Sonar Presentation 2012 Compressed

Outline
1 Básico
Introdução
Física Básica
Introdução ao Sonar Som
Submarino
2 Teoria Sonar
Tipos de Sonar
Estima de Posição
Processamento de Sinal
3 Aplicações Sonar
Pesca
HUGIN AUV
Mapeamento
Imageamento
4 Resumo
Sonar Sonar
Sonar Basics
História da Acústica Submarina

Sumário
1 Básico
Introdução
Física Básica
Som Se você fizer com que seu navio pare e colocando a
Submarino ponta de um longo tubo na água e colocando a
2 Teoria Sonar
extremidade externa no ouvido, você ouvirá navios a
Tipos de Sonar uma grande distância.
Estima de Posição Leonardo da Vinci, 1490
Processamento de Sinal
In 1687 Isaac Newton escreveu em seu
3 Aplicações Sonar Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy o
Pesca primeiro tratamento matemático do som
HUGIN AUV Em1877 Lord Rayleigh escreveu a Theory of
Mapeamento Sound e estabeleceu a moderna teoria acústica.
Imageamento
4 Resumo
Sonar Sonar
História do SONAR Os mestres do sonar
SOund Navigation And Ranging
A lot of activity after the loss of British
passenger liner RMS Titanic in 1912
English meteorologist Lewis Richardson, April/May 1912: Patent
on Iceberg detection using acoustic echolocation in air and water
German physicist Alexander Behm 1913: patent on echo sounder
Canadian engineer Reginald Fessenden, 1914: Demonstrated
depth sounding, underwater communications (Morse Code) and
echo ranging detecting an iceberg at two miles range
French physicist Paul Langevin and Russian immigrant electrical From wikipedia.org.
engineer, Constantin Chilowski 1916/17: US patents on ultrasonic

submarine detector using an electrostatic method
Sonar Sonar
Tecnologias Similares Referências
Course text: sonar_introduction_2012.pdf

Course presentation: sonar_presentation_2012.pdf
SONAR = Sound Navigation And Ranging Xavier Lurton, An introduction to underwater acoustics
RADAR = Radio Detection And Ranging Springer Praxis, First edition 2002, Second edition 2010
www.wikipedia.org
Medical ultrasound, higher frequencies, shorter range and more
◮ sonar
complex medium ◮ underwater acoustics
Seismic exploration, lower frequencies, more complex medium ◮ side-scan sonar
◮ biosonar, animal echolocation
◮ beamforming
Ocean Acoustics Library http://oalib.hlsresearch.com/
Sonar Sonar
Sonar Basics Physics Sonar Basics Underwater sound
Basic Physics Underwater sound
Sound is waves travelling in pressure perturbations

Acoustics is the only long range information carrier under water
Or: compressional wave, longitudal wave, mechanical wave
The acoustic vibrations can be characterized by The pressure perturbations are very small
◮ Wave period T [s] Obtainable range is determined by
◮ Frequency f = 1/T [Hz] ◮ free space loss and absorption
◮ Wavelength λ = c/f [m] ◮ the sensitivity to the receiver
◮ Sound speed c [m/s] The ocean environment affects sound propagation:
◮ sea surface
◮ seafloor
◮ temperature and salinity
◮ currents and turbulence
Underwater sound propagation is frequency dependent
RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Sept. 2012 9 / 77 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Sept. 2012 10 / 77
Sonar Basics Sonar Basics
Underwater sound Underwater sound
Geometrical spreading loss - one way Geometrical spreading loss - two way
The acoustic wave expands as
a spherical wave The acoustic wave expands as
The acoustic intensity a spherical wave to the
decreases with range in reflector
inverse proportion to the The reflected field expands as
surface of the sphere a spherical wave back to the
The acoustic wave receiver
amplitude In homogeneous media, the
A decreases with range two way loss becomes
R
The intensity I = A2 I∼ 1 1 = 1
1 R2 R2 R4
I ∼ media
In homogeneous
2 R
Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound
Absorption Transmission
lossTransmission loss is geometrical spread + absorption
Seawater is a dissipative medium
through viscosity and chemical Logarithmic (dB) scale: IdB = 10 log10 (I)
processes
A certain frequency will have a certain maximum range
Acoustic absorption in seawater is
Frequency is a critical design parameter
frequency dependent
Lower frequencies will reach longer
than higher frequencies
f [kHz] R [km] λ [m]

0.1 1000 15
1 100 1.5
10 10 0.15
100 1 0.015
1000 0.1 0.0015
Sonar Basics Sonar Basics
Underwater sound Underwater sound
The Ocean as Acoustic Medium Reflection and Refraction in Acoustics

The sound velocity - environmental dependency Recall from first lecture on optical
imaging
Layering and refraction - waveguides
The reflection angle is equal to the
The sea floor and the sea surface - scattering
incident angle
Noise sources
The angle of refraction is given by
Snell’s law
sin θ1 sin θ2
=
c1 c2
The index of refraction n = c2 /c1

Snells law can be derived from
Fermats principle or from the From Wikipedia
general boundary conditions

Sonar Basics Sonar Basics Underwater sound
Underwater sound
Deep sound velocity variation
Refraction and the underwater sound velocity
Medvins formula:
c = 1449.2 + 4.6T − 0.055T 2 + 0.00029T

3
+ (1.34 − 0.010T )(S − 35) + 0.016D The surface layer

The seasonal thermocline
The sound velocity depends on 3 major parts:
Temperature T in degrees Celsius The permanent thermocline
Salinity S in parts per thousand The deep isothermal layer
Depth D in meters
The sound velocity contains information about the ocean environment.
Example: T = 12.5 ◦ C, S = 35 ppt, D = 100 m gives c = 1500 m/s
Sound refraction Underwater sound channel

waves are trapped in a guide
The sound will refract towards areas of slower speed The energy spreads in one dimension instead of two I ∼ 1/R
Much longer range
SOUND IS LAZY
Acoustical Oceanography: Map the effect of the medium on
underwater acoustics
Coastal variability Coastal variability
Factors that affect sound

propagation: The sound is trapped in a
waveguide
The sound velocity profile
The boundaries of the
The sea surface
waveguide changes the
Internal waves properties of the sound
Turbulence wave
Ocean current
Reflection: basic physics Reflection: the sea surface
Characteristic impedance Z0 = ρc
◮ ρ is the density [kg/m3 ] The characteristic impedance is
◮ c is the sound speed [m/s] a material property The sea surface (sea-air interface)
Reflection coefficient Material Impedance Air: Z = 415
(normal incidence) Air 415
Seawater: Z0 = 1.54 × 106
Seawater 1.54 × 106
Z − Z0 Reflection coefficient
R(f ) Clay 5.3 × 106 Z − Z0
= Z + Z0 Sand 5.5 × 106 R= ≈
Sandstone 7.7 × 106 Z −1
+ Z0
Transmission coefficient (normal
incidence) Granite 16 × 106
The sea surface is a perfect
Steel 47 × 106 reflector
2Z0
T (f )
= Z + Z0
Sonar Basics Sonar Basics Underwater sound
Underwater sound
Scattering - smooth surfaces
Reflection: the sea floor (or bottom)
The sea floor (sea-bottom interface)
Sand: Z = 5.5 × 106 Scattering from rough surfaces
Seawater: Z0 = 1.54 × 10 6
The sea surface
Reflection coefficient The seafloor
Z − Other scattering sources
R= ≈ 0.56
Z0 Z + Volume scattering from
Z fluctuations
Sandy seafloors0 partially reflects,
partially transmits Scattering from marine
life
Estimated reflection coefficient can
be used in classification of bottom A smooth surface gives mainly specular reflection
type
Scattering - rough surfaces Ambient Noise
The ocean is a noisy environment

Scattering from rough surfaces Hydrodynamic
The sea surface ◮ Tides, ocean current, storms,
wind, surface waves, rain
The seafloor
Other scattering sources Seismic
◮ Movement of the earth
Volume scattering from (earthquakes)
fluctuations Biological
Scattering from marine ◮ Produced by marine
life life
A rough surface gives specular reflection and diffuse scattering Man made
◮ Shipping, industry
Sonar Basics Underwater sound Theory
Marine Life and Acoustics Outline

1 Basics
Introduction
Basic Physics
Underwater
Dolphins and whales use acoustics sound
2 Sonar Theory
for echolocation and communication. Sonar types
Whale songs are in the frequency From wikipedia.org. Courtesy of NASA.
Position Estimation
between 12 Hz and a few kHz. Signal processing
Dolphins use a series of high 3 Sonar Applications
frequency clicks in the range from Fish finding
50 to 200 kHz for echolocation. HUGIN AUV
Mapping
Imaging
From wikipedia.org. Author Zorankovacevic. 4 Summary
Theory Sonar types Theory Sonar types
Active sonar Active sonar
Transmits a signal Transmits a signal

The signal propagates towards the The signal propagates towards the
object of interest object of interest
The signal is reflected by the target The signal is reflected by the target
The signal is recorded by a receiver The signal is recorded by a receiver
Theory Sonar types Theory Positioning
Passive sonar Range Estimation

Passive sonar only records signals Estimation of time delay (or two way travel time) τ
Relate time delay to range
cτ
R=
2
Sound velocity must be known
Theory Positioning Theory Positioning
Range Resolution Formas de Pulso 1 – sonar ativo

Diferentes formas de pulso para diferentes aplicações
The minimum distance two echoes can be seperated
Onda Contínua Gateada(CW)
Related to the pulse length Tp for non-coded pulses
Simples and e com boa sensibilidade Doppler mas não tem alto BT
cTp Frequencia Modulada Linear (LFM) (ou chirp)
δR =
2 Longo alcance e alta resolução mas não sustenta Doppler
Related to bandwidth B for coded pulses
c
δR =
2B
Teoria Positioning Theory Positioning
Formas de Pulso 2 – sonar ativo Directivity

Diferentes formas de pulso para diferentes aplicações
Pulsos de Frequencia Modulada Hiperbólica(HFM) Transducers (or antennas or loudspeakers) are directive
Longo alcance e alta resolução e resistive ao Doppler The beamwidth (or field of view) of a disc of size D is
Ruído Pseudo Aleatório(PRN) BPSK CW codificado
λ
Alta resolução e boa sensibilidade Doppler mas baixa eficiência β≈
D
The beamwidth is frequency dependent. Higher frequency gives
narrower beam.
Sept. 2012 36 / 77 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Sept. 2012 37 / 77
Theory Theory Positioning
Positioning
Bearing estimation - array sensor
Bearing estimation - arbitrary Rx positions
Direction of arrival can be calculated from the time difference of
By delaying the data from each element in an array, the array can
arrival
be steered (electronically)
θ = − 1 cδt
sin L
Bearing estimation - array sensor Imaging sonar / beamforming
Direction of arrival from several reflectors can be estimated by Echo location is estimation of range and bearing of an echo (or
using several receivers. target)
Imaging sonar is to produce an image by estimating the echo
strength (target strength) in every direction and range
Algorithm
for all directions
for all ranges
estimate echo
strenght in
each pixel
end
end
Theory Positioning Theory
Positioning
Beamforming defined
Beamforming algorithm in time domain
Beamforming Algorithm
Processing algorithm that focus the array’s signal capturing ability in a for all directions
particular direction for all ranges
for all receivers Calculate
the time delay
Beamforming is spatio-temporal filtering Interpolate the received time series
Beamforming turns recorded time series into images Apply appropriate amplitude factor
(from time to space) end
sum over receivers and store in result(x,y)
Beamforming can be applied to all types of multi-receiver sonars: end
active, passive, towed array, bistatic, multistatic, synthetic aperture end
Imaging sonar resolution Imaging: Performance measures
Detail resolution
Range resolution given by
Geometrical resolution - minimum resolvable distance
pulse length (actually
bandwidth) Contrast resolution
Value resolution, echogenicity, accuracy
Azimuth resolution given by
array length measured in Temporal resolution
wavelengths Number of independent images per unit time
Field of view is given by Dynamic range
element length measured Resolvability of small targets in the presence of large targets
in wavelengths Sensitivity
Detection ability of low level targets
Array signal processing in imaging is the primary topic in INF 5410

Theory Signal processing Theory Signal processing
Sonar signal model Active sonar processing
The basic active sonar processing

consists of
Preprocessing
Pulse compression (range)
Beamforming (azimuth)
Detection
Parameter estimation - position
Classification
Theory Applications
Signal processing
Outline
The sonar equation 1 Basics
The sonar equation is an equation for energy conservation for Introduction
evaluation of the sonar
In its simplest form:system
Signal performace.
− Noise + Gain > Threshold Basic Physics
Underwater
More detailed (for active sonar):
sound
2 Sonar Theory
SL − 2TL + TS − NL + DI + PG > RT Sonar types
Position Estimation
SL is source level Signal processing
TL is transmission loss 3 Sonar Applications
TS is target strenght Fish finding
NL is noise level HUGIN AUV
Mapping
DI is directivity index
Imaging
PG is processing gain
4 Summary
RT is reception
threshold
Applications Fish finding Applications
Fish finding
Echosounders
Stock abundance and species characterisation
The echosounder is oriented

vertically
The target strength is estimated in
every range (depth)
The ship moves forward to make a
2D map of fish density
The target strength is related to fish
size (biomass)
Different frequencies can be used
for species characterisation
From www.simrad.com. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime
Applications Fish finding Applications
HUGIN AUV
Fish detection range
The HUGIN autonomous underwater vehicle
Modern echosounders
can detect a single fish
at 1000 m range.
Some fish have a
swimbladder (air filled)
which gives extra large
target strength
From www.simrad.com.
Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime
Applications Applications HUGIN AUV
HUGIN AUV
Acoustic sensors on HUGIN
The HUGIN autonomous underwater vehicle
Free swimming underwater vehicle
Preprogrammed (semi-autonomous)
Used primarily to map and image the seafloor
Multibeam echosounder
Runs up to 60 hours, typically in 4 knots (2 m/s)
Imaging sonar
Maximum depth: 1000, 3000, 4500 m
Altimeter
Anti collision sonar
Doppler velocity logger
Subbottom profiler
Acoustic
communications
Applications Mapping Applications Mapping
Multibeam echosounders MBE Example 1

Data collected by HUGIN AUV
Multibeam echosounders maps the seafloor by estimating the
range in different direction Maps from the Ormen Lange field
The map resolution is determined by the 2D beamwidth and the The peaks are 50 m high
range resolution
Courtesy of Geoconsult / Norsk Hydro.
MBE Example 2 MBE Example 3

Data collected by HUGIN AUV Data collected by HUGIN AUV
Maps from the Ormen Lange field Example area with large sand ripples
The ridge is 900 m long and 50 m
high.
Courtesy of Geoconsult / Norsk Hydro. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI.
MBE Example 3 MBE Example 4

Hull mounted MBE
70 - 100 kHz
Hull mounted MBE
Colour coded
70 - 100 kHz seafloor depth
Magic T (Mills
cross) layout
Applications Imaging Applications Imaging
Sidescan sonar Sidescan sonar area coverage

Range resolution is given by the pulse length (or bandwidth)
Sidescan sonar: sidelooking sonar to image the seafloor Along-track resolution is range dependent
Typical platform: towfish, hull mounted, AUV
An image is created by moving and stacking range lines
Typically frequency 100 kHz - 500 kHz
Typical range 100 - 500 m
Applications Imaging Applications
Imaging
Sidescan sonar example
Synthetic aperture sonar principle
Collect succesive pulses in a large synthetic array (aperture)
Increase the azimuth (or along-track) resolution
Requires accurate navigation - within a fraction of a wavelength
Very similar to Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI

Sept. 2012 64 / 77 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Sept. 2012 65 / 77
RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar
Applications Applications Imaging
Imaging
Sidelooking Example - very high resolution (SAS)
Synthetic aperture sonar principle
The length of the synthetic aperture increases with range
Along-track resolution becomes independent of range
Along-track resolution becomes independent of frequency
Applications Imaging Applications Imaging
Resolution matters Example: Fishing boat
Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI
Sept. 2012 68 / 77 Sept. 2012 69 / 77
RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar
Applications Imaging Applications
Imaging
Properties in a sonar image
Example large scene with small objects
Geometry: Range
and elevation
Resolution
Random variability -
speckle
Signal to noise
Object highlight and
shadow

Applications Applications
Imaging Imaging
Comparison of sonar image with optical image Comparison of sonar image with optical image
Sonar range: 112 m Sonar range: 73 m

Optical range: 4.5 m Optical range: 5 m
Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI
Summary Summary
Outline Summary
1 Basics
Introduction
Basic Physics Acoustics is the only long ranging information carrier under water
Underwater Sound velocity variations cause refraction of acoustic waves
sound The ocean is lossy: higher frequencies have shorter range
2 Sonar Theory
Sonar types SONAR is used for
Position Estimation ◮ positioning
Signal processing ◮ velocity estimation
◮ characterisation
3 Sonar Applications Applications:
Fish finding ◮ Fish finding
HUGIN AUV ◮ Imaging of the seafloor
Mapping ◮ Mapping of the seafloor
Imaging ◮ Military
4 Summary
Summary
Pa˚ Norsk
Engelsk Norsk
beam stra˚ le
beamwidth stra˚
range lebredde
bearing avstand
echosounder retning
sidescan sonar ekkolodd
multibeam echosounder sidesøkende sonar
multistra˚ le
ekkolodd
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Outline

História da Acústica Submarina

engineer, Constantin Chilowski 1916/17: US patents on ultrasonic

Tecnologias Similares Referências

Course text: sonar_introduction_2012.pdf

Basic Physics Underwater sound

Sound is waves travelling in pressure perturbations

Sonar Basics Sonar Basics

Underwater sound Underwater sound

f [kHz] R [km] λ [m]

Sonar Basics Sonar Basics

Underwater sound Underwater sound

The Ocean as Acoustic Medium Reflection and Refraction in Acoustics

The index of refraction n = c2 /c1

general boundary conditions

c = 1449.2 + 4.6T − 0.055T 2 + 0.00029T

+ (1.34 − 0.010T )(S − 35) + 0.016D The surface layer

Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Sound refraction Underwater sound channel

Coastal variability Coastal variability

Factors that affect sound

Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Reflection: basic physics Reflection: the sea surface

Sonar Basics Underwater sound Sonar Basics Underwater sound

Scattering - rough surfaces Ambient Noise

The ocean is a noisy environment

Marine Life and Acoustics Outline

Theory Sonar types Theory Sonar types

Active sonar Active sonar

Transmits a signal Transmits a signal

Passive sonar Range Estimation

Theory Positioning Theory Positioning

Range Resolution Formas de Pulso 1 – sonar ativo

Formas de Pulso 2 – sonar ativo Directivity

Sept. 2012 36 / 77 RH, INF-GEO4310 (Ifi/UiO) Sonar Sept. 2012 37 / 77

Theory Theory Positioning

Bearing estimation - array sensor Imaging sonar / beamforming

Theory Positioning Theory

Imaging sonar resolution Imaging: Performance measures

Array signal processing in imaging is the primary topic in INF 5410

Theory Signal processing Theory Signal processing

Sonar signal model Active sonar processing

The basic active sonar processing

Applications Fish finding Applications

The echosounder is oriented

From www.simrad.com. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime

Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime

Applications Applications HUGIN AUV

Multibeam echosounders MBE Example 1

Courtesy of Geoconsult / Norsk Hydro.

Applications Mapping Applications Mapping

MBE Example 2 MBE Example 3

Courtesy of Geoconsult / Norsk Hydro. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI.

MBE Example 3 MBE Example 4

From www.simrad.com. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime

From www.simrad.com. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime

Applications Imaging Applications Imaging

Sidescan sonar Sidescan sonar area coverage

Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI

Applications Applications Imaging

Image collected by HUGIN AUV. Courtesy of Kongsberg Maritime / FFI

Resolution matters Example: Fishing boat

Applications Imaging Applications