$ depending on the species".,/
@n the a<uarium
Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus$ often sold as a common pleco$ is an a)uarium
fish often purchased as an algae eater"
8oricariids are popular a)uarium fish$ %here they are often sold as (plecs($
(plecos( or (plecostomus(".3/ #hese fish are often purchased because of their algae;eating habits$ though this
role may not be carried out".,/ Most species are in fact detritivores" A great many species of 8oricariids are also
sold for their ornamental )ualities$ representing many body shapes and colors"
Most species of 8oricariids are nocturnal and %ill shy a%ay from bright light$ appreciating some sort of cover to
hide under throughout the day" As they often originate from habitats %ith fast;moving %ater$ filtration should be
vigorous".,/
A number of species of 8oricariids have been bred in captivity".,/
/tocinclus 0estitus. 1'ar) /tto& 1'ar) or !idget suc*ermouth cat)ish.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Siluriformes
!amily: 8oricariidae
Subfamily: >ypoptopomatinae
#ribe: >ypoptopomatini
7enus: Otocinclus
Cope$ +14+
#ype species
Otocinclus vestitus
Cope$ +14+
Species: Over a do:en$ see te*t"
Synonyms: 8ampiella$ Isbroc'er$ 3AA+$ Macrotocinclus$ Isbroc'er f Seidel$ 3AA+
SeDin&
ifficult" !emales are slightly bigger than males"
Aan3 compatibility
An e*cellent peaceful community fish" #here is$ ho%ever$ records of this fish suc'ing on slime coats of slo%
moving large bodied fish such as Angelfish and iscus" #his is due to them be 'ept in near starvation condition
in the fish shop and theyMve learned Mbad habitsM"
;iet
Otos %ill mainly gra:e on some soft algaes$ primarily diatoms$ and blanched vegetables such as Kucchini
<Courgette=$ Carrot$ Potato and Cucumber" #hey may also accept some algae %afers$ but it can ta'e some time to
%ean them onto these" #hey %ill not eat hair algae or green spot algae"
Feedin& re&ime
#hey eat algae virtually all the time$ so ensure they get enough"
>n:ironment Speci2ics
A planted a)uarium is a must" 9nsure you get them in decent numbers$ , or more is good" ? or more is far better"
#hey are a nervous fish if not 'ept in groups <in the %ild they school in groups of several thousands= and have
been 'no% to die from stress if 'ept alone" As this small fish eats %hilst resting on a surface$ they are easy
targets for larger fish in the %ild"
+eha:iour
#hey tend to rest on any obCect$ including the front glass so youMll get plenty of vie%s of their underside"
@denti2ication
#he O" vestitus is mottled grey on the top half of the body$ the lateral line is mar'ed %ith a thin hori:ontal line
%hich runs from the nose to the base of the caudal fin"
#he caudal mar'ings are %hat separate this Otocinclus from the similar Otocinclus macrospilus" On the O"
macrospilus$ there is a large round blac' spot at the base of the caudal fin %ith t%o faint blac' bars running
do%n to the end of the tail"
>o%ever on the O" vestitus this large blac' spot is Cust a thin line <%ith its t%o similar blac' bars= running do%n
to the very end of the caudal fin"
#ypically this fish is often incorrectly identified as Otocinclus affinis or Otocinclus macrospilus"
Special note
#hese peaceful community fish are often starving %hen you see them in the average pet shop and conse)uently
they have a reputation of having a high mortality rate %ithin the first month of o%nership" Some may have
adopted a bad habit of scavenging for food by eating the slime coating of other fish"
9nsure that you loo' at their bellies carefully in the shop and if they loo' very thin or hollo% bellied then as' the
shop to feed them more algae tablets or sliced fruit" #hese fish need to eat all the time"
Lhen you get them home <donMt Cust o%n one or t%o they get very stressed in small groups=$ let them settle into a
)uiet tan' and put in plenty of algae tablets and a sliced piece of fruit <see diet section= for them to che% on" #he
first month is fairly critical to their survival"
;istribution
Otocinclus are %idely distributed east of the Andes of South America$ throughout the lo%lands from northern
Hene:uela to northern Argentina$ but is generally absent from the Ama:on and the Orinoco lo%lands".,/
;escription
Otocinclus$ li'e other 8oricariids$ are characteri:ed by ro%s of armour plating covering the body as %ell as
underslung suc'ermouth" #hey are generally small in si:e& Otocinclus tapirape is the smallest of the species <3"-
cm=$ %hile Otocinclus fle*ilis is the biggest <2"2 cm=" #hese fish do not e*ceed 2A millimetres <3"A in= S8".-/
Otocinclus have adaptations that allo% these fish to breathe air" A duct forms at the Cunction bet%een the
esophagus and the stomach and e*pands into an enlarged$ ring;li'e diverticulum" #his characteristic is diagnostic
of this genus" #his diverticulum allo%s air;breathing of these fishes".2/
>colo&y
Otocinclus species are diurnal and generally found in small streams or along the margins of larger rivers$
clinging to substrates using the mouth as a suc'er$ and feeding from algae or auf%uchs on roots$ stones$
macrophytes$ and broad;leaved grasses".,/ #hey inhabit %ell;o*ygenated$ moderate; to slo%;flo%ing
environments$ often near river ban's".-/ #hey are found near the surface of the %ater$ but are often associated
%ith vegetation or other structures".3/ #hey lay adhesive eggs and do not guard them& this is in contrast to many
other 8oricariids %here the male builds a nest and guards the eggs".?/ #hese fish live in shoals or schools".,/
Otocinclus are able to breathe air" Prior to surfacing$ they %ill release air through their gills and mouth" Fpon
returning to the bottom$ the fish does not need to pump their buccal cavity$ indicating that they are absorbing
o*ygen from the s%allo%ed air".2/
O" mimulus$ O" fle*ilis$ O" affinis$ and O" *a'riaba are considered to be Eatesian mimics of certain Corydoras
species <C" diphyes$ C" paleatus$ C" nattereri$ and C" garbei$ respectively=" #hese Corydoras species have bony
plates of armor and strong spines as defenses$ ma'ing them less palatable& by mimic'ing these species in si:e
and coloration$ Otocinclus avoid predation".,/
Ancistrus dolichopterus
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Order: Siluriformes
!amily: 8oricariidae
Subfamily: >ypostominae
#ribe: Ancistrini
7enus: Ancistrus
Kner $+12-
Synonyms: Pristiancistrus !o%ler$ +5-2$ #hysanocara 0egan$ +5A?$ Penocara 0egan$ +5A-
Ancistrus is a genus of fresh%ater fish in the family 8oricariidae of order Siluriformes" !ish of this genus are
commonly 'no%n as the bushynose or bristlenose plecos"
AaDonomy
#he type species is Ancistrus cirrhosus".+/ #his genus is the largest genus %ithin the tribe Ancistrini".3/
#he name ancistrus derives from the 7ree' Mag'istronM meaning hoo' ; a reference to the form of the chee'
odontodes" #he genera Pristiancistrus$ #hysanocara and Penocara are no% synonyms of Ancistrus".3/
%ppearance and anatomy
Ancistrus species sho% all the typical features of the 8oricariidae" #his includes a body covered in bony plates
and a ventral suc'ermouth".,/ #he feature most commonly associated %ith the genus are the fleshy tentacles
found on the head in adult males& females may possess tentacles along the snout margin but they are smaller and
they lac' tentacles on the head".,/ #entacules$ tentacles directly associated %ith odontodes$ develop on the
pectoral fin spine of the males of some species".,/ Males also have evertable chee' odontodes %hich are less
developed or absent in females" #hey also lac' odontodes along the snout".3/ In comparison %ith a typical pleco$
a bristlenose is typically shorter <+2 cm or less=$ more flattened and fatter %ith a comparatively %ider head"
Colouration is typically mottled bro%n$ grey or blac'" Small %hite or yello% spots are common".3/
#he Ancistrus is one of the %idest ranging genera of the family$ and representatives are found throughout the
range of 8oricariidae".3/ #hey are found throughout rivers and floodplain areas of the Ama:on 0iver in South
America" #here are also some species$ A" cryptophthalmus and A" formoso$ that live in caves".-/
>colo&y
#he diet of this genus is typical for a 8oricariid ; algae and auf%uchs" Eristlenoses do not school but hide %hen
not feeding$ Cuveniles ho%ever are typically found in brightly lit shallo%s at the %ater margin ma'ing them
susceptible to predation by birds"
Ancistrus species have the capability of obtaining o*ygen through their modified stomach".2/ #his allo%s them
to survive in conditions %ith lo% o*ygen levels".3/
Ereeding ta'es place in hollo%s$ caves and mud holes in ban's" Males may clean the inside of the cavity %ith
their suc'ermouth before allo%ing the female to approach and inspect the nest" Courtship includes e*panding the
dorsal and caudal fins and attempts by the male to escort the female to the nest" Lhile the female inspects the
nest$ the male 'eeps close contact".,/ #he female may lay 3A;3AA adhesive eggs$ usually to the ceiling of the
cavity".,/
#he female plays no role in parental care& the male ta'es care of its young" Males %ill clean the eggs and the
cavity %ith its fins and mouth" Males inspect eggs to remove diseased or infertile eggs$ and aerates the clutch by
fanning them %ith its pectoral and pelvic fins".,/ uring this time$ a male usually %ill not leave the cavity to
feed$ or %ill leave only occasionally and )uic'ly return".,/ #he eggs hatch in -I+A days over a period of 3I?
hours& the male guards the eggs for 4I+A days after hatching".,/ #he fry remain in the cave$ attaching to the
%alls and ceiling %ith their mouths$ absorbing their yol' sac in 3I- days and becoming free s%imming".,/
Males of these species are competitive and territorial" Males display to each other by positioning themselves
parallel to each other$ head to tail$ %ith dorsal and caudal fins erect and chee' odontode spines everted" If this
escalates to combat$ the males %ill circle each other and direct attac's at the head".,/ If an intruding male
manages to evict another male from the nest$ it may cannibali:e the other maleMs young".,/
A male bristlenose may guard several clutches of eggs simultaneously" !emales prefer males that are already
protecting eggs and may prefer males that are protecting larvae& it has been suggested that the tentacles may act
as a fry mimic to attract females$ %hich %ould allo% males %ithout eggs in their nest to compete %ith males
guarding eggs".,/ Several clutches in various states of development from eggs to free;s%imming larvae can be
found in one nest".3/
@n the a<uarium
#hese fish are often 'ept by a)uarists as they are dutiful algae;eaters and smaller in adult si:e than the common
plecos usually seen in petshops" Si:e is up to +2 cm <male=$ +3 cm <female=$ recommended temperature 3,;34
degrees Celsius$ lifespan up to +3 years" #hey are hardy animals$ tolerant to a %ide range of %ater conditions$
breeding easily in captivity$ compatible %ith most other fresh%ater fish$ though typically mottled bro%n in
colour$ other species are more e*otic ; spots of bright yello% on a dar' bac'ground being a common
patternation$ albino variants are also common" It is thought that the eggs of the bristle;nosed pleco are light
sensitive& albino fish may be the result of e*posure to e*cessive light"
>istorically commonly available species of Ancistrus %ere Ancistrus dolichopterus and Ancistrus temminc'ii$
other species are no% available though e*act identification is difficult"
eeding is easy$ bristlenoses %ill gra:e on algae and other surface gro%ing organisms as %ell as eating algae
%afers or tablets$ fla'e food$ s)uash$ spinach$ cucumber$ :ucchini$ green beans and peas ho%ever they have been
'no%n to accept fro:en blood%orms as part of their diet" A)uarium specimens may starve for lac' of algae or
other plant matter& algae %afers or other lo%;protein foods are recommended" Keepers should %atch for the
abdomen to ta'e on a sun'en appearance$ indicating insufficient nutrition"
8i'e other plecs benefit from the addition of bog%ood$ %hich they %ill rasp at and use as a hiding place ; in the
absence of other plant matter <sources of fibre= %ood may be essential to the survival of these fish in the
a)uarium as it helps digestion of typically high protein fish food".?/
!e"ing is very easy as the female %ill occasionally have bristles around the edge of the chin and the male %ill
have them up the center of the head
Breeding is also possible: Males attract females to small cave or hollo%$ then guard eggs after fertili:ation
through hatching <-I1 days= until fry are free s%imming <-I? days after hatching=& the a)uarist need only supply
a suitable cave$ food$ and one of each se*"
Caution should be ta'en %ith the spines <odontodes= ; although the ris' of personal inCury is small %ith this
genus the hoo'ed nature of the odontodes means that a bristlenose may become trapped in non;natural material
such as sponge filters and netting"
Plantae. Angiosperms.
Cabomba a2uatica
Kingdom: Plantae
<unran'ed=: Angiosperms
Order: 6ymphaeales
!amily: Cabombaceae
7enus: Cabomba
Species: Cabomba a)uatica
Einomial name: Cabomba a)uatica
Cabomba a)uatica este o planta de acvariu foarte populara$ orginara din America de Sud$ care face parte din
familia Cabombaceae$ genul Cabomba" 9a este destul de asemanatoare cu specia Cabomba caroliniana$
deosebindu;se de ea prin segmentarea mai accentuata a frun:elor si prin culoarea galbena a florilor"
;escriere
9ste o planta perena$ submersa$ dar uneori plutitoare$ cu ri:omi scurti si fragili" !run:ele sale pot fi submerse sau
plutitoare" Mladitele sunt de culoare verde;iarba pana la masliniu$ dar uneori si roscate" !run:ele submerse sunt
foarte fin divi:ate si aranCate in perechi pe tulpina" !run:ele plutitoare$ atunci cand e*ista$ sunt intregi si de
forma eliptica" !lorile mici si colorate in galben plutesc la suprafata apei" Poate atinge ,A;5Acm inaltime si 2;
+Acm latime"
*abitat
Cabomba a)uatica este mult mai greu de ingriCit decat verisoara sa Cabomba caroliniana si este mai sensibila" 9a
are nevoie de multa lumina puternica si de o apa foarte curata si bogata in dio*id de carbon si fier" Curentii
puternici de apa trebuiesc evitati" Are un ritm rapid de crestere si este foarte frumoasa" !run:ele sale pot fi
ciupite sau mancate de anumite specii de pesti <crapi 'oi$ carasi aurii etc"=$ iar alte specii isi pot depune icrele pe
ele"
#emperatura apei trebuie sa fie cuprinsa intre 3, si 3?@C$ P>;ul intre ? si 4$ iar duritatea intre 3 si +Ad7>" Are
nevoie de un sol bogat$ de preferabil nisipos"
Plantarea
Pentru o perspectiva estetica reusita Cabomba a)uatica trebuie plantata$ in palcuri de mai multe fire$ in partea din
spate a acvariului sau pe lateralele acestuia" !aceti cu mana sau cu o unealta speciala o mica e*cavatie in substrat
in care sa introduceti radacina si tasati solul in Curul plantei" 0i:omul nu trebuie ingropat sub substrat"
+utasirea
In acvariu Cabomba a)uatica se inmulteste prin butasire$ adica prin taierea si
replantarea varfurilor sau a ramurelelor laterale" Sectionati partea superioara a
tulpinei cu o foarfeca si replantati;o$ ingropand apro*imativ o treime din ea <-;2cm=
in substrat" Planta mama ramasa va de:volta ramurele laterale care vor putea fi
butasite ulterior"
e asemenea$ uneori ri:omul fragil al acestei plante se rupe si o noua planta poate
rasari"
Anubias gracilis
Kingdom: Plantae
<unran'ed=: Monocots
Order: Alismatales
!amily: Araceae
7enus: Anubias
Species: A" gracilis
Einomial name: Anubias gracilis
Chev" e* >utch" f al:"
Anubias gracilis %as first mentioned in +53A by Chevalier and thereafter validly described by >utchinson and
al:iel in +5,?".+/
;istribution
Lest Africa: Sierra 8eone and 7uinea".+/"
;escription
Its long;stal'ed medium;green leaves are spade;shaped and may gro% to +3 inches in length <,A cm="
Cultivation
#his plant gro%s best %hen only partially submersed and %hen not cro%ded by other plants" It re)uires a lot of
nutrients$ a loose$ iron;rich substrate$ and moderate;to;strong light" It prefers a temperature range of 33;3?
degrees C" It can be propagated by dividing the rhi:ome"
Illustration 1
!nubias caladifolia"
"ygrophila angusti)olia % 3illo' "ygro
Kingdom: Plantae
<unran'ed=: 9udicots
<unran'ed=: Asterids
Order: 8amiales
!amily: Acanthaceae
7enus: >ygrophila
8indl"
Selected species
>ygrophila auriculata
>ygrophila corymbosa
>ygrophila difformis
>ygrophila polysperma
>ygrophila )uadrivalvis
>ygrophila$ commonly 'no%n as the temple plants or hygros$ is a genus of flo%ering plants in the family
Acanthaceae" #here are about +32 species$ of %hich about -A are a)uatic" #he genus has a pan;tropical
distribution$ %ith some members entering sub;tropical areas" It is one of only t%o genera in its family that
contains a)uatic plants$ the other being Gusticia" #he genus is treated inside the tribe >ygrophileae$ %hich is
noted as being in need of revision at the genus level$ meaning the current ta*onomic boundaries of >ygrophila
are li'ely to change in the future".+/
;escription
#he leaves are either homomorphic <i"e" all having one form= or heteromorphic <i"e" different leaves having
different forms=" Lhen they are homomorphic$ they are al%ays simple and entire" Lhen heteromorphic$ the basal
or submerged leaves are pinnately divided %ith either filiform <i"e" feather;li'e= or linear segments that can be
either simple or for'ed$ %hile the cauline leaves <i"e" those on the stem= or emergent leaves are entire".+/
#he flo%ers have petals ranging from %hite to purple in colour$ having either 2 e)ual lobes or 3 lips" Lhen an
upper lip is present$ it is erect and concave %ith either 3 lobes or 3 teeth$ %hile the lo%er lip has , lobes" -
stamens are present %ith 3 sometimes being staminodal <i"e" non pollen producing=" #hey are not e*erted and are
fused to the petal tube above the middle" #he individual filaments are united into pairs by a membrane at their
bases$ %hile the anthers have 3 locules" #he anther sacs have no spurs or tails and are at the same level and
parallel" A nectariferous disc is present but inconspicuous" Pollen grains are ,; or rarely -;colporate$ meaning the
apertures are composed of both a colpus and a porus" 9ach flo%er produces ? to many seeds".+/
>colo&y and uses
A number of species are cultivated for the a)uarium trade$ including >" difformis <%ater %isteria= and
>ygrophila polysperma <Indian s%amp%eed=" Many members of the genus are troublesome %eeds in irrigation
and drainage ditches as %ell as rice fields" Several have become established outside of their native ranges$
largely due to the a)uarium trade$ such as >" polysperma in the southern Fnited States" .+/
@n the a<uarium
>ygrophila Angustifolia$ also 'no%n as the Lillo% >ygro$ is an undemanding$ e*tremely attractive a)uarium
plant" It has large stems %ith narro% leaves that s%ay in the current li'e a %eeping %illo% tree" >ygrophila
angustifolia gro%s fast and helps 'eep a)uarium %ater clean by removing nitrates$ ma'ing it an ideal choice for
the ne% a)uarist"
It re)uires a nutrient;rich substrate$ %ith iron;rich fertili:er added regularly" Provide a moderate amount of
lighting of at least 3 to , %atts per gallon of full spectrum <2AAA;4AAAK= light" CO3 fertili:ation is also
recommended"
!or >ygrophila Angustifolia to thrive$ the %ater should be 'ept bet%een 3,@;31@C$ %ith an al'alinity of , to 1
dK> and a p> of ?"2;4"2" #o propagate$ plant cuttings that have been removed from the healthy mature plant"
Simply remove any leaves from the bottom +( to 3( of the stem$ and ne% root gro%th %ill form from the last
node on the stem"
Appro*imate Purchase Si:e: Eunch 2( to 4(
Ceratopteris thalictroides % 3atersprite
Kingdom: Plantae
ivision: Pteridophyta
Class: Pteridopsida
Order: Pteridales
!amily: Ceratopteridaceae
7enus: Ceratopteris
Species: C" thalictroides
#he species Ceratopteris thalictroides is a fern species belonging to the genus Ceratopteris$ one of only t%o
genera of the Ceratopteridaceae family" #he species represents a special living form of ferns$ and is thus of great
botanical interest" #he leaf and stem can also be used medically"
Latersprite <Ceratopteris thalictroides= is also 'no%n as Later !ern and Indian !ern" Its native habitat is still or
slo%ly moving %aters in tropical regions around the globe" Latersprite has been a popular a)uarium plant since
the early 3Ath century and is still one of the most commonly utili:ed a)uarium plants due to its sturdiness$ fast
gro%th rate and ease of propagation" It %ill also bind a lot of organic %aste and release plenty of o*ygen into the
%ater" Latersprite a versatile plant that can be planted in the substrate$ anchored to a)uarium decoration$ or left
floating on the surface"
;istribution
Pan;tropical" Lidespread" #here are three general types$ 'no%n as the north type$ the south type$ and the third
type"
;escription
Plants usually rooted in mud$ very variable in si:e and appearance$ scales on rhi:ome peltate$ thin $ translucent$
pale bro%n$ <under a lens clear %ith dar' cell %alls= stipes , I +2 mm diameter in mature plants$ spongy and air
filled$ sterile fronds pale green$ thin$ flaccid and spreading$ - I ?A cm long$ including a stipe c" half this length$
fertile fronds pale green$ to bro%n %hen over mature$ firm$ held erect$ +2 I +AA cm or more long$ including stipe
to -A cm long$ proliferous or dormant buds %ith overlapping dar' scales sometimes present in the a*ils of fertile
pinnae <t%ice seen=$ sterile a*es obviously %inged$ pinnae basically broad;ovate or deltoid %ith a fe% blunt
lobes$ sometimes more deeply incised$ the segments 3 ; +2 * +A I ,A mm$ fertile segments linear$ + ; 3 * +A I 1A
mm".3/
0ecent chromosome counts have sho%n that the north type and the third type both have chromosome counts of
3nr+,?$ %hile the south type has a count of 3nr+,-$ ma'ing it definitely a separate species"
>colo&y
S%ampy areas$ s%amp forests$ sago <Metro*ylon= s%amps$ marshes$ natural and man;made ponds$ mostly in
stagnant %ater bodies or in still poc'ets along slo% flo%ing rivers$ full sun to moderate shade$ from sea level to
+,AA m$ but mostly less than 2AA m altitude" Sometimes massed on or around logs or other floating vegetation$
once recorded in a fresh;%ater mangrove <Sonneratia= gro%ing among the finger;li'e pneumatophores" In some
areas Ceratopteris e*hibits a degree of seasonality$ reaching maturity and shedding spores during the dry season&
plants have lost nearly all sterile fronds by this stage".3/ #he species has been reported to functionally be an
annual$ repopulating from spore the ne*t season$ but it is clearly of indefinite lifespan in cultivation"
Culinary use
!ronds are coo'ed and eaten as a vegetable in Madagascar.,/ and 6e% 7uinea.citation needed/$ and ra% as a
salad in Micronesia".citation needed/ >o%ever$ the plant is believed to contain carcinogenic chemicals".citation
needed/
9ther use
Ceratopteris thalictroides is %idely used as an a)uarium plant$ and is prised for its versatility$ being used both as
a floating plant and a plant that can be rooted in the substrate".-/
In the Sepi' region of 6e% 7uinea fronds are used as a personal decoration".citation needed/
Plantin& =atersprite
One of the reasons %hy Latersprite is so popular is that it %ill gro% planted as %ell as unplanted" If you %ant to
'eep it planted$ you can use a pot or plant it directly in the a)uarium substrate" If you have digging fish$ you can
instead anchor Latersprite to roc's$ drift%ood or other types of a)uarium decorations" Anchoring is ho%ever far
from mandatory since Latersprite can float on the surface$ thereby dimming the light and providing great cover
for shy fishes"
Latersprite is a really sturdy plant that %ill adapt to most fresh%ater conditions" #he preferred conditions are
ho%ever soft and slightly acidic %ater" It gro%s best in soil %ith a p> reading of 2;5 and in very high amounts of
light" It usually gro%s )uic'ly" #he %ater temperature should ideally be 'ept above 3A degrees C" irect or
indirect incandescent lighting <i"e" `normala a)uarium lighting= is enough for this plant$ but is %ill appreciate
fluorescent lighting" 6atural light is also an option"
Since Latersprite is robust and gro%s fast$ it can be 'ept even in a)uariums %here the fish li'e to nibble on
plants" It is also resilient to%ards algae gro%th and snails" Its nemesis is instead potassium permanganate and this
should therefore never be used to disinfect the a)uarium"
It can provide useful shade to shyer fish and small fry" #he dense roots are said to ta'e nutrients out of the %ater
helping to prevent the gro%th of algae"
=atersprite propa&ation
Latersprite propagates by forming `babiesa on the outer leaf margins" #hese babies %ill then brea' of and
develop their o%n roots" If the babies are un%illing to leave on their o%n$ you can gently pull them from the
parent plant %hen you begin to see tiny roots" If a leaf is torn from your Latersprite$ you can leave it floating in
the a)uarium and %ait for it to form ne% babies" Eabies can be formed by both submerged and non;submerged
Latersprite leaves" #he parent plant normally dies %ithin a year$ but by then it %ill have formed numerous
babies"
4lodea
Kingdom: Plantae
<unran'ed=: Monocots
Order: Alismatales
!amily: >ydrocharitaceae
7enus: 9lodea
Species
9" callitrichoides
9" canadensis
9" nuttallii
Einomial name: 9geria densa P8A6C>O6
Synonyms
Anacharis densa"
Classi2ication G Species o2 Cse Ao %<uaristsB
LhatMs in a nameO Plenty" In the case of discussing the plants here$ the common name (anacharis( used to be a
valid genus name for some of these plants& and is a moni'er still often used" #he correct scientific name for most
species of (anacharis( is 9lodea" 9geria is another recent <+5?+= erected genus for a similar plant <the one of
most interest to a)uarists= that produces 3 to - flo%ers <9lodea only +=$ that have large and deeply %hite petals
<versus small and colorless=$ and are pollinated by insects <elodeas is done via %ater="
9lodea and 9geria are members of the a)uarium;important frogMs;bit family <>ydrocharitaceae=" #heyMre Coined
there by such notable plant genera as Ely*a$ >ydrilla$ 8agarosiphon$ 8imnobium$ Ottelia$ Hallisneria$ et al""
9:er:ie0
6atural istribution f 9cology: Argentina$ Paraguay$ Fruguay$ Era:il" 7ood for cool to tropical a)uariums"
Physical escription: #he largest$ most (dense( elodea" 8eaves %ith rounded tips$ in %horls of three or four$ to
over an inch in length"
A)uarium suitability : A very important a)uarium plant$ thrives )uic'ly$ using up suspended tan' nutrients and
hence cutting out a lot of algal gro%th" 9*cellent o*ygenater$ and very easy plant to gro%" Lill gro% in almost
any conditions but does better %ith high lighting conditions
Later conditions: #emperature: 2A;44 @ ! <+A;32 @ C=
p>: ?"2 ; 4"2
dC>: Prefers hard %ater
8ighting:
8ight level: Moderate
Propagation: Cut stems %ill readily root in sand or gravel"
#acopa monnieri
Kingdom: Plantae
<unran'ed=: 9udicots
<unran'ed=: Asterids
Order: 8amiales
!amily: Scrophulariaceae
7enus: Eacopa
Species: E" monnieri
Einomial name
Eacopa monnieri
8" Pennell.+/
Synonyms
Eacopa monniera
Indian Penny%ort <8"= Pennell
Eramia monnieri <8"= Pennell
7ratiola monnieria 8"
>erpestes monnieria <8"= Kunth
>erpestis fauriei >"8ev"
>erpestis monniera
>erpestris monnieria
8ysimachia monnieri 8"
Moniera euneifolia
Eacopa monnieri <Coastal Laterhyssop$ Erahmi$ #hyme;leafed gratiola$ Later hyssop= is a perennial$ creeping
herb %hose habitat includes %etlands and muddy shores" Erahmi is also the name given to Centella asiatica$
particularly in north India$.3/.,/ although that may be a case of mista'en identification that %as introduced
during the +?th century".-/
;escription
#he leaves of this plant are succulent and relatively thic'" 8eaves are oblanceolate and are arranged oppositely
on the stem" #he flo%ers are small and %hite$ %ith four or five petals" Its ability to gro% in %ater ma'es it a
popular a)uarium plant" It can even gro% in slightly brac'ish conditions" Propagation is often achieved through
cuttings" #his plant is Cust as happy submerged as it is on boggy conditions" #hey %ill flo%er on a regular basis
but these %ill soon rot if under%ater and it is very rare that seeds %ill be formed" It is used in many medicines
especially for epilepsy and asthma$ in Hietnam is is also used in their cuisine"
>colo&y
It commonly gro%s in marshy areas throughout India$ 6epal$ Sri 8an'a$ China$ #ai%an$ and Hietnam$ and is also
found in !lorida$ >a%aii and other southern states of the FSA %here it can be gro%n in damp conditions by the
pond or bog garden"
(edicine use
#his plant has a number of uses in Ayurveda" It is a traditional treatment for epilepsy and asthma".2/ It has
antio*idant properties$ reducing o*idation of fats in the bloodstream".2/ >o%ever$ anti;epilepsy properties seem
to be in very high to*ic and near lethal doses$ so itMs only usedQat much lo%er non;to*ic dosageQas an additive
to regular epilepsy medication" Studies in humans sho% that an e*tract of the plant has antian*iety effects".2/.?/
It is listed as a nootropic$ a drug that enhances cognitive ability" In India$ this plant has also been used
traditionally to consecrate ne%born babies in the belief that it %ill open the gate%ay of intelligence" 8aboratory
studies on rats indicate that e*tracts of the plant improve memory capacity.4/ and motor learning ability".2/
0ecent studies suggest bacopa may improve intellectual activity".1/.5/.+A/ #he sulfhydryl and polyphenol
components of Eacopa monniera e*tract have also been sho%n to impact the o*idative stress cascade by
scavenging reactive o*ygen species$ inhibiting lipo*ygenase activity and reducing divalent metals".++/ #his
mechanism of action may e*plain the effect of Eacopa monniera e*tract in reducing beta amyloid deposits in
mice %ith Al:heimerMs disease".++/ E" monnieri has a demonstrated ability to reverse dia:epam;induced amnesia
in the Morris %ater ma:e test" #he mechanism of this action is un'no%n".+3/ In some trials$ bacopacide e*tract
did not restore or enhance memory formation$ but improved retention".+,/.+-/ In others including a randomi:ed
clinical trial of 51 healthy older people <over 22 years=Eacopa significantly improved memory ac)uisition and
retention".+2/
Its many active compounds include: al'aloids <brahmine and herpestine=$ saponins <d;mannitol and hersaponin$
acid A$ and monnierin=$ flavonoids <luteolin and apigenin=" Also in significant amounts: betulic acid$
stigmastarol$ beta;sitosterol$ bacopasaponins <bacosides A$ bacosides E$ bacopaside II$ bacopaside I$ bacopaside
P$ bacopasaponin C$ bacopaside 63 and the minor components %ere bacopasaponin !$ bacopasaponin 9$
bacopaside 6+$ bacopaside III$ bacopaside IH$ and bacopaside H=" In rats$ bacosides A enhance antio*idant
defenses$ increasing supero*ide dismutase <SO=$ catalase <CA#= and glutathione pero*idase <7PP= activity"
.+?/
Lhen a preparation of the plant %as evaluated for safety and tolerability it sho%ed no adverse effects but there
%ere some reports of mild gastrointestinal symptoms".+4/
Cuisine
It is used in Hietnamese cuisine$ %here it is called rau stng biun" It is used in chJo cJ$ a variety of rice congee
made %ith fish and nvm trwm mushrooms"
%<uarium use
It is an easy plant to ta'e care of" It is a fast gro%ing plant %ith root gro%th at leaf Cunctions if your %ater
chemistry is OK" I ended up giving up on this plant not becuase it did not gro%$ in fact$ it gro% so much that it
%as all over the place" 6ot a thing you %ant %ith a thin plant %ith small leaves" >o%ever$ if you %ant a fast
gro%ing plant to decorate your tan'Ms corner then this is the plant for you" Eacopa monnieri is a 'no%n
hyperaccumulator of cadmium$ chromium$ lead and mercury$ and as such can be used for phytoremediation".+1/
.+5/
Ma*imum si:e: 32 ; 2A cm < 5"1- ; +5"?5 in =
p> of %ater: ?", ; 1"1
> of %ater: d7> 1 ; ,A @6
0ecommended %ater temperature: 3A ; 34 @C < ?1 ; 1A"? @!=
0ecommended substrate: !ine gravel
8ight conditions: Eright
Place in a)uarium: Eac'ground
Lay of propagation: 8ateral shoots
Plant origin: 9very%here
7ro%th: Slo%
Propa&ation
8ateral shoots& remove the side shoots from the plant and remove the bottom leaves to reveal a bare stem at the
bottom of the cutting" #his is then simply placed into the substrate$ ta'e care not to crush the base of the stem$
and it %ill soon root to form a ne% plant" Lhen first planted ensure that there are plenty of nutrients to promote
the root gro%th"
!icrosorum pteropus. 5a0a )ern
Kingdom: Plantae
ivision: Pteridophyta
Class: Pteridopsida
Order: Polypodiales
!amily: Polypodiaceae
7enus: Microsorum
Species: M" pteropus
Einomial name: Microsorum pteropus$ Elume$ +5,,
9:er:ie0
Microsorum pteropus$ commonly 'no%n as Gava fern an a)uatic fern from southeast Asia$ is highly variable %ith
several different geographic varieties that vary in leaf si:e and shape" It is found attached to roots and roc's in
nature"
@n the a<uarium
Several cultivars of Gava !ern e*ist" #hese include the (6arro% 8eaf( Gava fern$ the (6eedle 8eaf( Gava fern$ the
(Lindelov( Gava fern$ the (8ance leaf( Gava fern and the regular type$ Cultivation in the a)uarium is not
problematic as long as the rhi:ome is tied to roc' or drift%ood and not planted directly into the substrate" It can
be easily reproduced from small adventitious plants %hich are formed on the older leaves" #hese ne% plants
should be attached to a roc' or drift%ood %ith a thin %ire$ rubber band or fishing line until ne% anchor roots
have been formed" once ne% rhi:omes have formed these can be ta'en off and planted onto more roc's or
drift%ood It can also be done %ith cotton thread$as this dissolves in %ater after about t%o months" #his plant
does particularly %ell %ith fish that are normally detrimental to plants$ on account of its relatively bitter taste"
#emperature: +1 ; ,A C
P>: 2"A ; 1"A
8ighting: Hery 8o%
7ro%th 0ate: Slo%
ifficulty: Hery 9asy
>eight 3A;,2cm$ Lidth$ 2;+2cm$ 8ight lo%;high$ #emperature +1;,AlC$ p> tolerance ?;1$ '> 3;+2" Can also
%ithstand slightly brac'ish conditions" Gava !ern actually re)uires lo% light& in higher intensity light it gets
(burned( and develops transparent patches"
#he Gava !ern has very distinguished characteristics from most other a)uatic plants" More than Cust beautiful$
this plant is )uite undemanding and easy to cultivate$ even doing %ell in poorly lit tan's and %ithout e*tra
nutrients or CO3" ItMs also an ideal plant to use in setups that contain burro%ing or vegetarian fishes$ since in
general they %ill not disturb it" #his plant should not be buried in the gravel$ but rather fi*ed to roc's and
drift%ood$ leaving its roots loose in the %ater" #he roots eventually attach themselves to the roc' or %ood"
I use it in a -A liter a)uarium that I set up Cust so I could 'eep a din'y pair of incandescent bulbs on it and have
plants" ItMs housed only %ith d%arf anubias$ and Cava fern is a nice$ taller$ companion" Its roots attach %ell to a
roc' %all I made of lava roc'$ and loo's great pee'ing out of all the crevices" ItMs nice to use %hen you have fish
that prefer subdued light but li'e a planted tan'" I %ill use it in an apistogramma tan'" I only use a li)uid
fertili:er after %ater changes$ and so far it has done %ell" Eecause of the incandescent bulbs$ even though it
produces ne% shoots li'e mad it hasnMt attained the height that$ in my opinion$ ma'es it less attractive"
Microsorum pteropus$ 'no%n far and %ide as MGava !ernM$ can be found gro%ing in a myriad of environments on
its native continent of Asia" #his universal a)uarium plant is available for sale in most every establishment that
sells a)uatic plants$ though the cultivars M" pteropus M#ropicaM and M" pteropus MLindelovM <so named for the
a)uatic plant nursery #ropica and its o%ner= are less fre)uently encountered"
M" pteropus is one of the easiest a)uatic plants to cultivate$ and as such$ it is an indispensable starting point for
the a)uatic plant novice" #his ease of maintenance combined %ith its ability to root on roc's and other surfaces
that are typically unavailable for planting have assured this speciesM longevity in the hobby" Medium light is
sufficient for optimal gro%th$ though higher and lo%er values are tolerated %ell" 8i'e plants from the genus
Anubias$ M" pteropus features a rhi:ome from %hich both leaves and roots develop" #his can be anchored to a
roc' or a piece of drift%ood using threads or other materials& after a fe% months the roots %ill ta'e hold and the
binding media can be removed" If the a)uarist desires to plant this plant in the substrate$ he or she should ta'e
care to bury only the roots and not the rhi:ome" #hough e*ceptional fertili:ation and CO3 supplementation are
not necessary$ good circulation is essential for good gro%th" 9mersed cultivation %ithin a paludarium or
terrarium is easy$ as long as the planting surface or substrate is 'ept fairly moist"
Propa&ation
Lhen %ell adapted$ it reproduces easily$ and the reproduction is )uite interesting: the daughter plants are born on
the edge of the leaves of the mother plant and gro% right there$ clinging on it %ith their little roots" Lith time the
daughters gro% until they release themselves from the mother$ and float around until they get entangled on
something" #he hairy roots adhere easily"
#he propagation of M" pteropus is merely a matter of either dividing the creeping rhi:ome %ith a 'nife and
reattaching or replanting the severed piece$ or removing the adventitious plants that periodically form on the
leaves and securing them"
Lith its distinctive ability to gro% on other%ise unplantable surfaces$ the possible applications of M" pteropus in
the a)uascape are virtually unlimited" A favorite place for this species is gro%ing on a piece of %ood in the
middle or rear area of the a)uarium" Another popular practice is the planting of a cor'%ood bac'ground %ith this
species$ %here it proves an e*cellent bac'drop for other species gro%ing in the substrate"
Cladophora aegagropila& 5apanese !oss #alls
Kingdom: Plantae
ivision: Chlorophyta
Class: Flvophyceae
Order: Cladophorales
!amily: Cladophoraceae
7enus: Aegagropila
Einomial name: Aegagropila aegagropila$ Kot:ing
Moss Eall$ 8a'e Eall$ Cladophora Eall" #his plant has become very popular over recent years in the a)uarium
hobby but sadly many of the local areas that had colonies of these are disappearing" #hey are actually a form of
green algae and the inside of the ball is mainly soil or mud"
@n2ormation about care
Ma*imum si:e: 3 ; +A cm < A"45 ; ,"5- in =
p> of %ater: ?"3 ; 1
> of %ater: d7> +3 ; ,A @6
0ecommended %ater temperature: +2 ; 34 @C < 25 ; 1A"? @!=
0ecommended substrate: 0oc'y
8ight conditions: Medium
Place in a)uarium: Middle
Lay of propagation: ivisions
Plant origin: 9urope
7ro%th: Slo%
9ri&in
9urope$ these are commonly found in Iceland and 9stonia but they are no% being gro%n in Gapan for the
a)uarium hobby"
Plantin& %rea
#hese plants are non;rooted mosses that are simply placed on the substrate "
7i&htin& 6e<uirements
Medium lighting$ if lo%er levels are used the plants %ill fade and lose some of their rich green colouration
Propa&ation
#o produce fresh plants from the mother plant$ simply divide the ball into smaller pieces" #hese %ill loo'
irregular to start %ith but over a period of time they %ill develop into a spherical shape again$ you have to be
patient %ith these plants as they are slo% gro%ers"
;i22iculty
Medium
)i*erse
)i*erse
Primul ac0ariu
MaCoritatea acvaristilor isi incep `carieraa prin acti:itionarea unui acvariu din targ$ cumpara cativa pesti """ si
apoi incep problemele :;=" Cum cel mai simplu este sa inveti din greselile altora$ am sa incerc sa scriu cateva
lucruri despre primul acvariu" Fn acvariu este un colt de natura la noi in casa" Pe cat posibil trebuie sa le
asiguram pestilor si plantelor aceleasi conditii ca in natura" Sunt pesti care au nevoie de o temperatura mai
ridicata$ altii trebuie tinuti la o temperatura mai Coasa" Fnii tolerea:a in Curul lor alte specii$ iar altii sunt foarte
teritoriali"
e asemenea$ dimensiunile acvariului trebuie alese in functie de pestii pe care dorim sa ii crestem" Cel mai
simplu este sa apelati la un amic care sa va aCute in achi:itionarea unui acvariu" Sau daca nu aveti un prieten
priceput$ puteti gasi acvaristi amabili la http:BB%%%"acvariu"roBforum :;=" aca aveti rabdare sa cititi cateva
articole inainte de a cumpara acvariul si pestii$ ar fi e*celent m
Fn acvarist informat va avea re:ultate e*celente intr;un timp foarte scurt" 6imic nu este mai placut decat sa
ve:i un acvariu frumos$ cu plante vii si pesti sanatosi" aca sariti peste pasii de inceput <si multi fac asta= veti
avea parte de pierderi$ plantele nu vor creste$ apa se va umple de alge$ iar dvs de nervi" eci$ mai intai va
decideti ce pesti doriti" aca doriti mai multe specii$ trebuie sa verificati daca se `potrivesca dpdv hrana$
temperatura$ p> etc" In functie de aceasta alegeti dimensiunile acvariului$ precum si plantele"
+azinul
Personal$ va sugere: pentru inceput un acvariu de -2;2A de litri" 6u veti investi foarte multi bani$ iar ulterior
acesta se va dovedi foarte util" Acesta este un acvariu e*celent pentru inceput$ dupa cateva luni de acvaristica
veti acumula suficiente informatii pentru a va dori un acvariu mare$ de peste +2A de litri" 9 perfect adevarat ca un
ba:in mai mare se intretine mai usor$ insa la inceput este bine sa invatam `rutinaa: schimbatul apei$ observarea
cu atentie a pestilor si plantelor etc" In acest acvariu veti putea creste 2;+A pestisori" ar nu va grabiti$ inca nu
este momentul sa ii si cumparati mm upa ce vom avea un acvariu mai mare$ vom pastra ba:inul de 2A litri pe post
de carantina$ dupa cum veti citi lai sectiunea (Pesti("
>chipamente
In principiu aveti nevoie de urmatoarele: incal:itor cu termostat$ pompa de aer <g piatra de aer $ furtun=$ filtru
<daca poate si aera$ pompa de aer poate lipsi=& filtrarea se poate face si mecanic$ prin bureti actionati de Cetul de
aer" aca va cumparati un acvariu vara$ cumparati incal:itorul mai tar:iu" Mai aveti nevoie de un furtun cu
aCutorul caruia veti schimba apa$ nu alegeti unul foarte gros" Fn furtun subtire va este util mai ales pentru
culegerea resturilor de pe fundul acvariului" Mai aveti nevoie si de o galeata$ in aceasta veti lasa apa la
(invechit(" O sa e*plic si ce este cu apa asta" e asemenea$ un minciog este absolut necesar pentru a putea muta
pestii dintr;un loc in altul" Fn termometru va indica permament temperatura in acvariu" Fn neon va asigura
iluminatul in acvariului$ garantand si cresterea plantelor"
;ecor
6F folositi elemente de decor improprii oricat de atractive v;ar parea" 6F folositi pietris colorat" Arata urat si
contra:ice un principiu de ba:a: acvariul trebuie sa arate pe cat posibil$ ca mediul natural al pestilor" 9u ersonal
nu folosesc decor" upa ce capatati suficienta e*perienta veti decide singuri daca aveti sau nu nevoie de decor
pentru acvariu" Asta depinde si de po:itionarea lui in camera"
Substrat
Se recomanda folosirea substratului de pietrisgnisip <bacterii folositoare se formea:a in substrat=" Ha sugere:
un nisip cu granulatia mai mare$ nu unul foarte fin <sufoca radacinile plantelor=" Pietrisul trebuie sa fie din roci
dure$ nu calcaroase"
0ocile calcaroase modifica in timp apa$ ceea ce poate fi fatal pestilor" In principiu$ substratul ar trebui sa aiba
grosimea de ,;2 cm" Acesta trebuie pus mai subtire in partea din fata a acvariului si mai gros in cea din spate$ din
motive estetice: se crea:a un fel de panta$ puteti vedea astfel tot acvariul$ nu numai partea din fata"
)i*erse
Plante
Plantele sunt folositoare <consuma din substantele organic descompuse in ba:in$ o*igenare$ frumusete etc="
0ecomandam folosirea unor specii mai re:istente siBsau mai ieftine" 9lodeea$ Halisneria$ Eacopa$ unii
echinodorusi sunt destul de re:istene" 8a fel si anubias" Hi:itati sectiunea plante a sitului %%%"acvariu"ro pentru
a citi detalii despre toate aceste plante" Plantele ce cresc mari le veti pune mai in spate$ cele mai mici vor ocupa
partea din fata a acvariului dvs" Pestii mai mari vor astfel obligati sa inoate in partea din fata a acvariului$ spre
bucuria dvs" Cei mici isi vor gasi refugiul intre plantele mari din partea din spate a acvariului" Pe cat posibil
incercati sa mascati filtrul$ buretii$ incal:itorul in spatele plantelor mari"
Pesti
Sunt considerati pesti ai incepatorilor viviparii <nasc pui vii=$ care va vor da oca:ia inmultirii pestilor fara
eforturi deosebite" Ca principiu$ un vivipar la - litri de apa este un minim recomandat$ nu suprapopulati
acvariulm" Sunt foarte frecvente asocierile nepotrivite de pesti facute de incepatori <guppy si *ipho alaturi de
carasi aurii$ betta$ :ebre si nigro=" Ha trebui sa va stapaniti" Sau pseudotropheus auratus <cichlid african= alaturi
de *ipho B guppy etc" #rebuie sa re:istati tentatiei de a strange in ba:in o multime de pesti de diferite feluri" Cel
mai simplu este sa cumparati o pereche de *ipho$ una de moly si cativa guppy" Pentru inceput nu va complicati
viata cu pesti pretentiosi si foarte scumpi m Cereti sfatul cuiva priceput$ pe forum veti gasi prieteni dispusi sa va
aCute"
Fn alt aspect care trebuie avut in vedere este <pentru armoni:area ba:inului= cel al functiunilor unor pesti"
Spre e*emplu$ intr;un ba:in pasnic cu leeri ati putea tine niste 'uhli sau corydorasi pentru a consuma mancarea
de la fundul apei$ sau un ancistrus sau alt mancator de alge pentru combaterea acestora"
Procurarea pestilor: pe cat posibil$ luati pesti si plante de la prieteni" Heti avea garantia ca acestia nu sunt
bolnavi" Cu un peste cumparat din targ sau din maga:in riscati sa va umpleti acvariul cu diverse boli$ unele
f"dificil de tratat" aca totusi vreodata cumparati pesti din surse nesigure$ acestia trebuie tinuti separat o luna de
:ile inainte de a fi introdusi in acvariu <carantina=" In aceasta luna aveti oca:ia sa ii observati foarte atent$ iar
daca vedeti ca au probleme$ nu au pofta de mancare$ inoata haotic$ etc$ nu ii introduceti in acvariul dvs" 6u
cumparati niciodata pesti din acvariile in care vedeti pesti morti$ sau bolnavi" 6u riscatimm
*rana
Pestii trebuie hraniti in functie de necesitatile lor$ pe cat posibil cat mai variat" 0ecomandam hrana industriala
administrata alternativ cu hrana vie <larve libelule= si hrana congelata <tubii B libelule B artemii=" 9ste foarte
important sa nu abu:ati cu hrana" 0esturile neconsumate aCung pe fundul acvariului$ unde se descompun$ apa isi
pierde claritatea$ iar dpdv chimic isi schimba proprietatile" 0iscati sa pierdeti o parte din pesti mm Ha sugere: sa le
dati hrana putina$ cat apucati intre doua degete" upa ce o termina$ le mai dati inca o data" Si tot asa" Imediat
cum pestii isi pierd interesul pentru hrana$ incetati hranirea" Fn peste hranit in e*ces devine gras si isi reduce
durata de viata" e principiu$ este suficient sa hraniti pestii de 3;, ori pe :i"
Aeste apa
Apa si caracteristicile acesteia ar trebui monitori:ate" 9*ista in comert mai multe produse de testat acesti
parametri"
Apa din acvariu trebuie sa fie clara$ sa nu aibe nuante ver:ui" Schimbarea a +A;+2U din apa trebuie sa devina
o rutina pentru dvs" Cum probabil ca veti folosi apa de la robinet$ va sugere: sa procedati astfel: umpleti o
galeata de plastic cu apa de la robinet <apa rece$ nu calda=" O tineti minim 3;, :ile$ abia apoi puteti sa o
introduceti in acvariul cu pesti" Aceasta pentru ca in apa de la robinet e*ista clor g alte substante ce nu fac bine
pestilor" aca puteti pune in galeata o piatra de aer g un incal:itor$ veti accelera ritmul in care clorul este
eliminat"
O'$ deci ati decis ce pesti doriti pentru inceput$ sa presupunem ca ati ales vivipari" Cumparati un acvariu de
-A;2A de litri" Spalati;l foarte bine cu apa rece$ nu folositi sapunBdetergenti" Introducem substratul
<pietrisulgnisipul=" Introducem filtrul si termometrul" aca e iarna$ introducem si termostatul" Fmplem acvariul
cu apa$ dar nu pana la preaplin$ mai lasati ,;- cm" upa +2 minute pornim filtrul si incal:itorul cu termostat
<viviparii pot fi crescuti la temperaturi intre 33;32 de grade=" upa 3 :ile putem introduce plantele in acvariu$
ulterior si pestii" #rebuie sa re:istati tentatiei de a lua multi pesti de la inceput :;=" Ha sugere: ca sa stingeti
iluminatul acvariului noaptea"
)i*erse
@ntretinerea bazinului
Se va face saptamanal sau macar odata la 3 saptamani" Apa 6F trebuie schimbata in intregime$ ci in Curul a +A
; ,AU$ in functie de marimea ba:inului si intervalul de timp <ba:in mai mare ; procent mai mic=" Apa va fi scoasa
de preferinta cu un furtun$ aspirand deseurile de la fundul ba:inului" e principiu e de preferat sa schimbati apa
mai des si mai putin decat mult si rar$ pentru ca un schimb masiv de apa produce schimbari bruste in chimia apei
<aciditate$ duritate$ etc=$ ceea ce poate cau:a pierderea unor pesti mai sensibili"
In timp$ unele frun:e mor si este bine sa le eliminati din acvariu" Curatati saptamanal buretii din interiorul
acvariului$ daca aveti 3$ curatati cate unul saptamanal" 6u spalati buretele decat cu apa rece$ fara sapun sau alte
chimicale" In acesti bureti e*ista bacterii foarte utile care fac sa mentina echilibrul biologic al apei"
Ce ar mai fi de spus$ ca o recapitulare
1. nu hraniti pestii in e#ces
2. nu supra$populati ac%ariul
&. nu uitati sa schimbati apa saptamanal 10$1'(
). nu folositi *I+I,-!.! la intretinerea ac%ariului substante chimice. -e e#emplu, nu folositi
detergenti pentru a curata geamurile ac%ariului.
'. ac%ariul nu trebuie sa stea in bataia directa a soarelui. /iscati o e#plozie a algelor.
0. curatati sapamanal geamurile ac%ariului.
1. nu cumparati pesti din surse nesigure.
)i*erse
S)aturi pe scurt
%chizitiile de pesti
6u cumparati pesti bolnavi in speranta ca ii veti vindeca"
6u cumparati niciodata un peste aparent sanatos dintr;un ba:in cu pesti morti"
In calitate de incepator$ este bine sa nu cumparati specii rare"
6u cumparati pesti tineri fara a lua in considerare dimensiunile lor cand aCung la varsta adulta"
6u puneti pestii proaspat achi:itionati direct in ba:inul dumneavoastram
Pestii se pot adapta la schimbari ale p>;ului de ordinul a cinci :ecimi" Fn salt de doua puncte insa$ ar
putea fi fatal" e multe ori se intampla ca pesti perfect sanatosi la cumparare sa moara cand sunt mutati
in ba:ine cu o mare diferenta de p>"
e aceea se procedea:a in felul urmator: mai intai se lasa sa pluteasca in ba:in punga cu pesti +A;+2
minute <pentru egali:area temperaturilor=& apoi se amesteca treptat apa de transport cu cea din acvariul
de destinatie$ dupa care sunt introdusi definitiv in acvariu"
+azinul
6u trebuie amplasat pe perva:ul unei ferestre$ deoarece e*cesul de lumina va avea efecte negative$
descrise in amanunt la capitolul (Iluminatul("
;ecorul si substratul
6u puneti melci si scoici ca decor <duri:ea:a apa="
6u folositi nisip calcaros decat pentru acvariile cu pesti care necesita un astfel de nisip <cichlide
africane=" Cum testati nisipul vedeti in sectiunea (Substratul("
6u folositi pietris colorat artificial ; creea:a un aspect artificial si poate fi si nociv"
@ncalzitorul
6u;l porniti decat daca este scufundat in apa <atentiem unele modele nu functionea:a complet
scufundate=$ deoarece se incal:este foarte repede daca este scos din apa" In acest ca: va puteti arde
degetele$ iar daca il scapati$ poate e*plodam
%pa
6u schimbati brusc calitatile apei"
6iciodata nu se schimba toata apa din acvariu"
6u se va inlocui niciodata mai mult de +B3 din volumul acvariului" aca nu se procedea:a astfel$ se
poate aCunge pana la moartea pestilor si a plantelor" Se recomanda schimbarea a 32U din apa"
aca folositi apa de ploaie ca sursa de apa$ asigurati;va ca locul de colectare este curat"
7umina
6u porniti sau stingeti lumina brusc$ fiindca stresea:a pestii <de e*emplu$ discusii care depun sunt
foarte speriosi=" Aprinderea luminii se face daca se poate gradual <intai lumina trebuie sa patrunda in
camera$ apoi se aprinde la pesti="
6u folositi accesorii nere:istente la apa"
)i*erse
*ranire
6u spraalimentati pestii"
6u va fi*ati pe un singur tip de dieta <maCoritatea incepatorilor isi chinuie pestii hranindu;i doar cu
purici de balta uscati="
6u negliCati speciile nocturne"
6u uitati sa spalati viermii tubife* inainte de hranire"
@nmultire
Asigurati;va ca perechea nu are defecte fi:ice"
#emperatura si decorul trebuie sa se potriveasca cu cerintele speciei"
6u deranCati pestii cand depun <eventual acoperiti geamul frontal="
ProteCati oualeBpuii de parintii flaman:i si alte specii predatoare"
6u inmultiti pestii la intamplare& pastrati culorile pure"
Herificati filtrul regulat: icrele fertili:ate pot fi atrase in cutia acestuia si pot chiar eclo:a acolo"
Plante
6u achi:itionati plante pentru un ba:in cu pesti al caror biotop natural nu contine plante: le vor devora B
de:radacina <chiar daca numai in periodele de reproducere="
6u cumparati plante daca sunt: pline de alge <cu urme de alge=$ palide$ in putrefactie si nici daca nu
cunoasteti necesitatile acestora" Fnele plante au nevoie de temperaturi mai inalte$ altele de apa rece ;
re:ultand evident ca nu vor supravietui impreuna in acelasi ba:in"
6u uitati sa adaugati substante nutritive pentru plante"
Sanatate
6u cumparati decat pesti compatibili si sanatosi"
6u introduceti imediat noile achi:itii: tineti;le in carantina mai intai"
6u tratati pestii brutal: transportul si manipularea trebuie sa se faca cu cea mai mare atentie"
6u supraalimentati pestii" 0esturile <mai ales daca se foloseste hrana de casa= pot provoca boli" e
aceea trebuie indepartate dupa ce pestii nu se mai hranesc"
6u lasati pestii bolnavi la un loc cu cei sanatosi& trebuie mutati imediat intr;un acvariu;spital"
6u folositi plasele cu care ati mutat pesti bolnavi inainte de a le de:infecta"
6u lasati metale in apa"
)i*erse
Ciclul Azotului
%zot/ amoniac/ nitriti/ nitrati
A:otul <6= este un element esenxial al xesuturilor animale yi vegetale" Moleculele a:otate$ provenind de la
animale <e*crementele peytilor=$ vegetale sau mzncarea Wn surplus$ sunt transformate Wn amoniac <6>, sau
6>-g=$ care este foarte to*ic pentru peyti" Acest fenomen se Wntzmpl{ yi Wn natur{ Wns{ volumul de ap{ este foarte
mare fax{ de num{rul de peyti astfel Wnczt concentraxia de amoniac este foarte mic{" |n acvarii volumul de ap{
este mic yi concentraxia de amoniac poate deveni periculoas{ Wn anumite condixii"
#ransformarea amoniacului in nitriti si din nitriti in nitrati poarta numele de Ciclul A:otului"""
6O#}: pentru a p{stra denumirile pe care le vexi g{si Wn toate documentele Wn engle:{ am preferat Wn documentul de fax{ s{ folosesc denumirea de
nitrixiBnitraxi Wn loc de a:otixiBa:otaxi$ Wn romzn{ ambele denumiri fiind corecte yi utili:ate"
|n pre:enxa o*igenului din ap{ amoniacul este transformat de c{tre bacterii <nitrosomonas= Wn nitrixi~
<6O3;=" Aceytia sunt to*ici la valori mai mari de A$, mgBl"
6itrixii$ Wn pre:enxa o*igenului sunt transformaxi la rzndul lor de alte bacterii <nitrobacter= Wn 6itraxi <6O,;="
6itraxii sunt mai puxin to*ici pentru viexuitoarele din mediul acvatic iar pentru plante constituie chiar un nutrient
strict necesar" 6itraxii sunt veriga finala a acestor transform{ri ale a:otului$ ei acumulandu;se Wn timp"
Concentraxia ma*im{ de nitraxi este de +AA mgBl <recomandabil sa nu se dep{yeasc{ valoarea de 2A mgBl=" Acest
lanx de transform{ri poart{ numele de `Ciclul a:otuluia"
Ciclul %zotului
#oate elementele care particip{ la acest ciclu <o*igen$ bacterii$ p>$ temperatur{$ plante$ materii organice
primare din care provine amoniacul$ etc"= trebuie p{strate Wntr;un echilibru"
8a Wnceputul procesului$ Wntr;un tanc nou$ num{rul de bacterii este mic" |nmulxirea acestora se face lent$ pe
m{sur{ ce cantitatea de amoniac yi respectiv nitrixi din ap{ creyte" 8a Wnceput se de:volt{ bacteriile care
descompun amoniacul Wn nitrixi yi dup{ ce concentraxia de nitrixi dep{yeyte o anumit{ valoare Wncep s{ se
Wnmulxeasc{ bacteriile care transform{ nitrixii Wn nitraxi"
up{ o perioad{ de timp$ coloniile de bacterii devin suficient de de:voltate pentru a transforma tot
amoniacul Wn nitrixi yi nitrixii Wn nitraxi"
Pe parcursul acestui proces$ deoarece num{rul de bacterii este mic$ concentraxiile de amoniac yi nitrixi
dep{yesc de multe ori valorile ma*ime ceea ce duce la multe de:astre"
)i*erse
`Sindromul acvariului noua s;ar
traduce prin faptul c{ Wncep{torii
populea:{ acvariul imediat ce l;au
umplut cu ap{" in cau:a
nivelurilor mari de amoniac yi nitrixi
de la Wnceputul ciclului a:otului apar
de:astre <mor peyti=" Prima tentaxie
a Wncep{torului este s{ schimbe
imediat o mare cantitate de apa <de
cele mai multe ori toat{ apa=$ s{
spele foarte des filtrele yiBsau s{
introduc{ medicamente Wn acvariu"""
#oate acestea duc la distrugerea
coloniilor de bacterii care deabia
Wncepuser{ s{ se forme:e yi""" totul
se reia de la cap{t"""
Pentru a evita astfel de de:astre v{
recomand{m ca la pornirea unui acvariu nou s{ respectaxi czteva reguli:
; Wn prima s{pt{mzn{ nu se vor introduce peyti Wn acvariu" |n aceast{ perioad{ se va introduce Wn acvariu mzncare pentru peyti ca pentru +;3 peyti"
; up{ prima s{pt{mzn{ se vor introduce primii peyti <3;- Wn funcxie de m{rimea acvariului=" Aceytia trebuie s{ fie neap{rat din specii foarte
re:istente nepretenxioyi yi recomandabil mai ieftinim e obicei aceytia sunt din familia `sanitarilora"
; up{ Wnc{ , s{pt{mzni putem considera c{ acvariul este coloni:at destul de puternic cu bacterii pentru a;l putea popula complet cu peyti"
0ecomand totuyi efectuarea periodic{ a unor teste pentru determinarea e*act{ a valorilor de amoniac$ nitrixi yi
nitraxi pentru a xine sub control ciclul a:otului yi respectiv starea acvariului"
Cel mai greu lucru pentru un pasionat al acvaristicii este s{ stea yi s{ aytepte ,A de :ile lzng{ un acvariu f{r{
peyti""" inexi minte c{ acest efort merit{ yi c{ astfel vexi scuti alte s{pt{mzni de munc{ pentru reechilibrarea
acvariului sau pierderea unor e*emplare de peyti valoroase sau la care xinexi"
Controlul Ciclului %zotului
|n general putem considera c{ Wn acest sistem unul din parametrii care este foarte uyor de controlat este
amoniacul respectiv sursele primare din care apare amoniacul" P{strarea unui num{r optim de peyti pe volumul
de ap{ din acvariu yi evitarea supraaliment{rii acestora sunt c{ile cele mai la Wndemzna noastr{ pentru a p{stra
echilibrul"
e asemenea Wntr;un acvariu bine plantat este mai uyor de p{strat acest echilibru$ plantele fiind consumatoare de
nitraxi"
O*igenarea apei este un alt factor care favori:ea:{ activitatea bacteriilor" Prin schimb{rile regulate de ap{ se
elimin{ din acvariu surplusul de alimente$ resturile vegetale yi alte materii organice yi Wn principal surplusul de
nitraxi <propriu :is sc{dem concentraxia acestora="
Eacteriile care reali:ea:{ transform{rile din ciclul a:otului se g{sesc peste tot Wn mediul nostru <ap{$ aer"""=" #ot
ce ne r{mzne de f{cut este s{ le cre{m un mediu propice de de:voltare" 9le se de:volt{$ Wn general$ pe suprafaxa
oric{rui obiect dintr;un acvariu <geamuri$ pietre$ filtre$ etc"= yi foarte puxin Wn ap{" Pentru a;yi Wndeplini rolul
trebuie s{ dipun{ de o suprafax{ foarte mare yi s{ intre Wn contact cu o cantitate mare de ap{ o*igenat{" in aceste
cau:e cel mai bun mediu de de:voltare a coloniilor de bacterii sunt filtrele <Wn acestea o circulaxie lent{ a apei
favori:ea:{ procesul="
Fn alt factor foarte important Wn st{pznirea Ciclului A:otului este Wnlocuirea periodic{ a unei cantit{xi de apa"
Prin aceast{ acxiune se Wndep{rtea:{ nitraxii Wn e*ces yi se introduc Wn acvariu$ odat{ cu apa proasp{t{$
micronutrienxi necesari creyterii plantelor"
#impul de ciclare a unui acvariu nou poate fi micyorat prin mai multe metode:
!olosirea Wn prima perioad{ <f{r{ peyti Wn acvariu= de substanxe chimice conxinznd amoniu care s{ forxe:e coloni:area cu bacterii <ve:i yi
articolul Ciclarea f{r{ peyti="
Introducerea de produse speciale care conxin bacterii <la noi cel mai cunoscut produs este Cycle dar mai sunt yi altele=" 6u cunosc reali:{ri
notabile la folosirea acestor produse"""
Introducerea Wn noul acvariu de mediu coloni:at <nisip$ filtre$ etc"= din acvarii ciclate" Aceast{ metod{ este nerecomandat{ din punctul meu de
vedere deoarece odat{ cu acestea se pot introduce Wn noul acvariu para:ixi yiBsau bacterii nedorite$ alge$ etc" e asemenea f{r{ o cantitate minim{
necesar{ de amoniac respectiv nitrixi aceste colonii de bacterii se vor micyora pzn{ la nivelul de echilibru"""
Ftili:area plantelor naturale" Sunt unele specii$ cum ar fi Ceratopteris yi >ygrophila$ care sunt foarte utile mai ales la pornirea unui acvariu nou
deoarece aceste sunt foarte re:istente yi consum{ mulxi nitraxi"
)i*erse
up{ cum s;a ar{tat$ un rol foarte important este mediul de de:voltare al bacteriilor" Cel mai ieftin <yi Wn acelayi
timp yi foarte eficace= este filtrul din burete racordat la un vibrator de aer" Acesta este impropriu spus `filtrua
deoarece rolul lui este de mediu de de:voltare pentru bacterii <acestui filtru i se mai poate spune `filtru
biologica= yi nu de filtrare mecanic{ a apei ; prin filtrare maCoritatea oamenilor inteleg filtrarea mecanic{ adic{
rexinerea impurit{xilor" #rebuie s{ xinexi cont c{ prin sp{larea lui micyoraxi num{rul de bacterii sau chiar le
distrugexi pe toate <sp{larea este totuyi necesar{ deoarece prin depunerea impurit{xilor buretele se infund{ yi
circulaxia apei este Wmpiedicat{=" in aceast{ cau:{ recomand utili:area a dou{ filtre yi sp{larea pe rznd a
acestora yi numai cznd este necesar" Pentru o corect{ cur{xare a buretelui recomand o prim{ sp{lare Wntr;o soluxie
de ,AU oxet alimentar dup{ care o Wndelungat{ sp{lare Wn ap{ curg{toare" Atenxie: oxetul distruge Wn totalitate
bacteriile yi se foloseyte cznd avexi doi burexi" |n ca:ul Wn care avexi numai un burete sp{larea trebuie s{ fie rapid{
yi numai Wn ap{$ recomandabil Wn ap{ f{r{ clor care distruge bacteriile"
Alte filtre conxin :one `biologicea necesare de:volt{rii coloniilor de bacterii" Acestea sunt formate din buc{xi de
burete$ nisip$ inele de ceramic{$ etc"
|ntr;un acvariu complet ciclat yi aflat Wn echilibru distrugerea coloniilor de bacterii prin spalarea filtrelor nu va
duce totuyi la creyterea foarte mare a valorilor de amoniac yi nitrixi deoarece bacteriile se g{sesc$ dup{ cum am
mai spus$ pe toate suprafexele obiectelor din acvariu" Acestea vor aCuta ca Wn filtrele sp{late s{ se refac{ rapid
coloniile de bacterii"
%A>NH@>B
Coloniile de bacterii care aCut{ la ciclul a:otului sunt distruse de cele mai multe medicamente yi substanxe
chimice folosite Wn tratamentele din acvaristic{" Acesta este un alt motiv <foarte puxin pre:entat sau chiar omis Wn
literatura de specialitate= de a folosi acvarii de carantin{ Wn care s{ se fac{ tratamentele" inexi minte acest lucru
de fiecare dat{ cznd facexi un tratament direct Wn acvariu" Poate apare `sindromul acvariului noua chiar yi la
acvarii stabile de mult timp$ cu atzt mai mult cu czt peytii sunt sl{bixi de boal{ yi tratamentul Wn sine""" up{ un
astfel de tratament utili:axi toate metodele de care dispunexi de a micyora cantitatea de amoniacBnitrixi: schimb{ri
:ilnice de ap{ timp de +;3 s{pt{mzni$ aerare puternic{$ gr{birea coloni:{rii cu bacterii <burexi din alte ba:ine
ciclate I cu toate riscurile aferente=$ etc"
O alt{ greyeal{ pe care am observat;o la mulxi acvariyti Wncep{tori este de a utili:a Wngr{y{minte pentru plante
terestre Wn acvariu" Aceste Wngr{y{minte au ca yi componenxi de ba:{ tripleta 6;P;K <6itraxi$ !osfaxi$ Potasiu=" Pe
maCoritatea ambalaCelor acestor produse este scris o serie de , numere <de e*emplu: 3;3;2A sau +A;3A;-A= care
repre:int{ concentraxia acestor substanxe din produs" 8a cele e*puse mai sus Wn cadrul articolului$ din care
reali:axi ce repre:int{ introducerea de nitraxi Wn e*ces$ se mai adaug{ yi faptul c{ fosfaxii sunt yi ei letali Wn
concentraxii foarte mici" #abloul cred c{ este complet yi nu necesit{ comentarii"""
Soluxiile fertili:atoare pentru acvaristic{ nu conxin fracxiile 6;P <sau cantitaxile sunt foarte mici="
Fn alt semnal de alarm{ Wl ridic asupra apei utili:ate" Multe dintre acestea conxin nitraxi <yi fosfaxi= Wn cantit{xi
mai mai mici sau mai mari Wn funcxie de sursa apei utili:ate" Chiar yi apa potabil{ are un conxinut mic de nitraxi
<acceptat Wn normativele Wn vigoare referitoare la calitatea apei potabile=$ Wn apele din fzntzni yi apele curg{toare
acest conxinut este mult mai mare <xinexi cont c{ Wn agricultur{ se utili:ea:{ cantit{xi enorme de Wngr{y{minte 6;
P;Kmmm="
%moniacul
Concentraxia de amoniac ma*im{ admis{ Wn apa din acvarii depinde de p> yi temperatura apei <yi de timpul czt
este menxinut{ aceast{ concentraxie=" |n tabelul de mai Cos sunt pre:entate valorile ma*ime admise Wn mgBl
<menxinerea peytilor la aceste valori devine letal{ Wn czteva ore=:
P> 3A lC 32 lC
?$2 +2$- ++$+
4 2 ,$?
4$2 +$? +$3
1 A$2 A$-
1$2 A$3 A$+
Se observ{ c{ Wn ape cu p>;ul yi temperatura mic{ concentraxia ma*im admis{ de amoniac este mult mai mare
deczt pentru ape cu p>;ul yi temperatura mare"

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