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sociologia & antropologia
setembro – dezembro 2020
issn 2238-3875
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volume 10 número 3
setembro–dezembro de 2020
quadrimestral
issn 2238-3875
sociologia & antropologia
APRESENTAÇÃO
Este número 3 de Sociologia & Antropologia fecha um ano cheio de desafios pes-
soais e institucionais trazidos pela emergência sanitária causada pela Covid-19.
Os efeitos dessa doença, de espalhamento rápido e alta letalidade no Brasil e
na cidade do Rio de Janeiro, afetaram direta ou indiretamente autores, editores
e colaboradores da revista, tornado o próprio processo de editoração uma ver-
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 759 – 761, set. – dez., 2020
760
mente pelas duas autoras para este número, que analisa a recepção da obra de
Miller no Brasil, bem como realiza uma apresentação geral dos demais textos
aqui publicados sobre o antropólogo londrino. Em nome do corpo editorial de
S&A, agradecemos imensamente o trabalho primoroso de organização e prepa-
ração deste número especial sobre Daniel Miller feito por Monica Machado e
Ana Carolina Balthazar, que incluiu o convite aos autores e o contato com o
próprio Miller, com quem ambas trabalharam diretamente.
O conjunto de textos dedicados à obra de Daniel Miller, editorialmente
organizado em parceria com Machado e Balthazar, é composto pelos seguintes
artigos: “The digital Dasein of Chinese rural migrants”, de Xinyuan Wang, uma
etnografia com migrantes rurais na China que analisa os efeitos das mídias
sociais na existência desses trabalhadores; “Nem o céu é o limite: sentidos do
consumo e dinâmicas de mobilidade social no perfil @blogueiradebaixarenda
no Instagram e Youtube”, de Carla Barros, que discute as percepções sobre
materialidade e suas articulações com os processos de mobilidade social por
meio de análise de um perfil em plataformas de mídia social; “Diálogos com
Daniel Miller no campo da comunicação: reflexões a partir das pesquisas do
GP Consumo e Culturas Digitais”, de Sandra Rúbia da Silva e Alisson Machado,
apresenta um balanço da produção filiada à linhagem etnográfica de Miller nos
estudos de comunicação, em particular de um grupo de pesquisa dedicado à
análise do consumo e das culturas digitais; e, por fim, “As pessoas, as coisas e
as perdas: perspectivas da cultura material e do consumo nos estudos de Daniel
Miller”, de Cláudia Pereira e Fernanda Martinelli, apoiado na abordagem etno-
gráfica de Miller – que destaca a relação dialética entre pessoas e coisas –,
propõe uma reflexão sobre as situações de luto e sobre as formas culturais
associadas à morte de pessoas e à perda de materialidades. Esse conjunto de
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 759 – 761, set. – dez., 2020
artigos também é acompanhado por três registros de pesquisa, que visam re-
fletir sobre a importância de Miller nas experiências concretas de investigação.
Mylene Mizrahi, em “O que a ‘humildade dos objetos’ pode nos dizer sobre a
beleza no Rio de Janeiro: notas sobre uma trajetória de pesquisa”, discorre
sobre os usos do referencial analítico do antropólogo inglês para pensar o funk
carioca, sua estética e materialidades; Juliano Spyer, em “As escolhas metodo-
lógicas para produzir pesquisas colaborativas e comparativas: o caso “Por Que
Postamos”, apresenta os bastidores metodológicos de uma grande pesquisa
comparativa global liderada pelo próprio Miller; já Livia Barbosa, em “Daniel
Miller e os estudos de consumo no Brasil”, discute o conceito de cultura mate-
rial de Miller e algumas vias de sua recepção nos estudos locais de antropolo-
gia e consumo.
O número integra ainda mais seis artigos e um registro de pesquisa, todos
voltados para o desenvolvimento inovador de temas consolidados ou emergen-
tes das ciências sociais. Dimitri Pinheiro, em “Anos rebeldes e a abertura da tele-
ficção”, discute os significados culturais, sociais e políticos de uma minissérie
761
PRESENTATION
This third issue of Sociologia & Antropologia closes a year full of personal and
institutional challenges posed by the Covid-19 health emergency. The effects of
the disease, its rapid spread and the high levels of mortality in Brazil, including
Rio de Janeiro, have directly or indirectly affected the authors, editors, and col-
laborators of the journal, making the editing process itself a true feat. We take
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 763 – 765, sep. – dec., 2020
this opportunity to express our profound gratitude to the entire S&A team for
their unparalleled dedication to our project in such exceptional circumstances.
Even with these limitations, S&A also realizes that the current health
crisis – the end of which finally seems to be on the horizon thanks to the vac-
cination process due to begin in 2021 – has provoked some unique problems
for the social sciences. For this reason, we are editing a special issue simulta-
neously, due to be published at the beginning of the new year, dedicated to
understanding, through the cognitive resources of sociology and anthropology,
the cultural, social and political effects of the Covid-19 pandemic in Brazil and
worldwide, uniting specialists from diverse areas.
We open the present issue with a series of texts dedicated to the work
and Brazilian reception of the English anthropologist Daniel Miller, a leading
name in studies of consumption, objects, materialities and digital environments.
Monica Machado and Ana Carolina Balthazar publish a new interview with
Miller, discussing his career and his main theoretical and empirical contribu-
tions. This interview is accompanied by an original article written by the two
authors specially for this issue, containing reflections and information on the
presentation | the editors
764
volume 10 número 3
septembro-dezembro 2020
quadrimestral
issn 2238-3875
REGISTROS DE PESQUISA 1045 O QUE A “HUMILDADE DOS OBJETOS” PODE NOS DIZER
SOBRE A BELEZA NO RIO DE JANEIRO: NOTAS SOBRE UMA
TRAJETÓRIA DE PESQUISA
Mylene Mizrahi
volume 10 number 3
september-december 2020
triannual
issn 2238-3875
This special issue reflects on the impact of the work of the English anthro-
pologist Daniel Miller, trained in archaeology and anthropology at Cambridge
University in the United Kingdom, on diverse research fields of the social sci-
ences in Brazil. In this introduction we present an interpretation of the argu-
ments set out in the book Material culture and mass consumption, first published
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 773 – 803, sep. – dec., 2020
774
being. Next, since the externalized object itself possesses aspects of the subject,
the latter reidentifies with the object, seeing themselves in the object like a
mirror. It is in this play of differentiation and identification that subject and
object are reciprocally constituted. In this sense, the existence of a subject
depends on the process of continual externalization and reincorporation of the
object. “Object” here is used in the conceptual sense as any other body not part
of the subject. Thus, people at some level depend on the materialities external-
ized in the world to constitute themselves as persons.
In his work, Miller also considers the centrality of the historical axis for
Hegelian theory. Over the historical process, the dynamics of externalization
and identification are seen to advance progressively until attaining an absolute
knowledge of existence. According to Miller, it is important we consider the
way in which the externalization of the subject in an object and its sublimation
is constitutive of the subject, not just representative. It is in the act of forging
the object that the subject constructs her or himself. This is how Miller traces
his own understanding of the concept of culture. Culture is, for him, the out-
come of this continuous historical process of the dialectical relation between
subjects and objects.
It is on these grounds that Miller proceeds to interpret the arguments
of Karl Marx (1975) concerning the impact of capitalist industrial production
on the subject’s alienation. The process of industrial production forces the
subject to externalize objects at an accelerated pace. As each subject performs
a minimal function in this large-scale production of objects, the final item pos-
sesses very little of the subject who helped to create it. According to Marx, the
subject becomes alienated, therefore, distanced and abstracted from her or his
own work, and the process of self-realization is rendered impossible. Inspired
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 773 – 803, sep. – dec., 2020
by Georg Simmel (1978), Miller argues, however, that by nature there exists a
contradictory condition in the subject/object relation beyond the industrial
dynamic. The subject needs to externalize part of her or himself to give rise to
the object: in other words, the distancing between subject and object is funda-
mental. In this sense, the problem of the industrial system is not alienation
per se, but the way in which at certain times the social dynamic has made it
impossible for the materialized object to be subsequently reincorporated by
the subject. In this sense, Marx’s theory did not contemplate the centrality of
consumer relations for the Hegelian process of objectification, consumption
allowing for the re-incorporation of the alienated object. Miller argues for the
relevance of analysing consumer practices to comprehend the contemporary
subject – and the construction of her or his subjectivity.
Given the centrality of objects for the constitution of the subject, Miller
goes on to advocate the importance of research methods that not only include
social relations, but also focus on the role performed by objects themselves in
this process. The author turns to theses of child development to reinforce his
interview with daniel miller | ana carolina balthazar and monica machado
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(Miller, 2010) − we can observe how in diverse societies analysed by Miller, for
example in India or Trinidad, people are invested in different processes of ap-
propriating objects.
Miller’s proposed research methodology is fundamental to comprehend-
ing his critique of diverse theorists of the “culture industry” (Adorno &
Horkheimer, 1944). Echoing Bourdieu’s critical reading of the role of the aca-
demic system in the reproduction of social hierarchies, Miller argues that many
moralist theses concerning consumer society act as an instrument of class
distinction, seeking to reinforce the intellectual power of some through the
stigmatization of others. Throughout his career, Miller has remained a strong
critic of theories that contribute to “elitist” knowledge (something the author
himself explains in the interview contained later in this special issue).
In response to Miller’s propositions, at least two critiques may emerge.
On one hand, the term “material culture” could reinforce the very same dualism
that diverse currents of anthropology have tried to surpass. Apropos this argu-
ment, Miller has explained that the choice of the term arose from its capacity
to communicate the proposed theoretical discussion to a broader audience
(Miller, 2005: 4). In other words, the choice of the term “material culture” pri-
oritizes a dialogue with these people who are not necessarily immersed in the
complexity of the conceptual debate in academia. It should serve, therefore, to
remind people in general about the overlapping of more ideological and phys-
ical dimensions. Perhaps the relevance of the conceptual strategy proposed by
Miller is shown by its considerable impact on an international interdisciplinary
debate (see Miller, 1995a). By prioritizing a term that sacrifices some “purisms”
of the anthropological debate, Miller can engage in a debate with geography,
history, sociology, media studies and other areas (as we shall also see in the
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 773 – 803, sep. – dec., 2020
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778
tions for analysing the digital as a subdiscipline of anthropology. The first no-
tion derives from the view that the digital intensifies the dialectics of contem-
porary cultural life. The digital is seen as a privileged cultural space since it
produces a proliferation of particularities and differences, depending on the
context where its social uses emerge. Interested, therefore, in human social
relations and in the ways of interacting in everyday life, anthropologists inves-
tigate the ethnographic experiences of particular social groups in local contexts
and that invest in discovering the reasons for use of the technologies and their
potential for valorising local singularities or possible universalizations.
The second principle suggests that social subjects are neither more nor
less mediated following the growth of the digital era. Dialoguing with Goffman
(1975), Horst and Miller (2012) turn to the concept of “frame” to think about the
processes of framing mediations, whether in face-to-face relations or in the com-
plex contemporary relations mediated by technologies. All modes of interaction
involve complex mediative dimensions, as in face-to-face exchanges – interjec-
tions, non-verbal communications, gazes, bodily codes – and in the digital phase
through the mediation of smartphones. Online arenas are perceived as spaces
just as effective for interaction as physical spaces. And precisely for this reason
digital cultures interest the anthropological tradition, as culturally relevant spac-
es for observing the cultural practices of lives lived by social subjects. In the study
of the kinship relations of Filipina mothers who live in London and their children
who stayed in their homeland, Madianou and Milller (2012) formulate the concept
of mediated motherhood, arguing that it is possible to identify very rich varia-
tions in the modes of social interactions of the affects mediated by technology.
Another principle is to define the digital through dialectics. Setting out
from the premise that the digital derives from binary culture, we can observe
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 773 – 803, sep. – dec., 2020
the possibility of its historical precedents. For Horst and Miller (2012), the same
system of the contemporary digital environment founds the modern financial
system. Globally, money represented a new phase of human abstraction that
simultaneously reduced and commoditized social relations while expanding
them in terms of difference and plurality. The principle of dialectics should,
therefore, comprehend the fact that the uses of digital technologies can con-
tradictorily expand both movements. The authors call on anthropologists to
focus attention on this spectrum and allow the ethnographic experience to lead
them to the analysis of the social uses of technology. In the book The internet:
an ethnographic approach, Miller and Slater (2000) had already signalled ethnog-
raphy’s fundamental contribution to studies of the internet and to investigat-
ing how the digital field is assimilated in local contexts. More than study the
uses and effects of the media, the anthropological experience focuses on how
members of a specific culture act in their communicative actions and how they
try to attribute singular meanings to their own social universes.
interview with daniel miller | ana carolina balthazar and monica machado
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devices and their logics. The focus of this theory is not to investigate digital plat-
forms but the modes of mediation of users and their preferences for digital lan-
guages, practices and processes.
The concept of “polymedia” also presumes the analysis of narratives that
interfere in the choices on how digital media are used. One of these fields is
the dimension of sociality. Madianou and Miller (2012) assert that diverse mo-
tivations intervene in the choices of which communication devices to use for
digital interaction. In many circumstances, these choices are motivated by re-
lationships, people to stimulated to share the same cultural spaces as their
peers. With this spirit of investigation, Miller entered the world of the hos-
pices in an English village in one of his most recent works.
781
social media, the book is a moving account of life and its meanings in a context
of imminent death. The concept of hospice is relevant since it is not a hospital
for long-term admissions: the patients prefer to live at home and go to the
centre for holistic health treatments and meetings with the local community.
Precisely because of the specificity of this mode of treatment, the patient com-
munication system – with medical staff, carers and relatives – is extremely
important. It is interesting to observe that the project combines classical an-
thropological investigation with applied research, since at the end of the study
Miller includes a technical report with guidelines for doctors, carers and health-
care professionals on best practices for the use of smartphones in the context
of patients.
The book’s title is a reference to the author’s previous work, The comfort
of things, published in 2008. In the latter ethnographic study, Miller investi-
gated a street in London given the fictitious name of Stuart Street, where he
presents the ways of life of 30 residents who describe themselves and their life
histories through objects in the home. Thus, the life portraits of the participants
are described through the activation of memories related to these objects, flow-
ing into the debate on the interweaving of material culture and people. Thus,
the work involves an enriching view of the lives of certain “Londoners” in the
contemporary multicultural context.
In The comfort of people, the dynamic is similar: the depictions of the
patients also involve fictitious names, but the work essentially examines social
expressions in the context of the relations between patients and the commu-
nity, friends, and family, the feelings of isolation, solitude, connection, and
co-presence. The narratives detail their life experiences, describing places, peo-
ple and perceptions of moments of joy, sadness, depression, life and death, the
legacy of the past, and the future.
The concept of “polymedia” is explored again in this work to comprehend,
above all, the ecosystem of connections to which patients turn to communicate
with carers, relatives and doctors. It is in this context that smartphones emerge
as important devices for socioaffective connections and the network of health-
care, as well as investments in health apps. Miller describes, for instance, the
case of Sarah who died during fieldwork and who until the final moment of her
death was active on Facebook, posting content as she wised to leave a public
legacy of her life history. This most recent publication was one of the inspira-
tions for the creation of the ASSA project (The Anthropology of Smartphones
and Smart Ageing) currently in progress.
782
is the limit: the meanings of consumption and the dynamics of social mobility
in the @blogueiradebaixarenda profile on Instagram and YouTube.” The research-
er investigates the symbolic experiences of consumption among the popular
classes, especially the relationship between consumption and social mobility.
The contributions of Claudia Pereira and Fernanda Martinelli with the article
“Persons, things and losses: material culture and consumption in the studies of
Daniel Miller” have a special importance for this issue. Discussing mourning as
a rite of passage, the authors reflect on the experiences of losing loved ones and,
from another perspective, losing things/objects of symbolic value. Sandra Rúbia
da Silva and Alisson Machado offer an important contribution with “Dialogues
with Daniel Miller in the communication field: reflections from the research of
consumption and digital cultures research group.” Contrasting with the Brazil-
ian setting, the article by Chinese researcher Xinyuan Wang considers the rel-
evance of the concept of objectification to think about the uses of social media
by young industrial workers who migrate from China’s interior to its urban cen-
tres seeking to become “modern citizens.”
In the Research Records section, Livia Barbosa, for example, was respon-
sible for the first of Miller’s work to be translated into Portuguese and in his
account tells us something about this experience, fundamental to the develop-
ment of studies of consumption in Brazil. Mylene Mizrahi, for her part, uses
arguments proposed by Miller and the opportunity to work directly with the
author to consider the relation between form and function in the funk aes-
thetic – from the “Gang trousers” to female hairstyles. Finally, Juliano Spyer
describes the experience of working with Miller in the ambitious Why We Post
project.
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 773 – 803, sep. – dec., 2020
interview with daniel miller | ana carolina balthazar and monica machado
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Ana Carolina Balthazar. You were first trained in anthropology and archaeol-
ogy at Cambridge University. How would you explain the experience of studying
at Cambridge to a Brazilian?
Daniel Miller. Cambridge was exhilarating, but I think ultimately did me harm as
well as good. As soon as I became a postgraduate student I realized I could simply
turn up at seminars in any discipline. One day I would hear Anthony Giddens
deliver a powerful two-hour lecture in sociology without notes, and then I would
hear David Harvey in geography and next day listen to Mary Hesse in philosophy.
Within anthropology itself, I went to lecture series by Edmund Leach and Jack
Goody, and an early inspiration was David Clarke in archaeology. It wasn’t just
the calibre of people teaching. I was also fortunate that this was a period of in-
tense intellectual discussion around three systems of ideas that transformed our
consciousness: structuralism, Western Marxism and feminism. Structuralism for
me was the inspiration of Lévi-Strauss and Edmund Leach, but also Barthes and
Eco. It shifted us all away from thinking about things in themselves, to always
seeing them in relationship to the other. My Western Marxism included Lukács,
the Frankfurt School, Kolakowski and Hyppolite. It provided a basic social con-
sciousness about poverty and oppression, but also my route to Hegel. Feminism
came more though popular works such as Marilyn French’s The women’s room but
also at the level of student discussion. It was the ideological shift that had most
impact upon my private life. Overall, I see myself as immensely fortunate. This
was a short period of genuine enlightenment, immensely exciting and stimulat-
ing and I don’t think there has been a period quite like this since.
So, what was the harm? At that time, the culture of study was extreme-
ly competitive and aggressive. We would go to a seminar with the idea of doing
everything we could to destroy the argument of the speaker and our peers. With
some effect. I remember the archaeologist Lewis Binford telling me afterwards
that he would make sure I never got a job anywhere, so I guess my attacks had
struck home. When I subsequently become employed as a lecturer at Univer-
sity College London and I think for a long time thereafter I asked the most
aggressive questions at seminars. It was also an elitist technique in which the
only aim was to be clever. We were also taught to look down on people who did
“applied” academic work that was actually changing people’s lives. It took me
decades to unlearn this culture, and to realise that one can be just as intellec-
tual while also trying to be supportive and that actually being engaged in ap-
plied research was just as much a test of intellect as arguing points of philoso-
phy. Finally, I would like to think it was the lessons of feminism that have re-
mained, after the strict structuralism and Western Marxism have faded into
anthropological history.
material culture and mass consumption: the impact of daniel miller’s work in brazil
784
A.C.B. I also remember you once told me that authors like Raymond Williams
and E.P. Thompson had influenced your education, is that right? Do you see any
relations between your theoretical work and the kinds of social issues they
were concerned with?
D.M. These were two of many authors that expressed Marxist thinking at the
time. What I took from this was probably a little different from most. If you
look at my corpus of work, you can see that it has always been directed towards
people who would see themselves as ordinary. I was never concerned with elites
or people that were in any way special. This was certainly in the spirit of Thomp-
son and Williams, who insisted on giving voice to those who had been ignored
in history. On the other hand, they shared a tendency that was prevalent
throughout that Marxist-inflected tradition to project a rather romanticised
idealization of the proletariat. A counter-influence to that trend was a book by
André Gorz called Farewell to the working class. I have never seen anything par-
ticularly positive about having to work in a factory, or for that matter on a farm.
The only exception would be people who chose such work in preference to
other livelihoods. That is one of the reasons that typically the ordinary that I
aspire to lies closer to what might be called the lower middle-class, which in
many countries is now also the majority of the population.
For the same reason, unlike most of my peers, I remain comfortable with
what Bourdieu acknowledged is one of the primary consequences of the uni-
versity system, which is helping people to become middle-class. The quiet at-
tacks on middle-class values by university lecturers in social science, as in and
of themselves suspect, has always struck me as hypocrisy. My primary role is
to contribute to education, and it is based on the ideal that everyone benefits
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 773 – 803, sep. – dec., 2020
from education, and I don’t have a problem if that then qualifies them as mid-
dle-class. I see on the news everyday migrants who take great risks with their
own lives, often in the quest that they and their children will have these pos-
sibilities in life.
D.M. One key influence was Stuart Hall whom I met several times. Apart from
the deep humanism of this brilliant, but also kindly man, I was very influenced
by his insistence that culture is as much the project of audiences as of produc-
ers. When Hall first created what later became known as cultural studies, he
promoted some wonderful ethnographic work by Hebdige, Willis and others. I
have always seen it as tragic that cultural studies then abandoned deep eth-
nography and become more an exercise in literary exegesis. Within anthropol-
ogy, key influences included Lévi-Strauss, Munn, Sahlins and Geertz. The two
primary influences on my work, however, remain Bourdieu and Hegel.
interview with daniel miller | ana carolina balthazar and monica machado
785
A.C.B. Now, over 30 years after launching Material culture and mass consumption,
would you change anything in the book? Do you think the argument on objec-
tification needs any kind of update?
Monica Machado. Once you told me that The comfort of things was one of the
books you most enjoyed writing. Could you tell us about your study on the lives
of residents of a street in London from the point of view of household objects?
D.M. My attack on the dualism of people and things that led to a re-direction
in material culture studies was not just at the level of theory. My point was
that the study of objects should be a way of appreciating people. Ultimately, I
am an anthropologist because I am in awe of people and one way of expressing
that was a kind of democratising of the concept of the artist. In The comfort of
things I saw each individual as the curator of their home interiors, taking the
design of their homes as their work of art. This then grew into my sense that
the sense of order that they had developed was, in effect, an expression of the
aesthetic that they had developed through their life experience. This is why I
cared strongly about the quality of my own writing, since I felt each chapter
material culture and mass consumption: the impact of daniel miller’s work in brazil
786
was akin to painting a portrait, which in turn respected the quality of each of
my subjects as an artist.
In a book called Anthropology and the individual I theorise this movement.
One starts with structuralism and the appreciation that each thing/person de-
rives meaning mainly through their relationship to other things/meanings. We
progress to the best grounding of structuralist ideas, which is the writing of
Bourdieu and his documentation of how people are socialised into embodying
normative culture through being brought up within that structuralist order
experienced through the material culture around them. This was habitus. What
I now added was the principle that this was not just true of normative culture,
but also of each and every individual, who had developed their own variant of
these principles in which they created their own style. The resulting idea of
personal habitus is a bit like the anthropological equivalent to the colloquial
concept of personality.
This issue remains important in our current project about smartphones
and ageing. The problem of writing anthropology is how to respect the human-
ism of each and every person one has worked with and yet write at the level
of generality that comes from the analysis of typicality and the normative. I
am presently writing, along with my team, a book on The global smartphone. This
weaves in and out between discussing general findings for fieldsites in Japan
or Cameroon with trying also to give mini-portraits of individuals. In a way,
though, the point has become easier, since the smartphone is unprecedented
in its ability to be altered by the owner, so that a careful dissection of the
smartphone shows how it quickly become highly expressive of that particular
person. Through studying the smartphone one can see this process in action,
a person and an object developing their joint aesthetic, which we now strive
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 773 – 803, sep. – dec., 2020
to portray as the portrait of them both. But in turn people are microcosms of
the wider cultural values they have been socialised into, so the smartphone
expresses typicality as well as individuality.
A.C.B. You have been a big advocate of the importance of ethnography for the
production of anthropological arguments. What kinds of advice do you usually
give to your students before they start doing fieldwork?
787
don’t know that world? The only possible method is long-term ethnographic
fieldwork that creates trust between the anthropologist and their participants,
which means that people appreciate that no harm will come to them in sharing
the everyday family communications that is the core of WhatsApp.
I give my students unusual advice. They spend months prior to fieldwork
preparing an “upgrade” report about what they plan to do. I suggest to them
that once that have passed their upgrade examination, they tear up this docu-
ment and expect to significantly deviate from their own plans. I see fieldwork
as highly opportunistic and carried out in a spirit of discovery. Once they are
in the field, they will encounter things they never expected or knew about.
Those could not have appeared in their upgrade, precisely because they were
unknown to them at that time. Yet these are the genuine discoveries that may
well be just as important to know about as those they planned to investigate.
I argue that, as ethnographers, we must work as opportunists and abjure test-
ing hypotheses which are always limited to prior knowledge.
This is not just true of individual research. My current project started
with a commitment to the study of mHealth [“mobile health”] – that is, bespoke
smartphone apps designed to help people with problems of health. After a few
months, however, everyone in our team realised that few people were using
these apps and that actually, if we wanted to consider the impact of smart-
phones upon health, we needed to completely rethink the very notion of
mHealth – that what really mattered were the use of ubiquitous activities such
as Googling, or ubiquitous apps such as WhatsApp, and not the specialist
mHealth apps. We then completely changed the direction of our research away
from the original grant proposal to what we now appreciated mattered more
to the people we were studying.
A.C.B. Often prominent scholars give up on doing fieldwork and hire someone
else to do it for them. You, instead, still do it yourself. Why?
D.M. Most of the anthropologists I learnt from had repeatedly returned to the
field, such as Geertz or Barth or Leach. I see this as essential for anthropology,
which at least claims to be a comparative discipline. For this sense of the com-
parative to be experienced by anthropologists, they need to have several dis-
tinctly different fieldsites that they themselves have worked in. Otherwise they
tend to become overly specialist in ever more esoteric minutiae of just one
particular region.
It is also hard to imagine any discipline thriving that didn’t include the
continual commitment to empirical experience as evidence. Every experience
of fieldwork has taught me so much, and inevitably changed the direction of
my thinking and my sense of what actually matters to people. Fieldwork is
visceral, it becomes part of you in a way that simply reading about another
material culture and mass consumption: the impact of daniel miller’s work in brazil
788
M.M. At what point in your career did you become interested in digital cultures
as an anthropological reference? What were your motivations for conducting
these studies?
D.M. I have always accepted that mainly I do not choose my research topics;
rather my job is to simply acknowledge the world and direct myself to it. Often
this reflects my own experience. My initial work on material culture and con-
sumption reflected the disparity between the sheer scale of the commodity
culture we lived within and the relative neglect at that period of academia. My
later work on the topics of shopping and parenting reflected my own personal
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 773 – 803, sep. – dec., 2020
experiences at that time. The rise of the digital was simply inescapable; it was
what we were all doing. If I decided to launch myself into it earlier than most,
this probably reflects the same opportunism I have just described. I don’t think
I was especially prescient in recognising that digital media represented a fun-
damental change in the world.
I am, however, careful, in engaging with unprecedented phenomenon. I
have never wanted anthropology to be the study of possible futures, or the latest
digital objects. The right time for the anthropologist to pay attention comes
when the device has become commonplace, such that it would already be a
significant presence within an ethnography of the everyday. This can happen
quite quickly. Our current project on smartphones and older people would not
have been possible even two or three years ago; but in most of our fieldsites
there are people in their eighties who can barely imagine doing without their
smartphones. Ultimately, I am not that interested in either material objects or
digital technology. My concern is with human relationships and social normativ-
ity. The legacy of the material culture studies is, however, that the best way to
interview with daniel miller | ana carolina balthazar and monica machado
789
study people and society is through practice and not just language. Once peo-
ple were constantly using the internet or social media, or now the smartphone,
you have the opportunity to observe so much and learn so much that might
not be present in interviews and conversation. If you just consider the amount
of visual content that now exists online, this is an anthropological gift horse.
Take, for example, a topic I am often drawn to, that of love. People were
surprised when my book A theory of shopping turned out to be a study of love.
But my point was that English people are quite embarrassed and awkward
talking about love. They tended to assume that just meant the romantic form.
While I saw how housewives every day showed their concern for their children
through their attention to detail in their shopping. I apply the same logic to
digital technologies. When I go through the smartphone, app by app, I can see
what it actually looks like to spend every day dealing with the dementia of
one’s parent. In my first book with Don Slater, The internet: an ethnographic
approach, we showed how young people were quickly shifting to different ways
of engagement, or how even religious practice and belief changed because of
the ways in which ideas could be expressed and communicated online. You
didn’t have to be particularly interested in the digital itself, you just had to
see its potential as a vehicle for academic research.
M.M. If I am not mistaken, the first time you mentioned the concept of poly-
media was in the book Migration and new media: transnational families and poly-
media, written with Madianou. Am I right? Could you explain how this aca-
demic concept has contributed to your current studies?
M.M. In the book Digital anthropology, you and Horst point out that when stud-
ying digital cultures, one should investigate the phenomena of materiality in
social-cultural mediations. Could you tell us a bit more about that?
material culture and mass consumption: the impact of daniel miller’s work in brazil
790
D.M. I think that there was a huge advantage in coming to digital anthropology
from the study of material culture, and again it was about seeing this trajectory
at a deeper level. Of course, digital technology is itself material, and one can
study where in the house people locate their computer or the implications of
the size of screens – from smartphones, through tablets to laptops. But the more
important legacy of material culture studies was the realisation that the key to
studying digital technologies was to focus upon content, that which ordinary
people created and used to populate the online world. This is the real substance
of the digital and it echoes that of prior material culture studies in that it is vast.
Take one example, the rise of the visual. In my paper “Photography in
the age of snapchat,” I argue that social media photography is more or less the
opposite of traditional photography. It used to be about keeping a record for
the future, but now it is all about the present; using the smartphone to filter
out and actually look at the things that matter around you. Then there is a
world of new visual materials. One of the findings of our current project is the
way people use emojis and stickers in places such as China and Japan. These
overcome traditional formal constraints of face-to-face speech and can convey
more affective feelings and emotions, so that informants tell how they wish
that oral conversation could be as expressive as sticker-based conversation.
This became very important for our study of care at a distance. I see all this as
a continuation of material culture studies in that we dissect the substance of
content and learn to sing its tunes.
M.M. In your latest book, The comfort of people, you portray a beautiful sense of
humanity when investigating both online and offline experiences of people in
UK hospices. Could you tell us more about it?
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 773 – 803, sep. – dec., 2020
D.M. The work that I carried out with hospice patients was especially significant
in that I think it will impact upon all my future research. I noted at the start of
this interview that at Cambridge I was socialised into a rather elitist conception
of academia that considered theorisation intellectual and applied work as not.
I think working with the hospice made me finally realise that in many ways the
abstraction represented by theory is often less challenging to the intellect, pre-
cisely because it remains at that abstract level. By contrast, applied research that
has to deal with the contingency and the variety of life as lived, is actually often
more challenging intellectually as well as practically. It also adds two further
advantages. One is that it may actually improve people’s lives, while mere cri-
tique usually just improves the status of the critic. Finally, it returns us to a core
task of anthropology which is to help people appreciate the humanity of others.
It is the last of these points that is perhaps foregrounded in the storytell-
ing style of a book such as The comfort of people. Most likely this urgency in con-
veying the humanity of people is linked to the subject matter. These were people
interview with daniel miller | ana carolina balthazar and monica machado
791
who had been diagnosed with a terminal illness and mostly have died since the
research. As I have already noted the key in anthropological writing is to blend
analytical generalisation with conveying the unique character of every person
we work with. These storytelling books provide one way of achieving this.
As you suggest, this book is also about blending online and offline lives.
The research was intended to map the entire social universe of a person who
is dying. This has to include their phone contacts and emails, but also who they
see face-to-face and how often. What this has in common with my earlier study
of how Filipina care workers try to parent their children half-way across the
world is the necessity of online communication. People who are dying often
also become less mobile as frailty becomes an issue. So, they use new tech-
nologies, not for new purposes, but simply to try and retain the social connec-
tions they might otherwise lose.
In addition, the book considers how such research might assist the hos-
pice. I was hugely impressed by the hospice. It was the antidote to technology
research. It had completely transformed the lives of these people. But not at
all because of any new technology. It was simply by reconceptualising from the
negative sense of the final stage before death into a positive last opportunity
to do interesting and worthwhile things with one’s life while one still had it.
Communication is particularly important since people want to stay in
their homes for as long as possible, so mostly the hospice staff are dealing with
patients in their homes, not in the hospice. This was the opportunity to actu-
ally employ ideas that had started as theories. For example, polymedia became
a specific recommendation to hospice staff, suggesting that they start by as-
certaining how each patient preferred to use media in communicating with
them. Might they prefer a text first to alert them that they were about to get a
phone call, or to prepare themselves for a webcam discussion? It was a revela-
tion to doctors that patients may not always prefer face-to-face when hearing
news about the development in their cancer.
Another significant finding was that the factor that proved most harm-
ful to patients, other than their disease, was the medical profession’s obsession
with confidentiality. As a result, medical information was not being passed
between the many different groups that look after them. I find it immensely
frustrating that when we talk about our smartphone research, audiences con-
stantly emphasise privacy and confidentiality over almost any other factor.
They simply cannot imagine that, as well as being sometimes something we
would all want to protect, privacy and confidentiality can also become a sig-
nificant cause of harm to ordinary people.
792
D.M. The first point is simply that Brazil is not comparable to England because
the former is far more heterogeneous than the latter. There are differences in
England between north and south, across gender and inequalities in income,
but Brazil is more like a continent than a country. For example, I was watching
the film by Flavia Kramer on the impact of new media for the Bororo people
studied by Lévi-Strauss – a fascinating intersection between anthropological
interest in issues such as moieties and marriage rules, alongside the rise of
social media and smartphones. Clearly, however, lessons from Amazonia do
not apply to professionals in São Paulo. Currently Marilia Duque is working, as
part of our team, on ageing with smartphones in São Paulo. She finds, for ex-
ample, that retired people focus on retaining their links to their previous work-
ing lives, which remains central to their sense of identity. By contrast, in my
most recent ethnography in Ireland (clearly NOT England, but not far). I found
that working with retired people, even after a year, you might not know what
job they had prior to retirement.
The best evidence we have, however is the published book by Spyer on
Social media in emergent Brazil. Again, you can’t really say this is “Brazil,” since
the people in this Bahian squatter community are entirely different from the
professionals being studied by Duque. But what is clear is that there are many
aspects of sociality that bear no relation to the English, including all sorts of
regimes of secrecy, but also gossip, that his book expertly dissects. By contrast,
my own book Social media in an English village, explains a very specific form of
English sociality based on what I call the “Goldilocks” principle, where the main
use of social media is to create a new degree of sociality in which people are
seen as sufficiently connected that they are not ignoring relatives and friends.
But this is used to legitimate keeping these people at a distance, so one doesn’t
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 773 – 803, sep. – dec., 2020
actually need to talk to them or see them. This antipathy to sociality is very
English and contrasts with the much more expansive and frankly friendly so-
ciality that English people almost always remark upon when they gain some
experience of Brazil.
D.M. My first response is one of caution. I see the impact of new media on
politics as an arena of fake news, but I mean something quite different from
that phrase. It is the hype around fake news that may be the main fake news.
Similarly, for years we have been told that new media creates a “filter bubble”
interview with daniel miller | ana carolina balthazar and monica machado
793
which narrows the exposure of people to the media, but as far as I am aware
the evidence has always been that the opposite is true. Works such as Axel
Bruns’s Are filter bubbles real? or David Sumpter’s Outnumbered tend to be ignored
so almost everyone thinks that social media creates “filter bubbles” even when
they don’t. In my first book about the internet, with Don Slater, we pointed out
that the reason there is so much hate speech online is that this tends to be
stuff that wasn’t taken seriously, and no one would publish anywhere else. The
fact that it all ends up online was a sign of its insignificance, rather than sig-
nificance. The term fake news has the absurd consequence of deluding people
into thinking that news prior to social media was mainly true. Here in England
the lies that led to Brexit came almost entirely from established tabloid news-
papers, far more than from social media
The problem is that the newspapers whose financial interest are being
undermined by new media tend to be relentless in their critique. Since I am
usually trying to oppose that with evidence, my work sounds like it is biased
towards the positive consequences of new media. This is not the case. I am just
trying to keep us wedded to evidence. In my current work, for example, I am
examining how Googling for health information exacerbates class differences
when it appears to be merely neutral. This is a negative most people are una-
ware of. If we were to take a broad brush and look at the evidence overall, I think
I would say that new media’s effects are, not surprisingly, equally positive and
negative on the field of democratic politics as in most other things. Social media
can potentially help develop an Arab Spring, but equally populist politics such
as the Italian Five Star movement in Italy, that takes much of its ideology from
the democratic possibilities of the internet, suffers from the contradictions of
most populist parties. But then I have always argued that people who try and
see impacts as good or bad are generally being simplistic. I am a follower of the
work of the sociologist Georg Simmel who presents clear theoretical grounds for
expecting new cultural developments to be inherently contradictory.
Having said all that, there are clearly dangers that digital technologies
allow a degree of surveillance and control that could make authoritarian re-
gimes extremely effective. Recently one of my team, Xinyuan Wang, wrote a
piece (in The Conversation) that explained why people in China may be less op-
posed to the social credit system than outsiders to China imagine. Nevertheless,
these systems should certainly make us fearful of the potential for a form of
absolute political control that is unprecedented.
A.C.B. Do you consider your work to be political in any way? How exactly?
D.M. I was educated in the work of Habermas, who clearly showed that all
academic work is political. But I have strong views on where that politics should
be best directed. There is much good work within the field of cultural studies,
material culture and mass consumption: the impact of daniel miller’s work in brazil
794
but I would suggest that precisely because it tends to foster work that favours
the author’s political stance, it loses credibility. If someone from gender stud-
ies argued that gender is highly significant for some study, it could be read as
simply a reflection of their institutional role. Perhaps influenced by Karl Popper,
I have always tried to come up with evidence that does not necessarily support
my own politics. For example, I found that supermarkets might have ethical
consequences that were superior to corner shops, even though I personally
want to favour corner shops. You should not know my politics from my findings.
Research itself should be as objective as possible so that people trust that it is
a direct reflection of evidence not the author’s institutional position.
The politics comes subsequently, when we consider how our research
should engage with policy. Indeed, the key point is that it should engage. I have
seen generations of academics, whose only stance is pure critique, claiming that
they are more political than I am. But their work has rarely resulted in changes
to policy. By contrast, I am now increasingly involved in trying to engage our re-
search in actually improving people’s welfare. The most powerful critique is the
demonstration that something could be feasibly done better than the status quo.
So, in our current work, we are distinct from the vast commercial industry that
promotes and develops mHealth Apps and instead publishing documents that
show some of this could be done for free using ubiquitous free apps such as
WhatsApp. Marilia Duque has created an impressive manual on how WhatsApp
could be used for health in Brazil. I believe my work is political to the degree that
I can actually see people’s welfare has been improved as a direct result of our work.
Pure critique to me is often self-indulgence and therefore ultimately conservative.
A.C.B. Your work often draws on some of Pierre Bourdieu’s arguments. He has
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 773 – 803, sep. – dec., 2020
D.M. I have already mentioned that in some ways Bourdieu could be argued as
saying something else. While academia has in the past mainly reproduced so-
cial hierarchies, the effect of the university system is to create and sustain the
middle-class – that is, people who view the world through a sophisticated lens
of distinction informed by education, while Bourdieu portrays the working class
as generally having a more immediate or literal interpretation of what they
encounter, which he may also see as more authentic. I have always believed
that education is vastly superior to ignorance. The problem for me is that the
universities only serve a minority, and we want everyone to have access to
these educational possibilities.
This is something I am also trying to put into practice. Before the ar-
rival of digital technologies, I could only speak to 30 or sometimes 300 in a
interview with daniel miller | ana carolina balthazar and monica machado
795
lecture theatre. But in our last Why We Post project, our free online university
course was taken by over 30,000. I am especially excited that our books, most
of which are ethnographic monographs, have been downloaded by more than
875,000. Especially important are the numbers we see in countries with emerg-
ing middle classes and subsequent demand to expand tertiary education such
as Ethiopia or the Philippines.
How have we achieved this? The first factor is that all our research dis-
semination consists of free “Open Access” books, or a free online university
course. Perhaps even more importantly we only use colloquial English, that is
words which someone finishing high school would understand. I believe most
theory can be explained in ordinary language, and the reason people don’t is
often because the theory is weak and is being artificially protected by obfusca-
tion. Our style of writing is intended to be highly accessible, mostly told in the
form of stories about recognisable people. We also translate our work into the
languages of the places where we work, such as Hindi and Tamil. In addition,
we use new media to publicise our work through social media platforms, blogs
and by providing simple versions of our arguments on websites that get people
interested in reading the more complex work. This does not dilute our aca-
demic output. That project produced 11 books – more than 2,000 pages of evi-
dence. I really don’t mind if, to some degree, this giving away of education for
free is destructive of the traditional university system as we have known it. In
its current form it is elitist, as Bourdieu indicated. In our work we are trying to
push towards what I see as sophisticated original insights, which is the value
of research, but made available to everyone, especially those who don’t have
the money to go to universities, but may be extremely interested in knowing
more about the consequences of social media or smartphones. Education is a
human right and to the degree that this is possible, it should be free.
A.C.B. What do you feel you achieved through the Why We Post project and how
does your current project aim to go beyond that?
D.M. The single most important achievement of Why We Post is the evidence
that it collected about the uses and consequences of social media and the fact
that this was ethnographic evidence. The point is that most arguments about
social media come from disciplines that skim off only the publicly available
evidence. There is a vast amount of work about the political consequences of
Twitter, since academics have easy access to Twitter. Some also tend to univer-
salise their findings. But our work should incorporate everything that people
do and the diversity between different populations. As I noted above, this must
include the private worlds found on platforms such as WhatsApp that are more
consequential for ordinary people. So that project was committed to providing
scholarly evidence which is made readily available through mass dissemination.
material culture and mass consumption: the impact of daniel miller’s work in brazil
796
797
trated by ethnographic evidence that shows how it means different things for
each population. It doesn’t look like theory because we spend so much effort
trying to make the arguments clear and accessible. We examine the way it clar-
ifies our original insights to a greater extent than how it contributes to estab-
lished theoretical debates. The book thereby exemplifies what I hope de-fetish-
ised theory within anthropology might look like in the future.
D.M. This will be my longest answer since I am someone who has always been
much more orientated to the present and future and not especially interested
in the past. There are three phases to this, but they shift from projects that are
pretty definite, to ideas that at the moment are more like dreams that may or
may not become reality.
At present, I am just half-way through our five-year project, and I am
hugely enthusiastic about the results. When we started the idea of linking three
topics – the transformation of middle-age, the question of what a smartphone
is, and whether we could contribute to mHealth – this seemed a bizarre beast,
part giraffe, part crocodile, part spider. Yet at this point we simply can’t imag-
ine how you could tackle any one of these three topics except in combination
with the others. Finding that ubiquitous apps, such as WhatsApp, were more
important than bespoke apps, is linked to understanding both what a smart-
phone is and how ageing has changed. Presently we are completing The global
smartphone and then we hope there will be nine monographs all with the titles
of Ageing with smartphones in each of our various fieldsites. We intend to write
an edited book about our alternatives to mHealth, but also will publish com-
parative work on ageing, probably in journal papers.
If, however, you spend 16 months living in a fieldsite as an ethnographer,
you end up with far more material than that dictated by your project. I find I
want to write a book that has little to do with this project and is more what
struck me from the ethnographic experience. The title I would like to give this
book has been ruined by Monty Python, since you can’t use the expression “The
meaning of life” without thinking of them. Yet actually this would be the topic
of my book. I worked with retired people who had undergone a profound shift
from Catholicism to secularism, from poverty to affluence and from many con-
straints to a form of freedom that is, perhaps, unprecedented in human his-
tory. I suspect there are many parallels to this amongst populations in Brazil.
I spent some of my time asking people about life purpose. As you might expect,
they had very little to say in response and found the topic vaguely embarrass-
ing. This was also true of my previous work with hospice patients who were
dying. So instead, I think we need to extrapolate issues about life purpose from
what people do, rather than what they say.
material culture and mass consumption: the impact of daniel miller’s work in brazil
798
I won’t even start writing this book for another year or so, but in my
head, there is a fantasy that much of the book will come from the ethnograph-
ic findings. But once that is written, I will then compare it to classic philosophy
and discussions of life purpose in ancient Greece and Rome. There is a little of
this in the book Aging thoughtfully by Martha Nussbaum and Saul Levmore. I
would want to go much further, with more extensive discussion of various
movement such as the Stoics, Epicureans and others. My argument would be
that later philosophy is mainly influenced by religion, while these earlier clas-
sical sources are in some ways closer to the largely secular world of my con-
temporary Irish retirees. I also imagine writing about issues such as the nature
of community and consumption as seen from the same perspective.
Even more in the realms of fantasy would be a project that would start
only when my present five-year project is complete, that is three years from
now. Unfortunately, with the UK leaving the EU – something that I see as a
complete disaster in so many ways – I may be no longer eligible for the scale
of funding I will have enjoyed for the last ten years. Yet I feel that these large-
scale comparative projects offer something to comparative anthropology that
is more than just the aggregate of smaller projects. So, I would love to have
the opportunity to conduct another such programme in the future; if I can
find the funding to do so, which is doubtful. As for the topic, this is even more
tentative, but I am currently thinking about what seems to be something of
a crisis in young people’s relationships; issues around commitment and inti-
macy. This would follow from previous work I have carried out on the nature
of love. I don’t think I would carry out such an ethnography myself – I am too
old. At this point I would rather concentrate on helping young people train
as ethnographers and gain their own expertise.
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799
800
NOTEs
1 Both projects are on the site of UCL Anthropolog y (UK):
<https://www.ucl.ac.uk /why-we-post / and https://blogs.
ucl.ac.uk/assa/about/>. Accessed 28 September 2020.
2 Here Miller refers to his current project, funded by the
European Research Council, The Anthropology of Smart-
phones and Smart Ageing (ASSA): see https:// blogs.ucl.
ac.uk/assa/.
bibliography
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802
803
Material Culture and Mass Consumption:
Considerações sobre o Impacto da obra de
Daniel Miller no Brasil
Palavras-chave Resumo
Cultura material; Este artigo introduz o número especial sobre o impacto do
consumo; livro Material culture and mass consumption, de Daniel Miller,
mídia digital. para o debate interdisciplinar das ciências sociais no Brasil.
Nesta Apresentação, nós, as organizadoras, fazemos uma
revisão das principais ideias contidas no livro – que nunca
foi traduzido para o português – , além de considerar algu-
mas críticas que surgiram nas últimas décadas sobre a obra.
Abordamos também a relação da teoria do consumo de Mil-
ler e sua larga produção em antropologia digital. Em segui-
da, numa entrevista com o próprio Miller, discutimos algu-
mas das impressões que temos sobre sua perspectiva teó-
rica e trajetória profissional. Por fim, o texto apresenta os
quatro artigos originais que, a partir de dados de pesquisa
empírica, discutem a pertinência daquele estudo inicial
sobre consumo e cultura material para o atual debate teó-
rico sobre materialidades, mídias sociais e trocas interdis-
ciplinares. Além disso, o artigo também introduz a seção
Registros de Pesquisa, em que pesquisadores próximos a
Miller escrevem sobre a sua produção teórica, colaborações
acadêmicas e parceria profissional.
Xinyuan Wang l
As Miller and Slater (2000: 5) argue, “If you want to get to the Internet, don’t
start from there… we need to treat Internet media as continuous with and
embedded in other social spaces, that they happen within mundane social
structures and relations that they may transform but that they cannot escape
into a self-enclosed cyberian apartness”. In the light of these reflections on
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 807 – 830 , sep. – dec., 2020
digital anthropology, this paper aims to understand the use of social media
among young Chinese migrant workers in both offline and online contexts.
First of all, the significant “offline” context of this study is the massive
domestic migration in China. In the process of ongoing urbanisation and in-
dustrialisation, the expansion of capitalism has had profoundly dislocating
effects on Chinese society. By 2015, when the fieldwork was conducted, there
were more than 250 million Chinese who had left their places of origin in
rural China to seek employment in Chinese factory towns and cities (NBSC,
2016). These rural migrants are referred to as a “floating population,” which
indicates the difficulty of settling down in urban China in the rigorous Chinese
household registration (Hukou) system. This paper is based on 15 months of
ethnographic research (2013-2015) in a small town called GoodPath 1 in south-
east China. GoodPath is a typical industrial town which serves as a transi-
tional place connecting the village and city. The local process of industrializa-
tion has turned most of the farmland (76%) into more than 60 large scale
factories within a decade. Migrant workers account for two-thirds of the
the digital dasein of chinese rural migrants
808
resident population, which totals 62,000. Around 80% of these rural migrant
workers are from a new generation born in the 1980s. Unlike the previous
generations of rural migrants, who as surplus labour in rural China had no
choice but to leave the countryside and make a living in cities, the younger
generation of rural migrants sees rural-to-urban migration as their “rite of
passage” (Fang, 2011) in which they search for self-identity and self-transfor-
mation along with attempting to meet economic needs. As extensively noted
by other researchers, rural migrants have encountered discrimination and
have frequently become the scapegoats for all kinds of social problems in
urban China (Jacka, 2006; Ngai, 2005). Ironically, as the indispensable force for
building modern China, rural migrants in post-communist China have been
subjected to a process of “othering” where their very existence is characterised
as “potentially hindering China from reaching modernity” (Rofel, 1999: 106).
It is in this social context that this paper explores the role which social media
plays in the daily life experience of young migrants.
In terms of the “online” context, the paper examines the QQ platform.
During fieldwork, this was the main social media platform among rural migrants
even though use of WeChat had been increasing remarkably. QQ provides a
variety of different digital services, including instant messaging, social media,
gaming, e-mail, video music sharing, and so on. Unlike Facebook which applies
an identical look to every profile, QQ offers a great variety of formats and extra
design elements for users to create their own profiles.
This paper starts with a general theoretical reflection on the relationship
between place and human existence. Drawing on this discussion, the rest of
the paper, based on my ethnography among Chinese rural-to-urban migrants,
sets forth a dialogue between Miller’s thoughts on objectification and the Hei-
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 807 – 830 , sep. – dec., 2020
809
810
as “does the virtual world in and of itself constitute a society?” This research
prompts questions of how far place is regarded as something separated from
experience and embodiment, or whether we can incorporate a fundamental
understanding of place as the framing within which meaning and knowledge
are made possible in the first place (Malpas, 2006).
Much of the fieldwork among Chinese migrant workers presents findings
relevant to discussion of the issue of place: (a) following Lefebvre and Foucault,
scholars have been scrutinizing “place-making” in terms of spatial disciplining
and social control to rethink urbanization and modernization in China (Rofel,
1992; Bach, 2010; Wu, Zhang & Webster, 2013; Zhang, 2002); (b) from the perspec-
tive of production and consumption, there has been a thorough exploration of
the daily struggle of Chinese migrant workers in a situation where people’s
possibilities for living in space is now controlled by the consumer revolution
in post-socialist China (Ngai, 2003); (c) acknowledging the impact of digital
technologies, scholars have started to explore the ways in which the digital has
been integrated into the transformation of social structures of contemporary
China, empowering the previous “information-less” population to perform a
modern identity (Qiu, 2009; Wallis, 2015). This paper builds upon all these pri-
or considerations in order to interrogate them anew within the context of the
daily lives of Chinese migrant workers which are taking place offline and online
simultaneously.
The rest of the paper consists of three sections. Based on ethnography,
each section focuses on one layer of existential experience in the context of
social media use. The discussion of Being starts with concerns about the “self”
and proceeds to an examination of sociality where the self is suited in the
context of connections. The last section sheds light on the wider context of
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 807 – 830 , sep. – dec., 2020
811
classes,” which only enrolled local students. The reason given was that local
people were concerned that their children would pick up bad habits from the
children of rural migrant families with low “human quality” (di suzhi). In field-
work, migrant workers were fully aware of their inferior social status as “out-
siders” with low social visibility. It was common to hear factory workers remark:
“My opinion/right doesn’t matter as I am just an outsider.” Liping, a 22-year-old
former factory worker, was one of them.
Liping lost her job in the factory because of a minor dispute with the
line manager. She left the job without getting fully paid but abandoned any
attempt to obtain redress since, as she remarked, “all the managers are local
people who cover each other and don’t care about us outsiders.” The only
place Liping showed her dissatisfaction was on her QQ where her post com-
plaining about the factory was supported by several her QQ friends who were
also migrant workers. “QQ is my own place… at least I say what I want to say,”
Liping explained. Furthermore, Liping was a VIP on QQ (having purchased the
VIP membership). Being a VIP entitled her to a variety of online privileges,
from extended use of various functions to significantly enhanced visibility.
As a VIP, Liping’s QQ avatar is always on top of the contact list in the chatting
interface, and her QQ name was shown in bold red. In addition, Liping was
also an expert in tailoring her online status. For example, she applied the
“visible to somebody in invisible status” function, which allowed her to always
be seen by selected contacts while in invisible status when the rest of her
contacts would be unable to tell whether she was online or not:
Sometimes I just want to talk to one or two [friends] and don’t want to be dis-
turbed by any random guys, so I set myself invisible… but for a few people I feel
I can always talk to or wish they can ping me if they see me online, I set myself
always visible for them, even though to others I am still invisible.
Liping reported that this setting gave her a strong feeling of being special,
as she further explained, “It’s like I am always there waiting for you, you know,
very close and exclusive… and it’s the way we make ourselves special for each
other…”
The “self” is by no means experienced as a purely personal matter, since
being a person means being treated as someone whose “personal views matter
in some public, articulate, expressible sense” (Scannell, 2000). On QQ, Liping
enjoyed a much-increased control of her visibility in so far as she could deter-
mine when “I set myself invisible” and this self-tailored visibility facilitated
her self-perception as a “special person” who can be seen by people she cares
about, rather than an unimportant outsider in GoodPath town.
JiaDa, a 23-year-old forklift truck driver, provided another example. JiaDa
arranged a QQ group comprising 168 online contacts, the majority young male
migrant workers. None of the images on the album of this QQ group were taken
by any of the members themselves — all were obtained from the internet by
the digital dasein of chinese rural migrants
812
people in the group. According to JiaDa, the images worth posting were those
that “look cool and modern,” images such as “modern city landscapes,” “con-
sumer culture” (luxury cars and other goods), “sex,” “smoking,” and large sun-
glasses (Figure 1). Addressing the QQ group, JiaDa wrote “I hope everyone will
become a person with suzhi.” Suzhi, meaning “human quality,” is deeply associ-
ated with the Chinese urban-rural divide and the nation’s modernisation since
the 1980s. People in cities frequently refer to rural people, whom they regard as
intrinsically inferior, as “low human quality” (di suzhi). In the discourse of suzhi,
the rural lifestyle is measured on the scale of modernity and ends up being stig-
matised as “backward” and a threat to the “project of national modernity” (Jacka,
2006: 31). In other words, the party-state actually claims that to enjoy the pros-
perity offered by economic reform, citizens must take the initiative to improve
themselves, casting off their low suzhi dispositions. In such a conceptualization,
emphasis is on individual responsibility, rather than individual rights (Fong &
Murphy, 2006). The message on JiaDa’s QQ group suggested that rural migrants
seem to have already accepted this denigrating discourse, which echoes various
studies among marginalized groups of Chinese people who tend to internalize
the judgement of “mainstream” society that they are “backward” or “uncivilized”
(Fong & Murphy, 2006). On the other hand, the implicit message sent by the QQ
group seems to be that “human quality” can be effectively improved online.
In terms of utilizing visual posts to articulate personal aspirations, Lily,
a 19-year-old factory worker, provides a typical case. Most of the images Lily
posted on her QQ were artistic photos of beautiful women in gorgeous dresses
which she collected online (Figure 2). On Lily’s QQ, there was not the slightest
trace of her life as an assembly line worker or her lived environment in the
factory town. The only set of photographs of herself was produced by the local
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 807 – 830 , sep. – dec., 2020
photography studio. It took Lily half a month’s salary to have these photos
taken to “record her most beautiful self” in her own words. By “most beautiful
self” she refers to the look that took the stylist two hours to produce by apply-
ing make-up and dressing her in an evening dress with extra padding around
her breasts and hips (Figure 3).
The truth that these artistic photographs held for Lily was not about her
everyday “authentic” look, but her real desire to become a “most beautiful self”
who can fit into the online space. In Bonnie Adrian’s (2003) study of bridal
photography, artist photos that transformed the images of Chinese young wom-
en beyond recognition are regarded as a significant ritual marking a woman’s
self-awareness and self-expression of being a young, attractive, independent
woman before she becomes exhausted by household work and family duties.
“Photography is prized not for its ability to capture lived experience but for its
capacity to create ‘memories’ markedly different from the goings-on of every-
day life” (Adrian, 2003: 10). The acknowledgement of this creativity of photog-
raphy provides a different perspective, given these offline precedents to Lily’s
Fig. 1 Sample of images on JiaDa’s QQ group album Fig. 3 The “artistic photo” of Lily
article | xinyuan wang
Fig. 1 Sample of images on JiaDa’s QQ group album Fig. 3 The “artistic photo” of Lil
813
2
3
Figure 1
Sample of images on JiaDa's QQ group album
Figure 2
Sample of images on Lily's QQ album
Figure 3
The "artistic photo" of Lily
814
Desired sociality on social media
Traditionally, non-kinship ties are taken less seriously in Chinese society, and
people avoid introducing a social contact as a “friend” since this category fails
to provide any background information about the person (Smart, 1999). The
very concept of “friendship” as a form of social relationship only started to gain
importance during the processes of modernisation when people became free
of dependency on the land and started to encounter and co-operate with others
outside of kin ties and regional social networks (Bell & Coleman, 1999). This
research project started out with the assumption that social media would play
a key role in facilitating re-connection between kin. However, the ethnography
found that this was not the case for young migrant workers. In GoodPath many
young migrant workers left home to ‘become independent’ from the older gen-
eration, which made it possible for them to experience something new, fit into
and then take part in urban life. Breaking down the pre-existing structure of
social relationships was perceived as an essential part of growing up and be-
coming a modern citizen − to use the terminology of Victor Turner (1969) in
characterising rites of passage as the creation of an “anti-structure.”
Meanwhile, most generalised accounts of modern China stress the role
of schooling and education. Factory workers are a vast and significant exception
to these common claims about the close relationship between Chinese people
and educational aspirations. Most rural youth in GoodPath left their villages
and entered the factories between the age of 15 and their early 20s when most
of their urban peers were still attending school. What these young rural migrants
missed was not just formal education, but the chance to develop social skills
within the relatively secure environment provided by schools. In this context,
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 807 – 830 , sep. – dec., 2020
social media had become the place where these young people could meet peers
and practise friendship (Wang, 2016).
“Without discarding the old, there would be no coming of the new” − this
folk saying has been applied many times by people to justify their friending
principles on social media. Many felt that the people they left behind no long-
er shared their value system and thus they became less motivated to keep
contact with them on social media. Baozi, a 23-year-old apprentice cook at a
local restaurant, would regularly delete his social media contacts:
Some of those [the contacts he deleted] are my fellow villagers and relatives… I
guess we don’t share a common language anymore. Those who stay in villages
worry about different things… well, without discarding the old there would be
no coming of the new.
815
never encountered and thus have no experience to share. Yan, Y. (2003) also
observed how young people were gaining increasing control of their own lives
and had no problem going against the wishes of their parents and other senior
family members in the rural community. However, in GoodPath, the young ru-
ral migrants still felt the surveillance and pressure from the older generation
but tried to avoid it. Xiaozhi, a 19-year-old factory worker, had a few relatives
in GoodPath, all working at factories. Once over dinner, one of Xiaozhi’s aunt-
ies told her not to spend so much on shopping, recalling that when she was
her age, she had contributed money to the family. Xiaozhi blushed and left
without finishing her dinner. Before long, her QQ status was updated, saying
“QQ is the only unpolluted land left where old women all shut their mouth.”
Later Xiaozhi explained: “They know nothing but still point fingers, I had
enough… at least on QQ I don’t need to listen to their rubbish.” The fact that
Xiaozhi had no family member or relative on her QQ made the platform her
“only unpolluted land.”
In GoodPath, although people still tended to address one another as
“fellow villager”’ (lao xiang) or “fellow worker” (gong you), rather than “friend” in
offline situations, it seemed that the situation had changed on social media.
The capacity to make new friends online was regarded as convincing evidence
of one’s personal charm and modern taste. As 23-year-old Bingbing remarked:
“If you remain in a small village you will never know the importance of friend-
ship… people in cities all have many chances to meet new friends, and they
have many friends.” The majority of contacts on social media did not come
from kinship or regional ties, and even strangers played an important role. It
was not unusual to see people spending hours on QQ chatting with “online
friends” (wang you) with whom they had no offline connections at all. This re-
flects a more general acceptability of strangers as a result of experiences with
social media in contemporary China (McDonald, 2016).
A representative case was provided by a factory forklift truck driver, Feige,
who was highly active in various QQ groups. Even though Feige hardly knew the
real names of his online friends, he found chatting with them was most enjoy-
able and relaxing. He felt that people made friends with him not because of any
pragmatic concerns, such as asking for money, and among online friends he was
not judged as a rural migrant − “The friendship online is much purer,” Feige
remarked. Contrary to the widespread idea that relationships mediated by digi-
tal technology are not as authentic as offline relationships (Fröding & Peterson,
2012; Turkle, 2011), Feige’s case showed that online relationships may feel purer
and more authentic than the offline. The common view amongst migrant work-
ers was that the voluntarism of these online relationships that have not been
imposed on them by outside forces resulted in their greater authenticity.
The new online relationship also allows for a different kind of communi-
cation. Like many of his peers, Baozi’s connection with his family back in the
the digital dasein of chinese rural migrants
816
village was mainly via phone calls. In these phone calls, practical concerns such
as daily errands, wages, and job hunting predominated, whereas on Baozi’s QQ
profile, more than half of the articles he shared over the past year were inspiring
stories of successful men. From time to time, there were also articles about life
philosophy. It was also while on QQ chatting that Baozi told me most of his
personal stories. Baozi commented: “There is no point talking about feelings or
daydreams with your family. Family needs solid things… like money or a stable
job… Online you can talk about feelings or dreams… and you feel comfortable
talking about these things here [on QQ] and everybody on QQ does so…”
For Liping, Feige, Baozi and many others, social media is the place where
they are not excluded as “outsiders,” and the proper place to express themselves
alternatively. It is not only because the platform provides different possibilities
for communication, but also because it has become normative. The online space
is perceived as the place where such communication and self-expression are
justified since “everybody on QQ does so,” as Baozi observed. It has become a
practice in the sense given by Bourdieu, one dependent on the “economy of the
proper place” (de Certeau, 1984: 55). The sense of which action is possible and
appropriate depends on the specific place that an individual occupies (Bourdieu,
1975). It was challenging to make friends offline because of shortened schooling
and social discriminations, as well as the pragmatic use of interpersonal rela-
tions to survive in a floating life. These factors account for the use of social
media as an alternative “proper” place for young migrants to participate in the
new sociality, as well as to break away from the old social structure. Practising
friendships online has been integrated into the process of coming of age and
has become an important way for these young people to gain their new identity.
Migrant workers in this study had no decision of where to be born or
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 807 – 830 , sep. – dec., 2020
into what kind of situation − like every human being, they were “thrown” into
the world. But as Heidegger puts it, Dasein is not present-at-hand, but the pos-
sibility of various ways of being. Furthermore, as the theory of objectification
proposes, “as an intrinsic part of being, and in order to attempt an understand-
ing of the world, the subject continually externalizes outwards, producing forms
or attaching itself to the structures through which form may be created” (Mill-
er, 1987: 179-180). “A subject cannot be envisaged outside the process of its own
becoming” (Miller, 1987: 179). Here we have seen the ways in which young rural
migrants explore the possibilities of their own “becoming,” both in terms of
self-presentation and in terms of developing a desirable sociality on social
media. The next section brings a further focus on the lived experience of “being-
in-the-world” facilitated by social media.
817
1977a: 241-242). By equating the emergence of Dasein with the homeland, this
Heideggerian ideology has influenced many traditional studies of migration
and diaspora, providing a philosophical underpinning of their work with dis-
placed people’s desire to return to their homeland and satisfy a longing for
home and the sense of belonging (Falzon, 2003; Safran, 1991).
Far from being this desired return, in GoodPath “homeland” seems to
evoke ambivalent and often negative feelings. Longing to become modern citizens,
young rural migrants are eager to be done with their rural background, which
is always associated with the homeland. “Post-Mao development has robbed the
countryside of its ability to serve as a locus for rural youth to construct a mean-
ingful identity” (Yan, H., 2003: 579) The countryside is constructed as a “wasteland
of ‘backwardness’ and ‘tradition’” (Yan, H, 2003: 586). On the other hand, what
everyone regards as their floating life constantly reminds them of the continued
importance of having a homeland. For most migrant workers, returning has
become a myth. First of all, they are very likely to lose their financial independ-
ence, or even the chance to make a living back in the villages, and, in any case,
people see themselves as no longer belonging to these rural communities. As
increasing numbers of the migrant population are born during the “floating” life,
more and more young people have no real-life connection to the villages. When
“home” refers to the place of origin, it is not automatically impregnated with the
usual sense of place of belonging where people “feel at home” (Siu, 2007).
Such mixed feelings about homeland were manifested in people’s social
media profiles. Even though interpersonal communication with home village
contacts was in many cases left out on QQ, visual elements of their homeland
gained popularity on people’s social media profiles. Around 15 per cent of rural
migrants’ QQ profiles had a specific online album called “homeland” (lao jia). For
example, Hua, a factory worker in her 30s, uploaded large numbers of photo-
graphs of the mountain behind her native village to her QQ album. She had been
floating for almost a decade and only visited her home village three times dur-
ing that period. Hua thought she would never move back to her home village, as
she explained: “My home village is a place you always miss, but not really a
place you want to return to.” “History is always ambiguous, always messy, and
people remember, and therefore construct the past in ways that reflect their
present need for meaning” (Ang, 1993). It seems that by posting the home village
images on QQ, all the negative memories and associations of village life had
been excised, leaving only the positive symbolic meaning of homeland. Once
again, then, we see how online spaces enable rural migrants to construct an
alternative site of homeland with which they feel they can relate more posi-
tively because they have created and crafted these albums, in contrast to the
physical homeland which they merely happen to have come from.
Further scrutiny of rural migrants’ social media profiles revealed diverse
forms of homeland-making. While most homeland postings contain photo-
the digital dasein of chinese rural migrants
818
“If one day we all feel tired, let’s go back to our village together, not to pursue
our aspirations, but merely for the transportation free of traffic jams and the
air free of pollution… dur ing the daytime we can work together in our little
vegetable garden, feed chickens and play with dogs, in the evening we can visit
old friends and neighbours…”
Rather than using a photo of the village, Chun Mei chose an “enjoying-
beach-holiday” image as the background picture.
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 807 – 830 , sep. – dec., 2020
Figure 4
The homeland posting on Chun Mel's WeChat profile
article | xinyuan wang
819
The home village Chun Mei depicted on social media, which she and her
husband had left nine years previously, is completely different. Recently the
couple had to move back to their home village to take care of their seriously ill
parents. Chun Mei’s husband complained at length about village life: “Had it
not been because of my parents…we would definitely not have gone back to
the rubbish countryside.” Given the tough situation that the young couple en-
countered in their home village, what Chun Mei posted becomes even more
puzzling.
The ethnography provides a plausible explanation. The program Where
are we going, Dad? – Chun Mei’s favourite live TV show – is about five celebrity
fathers and their children travelling to rural places. In one episode, a movie
star remarked: “even though it’s tough, I enjoy the pure and natural life here
[in the countryside].” Chun Mei demurred: “I really don’t understand why the
urbanites think the countryside is so good! Maybe they had too much sweetness,
and they’re looking for some bitterness…”
Chun Mei’s remark echoed another comment made by a young factory
worker. When I asked to take some photos of their place, the host, in his 40s,
appeared reluctant and urged his wife to sort out the room quickly. His sugges-
tion was disdained by his son, who exclaimed: “There is no need to make the
room look better… they all like these things. The more rural, the better!” The
17-year-old young son’s irony skewers this urban aesthetic which values the
authenticity of the rural. Such awareness emerged from their consumption of
popular content in the mass media and on social media, as well as their own
experience in urban areas. Picking on urban taste is regarded as essential to
becoming urban citizens (Fang, 2011). So, the repudiation of their place of ori-
gin is deflected by their need to incorporate bucolic ideals of the urban imagi-
nary re-cast as nostalgia. By setting themselves apart from the countryside and
appreciating it as the “other” place on social media, Chun Mei gave a future to
her rural past with the self-expectation of becoming urban. Social media is
thus the chrysalis within which homeland undergoes a metamorphosis from
dirty grub to fantasy butterfly.
David Morley (2000) argues that home in the digital age is a transitory
construct where new media not only articulate the “home” but also transgress
its boundaries. Vincent Descombes defines home as a virtual space: to be at
home is to be at ease with the rhetoric of the people with whom the person
shares a life (Auge, 1995: 108). “Homeland” and “home” are, in many cases, in-
terchangeable in daily conversation in GoodPath. Regardless of the differences
between “homeland” and “home” in various specific situations, in most cases
a longing for home or homeland begins when people feel “not at home.”
Lily, the factory girl who took artistic photos, lived with her sister in a
simple room that used to be a storage space for a small grocery shop. Without
proper ventilation and air conditioning, it was literally a sauna on hot summer
the digital dasein of chinese rural migrants
820
days. However, this did not prevent Lily from spending most of her leisure time
sitting on the edge of her bed, working on her QQ with eyes glued to the screen.
It seemed that the physical surroundings had no influence on her at all when
she immersed herself in the QQ world. The moment when she finally “returned”
to the offline world, Lily looked up and sighed: “Life outside the mobile phone
is unbearable.” Such an extreme statement only makes sense once we con-
sider the physical place in which Lily had no choice but to stay and the digital
space where she chose to live in. Here the feeling of being-in-the-world has
little to do with the physical place as Lily demonstrated how she and her fellow
rural migrants managed to create and sustain a sense of belonging and au-
tonomy online.
Human beings are never truly at home in the world, indeed: “Not-being-
at-home must be conceived existentially and ontologically as the more primor-
dial phenomenon” (Heidegger, 2000: 41). Nevertheless, the feeling of not-being-
at-home seemed likely to be overwhelming among this floating population. On
Chinese New Year 2014, Yue, a 21-year-old girl, posted on QQ:
Nowhere makes me feel at home. Nowhere! Well, QQ is probably the most home-
like place, where at least some friends wish me happy new year here… and one
of them even gave me a paid QQ decoration (QQ zhuang ban) 2 as a new year’s gift…
at least my home on QQ has a new look in the new year.
Yue was forced to get married when she was 17. She managed to run
away from her hometown when she was only 19, hoping that she could have a
different life, but she was wrong. There was nowhere, no geographical place, to
make Yue feel at home. Yet the digital dwelling on QQ, in a way, compensated
for this loss. The uncanny feeling of “not-being-at-home” always highlights the
inconvenient absence of home, and the desire return, and further contempla-
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821
control of her offline life. Social media in her lived experience was the only
place where she could find some control: hence it was the place where she felt
most at home.
“Imagination,” writes Bachelard (2014: 43), “separates us from the past as
well as from reality: it faces the future.” In The Poetics of Space, he praises im-
agination’s power to realise the world’s potential. In Bachelard’s mind, “the
highest act of imagination is the will to attune oneself to the saying of being
itself” (Kearney, 2014: 17). Facilitated by the digital, imagination, stimulated by
aspirations, gives birth to the digital Dasein where human existence can feel at
home in the world. “In objectification, all we have is a process in time by which
the very act of creating form creates consciousness or capacity such as skill
and thereby transforms both form and the self-consciousness of that which
has consciousness, or the capacity of that which now has skill” (Miller, 2005:
9). What Heidegger probably missed is the creative imagination, which has been
further empowered by the affordance of social media in the process of objec-
tification, so that Dasein can re-inhabit a world created by itself. Heidegger
failed to pursue certain implications of his own arguments (Larsen & Johnson,
2012). “Dasein is its possibility” (Heidegger, 1962: 42): however, by prioritising
an idealised homeland as the place where Dasein can be near to its authentic-
ity, Heidegger overlooked its other possibilities. Responding to Heidegger’s claim
that the authenticity of dwelling is destroyed by the spread of technology and
mass production, Harvey forcefully accuses him of “a pervasive elitism”: “Some
people can claim the status of authenticity by virtue of their capacity to dwell
in real places… while the rest of us − the majority − live empty and soulless
lives in a ‘placeless’ world” (Harvey, 2009: 187). Chinese migrant workers may
well be categorised as a “placeless” or “floating” population given their offline
living situations, but there is simply no reason for us to overlook their digital
Dasein, which is as profound and authentic as any form of human existence.
Conclusion
It might seem surprising to equate Heidegger’s existential philosophy (1977b)
with the everyday practices of social media among Chinese rural migrants,
given Heidegger’s deep scepticism of technologies of communication. Clearly,
the circumstances investigated in this paper could not have been envisaged by
Heidegger. But it is still important to see just how challenging an ethnography
within the digital age can be to what has been regarded as an inspiring approach
to the very notion of human existence and the issue of place represented by a
phenomenological perspective. There is an obvious temptation to dismiss the
understanding and experiences of these factory workers because, in their cre-
ation of these worlds, they ignore those transformations of political economy
and history that led them to have these desires and aspirations in the first
place. Huge and powerful forces represented by rapid industrialization, the
the digital dasein of chinese rural migrants
822
Chinese party-state and the pressures of a new consumer economy have also
driven this rural migrant population into a desire for modernity characterised
by affluence and an urban lifestyle. But if we dismiss their creative interpreta-
tions and self-understandings, we would indeed have to be equally dismissive
of Heidegger’s claims regarding the rural German population that he took to be
icons of authenticity, since they too were the creations of historical transforma-
tions in the German peasantry and equally powerful economic, religious and
political forces. They no more chose to be who they were and their own values
than these young Chinese factory workers. Anthropology has retained the ca-
pacity to both insist that we recognize and give weight to the historical forces
that create habitus and treat as authentic the practices that we encounter eth-
nographically and people’s ability to create a new normativity.
Following the theory of objectification (Miller, 1987), what needs to be
studied are not things or people but processes – which means that we are not
studying the adoption of objects by subjects, because there is no fixed thing
called social media or fixed group called Chinese migrant workers. Rather, the
ethnography shows what the new generation of Chinese migrant workers has
become in light of their use of social media and what social media has become
in light of its use by Chinese migrant workers (also see Horst & Miller, 2006: 7).
From self-crafting to home-creating online, the use of social media among
Chinese rural migrants actually represents us with a parallel to the offline-to-
online migration taking place simultaneously to the massive rural-to-urban
migration (Wang, 2016). Chinese young rural migrants who do not feel at home
in their home villages or in the factories and cities, finally encounter a feeling
of being-at-home on social media. The home or homeland that was lost, or
simply never existed in the physical world, comes to life online. The labour
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 807 – 830 , sep. – dec., 2020
which produces humanity is not the factory work but the craftsmanship on
social media, which produces not only themselves but also the world within
which they dwell.
Today’s world is often characterized by words such as hyper-mobility,
time-space compression, globalization and the like. Across the world, fewer
and fewer people live their lives in the places where they were born. Perhaps
at no other time in history has the question of the relationship between iden-
tity and place seemed so urgent (Jackson, 2000: 1). The intention of this paper
has been to discuss what may well appear as something like the extreme use
of current social media by Chinese rural migrants. This population is radical to
the degree that they can be described as a “social media population.” Spurning
the sociality of both their place of origin and the factory floor, the only possi-
bilities given to them offline, they embrace the opportunities facilitated by
social media to the fullest. But I would argue that there are grounds for think-
ing that the kinds of situation I have been describing here will become more
common around the globe in the future.
article | xinyuan wang
823
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NOTES
1 The names of the town and informants are all pseudo-
nyms.
2 The dig ital application on QQ allows user to apply spe-
cific a profile style, including head banner, background
picture and music, font, tailored layout, and so on. QQ
offers a range of free decorative elements, as well as paid
ones that people can purchase for themselves or other
users.
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 807 – 830 , sep. – dec., 2020
825
BIBLIOGRAPHY
826
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Carla Barros I
“privations,” “scarcity” and “the fight for survival.” If the primordial character-
istic of consumption is choice, then the presupposition is that economically
less-favoured classes do not practice the act of choosing, being guided instead
by a logic of lack and material shortage. Sahlins (1979) developed a powerful
critique of utilitarianism, understood as the idea that individuals follow their
own best interests through a logic of maximizing means-end relations, and that
all human cultures are thus formed through practical activity and utilitarian
interest. He rejects the notion that human cultures are formulated through
practical activity, calling attention instead to how the cultural order is consti-
tuted within the field of meaning.
The historical disinterest in the consumption of popular classes in the
social sciences is partly due to the prevalence of this logic of “lack” and the
“fight for survival,” which in practice removes the structuring symbolic and
cultural dimension from the phenomenon. As Barbosa (2004: 62) observes, the
study of consumption in Brazil appeared much more within a vision of “losses
and absences” than one of “gains and positive changes”.
not even the sky is the limit
832
items.” Among middle- and upper-class sectors of Brazil, in parallel with aca-
demic studies, there has been a moral condemnation of the profusion of “out-of-
place” objects among the popular classes, shown in the purchase of expensive
mobiles and smart TVs. An expansion of material culture apparently inconsistent
with the economic circumstance of scarce resources.
Thus, learning about the behaviour of specific social groups is a privi-
leged form of mapping modern-contemporary culture. This involves compre-
hending consumption as a creator and maintainer of social bonds, a classifier
of identities, a means of expressing subjectivities, a mediator of society’s fun-
damental values, seeing the phenomenon, in sum, as an articulator of systems
of categories with an expressive and symbolic function.
It is in this context that the interest emerges in analysing the @blogue-
iradebaixarenda (@lowincomeblogger) profile as a marker of important ques-
tions relating to the consumption of low-income groups. Very popular in Brazil
on social media sites like YouTube, Twitter and Instagram, the profile sets out
to publicize the “low-income lifestyle,” a theme in which consumption occupies
a prominent place.
article | carla barros
833
834
835
the other classes would successively copy what they saw above within a logic
of imitation on the part of subordinates and differentiation on the part of the
elite, leading to a constant renewal of the fashion circuit. As McCracken (1988)
argues, the behaviour of the groups at the base of the pyramid cannot be reduced
to just a single possibility as trickle-down theory suggests. Alongside the imi-
tation and assimilation of what is created by the elites, the popular classes
also reject many of these tendencies or reformulate them according to their
own codes. In the present article, I eschew the idea of trickle-down because of
the element of generalization present, which presupposes a passive behaviour
among subordinate classes. In this context, alterity presents various layers in
which the affirmation of the singularity of class coexists with the desire for
practices of consumption related to a more individualist set of ideas (Dumont,
1972), as we shall see later.
Nathaly Dias’s activities as a content creator on the internet began with
the creation of the @blogueiradebaixarenda profile on Instagram on October 3,
2017. The choice of this social network to begin her career as a blogger had a
declared motive. Instagram is known for the significant presence of images of
luxury and ostentation in numerous profiles, especially those of digital influ-
encers who divulge lifestyles connected to high patterns of consumption. Sim-
ilarly, this appropriation connects to a practice found on the pinboards of Pin-
terest, another online social network where the visualization of goods and
settings is stimulated by “daydream” mechanisms as a mode of “contemplative
digital materialism” (Barros, 2015). As a theoretical concept formulated by Col-
in Campbell (2001: 128), the daydream is characterized by the use of the im-
agination for pleasure through the search to anticipate a real event. The author
calls this process “self-illusory hedonism”, wherein the individual is the artist
of the imagination and dreams, taking images and rearranging them into unique
products. This is identified as a legitimate modern faculty – the creation of an
illusion known to be false but felt to be true. In this “hedonism in another world,”
different from traditional hedonism, the unknown is a field open to innumer-
able and unlimited possibilities. Desire here is allocated in the unknown, itself
a pleasurable activity. Faced with an elitized universe of consumption, the BBR
profile is explicitly opposed, offering a self-described “feet on the ground” ap-
proach that seeks to inject doses of “reality” in each post. “Dreaming” is also a
constant theme but based on the deglamourized day-to-day life of the blogger:
“I fight every day for an internet I always wanted to see, REAL.”
Baixa-renda, low-income, is an adjective used on the profile to encompass
a universe of situations, forms of consumption, modes of being, sociabilities and
moralities. How to travel without spending much, how to paint the walls at home,
how to make purchases in a controlled fashion, how to stop procrastinating, how
to cook low-income meals: these are some of the themes of the posts whose
hashtags frequently include the adjective: #casalbaixarenda (#lowincomecouple),
not even the sky is the limit
836
837
as highly active in the creation of aspects like behaviours, sociability, life condi-
tions and sensorialities. In the latter field, one element that is frequently em-
phasized is the high volume of noise present in the community, whether the
loud voices of neighbours or the sound of a passing motorbike. The comments
in response to these posts tend to confirm a particular conditioning of life in
the community: “that’s what it’s like among the low-income,” Nathaly remarks
in one video, as though apologizing too for something perceived as undesirable.
The embarrassment shown with the emphasis on the faltas (lacks, wants,
deprivations) that make life in the favela precarious closely reflects the con-
struction of these communities as problematic places from their first emergence
in Rio de Janeiro at the end of the nineteenth century (Valladares, 2005). Since
then, serious social problems have been associated with these urban spaces,
depicted as hotspots of extreme poverty, filth and insalubrity, an example of
the country’s housing crisis and the genesis of social violence (Machado da
Silva, 2002). The precarious living conditions in her local community and the
strategies available to confronting and find a solution to this adversity are,
therefore, themes widely present in BBR’s profile.
But although the “problem favela” appears in some of her content, this
is not the overall tone of the posts. Superimposed is the perception of a space
of morality in which conditions can shape noble values like perseverance and
persistence. There is a valorisation of community residents, emphasizing their
adaptability to scarce resources (“poor people get by”), their creativity and pro-
file as “warriors” in the “battle” of everyday life, a feeling that can be expressed
in the idea of superação, “overcoming.” In this emphasis, there is no feeling
ashamed of the favela – no social construction of the locality as a “problem
place” – but instead pride over a sense of belonging, expressed, for instance, in
the slogan on the t-shirt that appears in one photo published on Instagram,
taken in front of the window with the community in the background: respeita
minha história, respect my history.
In this context of valorising the favela’s residents, BBR poses herself as
an example to inspire others, emphasizing her trajectory from a childhood of
poverty, the daughter of a housemaid who raised her two children alone, to her
present life as a university student and digital influencer. The emphasis is on
effort, tenacity, formal education and honest work to achieve a new social place.
The phenomenon of consumption occupies a prominent place in BBR’s
social media publications. The low-income lifestyle, in her proposal to show
popular class “life as it is,” is represented in posts like “poor people’s break-
fast,” “going to the market with 30 reais” or “monthly shop at the Guanabara
Anniversary.” 7
Among the various themes published in this context, cleaning is fre-
quently present, appearing though some cleaning activity being undertaken or
the display of recommended products, as in:
not even the sky is the limit
838
I love this product. It’s for general use but I throw bleach on everything, rinse
and wipe with this just to leave a nice smell. And aaaaaaaaaaah how I love the
smell, tomorrow my bathroom will still be like it’s just been cleaned.
REALOVE
Source
<https://www.instagram.com/p/Bic0XSWFOXk/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link>
ing to loosen class segregations. In the BBR profile appear both the hashtag
#poorbutclean, and the variation #oldbutclean. In one of the Instagram posts,
this latter expression appears alongside a photo showing a clean oven with
comments expressing playful regret, since it was soon due to be dirtied again
by her mother who would be using it “on loan.”
Observing the set of hashtags, a profusion exists around the themes of
cleaning and household work, like: #cleanoven #cleankitchen #tidy-
house #springclean #housewife #myapt #myhome #cleaning #decor #mar-
riedlife #homeblogger #eletrolux #homeneighbours
Identification with the cleaning theme led to the first commercial part-
nership of the BBR profile with the company Limpano, which sent her a basket
of their line of products:
article | carla barros
839
Figure 1
<https://www.instagram.com/p/Bk-y0yNlsaf/?utm_source =ig _web_copy_link>
💥 W h e n y o u r c o l o u r p a l e t t e m at c h e s t h e s u p e r m a r k e t of f e r 💥
This is my blogger way of being… I can’t see washing powder without wanting
some.
#blogger #organisedhome #cleanhome #myapt #myhome #supermarket house-
wife #scrubbing #cleaning #cleanclothes #lookoftheday
not even the sky is the limit
840
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 831 – 859 , sep. – dec., 2020
Figure 2
<https://www.instagram.com/p/BlTLkPvl88n/?utm_source =ig_web_copy_link>
841
I haven’t a clue when I’ll manage to buy one, right, but I’m determined and even
if it isn’t a priority, I’ve already constructed everything in my mind. Have I ever
told you that I’ve never had a sofa? In fact, I’ve never had a LIVING ROOM! That’s
why I’m so eager to have one. ❤
📍Sofa
📍Table
📍Bed frame and headrest
📍Kitchen cabinet
And who knows, maybe a television for my living room? DREAMING IS GREAT,
I’M ADDICTED 💭
842
Figure 3: “https://www.instagram.com/p/Bocr7CLBLg7/?utm_source=ig_
web_copy_link”
Figure 3
<https://www.instagram.com/p/BmbxvizhNW1/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link>
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 831 – 859 , sep. – dec., 2020
article | carla barros
843
When items from her home are shown in the posts, whether public or
not, they are accompanied by information on the retailer and price, indicating
a good buy:
Figure 4
<https://www.instagram.com/p/BmbxvizhNW1/?utm_source =ig _web_copy_link>
not even the sky is the limit
844
Comments from her followers on this type of post are typically enthu-
siastic about the accessible price and/or beauty of the item, as well as its choice
as an object of desire: “One more thing saved, one more shop that will end up
with my money at the end of the month… that’s not gonna work! @blogueirade-
baixarenda 😂💙”
In the lifestyle propagated by BBR, evinced in the shrewdness of know-
ing how to spend money well, which does not mean just buying the cheapest
item, but also knowing something “is worth it” or “cheap end up expensive.” As
commented earlier, an important element of this idea of “lifestyle” is its aes-
thetic aspect, combined with the question of good value. This is perceptible in
the declaration: “Wow, I’m impressed by how you can have a well-decorated
home spending little.”
The content follows the tone of other profiles propagating lifestyles
through the use of terms like “outfit” and “look,” only in a “real” and “accessible”
context, words frequently used by BBR, as in the hashtag #accessiblebloggerlook.
Alongside the elements of material culture, the low-income lifestyle en-
compasses sociabilities, modes of feeling, moral values, attitudes and stances
towards events. In the case of BBR, the presentation of her impressions is per-
vaded by a light-hearted humour in response to difficult events. Everyday situ-
ations are depicted with an ironic outlook that alleviates the scene:
I took advantage of the fact my cupboard door fell off (SEE THE STORYLINE) 🆘
to clean my shelves.
The bottom shelf is where I keep my HUGE PILE of plates. 2 large, 2 deep and 2
for dessert, there’s no space for more, it’s all there is, and it meets the basics.
THE ONLY THING IS, NO MORE THAN TWO PEOPLE AT A TIME HAHAHAHAHA
Source
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 831 – 859 , sep. – dec., 2020
<https://www.instagram.com/p/BmWul0lBP5B/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link>
The hashtags are also a vehicle for this good-humoured tone, as appears
in a post showing BRB on a work trip, stepping out of a hotel swimming pool:
#hotel #trip #sp #rj #lowincomeblogger #dontknowhowtoswim #mermaid-
ing #diva #accessible.
Source
<https://www.instagram.com/p/BqYNUe-hE0Z/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link>
The strong solidarity among peers also forms part of this conception of
the low-income lifestyle, exemplified in the fitting out of the new apartment,
all done with items donated by friends and family. In turn, this way of dealing
with events is expressed in the values of persistence and hard work. The act of
“fighting” emerges as a response to everyday challenges, which to be met require
a determined and positive approach: “Let’s wake up everyday to win and bash
away sadness, after all we wake up everyday to fight.”
article | carla barros
845
Social mobility
As we have seen, the BBR profile initially emphasized her “poor condition,”
which has a social and physical “place” – the favela – idiosyncrasies, behaviours,
a profile: in sum, particularities to be recognized. On another level, though, a
call is made to leave behind the fatalism of poverty in favour of the fight for
social mobility, as evident in the expression “not even the sky is the limit,” found
in the presentation to her YouTube channel.
As well as an identity and a lifestyle, low-income is also a state that
should and can be altered, as in the following post:
You use the bankcard liked credit, but the money leaves the account immediately
like debit. That way, it becomes easier to control your money. Because we’re low-
-income but want to be high-income, right? 💛
Source 10
<https://www.instagram.com/p/BrTarBABoJk /?utm_source =ig _web_copy_link>
Making an appeal through the maxim “occupy all the spaces,” BBR en-
courages her public to challenge the historical barriers to mobility in the coun-
try and make themselves present in situations once unattainable to the poor,
like travelling by plane, studying for a degree or learning foreign languages.
One of the recurrent themes in the posts is financial education, seen as
an essential element to achieve balanced expenditure and the desired eco-
nomic upward mobility. Many posts contain practical advice on how to avoid
becoming hostage to consumer impulses, avoid getting into debt and beginning
to exert some effective control over spending. This also appears in hashtags
like #YourAccountYourRules. Advice includes writing down revenues and ex-
penses in a notebook, getting an extra job, avoiding borrowing from loan sharks,
taking a packed lunch to work, saving on electricity, drinking at home, and
taking cold showers to reduce energy costs. The advice looks to fill a gap in the
experience of her public: “We low-incomers were not financially educated. We’re
not used to talking about money, but we have to talk about the topic all the
time. My mother is always out of control, she can’t look at a card without using
it, but that’s how she was brought up, and after living like that for 40 years, it’s
difficult to change.” 10
Managing expenses is identified as a central aspect of the social mobil-
ity project, as shown in the post below:
[If you earn R $ 1,000 and spend R $ 999, you’re richer than someone who earns
R $ 10,000 and spends R $ 10,001]
846
Figure 5
<https://www.instagram.com/p/B0N34skg3m6/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link>
this life project a reality, some tools, like a weekly planner, are presented to
help plan and organize day-to-day activities.
Her commercial partnerships emphasize the same ethos of saving mon-
ey and controlling finances. In partnership with the company Superdigitalapp,
BBR produced a publipost advertising a physical pre-paid bankcard. Using this,
clients spend only what is in their account, avoiding consumer impulses in-
compatible with their budget:
Superdigital prepaid bankcard. You only spend what you have in your account
and don’t end up in the red. LOVE IT! @ superdigitalapp take me travelling again?
AND MAY 2019 COME WITH NO DEBTS AND MANY TRIPS LIKE THIS ONE 💛
#YourAccountYourRules #publi #lowincomeblogger #blogger #25march #pur-
chases
Source
<https://www.instagram.com/p/Bq8KmTqByMY/?utm_source =ig _web_copy_
link>
article | carla barros
847
L O W- I N C O M E R S A R E G O I N G T O T R AV E L A B R O A D ! 🌍
I DON’T KNOW WHEN BUT THEY WILL! BUT HOPEFULLY SOON , OKAY UNIVER-
SE? BECAUSE I’M EAGER TO GO, THANKS! 💙
Source
<https://www.instagram.com/p/BxA7EXwBArX/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link>
not even the sky is the limit
848
In one of her YouTube videos, called “In the hotel in SP and a few more
little purchases,” BBR conducts a tour of the hotel room where she is staying
in São Paulo during a work trip. She begins by advising viewers that the com-
pany paid for her and that she does not know how to “be chic.” Next, she shows
details of the hotel room, paying special attention to things seen for the first
time, like the air conditioning unit embedded in the wall high up and the move-
able TV screen. It amounts, then, to an apprenticeship in consumption for eco-
nomically emergent groups, presenting the new places to be occupied with
their specific rules and etiquettes.
From this perspective, social mobility should be actively pursued, es-
chewing a passive and fatalistic approach, as appears in the presentation on
her YouTube profile: “How to win in a world in which, if you don’t make your
own opportunity, you have nothing.” The search to join the world of work may
not necessarily involve formal channels, since improvisation is one of the hall-
marks of “low-incomers,” as appears in her sayings: “poor people have to get
by” or “so many things are possible, the poor are creative!” Whatever the case,
life involves sweat and perseverance, and upward mobility should come through
merit.
In an Instagram post, these elements are expressed in the photo showing
the blogger on a hilltop, like a “heroine-warrior” on a magazine cover, reaching
the desired summit. The symbolism of the broom, which in other contexts may
be taken as a reference to devalued manual labour, appears here with the con-
notation of her own work that should not cause shame and will be recompensed
with upward social mobility:
849
Figure 6
<https://www.instagram.com/p/B0mE3MvgVwZ/?utm_source =ig _web_copy_link>
As I would say myself: “education is the most precious wealth that we, Low-In-
comers, can have.” They can deprive us, they can take away everything, save our
knowledge. And knowledge transforms. Mother always said: “daughter, study so
that you don’t end up like me” – and I studied not because I was scared to be
like her, after all she makes me proud in so many ways – but because I want to
g ive her what she tr uly deser ves. And on this journey as a blogger, I found a
teaching institution whose objective is to take knowledge to the most different
and distant places: @ eadunicesumaroficial. 💙
Source
<https://www.instagram.com/p/B7UM2ykghSW/?utm_source=ig_web_copy_link>
not even the sky is the limit
850
The space of the apartment is frequently the setting for her Instagram
posts. At the start of her activities on the social network, BBR had just moved
to the apartment that she considers to be her “true home,” indicating a sig-
nificant “life improvement” (Sarti, 1996). The second publication on the social
network is a photo of the door lock taken on the day of the move, where she
thanks for “this victory as well.”
Content showing spaces of the apartment is abundant, like the deco-
rated bathroom door, the new carpet or the worktable:
A WOMAN WHO ASSEMBLES HER HOME OFFICE WITH MONEY FROM HER OWN
WORK DOESN’T WANT A WAR WITH ANYONE 💪
Tomorrow is Thursday and video day on the channel… I told you a bit about how
I began here on INSTAGR A M and showed you how I spent my f irst BLOGGER
‘salary’ 😂
� Do you remember what you did with your first salar y? Tell me in your com-
ments!
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 831 – 859 , sep. – dec., 2020
Figure 7
<https://www.instagram.com/p/Bvh2P5iB1uo/?utm_source =ig _web_copy_link>
article | carla barros
851
The posts show the initially empty spaces followed by their occupation
by objects, utensils, furniture, whether bought or donated, which formed part
of the construction of the home. The sequences of photos and videos show the
family history, the projects, the process of upward social mobility, and the tasks
of maintaining and organizing the home. The elements of material culture are
appropriated as part of the couple’s trajectory in the process of decorating,
since they are, as Miller (2001) declares, a “source and the setting of mobility
and change.”
Low-income minimalism
In her choice of lifestyle elements to be propagated, BBR elects the dissemina-
tion of the minimalist lifestyle as one of her main missions on digital platforms,
making a series of 23 episodes on YouTube called Minimalismo de baixa renda.
The blogger tells her viewers that she became aware of the theme after watch-
ing the documentary Minimalism on Netflix. Researching the subject on the
internet, she discovered that nobody talked about the issue to the low-income
public – remarking, ironically, that poor people have always been minimalist
without knowing – which persuaded her turn to produce this type of content.
The minimalist movement as a lifestyle (Meyer, 2004) first emerged
among wealthier sectors of society, who always spent large amounts of their
budgets on items as diverse as culture, leisure, hobbies, fashion and design. In
the field of consumption and lifestyles, minimalism involves living with less
items, enjoying “experiences” more than “things,” expressed in the hierarchical
superiority of “being” over “having.” It also incorporates elements of sustain-
able consumption, with a stance against the irresponsible use of natural re-
sources and the decision to support “fair,” solidary and ethical means of pro-
duction and distribution.
Thus, the minimalist lifestyle proposes a re-evaluation of life priorities
that entails discarding surplus things, whether in terms of consumption, rela-
tions, ideas or activities that are not adding “value” to the person’s life. Innu-
merable bestsellers have been published along these lines, like the book The
joy of less: a minimalist guide to declutter, organize, and simplify, cited by Nathaly
Dias as one of her own sources of inspiration.
Consumption thus comprises one of the main topics of conversation in
this lifestyle. To incorporate the ethos, it is essential to resist senseless desires
for purchases, which can lead to an overflow of goods that fills the home with
products seldom if ever used. A distinction is made, therefore, between the
“necessary” and the “superfluous” – associated here with irrationality, waste
and ostentation – which informs everyday practices of acquiring, using and
discarding goods.
The idea of “low-income minimalism” advocated by BBR involves rede-
fining life priorities, strategies of financial education, ecological awareness,
not even the sky is the limit
852
853
Social life only exists through differences. It is these differences that, through
interaction as a universal process, produce and enable exchanges, communica-
tion and interchange. The study of mediation, and specifically mediators, allows
us to obser ve how interactions occur bet ween distinct social categor ies and
cultural levels. […] In a ongoing process of negotiating reality, choices are made,
taking symbolic systems, beliefs and values as frameworks of reference surroun-
ding all kinds of material objectives and interests. Mediation is a permanent and
not always evident social action, present in interactive processes at the most
varied levels (Velho & Kuschnir, 2001: 9-10).
854
855
Notes
1 The term “post” is used in this article as a synonym for a
publication made by the owner of a social media profile.
2 Data from February 2020.
3 A digital inf luencer is a producer of content who utilizes
their online channels (pr incipally blogs and social net-
works) to “inf luence behaviours,” both on the internet
and beyond.
4 As well as Nathaly Dias, other content producers emerged
who disseminated the everyday life of women from poor
communities of Rio de Janeiro, like Nathalia Rodrig ues
(Nath Finanças profile), who provides financial advice to
poor people, and Ana Helena Ernesto (Helena Pisponelly
profile), who publishes re-enactments of her arguments
with her mother on the YouTube channel Marilene não se
mete (Mar ilene stay out of it) with the Maré favela as a
background.
5 The miniseries can be found at: <https://www.instagram.
com/p/B2f hTV8AwuI/?utm_source =ig_web_copy_link>.
6 The YouTube video can be found at: <https://www.youtu-
be.com/watch?v=iFuj7yaF-Mk)>.
7 ‘Guanabara Anniversary’ refers to the anniversary of the
Guanabara supermarket chain present in the State of Rio de
Janeiro. This well-known promotional event of the Rio retail
trade typically draws more than a million consumers to its
stores to take advantage of the huge discounts offered on
products. In this period, traditional media and social net-
works publish photos and videos showing packed super-
markets, queues waiting for the stores to open, and, in some
cases, heated disputes over the discounted products.
8 As is common in images of meals on the profiles of other
lifestyle inf luencers, a photo is published of the dish ta-
ken from above without showing anyone eating. On the
BBR prof ile, comments frequently praise the meals as
examples of good home cooking.
9 Source:<https://w w w.instag ram.com /p /Bm3kkz2BDb4 /
?utm_source =ig_web_copy_link>.
10 Interview available at: <https://www.uol.com.br/universa/
noticias /redacao /2019 /08 /12/ blog ueira-de-baixa-renda-
-nathaly-e-pobre-e-ensina-minimalismo-no-youtube.htm>.
not even the sky is the limit
856
11 Source: <https://www.uol.com.br/universa/noticias/reda-
cao /2019 /08 /12/ blog ueira-de-baixa-renda-nathaly-e-po-
bre-e-ensina-minimalismo-no-youtube.htm>.
bibliography
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Nem o céu é o limite: sentidos do consumo
e dinâmicas de mobilidade social no perfil
@blogueiradebaixarenda no Instagram e Youtube
Palavras-chave Resumo
Estilo de vida; O artigo aborda os sentidos do consumo no perfil @bloguei-
grupos populares; radebaixarenda nas redes sociais online Instagram e You-
consumo; tube, considerando as percepções presentes acerca da ma-
mobilidade social; terialidade e suas articulações com dinâmicas de mobili-
minimalismo. dade social. Trata-se de analisar quais elementos compõem
o “lifestyle baixa renda” enquanto categoria nativa, dentro
do contexto dos “influenciadores digitais”. Mediante pes-
quisa de observação online, foram analisadas publicações,
hashtags e comentários nas duas plataformas, explorando-
se de que modo as práticas de consumo aparecem como
mediadoras de dinâmicas de hieraquização social e cons-
truções identitárias. Dentre os resultados, destacam-se as
articulações entre materialidade e mobilidade social, a
ideia de minimalismo dentro do “lifestyle baixa renda” e o
lugar da blogueira como mediadora cultural.
862
tura tese, tanto em termos teóricos quanto metodológicos, influência essa que
persistiu posteriormente nos trabalhos orientados por Sandra Rúbia. Como
legado temos, de um lado, a revelação da potência de uma antropologia da
comunicação para a compreensão do papel das tecnologias móveis e da inter-
net na cultura e nas relações sociais, bem como no consumo como cultura
material (Horst & Miller, 2006) e, de outro, a reflexão sobre a obra seminal de
Christine Hine (2000), Virtual ethnography. Desse livro, revelaram-se fundamen-
tais tanto o entendimento da internet como um artefato cultural quanto a
crítica à dicotomia online e off-line presente nos primeiros estudos sobre a in-
ternet, crítica essa empreendida em diálogo com Miller e Slater (2000) e poste-
riormente aprofundada na compreensão da internet como dimensão incorpo-
rada, corporificada e cotidiana (Hine, 2015).
As pesquisas do GP buscam construir diálogos com importantes trabalhos,
como os advindos da atuação de Livia Barbosa, principalmente sobre as relações
entre consumo e cultura material (Barbosa, 2003; Barbosa & Gomes, 2004; Bar-
bosa & Campbell, 2006) e de Carla Barros (2007), em relação às mediações cul-
artigo | sandra rúbia da silva e alisson machado
863
864
atraentes para a pessoa com quem nos comunicamos. Claro, a sedução é apenas
uma das muitas coisas que estão em jogo aqui. A questão mais ampla é que as
tecnologias da comunicação são essencialmente gêneros culturais, e que a melhor
maneira de apreciá-las é comparável à que usamos para outros gêneros culturais
(Miller, 2013: 170).
865
866
867
Quadro I
Principais gêneros culturais observados nas pesquisas
Fonte: elaborado pelos autores.
“Em um relacionamento sério com o celular”: O smartphone significa a internet, e o Facebook, o navegador
uma etnografia das práticas de consumo de Maternidade e status de relacionamento são definidores dos
smartphones por mulheres (Pereira, 2017) tipos de publicações
Sem o smartphone não há trabalho
24 horas conectadas com o mundo doméstico
Papéis de gênero normativos: ciúmes como principal motivo
de interdição de alguns tipos de publicações
Uma boa mãe e mulher é reconhecida pelo que publica
É preciso desligar o aparelho para dar conta das atividades
domésticas e familiares
No ritmo do passinho: deslocamentos Estratégias visuais consolidadas nas redes para adentrar as
midiáticos e estetização cotidiana do grupo coberturas e a grade da televisão
Dream Team do Passinho (Menezes, 2017) Demarcação de identidades coletivas por meio de conteúdos
de dança e militância
Deslocamentos do que é ser celebridade na favela
Influência dos patrocinadores nas composições estéticas
Produção de conteúdo digital sem a chancela da gravadora
868
“A gente se ama e se odeia ao mesmo Valores da masculinidade hegemônica para ambos os sexos
tempo”: uma etnografia do consumo de Imperativo do conflito que admite o cômico
smartphones em circuitos de sociabilidade Materialização das disputas (emojis, gifs, memes)
de jovens de camadas populares Espaços off-line para liberação do estresse online
(Trindade, 2018) Geolocalização e check-ins como forma de usufruir a cidade
Procura de um namoro ideal igual ao do mundo digital
Sentimento frustrado de liberação sexual das jovens em
cenários de machismo
Moralização das estéticas
Participação política na timeline: o Apoio às SUGs para movimentar a agenda pública do tema
Facebook como arena pública para pleiteante
sugestões legislativas apresentadas no Cidadão produtor e responsável pela circulação do tema
E-cidadania (França, 2018) Mobilização junto a ativistas, blogueiros(as) e youtubers
Atuação individual de cidadãos/ativistas
Superficialidade nas interações devido à matriz interacional
das plataformas
869
Práticas de consumo das redes sociais Luta por justiça e memória no Facebook
por mães de vítimas do incêndio da Boate Direito à saudade como demarcação política em um cenário
Kiss: a criação de experiências no cotidiano marcado pela impunidade
(Pavanello, 2019) Narrativas para corporificar nos outros a dor que sentem
Proteção afetiva e recurso terapêutico
Sentem-se mais protegidas de insultos em seus perfis do
que na Tenda da Vigília (local de memória mantido pelos
familiares das vítimas)
Facebook para manter diálogos com os(as) filhos(as)
mortos(as)
Manutenção dos perfis da mesma forma como outros
objetos significativos são preservados
A mediação tecnológica diminui as distâncias insuperáveis
Toda trabalhada na wi-fi: cotidiano travesti Manutenção de reputações pela valorização da honestidade
em trajetórias digitais (Machado, 2019) Fofocas e jocosidade para demarcar a fidelidade a si
mesmas
Sentem que não têm direito à privacidade
No trottoir também se busca conexão wi-fi
Fazer a pista conectada é menos arriscado
Dinâmicas da prostituição contidas nos celulares: 24 horas
conectadas para o sexo (cansaço e diminuição da libido)
Trabalho constante de atiçar o desejo das mariconas
O encontro online precisa acontecer off-line para assegurar o
retorno financeiro
O perfil e as publicações são dedicados aos orixás
diálogos com daniel miller no campo da comunicação
870
871
tiva às outras mídias. Por meio dessa noção, os trabalhos compreenderam que
a distinção entre os ambientes digitais também significava a distinção entre
as pessoas.
O modo como essa rede social converge tanto sobre as demais ambiên-
cias digitais quanto sobre as práticas de consumo foi analisado em relação às
materialidades e linguagens digitais que impactavam os significados da vida
social. Para os blogueiros de “O Catequista”, conforme Flores da Rosa (2018), os
vários sites sobre o catolicismo na internet apresentavam boas reflexões, mas
não atingiam seus objetivos por utilizar uma linguagem considerada por eles
“católica demais”. Para realizar essa tradução, os blogueiros aproximaram os
conteúdos que produziam das linguagens “características” da mídia social, de-
marcadas pelo uso de coloquialismos, fórmulas rápidas, humoradas e miméti-
cas. A atenção às materialidades permitiu a Pavanello (2019) perceber que as
mães mantinham o mesmo tipo de zelo entre os perfis na rede social e os bens
materiais mais significativos dos(as) filhos(as) perdidos(as), como algumas rou-
pas, ursinhos de pelúcia, violão etc. A preservação da memória digital mate-
rializava não apenas a saudade, mas a corporificação e a presença deles(as)
(Miller, 2013).
Flores da Rosa (2018) aponta ainda o impacto da circulação de conteúdos
nas práticas cotidianas de vivência da fé por meio do combate às transforma-
ções dos rituais e do zelo litúrgico. Um de seus interlocutores, depois de ler no
Facebook sobre esse assunto, passou a considerar desrespeitoso bater palmas
e acompanhar com pequenos gestos o ritmo das músicas nas celebrações, en-
tendendo a missa como um rito de sacrifício. França (2018) conclui que a au-
sência da SUG 02/2014 (sobre o fim da isenção fiscal das igrejas) no Facebook
diminuiu a possibilidade de o tema ser mais bem aproveitado no Senado, pois
a falta de divulgação online implicava menor acesso a informações retidas na
sociedade civil e que poderiam colaborar com o debate social mais amplo, além
daquele já estabelecido para o andamento da proposta.
Outro dado é a forma como as linguagens próprias da internet implica-
ram, em vários campos de pesquisa, a consolidação de sistemas de classificação
do mundo social. Em Flores da Rosa (2018), a catequese dos blogueiros ganha
contornos apologéticos a partir do apontamento de “erros” doutrinários e mo-
rais das outras crenças e do próprio catolicismo progressista. Expressões como
“Católico #FAIL”, “Crente #FAIL” e “Fantasminha #FAIL” indicavam, respectiva-
mente, as “falhas” na doutrina de católicos, evangélicos e espíritas. Essas crí-
ticas, ao ser compartilhadas no Facebook, acabavam gerando atritos, disputas
e discursos intolerantes tanto por católicos quanto por membros dessas reli-
giões, que se consideravam desrespeitados. Em Machado (2019), a classificação
dos comportamentos dos clientes de acordo com o tipo de carro que dirigiam
e que apareciam nas fotos do Facebook permitia às interlocutoras realizar uma
triagem da clientela. Quanto melhor o carro, melhores as condições de realiza-
diálogos com daniel miller no campo da comunicação
872
seus pais e mães quando eram esses(as) que publicavam algum conteúdo
considerado inadequado ou vergonhoso, como piadas ou qualquer outro con-
teúdo alusivo à vida sexual dos(as) adultos(as). Da mesma forma, para Kuntz
(2018), pais e mães, temendo cenários hipotéticos de violência, se preocupa-
vam por sentir que não podiam controlar a circulação dos vídeos das crianças
e, para isso, desenvolviam ações protetivas, como desativar os comentários
nos vídeos.
Flores da Rosa (2018) descreve transformações das relações dos leigos
com a institucionalidade da religião quando um dos blogueiros foi credencia-
do à sala de imprensa do Vaticano, colocando a atuação de “O Catequista” em
destaque no cenário internacional. Pela primeira vez, o Vaticano concedeu
esse tipo de credencial para um não residente de Roma. Um leigo ocupar uma
credencial geralmente dada a jornalistas e profissionais religiosos sinaliza
como as instituições suportam e resolvem, dentro de suas principais lógicas,
as novas formas de atuação articuladas pelo uso da internet. Menezes (2017)
também demonstra essa relação conflitiva, apontando como os(as) dançarinos(as)
artigo | sandra rúbia da silva e alisson machado
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Cada patente tem sua missão que são práticas secretas, entre elas está a nomea-
da por Forasteiro, que é o menor nível de patente dos membros. São os que estão
chegando à comunidade e conhecendo como ela funciona. Também entre os
cargos ocupados pelos membros estão os cargos ocultos. São eles: Guarda: Mais
velho, Anjos, Deusa Kaneki e Deus Kaneki; Zero, e Rainha da corte. A Guarda são
membros que detêm poder maior na comunidade, já com um grau de conheci-
mentos avançado (Paz, 2019: 114).
877
CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS
Com a análise, demonstramos como as pesquisas do GP Consumo e Culturas
Digitais têm realizado uma costura interdisciplinar entre o campo da comuni-
cação e o da antropologia, seja pelo caráter etnográfico das pesquisas analisadas
ou dos diálogos com o campo da antropologia do consumo e da antropologia
digital e que se alinham às perspectivas teórico-metodológicas de Miller. Para
tanto, descrevemos alguns elementos que participam das práticas de consumo
e elaboração dos gêneros culturais implicados nos contextos de pesquisa anali-
sados. O estudo do consumo das mídias sociais e das tecnologias digitais, tal
como o compreendemos, permite perceber como as pessoas interpretam e dão
sentido a suas próprias interações, sendo interpeladas por valores, percepções,
moralidades e capitais próprios de que dispõem, pelas configurações da infra-
estrutura tecnológica, bem como pelas circunstâncias de tempo e espaço em que
se encontram. Com isso, demonstramos uma pluralidade de elementos que nos
ajudam a compreender como a tecnologia digital participa da vida social e a
configura, atuando tanto para a manutenção das normatividades sociais exis-
tentes quanto na proposição de agências cotidianas e formas de resistência.
Os gêneros culturais, como usos específicos da cultura material por in-
divíduos ou grupos, elaboram-se na experiência vivida e nos contextos parti-
culares e cotidianos em que as pessoas utilizam as tecnologias digitais. Essa
perspectiva implica entender que os usos das mídias sociais são relacionais,
tanto às práticas e aos contextos observados quanto às formas de que dispomos
para observar, ou seja, como o trabalho de campo frente a esses contextos vai
sendo construído. Nas pesquisas analisadas, esse aspecto está relacionado aos
desafios metodológicos, às estratégias para acesso às experiências digitais, à
permanência junto a interlocutores(as) e ao reposicionamento dos imponde-
ráveis que podem se desdobrar em cenários tanto online quanto off-line. Tondo
(2016) e Trindade (2018) desenvolveram atividades pedagógicas nas escolas,
utilizando esses espaços para a observação empírica. Além disso, mais de uma
vez, afirmaram que se envolveram nas “tretas” (confusões) de seus(suas)
interlocutores(as), atuando como mediadores, precisando ponderar até que
ponto “tomar uma posição” causaria impasses e problemas para o desenvolvi-
mento das pesquisas.
Nos trabalhos com mulheres, Pereira (2017) e Machado (2019) entenderam
que as mídias digitais os aproximavam das interlocutoras em momentos que
o contato físico era impossível. Antes dessa aproximação, partilhavam de um
sentimento de insegurança (de importunar, de as interlocutoras “simplesmen-
te” desistirem da pesquisa), o que implicava estratégias para manter as intera-
ções. Participar da vida social off-line ajudava a manter esses vínculos, mas eles
não podiam ser tomados de forma apriorística. Por isso, revelam que se trans-
formaram em confidentes (principalmente amorosos), tendo que, para isso,
dividir suas próprias intimidades.
diálogos com daniel miller no campo da comunicação
878
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NOTAS
1 Vinculado ao Programa de Pós-Graduação em Comunica-
ção da Universidade Federal de Santa Maria.
2 No texto, essas expressões são utilizadas como sinônimos.
Noção advinda de Certeau (2014), de que os usos possibi-
litam consumos combinatórios, arte de utilizar que cir-
cunscreve as práticas do consumo na vida cotidiana. A
elas se soma com mesmo significado a expressão “gêneros
culturais” tomada de Miller (2013; Miller et. al., 2016) pa-
ra sinalizar práticas particulares de consumo das tecno-
logias. O consumo é entendido como um fenômeno social,
simbólico e cultural (Miller, 1987; Sahlins, 2003; Douglas
& Isherwood, 2004; Barbosa & Campbell, 2006), e os con-
tornos e enfoques midiáticos estão entremeados nessas
práticas.
3 Aproximações entre o campo da comunicação e a antro-
pologia podem ser encontradas, entre outros, em traba-
lhos como os de Travancas e Farias (2003) e Lago (2008).
4 Os trabalhos, ao ref letir o consumo por camadas popula-
res, criticam especialmente as políticas da carência ma-
terial (Sarti; 2011; Rocha & Barros, 2009). Com isso, per-
cebem não apenas os esquemas de distinção entre grupos
(Bourdieu, 2007), mas também o impacto, a ascensão e a
participação social das camadas populares pelo consumo
(Slater, 2002; Silva, 2008).
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 861 – 886 , set. – dez., 2020
REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
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ta Catarina.
Silva, Sandra Rúbia da. (2008 ). Vivendo com celulares:
identidades, corpo e sociabilidade nas culturas urbanas.
In: Borelli, Silvia Helena Simões & Freire Filho, João.
(orgs.). Culturas juvenis no século XXI. São Paulo: Educ, p.
311-331.
Slater, Don. (2002). Cultura de consumo & modernidade. São
Paulo: Nobel.
Spyer, Juliano. (2018 ). Mídias sociais no Brasil emergente:
Como a internet afeta a mobilidade social. London: UCL Press.
Strathern, Ann Marilyn. (2014). O efeito etnográfico e outros
ensaios. São Paulo: Cosac Naify.
Tondo, Romulo Oliveira. (2016). Celulares, conexões e afetos:
a sociabilidade e o consumo de smartphones entre jovens de
artigo | sandra rúbia da silva e alisson machado
885
886
Tinha tudo sob controle: sua rotina regrada, seu corpo, seus sentimentos, seus
relacionamentos, sua mesa de escritório na sala. Tudo estava conforme o espe-
rado, nada fora do lugar. Um dia, pela janela de sua casa, sempre aberta para
os dias de sol, avançou um vento muito forte, imprevisível, que primeiro sacu-
diu a cortina, que fez tombar a luminária, estilhaçando a lâmpada em mil pe-
daços, e que depois percorreu toda a casa, cômodo por cômodo, derrubando
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 887 – 905 , set. – dez., 2020
888
Material culture and mass consumption, de 1987, e The comfort of things, de 2008,
nos inspiram na discussão sobre a concepção maior dos estudos da “cultura
material” no campo da antropologia do consumo.
Em sua obra de 1987, Miller elabora o que se tornaria, a partir de então,
sua teoria geral sobre a cultura material e sobre o consumo, apresentando-nos
a conceitos importantes para a compreensão de seus textos, como “objetifica-
ção”, “humildade dos objetos” e “poder da agência”, os quais serão explorados
adiante.
Mais tarde, em 2008, o autor nos oferta outro texto, menos formal e cheio
de densidade teórica, que busca fazer conhecer de que modo os londrinos re-
sidentes em uma rua da cidade − muitos deles não ingleses – se relacionam
com seus objetos. Batendo de porta em porta, o antropólogo escolhe 30 retratos
− no original, portraits − de pessoas, de uma centena delas, algumas vivendo
sozinhas e outras em família, que estabelecem diferentes tipos de “relaciona-
mentos” com os objetos que possuem dentro de suas casas, cada uma em sua
cosmologia e diversidade muito próprias, mas que, todas juntas, levam-nos a
artigo | cláudia pereira e fernanda martinelli
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890
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em português dessa frase a palavra stuff foi traduzida como treco, que conside-
ramos imprecisa, e isso aparentemente confere uma nova dimensão analítica
(em alguns dicionários inglês-português a tradução para stuff é “coisa”). O que
queremos reter nesta reflexão, contudo, é o caráter contingencial das coisas
atravessando contextos de vida e morte de pessoas. Miller (2010, p. 217) lembra
que existe uma variedade de formas pelas quais as sociedades se separam das
coisas e também as retêm e ressignificam.
Raramente, em nossa cultura, guardamos como lembrança objetos que
remetem à morte ou ao processo de alguma doença degenerativa que causou
a morte de entes queridos. O que nos interessa guardar são memórias felizes
dos nossos familiares e amigos. Por isso guardamos fotos, objetos que faziam
parte se sua rotina de trabalho, que foram importantes em alguma ocasião
especial, como a celebração de um casamento, aniversário, alguma homenagem,
uma viagem especial, objetos associados a uma rotina de atividades protago-
nizadas de forma saudável pela pessoa querida. Os exemplos podem se esten-
der indefinidamente. Outro ponto importante nessa discussão, e que Miller
artigo | cláudia pereira e fernanda martinelli
895
896
897
Por vezes esse desejo humano assume as propriedades de uma fome coletiva,
que se evidencia nas respostas generalizadas a renovadas formas de singulari-
zação. Coisas velhas, como latas de cerveja, caixas de fósforo e revistas em qua-
drinhos, de repente assumem valor, e passa a ser vantajoso colecioná-las; assim,
elas passam da esfera do que é sem valor para a esfera do que é singularmente
caro [...] Tal como entre os indivíduos, grande parte da singularização coletiva
é alcançada pela referência à passagem do tempo. Como mercadorias, os carros
vão perdendo valor conforme ficam mais velhos, mas, quando chegam mais ou
menos à idade de 30 anos, começam a transitar para a categoria de antiguidades
e passam a ganhar valor com cada ano que passa.
As roupas que Elia preserva em seu guarda-roupa estariam, sob esse pris-
ma, singularizadas pelo seu próprio desejo de preservar, também, o relaciona-
mento com quem um dia as vestiu. E tal singularização se dá, exatamente, pelo
que Miller chamou de porosidade, propriedade que favorece o (re)encontro de
pessoas por meio das coisas. Trata-se, sobretudo, de uma singularidade de cará-
as pessoas, as coisas e as perdas
898
ter individual, já que não depende do circuito mercantil nem da esfera pública
para ter sentido e valor para Elia. As joias, dentro do sistema simbólico do con-
sumo, vinculam-se a ideais de preciosidade e luxo, e quando associadas à pas-
sagem do tempo, como aponta Kopytoff, estão muito mais próximas de uma
singularidade de caráter coletivo do que as roupas velhas (desde que usadas por
pessoas comuns e não por celebridades). Enquanto as joias vão ganhando valor
à medida que passam a transitar por critérios objetivos como antiguidade, as
roupas, ao contrário, vão perdendo valor. Se há algum espaço para as trocas
simbólicas, elas estariam muito mais favorecidas com relação às joias do que
com relação às roupas usadas e já gastas do “museu” de Elia. As roupas de sua
tia e de sua mãe um dia foram mercadorias e deixaram de ser por escolha pró-
pria, mas poderiam ser novamente postas em circulação em algum charmoso e
barateiro brechó de Londres. As joias, por outro lado, carregam, em sua imuta-
bilidade, uma vocação mercantil muito mais poderosa, pautada exatamente no
caráter coletivo de sua singularidade, cuja simbologia é traduzida por aspectos
mercantis, podendo ser vendidas a preço alto. Ainda assim, Elia tem poder de
decisão, esvaziando, se assim desejar, o anel e o bracelete de qualquer valor que
não seja o do sentimento de amor e do relacionamento que mantinha com sua
mãe, deixando-os fora da esfera das trocas mercantis.
A mesa, as roupas, o cemitério, as joias e tantos outros objetos que pre-
enchem a vida de Elia, dentro do ordenamento por ela construído, tornam co-
tidianos, novamente, os relacionamentos que, um dia, tiveram lugar em sua
história. Os objetos que ela guarda expressam um perene sentimento pelas
pessoas que mais amava e por tudo o que perdeu ao longo de sua trajetória:
“Ela naturalmente reúne diferentes experiências de perda: a morte de sua mãe
e tia, filhos crescendo e saindo de casa, seu divórcio, ela mesma envelhecendo.
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 887 – 905 , set. – dez., 2020
Todas essas coisas exigem alguma forma de luto” (Miller, 2008, p. 41).
Tomemos, agora, outra situação de “luto”, aquela que diz respeito à per-
da não de pessoas, mas de coisas. Situações vividas, por exemplo, por refugia-
dos, migrantes, solteiros que se casam, casados que se separam, famílias que
se mudam de cidade, pessoas que saem de grandes espaços e passam a ocupar
pequenos espaços. Rupturas forçosas, tal qual a morte, entre as pessoas e as
coisas que possuem. O cachorro, a coleção de discos de vinil, os livros, os su-
venires comprados em viagens inesquecíveis, o sofá e tudo o mais que entra
na partilha dos bens de um casal que se divorcia, todos esses objetos fazem
parte de uma “estética”, como sugere Miller (2008), construída a dois. De repen-
te, esse ordenamento dos objetos dentro de casa, que garantia o “conforto das
coisas”, é invadido pelo vento de verão. Hora de viver o luto, ficando imóvel,
depois raivoso, em seguida profundamente triste e vazio, para então se resignar
e reconstruir uma nova ordem para a vida cotidiana.
O luto é uma transformação. Esse luto que não acontece pela morte de
uma pessoa, mas por uma situação ou combinação de situações que desesta-
artigo | cláudia pereira e fernanda martinelli
899
900
de figurinhas que sua mãe colecionava quando criança e que foram herdados
por ele: “são as sementes de uma coleção de livros infantis que ainda hoje
cresce constantemente ainda que não seja no meu jardim” (Benjamin, 1987, p.
234). Podemos supor que essa menção seja uma referência a seu filho, de quem
Benjamin estava separado.
Os álbuns da infância de sua mãe levam Benjamin (1987, p. 234) a refle-
tir sobre o significado dos livros como objetos herdados: “a herança é maneira
mais pertinente de formar uma biblioteca”, pois impõe um sentido de respon-
sabilidade particular, associado ao orgulho da posse. Aqui, retomamos uma
atribuição de valor aos objetos herdados que guarda semelhanças com o exem-
plo de Elia, no sentido de a transmissibilidade da coisa herdada já ser um
traço de distinção per se. Mas a porosidade dos livros herdados talvez os posi-
cione em um lugar intermediário entre as roupas e as joias de Elia. Embora
também sejam objetos móveis, reverenciáveis e sujeitos ao desgaste, os livros
não “saem para passear” e não são ressocializados da mesma maneira que as
roupas.
artigo | cláudia pereira e fernanda martinelli
901
Considerações Finais
Os dois tipos de luto que aqui sugerimos, de pessoas e coisas, decorrentes
portanto de perdas materiais, estarão sempre conectados. Quando perdemos
uma pessoa com quem convivemos, com ela morre uma ordem que rege a vida
cotidiana, já que, como vimos, tal ordem se dá pela forma como construímos
o nosso mundo material ao redor. O processo doloroso do luto envolve, primor-
dialmente, dar destino às coisas que ficaram sem dono. Envolve também esta-
belecer um novo ordenamento ou uma nova “estética”, como quer Miller, às
nossas casas, buscando alcançar novamente, de outro modo, o conforto pro-
porcionado pelas coisas. Por outro lado, quando perdemos também forçosa-
mente algumas das coisas que ordenam a nossa vida, quando temos que as
deixar para trás, deixamos também pessoas, memórias, relacionamentos, pro-
jetos de vida, sofrimentos, experiências, enfim, uma vida pregressa que morre
junto com aquele arranjo. Ainda que tenhamos a oportunidade de escolher o
que colocar na mala, essa seleção esvazia-se do sentido anterior, posto que a
nova casa exigirá, também, uma nova “estética”, nos termos de Miller (2008).
Visto pelo ângulo da cultura material, o luto é o processo solitário, pelo
qual lidamos com a ausência física das coisas, dos corpos, do ordenamento
cheio de significação que nos situa no mundo. É quando percebemos o quanto
aquela pessoa ou aquelas coisas – se é que podemos, agora, as separar – faziam
parte de nós, o quanto estavam impregnadas no que somos. É, também, valorar
o mundo de um modo único e não estar disposto a trocar nada com ninguém.
Visto pelo ângulo do consumo, o luto é a “expressão obrigatória dos
sentimentos” (Mauss, 2005). Na perda de uma pessoa, interessa mais o preto
ou o branco das roupas na hora da última despedida, ou o bom senso de saber
escolhê-las para evitar reprovação social. Na perda de algumas coisas, é a opor-
tunidade de renovar o armário, os móveis, o carro, mostrar para todos o quan-
to somos resilientes. É, também, tornar a dor pública, divulgá-la nas redes so-
ciais online e nas conversas com os amigos, marcando um novo status de “viúva”
ou “divorciada”.
De um modo ou de outro, e em geral dos dois ao mesmo tempo, estare-
mos sempre buscando ordenar o nosso mundo por meio das materialidades,
seja de qual for o ponto de partida. Se o consumo, no luto pelas pessoas ou
pelas coisas, abre espaço para coisas novas em uma “vida nova”, esta só será
as pessoas, as coisas e as perdas
902
903
NOTAS
1 No original, People exist for us in and through their ma-
terial presence (Miller, 2008, p. 286). Nessa e nas demais
citações de originais em idiomas estrangeiros, a tradução
é nossa.
2 Um exemplo heurístico a esse respeito é a conhecida dis-
cussão de Latour (1999) em que o autor propõe que uma
pessoa em posse de uma arma não esteja sujeita a um
objeto. Conforma aí, em sua opinião, um novo híbr ido,
que é a combinação pessoa/arma. Esse híbrido é que seria
a causa de qualquer possível efeito, como se pessoa/arma
conformasse então uma nova entidade. A crítica de Miller,
nesse caso, seria a de uma compreensão incompleta da
agência por parte de Latour, que ignora justamente o pa-
pel da agência da cultura material.
3 No original, things are in life rather than that life is in things.
Referências
904
905
Dimitri Pinheiro I
908
909
Condicionantes
Entre 1977 e 1982, a Rede Globo realiza experiências envolvendo a produção e a
exibição de programas com formatos alternativos às telenovelas. Primeiro testa
os chamados seriados e, posteriormente, encampa as extremamente onerosas
minisséries, cuja produção se rotiniza a partir de então. De 1982, quando a pri-
meira minissérie é exibida, a 1985, ano em que a emissora realiza adaptações
de romances consagrados – Tenda dos milagres (Jorge Amado), O tempo e o vento
(Érico Verissimo) e Grande sertão: veredas (João Guimarães Rosa) – como parte das
comemorações pelos seus 20 anos, 14 minisséries seriam veiculadas. Diferente
da telenovela e, em menor medida, do seriado, a minissérie não se enquadra nos
mecanismos rotineiros de financiamento das produções no âmbito do sistema
televisivo comercial brasileiro, sobretudo em função da curta duração, inviabi-
lizando a reiteração de personagens e cenários, e, por sua vez, reduzindo as
possibilidades de diluir custos ao longo de meses de exibição, bem como a mar-
gem de retorno obtido em termos de verbas publicitárias e merchandising.6 Não
por acaso viabilizada em um momento no qual a emissora detinha liderança
absoluta nas “escalas de audiência” – favorecida pelo fechamento progressivo
das principais concorrentes (a Excelsior em 1970 e a Tupi justamente em 1980)
– e açambarcava o maior naco das verbas publicitárias estatais e privadas, a
aposta pode ser explicada como uma tomada de posição com dupla interface.
No front político, sinaliza um movimento de distanciamento da emisso-
ra em relação ao regime militar então nos estertores. Como a própria reviravol-
ta com relação aos formatos indica, não se tratou de um processo uniforme e
unívoco. Isso fica evidente sobretudo quando se consideram as diferentes ló-
gicas, bem como os diversos ritmos imperantes nas principais frentes de pro-
dução (ou “polos de legitimidade”) da televisão: na terminologia nativa, “tele-
dramaturgia” e “telejornalismo”. 7 Os avanços e recuos na frente de teleficção
– sempre sujeitos às marchas e contramarchas da conjuntura – podem ser fla-
grados ao menos desde 1968 seja no comprometimento das dez horas da noite
com a veiculação de telenovelas extremamente arrojadas estética e politica-
mente, seja na tentativa de reformar a grade de programas – transferindo para
o horário das oito as telenovelas veiculadas às dez – tolhida por veto unilateral
da Censura Federal à primeira versão de Roque santeiro (1975), ou, ainda, no
mesmo ano, com o estabelecimento do horário das seis (visando corresponder
ao viés paternalista também exigido pelo regime militar) para a veiculação de
adaptações de obras associadas ao romantismo literário brasileiro como Helena
(Machado de Assis). 8
anos rebeldes e a abertura da teleficção
910
911
ao 14o, porque, ao retratar o período que vai de dezembro de 1968 ao AI-5, estava
“carregando demais nas tintas políticas” (Braga, 2010: 29). O conjunto de medidas
não pode ser dissociado das tensões acumuladas durante os vários episódios de
censura interna, ao menos desde os cortes em O pagador de promessas (1988), 14
passando pelos protestos internos desencadeados pelos vários lances de apoio
aberto ou velado da emissora à candidatura de Fernando Collor e culminando
com a edição do último debate antes das eleições de 1989. Essas tensões ilumi-
nam, retrospectivamente, o fechamento da Casa de Criação e, prospectivamente,
o destino dos produtores associados à tradição populista de esquerda, que per-
dem espaço na Rede Globo a partir da segunda metade da década de 1980.15
Ao mesmo tempo em que alija esses profissionais ostensivamente in-
quietos (os autores especialmente) do trabalho com telenovela – livrando seu
produto mais rentável de riscos tidos como dispensáveis –, a cúpula da empre-
sa os mantém em seus quadros, evitando, com isso, desfalques que eventual-
mente poderiam fortalecer a concorrência. Nessa estratégia, as escalações es-
porádicas para a realização de minisséries desempenharam papel auxiliar,
funcionando como uma espécie de reserva mutuamente prestigiosa, embora,
por vezes, significando uma faca de dois gumes para profissionais que precisem
de um maior volume de trabalhos para sobreviver financeiramente. 16
Por se tratar de um produto finalizado antes de sua exibição, de menor
duração, estruturalmente mais coeso e que usualmente concede maior tempo de
preparação para os profissionais envolvidos em sua produção – motivos que
elucidam o interesse que desperta no interior do próprio meio televisivo –, o
formato não se mostra tão sujeito quanto à telenovela às pressões econômicas
diretas (sob a forma do merchandising) e indiretas (via índice de audiência). 17 Em
função desse conjunto de características, as minisséries se prestam melhor às
pretensões autorais dos profissionais – roteiristas e diretores em especial – dese-
josos de expressar perspectivas pessoais sobre a teleficção e o mundo, deixando
entrever de modo mais explícito o “pendor pedagógico tanto do enredo como dos
diálogos, permitindo uma apresentação cabal e explícita da visão de mundo que
rege as lições morais da indústria cultural brasileira” (Xavier, 2003: 144).
Se a telenovela constitui o centro axial de sustentação comercial da
televisão, a minissérie configura, principalmente no período que circunscreve
Anos rebeldes, uma zona de prestígio depurado para os produtores. O significa-
do prestigioso da minissérie, entretanto, não se encerra aí. Também ilumina a
importância que a legitimidade cultural – programação ou audiência de “qua-
lidade” na terminologia nativa – angariada por esse tipo de programa represen-
ta para uma instância da indústria cultural que se encontra perenemente ame-
açada pelo descrédito simbólico, esteja este sob a expressão mais indireta do
arbitrário cultural dominante (as campanhas contra a “baixaria”) ou mediante
a forma mais direta dos reclamos por cumprimento de sua função social (a
agenda voltada para a “democratização” dos meios de comunicação).
anos rebeldes e a abertura da teleficção
912
Circunstâncias 18
Anos rebeldes foi exibida pela Rede Globo entre julho e agosto de 1992, coinci-
dindo, portanto, com um momento decisivo no processo de democratização
política do país: o agravamento da instabilidade política que levaria à renúncia
de Fernando Collor, então o primeiro presidente eleito diretamente desde 1960.
Como já mencionado, foi também a primeira incursão explícita na teleficção
da emissora pelo tema ditadura militar brasileira, abrangendo diageticamente
um período que vai do momento imediatamente anterior ao golpe de 1964 à
anistia em 1979. Explorada pelas diferentes frentes da indústria cultural, a
concomitância catalisada na minissérie ensejou o que parcela da literatura
chamou de “fusão da memória” relativa aos anos 1960 e a campanha “Fora
Collor” (Kornis, 2000: 115-116), convertendo Anos rebeldes não só em marco da
teleficção brasileira, mas, ironicamente, numa força social com algum peso na
esfera pública.
A escalação para a autoria da minissérie (a segunda em sua carreira)
significou mais uma premiação simbólica conferida pela Rede Globo aos servi-
ços prestados por Gilberto Braga, que vinha de dois sucessos consecutivos –
Vale tudo (1988-1989) e, apesar de um “tropeço” inicial, O dono do mundo (1991-
1992) 19 – nas escalas de audiência no horário das oito horas da noite. O trajeto
percorrido por ele expressa muito bem os principais fatores que incidem no
recrutamento e na carreira profissional de um “autor” de televisão: domínio da
cultura letrada e treinamento pregresso – condição necessária tendo em vista
a demanda compulsória pelo exercício da criatividade – em alguma instância
da indústria cultural.
O ingresso de Gilberto Braga na emissora se deu pelo contato com Do-
mingos de Oliveira, um dos responsáveis pelo programa de unitários Caso Es-
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 907 – 930 , set. – dez., 2020
913
914
concluídas quando Anos rebeldes já estava sendo exibida, algo inusual para um
formato que, ao contrário da telenovela, se caracterizaria por constituir “obra
fechada”. Outra prática de censura, embora menos ostensiva, foi o atraso deli-
berado no horário de exibição quando os episódios abordaram a decretação do
AI-5 (Kornis, 2000: 112).
Em consequência mais ou menos direta dessas circunstâncias de pro-
dução, a história do período se transfigura sob chave moral e individualizada,
similar em diversos momentos aos moldes do “drama doméstico” (Kornis, 2000:
109). Não por acaso, a narrativa praticamente reduz os trabalhadores rurais e
urbanos a figurantes, concentrando todo o foco de atenção na luta deflagrada
pelo setor radicalizado da pequena e da alta burguesia, contra o regime militar
e em defesa de um ideal difuso de justiça social (figurado sobretudo por refe-
rências à questão agrária).
Enredo22
Os letreiros exibidos em diversos momentos da narrativa explicitam uma or-
ganização em três fases: “março de 1964: Os anos inocentes”, “abril de 1966: Os
anos rebeldes”, “[dezembro de 1968] Os anos de chumbo”, mais um epílogo que
remete a 1979 e à anistia. Não obstante, parece possível localizar inflexões
associadas aos movimentos – ora de aproximação, ora de afastamento – do
casal principal por conta das opções de João Alfredo ante a conjuntura política,
bem como pela inserção de painéis documentais realizados com a participação
do cineasta Silvio Tendler.
A minissérie se inicia com a recapitulação do primeiro contato entre João
e Maria Lúcia anteriormente ao golpe civil-militar de 1964. Simultaneamente
também é apresentado o grupo de rapazes cuja formação (em seu último ano
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 907 – 930 , set. – dez., 2020
915
Comentário
Dada a usual suspeição política que recai sobre a Rede Globo e seus programas,
Anos rebeldes dificilmente poderia ser mais desconcertante. Põe em tela uma re-
presentação da ditadura militar em que os mocinhos são guerrilheiros que se-
questram um embaixador suíço para libertar presos políticos, e o magnata, dono
de um conglomerado empresarial, figura como vilão, constituindo uma mostra
bem-acabada do potencial “democrático” do melodrama.23 Conforme afirma Is-
mail Xavier, Anos rebeldes configura a reconstituição audiovisual mais bem suce-
dida acerca do período, sobretudo se comparada às melhores realizações da ci-
nematografia no país até então. Não obstante, ele interpõe a ressalva de que
apesar de ter aprendido a se comunicar com o seu público sobre os assuntos
relativos à vida privada, a rede de televisão ainda se voltaria para a política
916
por Waldir, rapaz pobre – filho do porteiro alcoólatra no prédio onde mora João
Alfredo – que, mediante amparo da turma, empenho escolar e cooptação por
Fábio (para quem, numa figuração dos procedimentos utilizados pela polícia
política, presta serviços de informante), consegue ascender socialmente.
A condenação da indústria cultural como suporte por inteiro do regime
militar é figurada pelo desfecho das tramas vinculando as personagens Heloísa,
Fábio e o cenário da editora. Waldir descobre o plano para retirar do país João
Alfredo, Heloísa e seu companheiro, Marcelo (Rubens Caribé) – com quem tem
uma filha (a prole é sinal inequívoco de virtude no melodrama) –, organizado por
Maria Lúcia, a essa altura casada com Edgar, tradutora e secretária executiva da
editora, e Bernardo (André Barros), irmão de Heloísa. Dividido entre os amigos e
o patrão, Waldir revela o plano para Fábio, prova de lealdade e, numa espécie de
pacto fáustico, trunfo que lhe permitirá alçar maiores voos no conglomerado.
Consequentemente o vilão desbarata o plano, exigindo uma mudança de rota que,
na descarga de maior voltagem melodramática da minissérie, termina por acar-
retar a morte da própria filha numa perseguição deflagrada pela polícia política.
artigo | dimitri pinheiro
917
Desfecho
De modo geral, a análise sociológica da teleficção produzida pela Rede Globo
em particular e dos bens simbólicos radicados no polo ampliado de produção
cultural demonstra gume conceitual, ganhos metodológicos e rentabilidade
explicativa inequívocos. Para além da acuidade cognoscitiva do conceito de
indústria cultural – desde que devidamente desbastado do ranço etnocêntrico
e intelectualista, bem como rigorosamente informado historicamente 25 –, o en-
anos rebeldes e a abertura da teleficção
918
919
920
NOTAS
1 Este artigo resulta de pesquisa realizada junto ao PPGS-
-USP e contou com apoio da Fapesp. Apresentei versões em
2018 na mesa “A despedida do Ministério da Cultura e ar-
tistas em pé de guerra (1989-1990)” do Pequeno Ciclo His-
tória da Política Cultural no Brasil (1980-1993), organizado
pelo CPF (Sesc-SP), e na quarta sessão do III Seminário
Internacional de Sociolog ia da Cultura (USP). Agradeço
nas pessoas de Fábio Marelonka Ferron e de João Victor
Kosicki, respectivamente, os comentários suscitados nes-
sas ocasiões. Sou especialmente grato a Luiz Carlos Jack-
son, que leu, comentou e fez sugestões fundamentais.
2 Para uma discussão sobre a hierarquia simbólica dos ob-
jetos nas ciências sociais, ver Pinheiro e Bergamo (2018).
Convém mencionar ao menos três dos trabalhos mais im-
portantes para a argumentação relativa a minisséries aqui
desenvolvida: Lobo (2000), Kornis (2000) e Xavier (2003).
Embora desiguais, as análises realizadas nesses trabalhos
têm em comum o enraizamento institucional nas escolas
de comunicação, bem como a convergência para Anos re-
beldes como ponto de fuga.
3 O termo não é usual. Além de ser uma categoria nativa, a
opção por “teledramaturgia” teria a vantagem de eviden-
ciar a inf luência da experiência teatral na constituição
da televisão no Brasil e, adicionalmente, enfatizar sua
especificidade em relação ao caso estadunidense, no qual,
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 907 – 930 , set. – dez., 2020
921
922
923
924
925
926
Referências bibliográficas
927
928
929
930
Neste artigo,1 meu objetivo é analisar a partir de narrativas contadas por ‘vaquei-
ros de verdade’2 como suas relações com o corpo, os animais e a caatinga produ-
zem memória e reputação social. Mais especificamente, observo como essas rela-
ções com o corpo, os animais e o território constroem e reproduzem o ‘prestígio’
e a reputação de senhores reconhecidos no sertão de Pernambuco como ‘vaquei-
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 931 – 956 , set. – dez., 2020
932
1 2
Figura 1
‘Vaqueiro véio’ em sua propriedade,
Fazenda São Miguel (Serra Talhada-PE)
março, 2016
foto do autor
Figura 2
Jovem vaqueiro na ‘vaquejada’ da
Fazenda Lucas (Floresta-PE)
maio, 2016
foto do autor
artigo | renan martins pereira
933
934
O corpo
Nos diálogos que estabeleci com os vaqueiros em Pernambuco, muito se dizia
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 931 – 956 , set. – dez., 2020
– Sentia sede, claro. Mas não podia levar água para o campo. Não dava para beber
nem comer, porque não podia carregar nada na sela – respondeu-lhe sem delongas.
935
936
Os animais e a caatinga
Em nossas conversas, Cláudio sempre enfatizava a função do cavalo na ‘carrei-
ra’. A esse respeito, mencionou que o vaqueiro não é nada sem um ‘bom cava-
lo’. Tal a sua importância na corrida que, orgulhoso de si mesmo, destacou
suas posses:
artigo | renan martins pereira
937
– Eu já tive cinco cavalos de ‘campo’, só para correr atrás de boi, só para ‘campear’!
– e, exaltado ao se lembrar do passado, deu início a uma narrativa. – Vou te con-
tar uma ‘história de vaqueiro’! Aconteceu que um dia eu fui para o ‘campo’ pegar
um boi, um determinado boi...
Nesse exato dia, o vaqueiro mencionou que estava só. Ao lembrar da árdua ta-
refa a ser cumprida, passou na fazenda de seu tio, Manoel Gomes Correia, tam-
bém conhecido como Nelinho Yoyô. Ao encontrá-lo, disse ao parente: “Padinho,
me dê um empregado para me ajudar a pegar um boi, pra eu não ir só? ”. Acom-
panhado, Cláudio e seu ‘companheiro’ seguiram.
– Meu amigo, vou te dizer uma coisa: a gente achou esse boi num lugar meio fe-
chado, onde havia muita macambira, muito espinho. A caatinga era ‘braba’ e, de
repente, o gado se espantou de longe. E correu, correu. Fugiu!
Figura 3
Cláudio Correia na Fazenda Tigre (Floresta-PE)
abril, 2016
foto do autor
velejar e descobrir: considerações sobre vaqueiros, corpos e lembranças
938
939
Nesse instante, ele explicava que seu corpo permanecia rente ao pesco-
ço do cavalo. Ele e seu cavalo estavam próximos do boi. Enquanto se preparava
para derrubá-lo, o inesperado aconteceu. Numa curva da ‘vereda’, ‘descobriu’
uma árvore, um pé de angico que “nascia da beira do caminhozinho e fazia um
galho”. A passagem era estreita e, segundo ele, “o galho vinha em cima”. O
vaqueiro desviou do galho. No ritmo da fuga, segundo o vaqueiro, “o boi parecia
que se abaixou pra passar”. Destacando a sagacidade do boi e as decisões feitas
por ele, o narrador ressaltou um problema. Embora os corpos estivessem rentes,
a altura do cavalo com a do cavaleiro prejudicava a travessia. Para resolvê-lo,
Cláudio disse não ter tido tempo para “pensar no que fazer”. De sua perspec-
tiva, não houve lugar para contemplação:
940
Para ele, embora o galho fosse um obstáculo imposto pelo boi, entre os
dois grandes aliados, cavalo e cavaleiro, há também uma relação de disputa.
Segundo sua narrativa, homem, cavalo e boi não podem ser pensados separa-
damente. O cavalo seguirá sempre o que o boi faz. “O boi entrou, e o cavalinho
entrou também!”. Nessas circunstâncias, cabe ao homem acompanhar a fuga,
o movimento iniciado pelo boi. E cabe a ele também saber sustentá-lo ou, quem
sabe, transformá-lo, obtendo um desvio. O cavalo segue incondicionalmente a
trajetória do boi; impedi-lo é um erro. Talvez uma fatalidade. Se o boi engana,
levando o cavalo a um caminho perigoso, o cavalo é vulnerável às armadilhas
assim como o cavaleiro o é. Nas corridas, as vidas dividem os mesmos riscos.
Traçando os mesmos rumos, o boi procura fugir, esconder-se, enquanto cava-
leiro e cavalo o perseguem, desejando descobri-lo a todo custo.
“Eu passei só com ‘isso aqui’ em cima do cavalo!”, Cláudio asseverou
apontando para sua coxa direita. Para ele, todos estavam no limite. Boi, homem
e cavalo estavam, segundo o narrador, “na conta de passar”. Em fração de se-
gundos, o cálculo foi espontâneo e imediato, produzindo um movimento se-
quencial: esticar-se no pescoço do cavalo; mudar de posição diante do impre-
visto (um galho!); e, por fim, apoiar-se lateralmente. Essas atitudes trouxeram
sua primeira vitória. Adiante, um novo desafio: derrubar e ‘dominar’ o boi. Pa-
ra tanto, onde estava seu ‘companheiro’? A seguir, trato da técnica de ‘correr
junto’ e do ‘prestígio’ envolvido nesse empreendimento.
O prestígio
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 931 – 956 , set. – dez., 2020
Nas ‘pegas de boi’, geralmente não há lugar para que dois vaqueiros tenham
protagonismo, pois sempre haverá apenas um vencedor. Há o que correrá ‘na
ponta’, e outro que seguirá por trás, acompanhando dois movimentos sequen-
ciais: o trajeto traçado pelo vaqueiro que corre ‘na ponta’ e que supostamente
derrubará o boi, puxando-o pela cauda ou pulando em seu pescoço; e as sub-
sequentes rotas e desvios feitos pelo gado durante o percurso.
“Quando eu estava ‘piando’, chegou o companheiro.” Em geral, ‘piar’ sig-
nifica “dominar o boi”. Detalhadamente, é quando a rês, para ser tangida, terá
suas ‘mãos’ (patas) e ‘pontas’ (chifres) amarradas umas às outras. Cláudio, po-
rém, não precisou da ajuda de seu parceiro. No limite entre a vida e a morte,
passar sob o galho potencializou a atitude de terminar a empreitada sozinho.
Mais uma fonte de atuação magistral do ‘vaqueiro do campo’, do ‘vaqueiro de
verdade’: realizar autonomamente o que em teoria deveria ser feito em coleti-
vo. Não se trata, contudo, de escolhas e vontades. Trata-se, sobretudo, de ‘ne-
cessidade’ e obviedade. Como já vimos, nas corridas não há lugar para hesita-
ções, simples escolhas ou contemplações. Independentemente de o ‘compa-
artigo | renan martins pereira
941
nheiro’ estar atrasado ou não, é preciso ‘lutar’ com o gado antes que retome o
fôlego, ganhe energia e parta. Os imprevistos não são meros obstáculos, mas
elementos que catalisam as disputas, segmentam as continuidades e traçam
novos desafios. Logo, correr ao lado de alguém não é só um meio de subtrair os
perigos e compartilhá-los. Não se trata somente de cumprir o ‘trato’ com o
cliente ou o patrão. Não é só uma fonte de reciprocidade, correlação e ‘honra’,
mas também de unilateralidade, parcialidade e disputa.
Ora, se um único vaqueiro triunfará, é porque esse será o protagonista
de um acontecimento extraordinário, e o parceiro, embora coadjuvante, ates-
tará o desafio vencido pelo outro. Por isso, o ‘companheiro’ não é só o olho que
procura o boi e segue o curso dos movimentos. Ele é também o olho-testemunha.
É o campo de visão que comprova o que o outro foi capaz de fazer. A esse res-
peito, vejamos o que disse Cláudio do ‘companheiro’ que testemunhou o fato:
– Eu senti mesmo que roçou o pau na perna... É por isso que tirou a casca do an-
gico! – ref letiu meu amigo nos instantes finais de sua narrativa.
Por onde passou, chamou-lhe atenção a altura entre o galho e o solo. Ele,
então, mediu para ver quantos palmos davam. O cavalo tinha seis palmos e
meio, a contar a espessura da sela. Do chão até o pau, a medida foi de cinco
palmos e meio, e o cavalo tinha um palmo a mais. Ora, o vaqueiro atravessou
um espaço menor que o tamanho do seu ‘animal’. Sem hesitar, logo constatou
a destreza do cavalo. O aliado em quem um dia confiou e a quem agora deve a
‘honra’ de uma ‘história’.
942
terlocutores, é que o cavalo não defende apenas a si mesmo. Como fiel escudei-
ro, ele defende também o seu aliado. Percebe-se a partir disso que a dimensão
do extraordinário contida nas ‘histórias de vaqueiro’ não se fundamenta apenas
nas intenções do boi, mas em um “agenciamento coletivo” (Deleuze & Guattari,
2008), nesse caso, no agenciamento cavaleiro-boi-cavalo-caatinga.9
Como destacado na narrativa de Cláudio, para controlar o tempo e tomar
as decisões corretas, não há espaço para contemplação, e as ações em nada se
confundem com um cálculo racional. Em vez disso, as relações dos homens
com os animais e a caatinga se desenrolam segundo os agenciamentos entre
eles. Trata-se de relações entre humanos e não humanos que não são teleoló-
gicas, isto é, equacionadas por causas e efeitos, mas de natureza tautológica,
isto é, faz-se o que deve ser feito. Nas palavras de Cláudio: “A gente não pode
pensar que vai morrer ou que não vai morrer. Isso é coisa que o vaqueiro tem
que fazer, simplesmente fazer!”.
Minha amiga Amélia, bastante curiosa, perguntou-lhe por que motivo, no
momento do perigo, não desistiu daquela ‘vereda’ perigosa. Se tudo era arrisca-
do demais, pensou minha amiga, por que ele não estacionou o movimento e
escolheu outra trajetória? Diante da provocação, a resposta do vaqueiro foi cla-
ra: “Sim, existe a possibilidade. Mas o ponto é que, se desistirmos, o boi vai
embora.” A desistência, portanto, não é a solução. No limite, se o que está em
jogo é o próprio ‘prestígio’ do vaqueiro, deixar o boi fugir quando se está tão
próximo dele é nada mais que uma ação imprudente e ‘covarde’. O correto é
sempre fazer o que o boi faz. Na corrida, o homem segue o boi justamente por-
que o cavalo tem um mandato: “O cavalo entra da maneira que o boi entrar,
senão também morre!” asseverou Cláudio diante das indagações de Amélia.
Os argumentos do vaqueiro sugerem que a desistência é uma alternativa
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 931 – 956 , set. – dez., 2020
ainda mais perigosa, botando em risco a vida do cavalo que cumpre o seu papel.
Portanto, manter-se no ritmo da ‘carreira’ é, a despeito do que possa acontecer,
respeitar quem o carrega. Não fariam sentido saudar o ‘sofrimento’, as horas sob
o sol escaldante e se reverenciar como ‘vaqueiro de verdade’ se todo imprevisto,
toda dificuldade ou qualquer obstáculo cedessem lugar à desistência. Desistir,
portanto, mais do que um ato ‘covarde’, é uma atitude ineficaz.
No lugar da desistência, a permanência. Em vez da redução, a aceleração.
Entre permanências e acelerações, o vaqueiro sabe que se há desvios e decisões
a tomar elas são internas aos próprios movimentos, às continuidades e aos
cruzamentos. Para entender melhor essas questões, é fundamental analisar
outra habilidade do ‘vaqueiro do campo’: antes da ‘carreira’ (aceleração, fuga
e colisão), vem o ato de ‘velejar’ (vagarosidade, procura e atenção).
artigo | renan martins pereira
943
O gado sente o cheiro, eu não entendo, é o cheiro da gente que eles pegam. Óia,
se eu tiver nessa posição aqui [seg undo ele, a favor do vento], o gado sente e
corre. Agora, para ele não sentir, a gente tem que ir contra o vento, abaixado,
devagarzinho e desv iando dos paus pra não quebrar e pra não fazer bar ulho,
porque se fizer barulho, o boi também corre.
944
Figura 4
Boi ‘encaretado’; ‘pega de boi’ na
Fazenda São Pedro (Floresta-PE)
fevereiro, 2016
foto do autor
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 931 – 956 , set. – dez., 2020
945
Ciência do vaqueiro
Os relatos trazidos por Cláudio Correia neste artigo seguem o propósito de
conservar uma verdade histórica. Do fenômeno narrado surge, por exemplo,
um conselho. Ele reelabora um momento pretérito e transmite uma verdade
aos seus ouvintes. Concluindo definitivamente a sua narrativa, disse-me: “Tu-
do isso que eu te contei, meu amigo, é a ‘ciência do vaqueiro’!”.
Sabe-se bem que a memória é um objeto de conhecimento complexo e
controverso no campo das ciências humanas e sociais. Ela envolve um debate
interdisciplinar, associando-se, portanto, a diversos conceitos, termos e temá-
ticas. Sob a clássica perspectiva dos “quadros sociais da memória”, a sociologia
francesa buscou dar conta de uma “memória coletiva”, diretamente conectada
às noções de sociedade e Estado-nação (Halbwacks, 1994, 1997). Na historiogra-
fia, a memória recebeu interpretações e relativizações variadas da noção de
“tempo histórico”. Nessa linha, as teses produzidas na Escola dos Anais são
célebres no que diz respeito aos métodos para lidar com a memória coletiva
(Bloch, 1925) e a sua relação com a história (Le Goff, 2003). Preocupados mais
com os processos de memorização do que necessariamente com os conteúdos
da memória, o historiador Pierre Nora e o filósofo Paul Ricouer propuseram
conceitos importantes para o debate. O primeiro se concentra na categoria de
“lugares de memória”, a fim de entender por meio dela as representações ma-
teriais e imateriais do espaço na memória coletiva (Nora, 1989). O segundo
propõe o conceito de “memória justa”, segundo o princípio de que recordar é
em si mesmo um ato relacional, uma forma de alteridade (Ricoeur, 2000). No
que se refere à relação entre memória e alteridade, Fabian (2013) sugere que,
se os estudos a respeito da memória social no campo da história se debruçam
sobre o passado, a função da antropologia é lidar com as comunidades no pre-
sente, tomando o passado não como uma totalidade em si, mas um conjunto
de temporalidades e espacialidades culturalmente definidas. É em torno do
debate de como as sociedades lembram, esquecem e recompõem o seu passa-
do (Douglas, 1986; Connerton, 1989) que os pós-colonialistas e os pós-modernos,
no contexto de uma disputa epistemológica nos anos 1980 entre memórias
oficiais e memórias subalternas (Pollak, 1989), buscaram analisar como a his-
tória é mobilizada na vida cotidiana e, ademais, quais os limites do passado
velejar e descobrir: considerações sobre vaqueiros, corpos e lembranças
946
Isto não quer dizer que ele cede, como fazem comumente os heróis homéricos,
a um impulso súbito. Ao contrário, sua métis soube pacientemente esperar que
se produzisse a ocasião esperada. Mesmo quando ela procede de um impulso
brusco, a obra da métis situa-se nos antípodas da impulsividade. A métis é rápida,
pronta como a ocasião que ela deve apreender no voo, sem deixá-la passar [...].
Em vez de f lutuar lá e cá ao sabor das circunstâncias, ela ancora profundamen-
artigo | renan martins pereira
947
te o espír ito no projeto que ela maquinou antes, g raças a sua capacidade de
prever, além do presente imediato, um pedaço mais ou menos espesso do futuro
(Détienne & Vernant, 2008: 21-22).
948
Considerações Finais
Neste artigo, desenvolvi uma correlação temática pouco explorada na literatu-
ra antropológica sobre os sertões do Nordeste, a saber: corpo, memória e rela-
ção humano/animal. Primeiramente, demonstrei que a reputação do vaqueiro
é resultado de relações particulares com o ‘sofrimento’, os animais e a caatin-
ga. Em seguida, com o objetivo de analisar a natureza dessas relações na prá-
tica da ‘pega de boi’, empenhei-me para entendê-las segundo os conteúdos da
narrativa de um interlocutor reconhecido em Floresta como ‘vaqueiro de ver-
dade’. Nos relatos desse vaqueiro, homens e animais estão propensos a tomar
ritmos diferentes na corrida. Como vimos, o ato de ‘velejar’ não é apenas pro-
curar o que se esconde, mas ganhar velocidade e, por conseguinte, transformar-
-se na ‘carreira’, substituindo a vagarosidade, a procura e a atenção por acele-
ração, fuga e colisão. No ato de ‘velejar’, dá-se mais energia aos olhos e à bus-
ca do boi. Na ‘carreira’, por sua vez, a fuga do boi põe os corpos em disputa.
Concluo que se na corrida o vaqueiro arrisca a própria vida é porque as
‘pegas de boi’ são espaços privilegiados de atualização e construção da memó-
ria. Nos limites de seu ofício (como a cegueira e a anulação do corpo), median-
te a produção da memória o vaqueiro constrói para si um modo de vida carac-
terizado pelo ‘sofrimento’ e pela ‘honra’ (o compromisso com o cliente, consi-
go mesmo, com o parceiro e com o cavalo), mas também pela ‘agilidade’, pelo
‘conhecimento’ e pela ‘experiência’. Nesse sentido, a disposição dos corpos no
território e os rumos traçados pelo cavaleiro, como entendi, não são a conse-
quência de meras escolhas, equacionados por uma relação de causa e efeito,
mas fruto de uma forma particular de inteligência − a ‘ciência do vaqueiro’.
Por fim, sugiro nesta conclusão que o vaqueiro não é apenas uma imagem
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 931 – 956 , set. – dez., 2020
949
950
Notas
1 Agradeço primeiramente aos meus amigos e às minhas
amigas sertanejas que tão bem me acolheram em Flores-
ta. Este artigo é dedicado a eles/as – uma pena que a pan-
demia tenha nos afastado fisicamente, por ora. Agradeço
as leituras atentas e generosas de Jorge Villela e Ana Clau-
dia Marques de suas primeiras versões, assim como aos
colegas do Hybr is, g rupo de pesquisa (UFSCar/USP) em
que pude compartilhar algumas das primeiras ideias que
aqui se encontram. Também não poderia deixar de agra-
decer aos debatedores do GT “Práticas Esportivas e Cor-
poralidades” Carlos Eduardo Costa e Yasmine Ávila Ramos,
que contribuíram com críticas e sugestões pertinentes à
versão prototípica deste artigo quando de sua apresenta-
ção no IV Seminário de Antropologia da UFSCar em 2017.
Agradeço ainda aos pareceristas anônimos pelos comen-
tários, críticas e sugestões, assim como à equipe editorial
da revista Sociologia & Antropologia por todo o suporte téc-
nico. Por fim, agradeço à Capes pelo financiamento.
2 Termos entre aspas simples correspondem a expressões
nativas. Frases entre aspas duplas representam transcri-
ções diretas da fala nativa e citações de autores acompa-
nhadas de referência bibliográfica.
3 O município de Floresta está localizado sertão de Pernam-
buco, mais especificamente, na mesorregião do São Fran-
cisco e na microrregião do sertão de Itaparica, distante
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 931 – 956 , set. – dez., 2020
951
ReferênciaS BIBLIOGRÁFICAs
952
953
954
955
956
Since the turn of the millennium, shows originating on Broadway, New York,
have begun to be produced in many different cities around the world. During
the 1980s and 1990s, American entrepreneurs developed strategies for selling
theatrical works in cities of various nations (Machado, 2018). These producers
elaborated a procedure for selling the rights to Broadway shows to other coun-
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 957 – 980 , sep. – dec., 2020
tries: they started to offer the rights to musicals for purchase by foreign com-
panies via a rights licensing agency, Music Theatre International (MTI) (Gamer-
man, 2010).
Brazil was one of the countries that invested in these productions. Par-
ticularly in the São Paulo theatre scene at the start of the new century, a series
of indicators demonstrates the vigour of this enterprise: the number of shows,
the size of audiences, the financial sums generated, and the construction of
new buildings. For example, there were three versions of Broadway shows be-
tween 1950 and 1969, four between 1970 and 1979, rising to seven between 1980
and 1989, and the same number between 1990 and 1999. In the decade from
2000 to 2009, the conditions for producing musicals changed and the shows
rose to 20 and, finally, between 2010 and 2016, jumped to 48 (Cardoso, Fernandes
& Cardoso Filho, 2016).
The data from the last few years reveals how the public embraced these
musicals with particular enthusiasm. In 2001, Les misérables attracted 350,000
theatregoers over the 11 months it was running. More recently, between 2013
social experience and us musical theatre on são paulo’s stages
958
and 2014, The lion king sold 800,000 tickets over its almost 20-month run (Cardoso,
Fernandes & Cardoso Filho, 2016; Brasil, 2014). The volume of money needed to
produce each show is also remarkable. Time 4 Fun, one of the main companies
specializing in the area, made use of the tax breaks provided by the Rouanet
Law to stage 15 musicals between 2001 and 2016. The cheapest, Sweet Charity
(2006), spent R$ 1,446,245 (equivalent to US$ 683,642.16 at the time) and the
most expensive, The lion king (2013-2014), received funds of R$ 28,112,570 (equiv-
alent to US$ 11,933,343.24 at the time). 2 As a parameter for these budgets, the
Theatre Promotion Law of São Paulo municipality ( “Lei de Fomento ao Teatro”
created in 2002 to finance theatre in the city) allocated R$ 15,894,042 in funding
(or US$ 6,810,370.21) in 2013 to be distributed among 30 theatre projects.
Furthermore, in the space of a little over 15 years, between 2001 and
2016, seven new theatres were built to stage these productions. The smallest
– the Teatro Net São Paulo, opened in 2014 with 508 paying seats. The largest –
the former Teatro Abril, now the Teatro Renault –, reformed in 2001 specially
to put on large musicals, can accommodate up to 1500 spectators. By way of
comparison, less than 5% of theatre spaces in São Paulo, as of 2004, were able
to receive more than 1000 people and less than 15% possessed more than 500
seats (Machado, 2012; Almeida Júnior, 2007).
While the twenty-first century is impressive for its entrepreneurial en-
ergy, Brazilian producers and artists were already dedicating themselves to the
genre in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s. At the time, musicals were sporadic, how-
ever, and there was no regular training of groups of artists specifically for this
kind of theatrical production. The process involved in staging a show varied
greatly: the type of financing depended on the abilities of the producer respon-
sible and Brazilian actors lacked the technical skills in singing and dancing to
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 957 – 980 , sep. – dec., 2020
perform the musical numbers adequately. In the 1980s, there was a small shift:
pedagogical institutions began to teach repertoires from these musicals to teen-
agers and adults. But it was only in the final years of the 1990s that the envi-
ronment changed. The condition for national theatre productions was altered
with the advent of a new Cultural Incentive Law (the controversial Rouanet
Law). In 2001, São Paulo witnessed the convergence of these previously diffuse
factors. A Broadway production called Les misérables inaugurated the reform of
the Teatro Abril in the city centre. The aspirations of artists and producers,
while scattered in small projects before, now seemed to encounter a strongly
directed formula for work. In the years that followed, the show came to be
considered a landmark for the recent history of musicals in Brazil. After then,
the scene developed rapidly. The number of productions swelled and there was
a specialization of professionals from the area.
My intention is not to sketch a complete panorama of the shows pro-
duced in this period. For this, I suggest the book by the actor Gerson Steves
(2015) – which lists the main musicals produced in the country – and the article
article | bernardo fonseca machado
959
960
some elements in common: the Broadway origin and the aura of foreign glamour.
Even so, the experiences were intermittent and depended on the indi-
vidual desire and autonomy of producers like Berbara. They were far from a
world of systematic regularity and specialized professionals. Furthermore, the
cast brought its own issues. The producer of My fair lady himself hesitated over
casting the actress for the main role. One of the candidates was Tônia Carrero,
who, at the height of her beauty and fame, “lacked the humility to accept that
she could not sing. She thought that with a few lessons she would get there,
but she wouldn’t, I’m sure” (Carvalho, 2008: 131). 5 The other candidate was Bibi
Ferreira. Concerning her, Berbara explained: “I didn’t think she was right for
the part; it was complicated. The person had to be a singer and Bibi isn’t; the
actress must have a lot of charisma, which Bibi doesn’t. She was always about
technique” (Carvalho, 2008: 131). The role had been obtained due to the lobby-
ing of Bibi’s mother, who insisted on her daughter being hired.
In the 1980s, a new set of agents joined the scene. Walter Clark, also
coming from the TV networks, debuted as a theatre producer on the stages of
article | bernardo fonseca machado
961
Sérgio Cardoso with the show Chorus line. 6 Born in 1936, he became the artistic
director of Globo in 1965 at the indication of Berbara himself, his friend. Clark
would remain in the post until 1977 when he fell out with the patriarch of the
Marinho family, Globo’s owners. His experiments with theatre began after this
television phase.
To pay for the costly undertaking, budgeted at 300 million cruzeiros, 7 he
dreamt up a share system: he made 44 shares available for purchase by anyone
interested. Each person would obtain a return, corresponding to the portion of
shares purchased, from the revenue generated at the ticket office. 8 Chorus line
became a success and was decisive for the career of one actress in particular:
Claudia Raia. A native of Campinas, in 1966 her artistic career would take off.
Ever since a girl she had dedicated herself to becoming a performing artist. Her
mother, owner of a ballet school, ensured she enrolled for classical ballet. At
the age of 13, she went to live in New York alone and studied at dance schools
for a year and a half.
Raia joined the cast of the show produced by Walter Clark when she was
16. Figures from Globo invited by the producer were enchanted by the young
woman and asked her to work at the broadcaster. In the following years, she
exploded onto the scene as an actress playing the prostitute Ninon in the soap
opera Roque santeiro (1985) and would star in her first pocket show – Essas noites
assim (1987) – in a nightclub in Ipanema. At the time, Raia lamented the absence
in Brazil of “a school of art where any artist can learn everything they want and
discover themselves” (Cavalcanti, 1987).
In fact, such complaints about the absence of technical teaching were
far from unique. In 1989, the director Jorge Takla also expressed his dissatisfac-
tion. Born in 1951, and trained at the School of Fine Arts and the National
Conservatory of Dramatic Art, in Paris, he was explicit about how, at the end
of the 1980s, Brazilian actors were unprepared: “No actor is ready to handle a
musical like this” (Pimenta, 1989: D1). He was referring to Cabaret (1989), a show
set during the period of the Nazi rise to power in Germany. To solve the problem,
before official rehearsals began, the director scheduled a “pre-rehearsal” phase
just for improving bodily techniques. The O Estado de São Paulo report of 20 May
1989 describes a cast uncertain about singing and dancing skills: “For now, the
master of ceremonies, Sally Bowles and company still get their steps wrong,
look down at the ground when they should look to the sky, and almost break
the boards with the weight of their bodies” (Pimenta, 1989: D1). The observation
reveals the lingering perception of a dearth of technique, first signalled by
Berbara years earlier. Much of the national cast lacked the basic skills for sing-
ing and dancing – at least by US aesthetic standards. 9
Since that time, shows premiered that were either directly linked to
Broadway or inspired by US musicals. At the end of the 1980s and the beginning
of the 1990s, a series of shows were staged whose design, according to a report
social experience and us musical theatre on são paulo’s stages
962
in the Folha de S. Paulo, was “the most North American possible.” “The intention,”
the journalist alleged, “was to do something along Broadway lines” (Camargo,
1989: E-3). For instance, Claudia Raia’s surname – meaning “line” or “limit” – had
become the epicentre of numerous puns: Não fuja da raia (“Stay on the line,”
1991), Nas raias da loucura (“On the limits of madness,” 1993) and Caia na raia
(“Fall in line,” 1996). The shows were stripped down to a simple plot, composed
of musical, choreographic and comic sketches, monopolized by Raia herself
(Oliveira, 1996).
The actress was not alone. A generation born in the 1960s and 1970s
dialogued with references to foreign music. There were, for instance, producers
who ventured to make musicals that freely alluded to Broadway. In Rio de Ja-
neiro, the young Charles Möeller and Claudio Botelho experimented with new
formats. The former was born in Santos (SP), in 1967, and had pursued a career
as an actor from an early age. Botelho, meanwhile, born in 1964, a native of
Araguari (MG). He had trained as an actor but, finding work difficult to come
by, decided to pursue a new profession as a translator and composer. The young
men first met at the start of 1990 and began a long and enduring conversation
about musicals. Their first works merged songs from a variety of shows and by
different composers. Such was the case of Hello Gershwin (1991) and As malvadas
(Bad Girls, 1997) (Carvalho, 2009).
Another fan of musicals, Miguel Falabella was at the time associated
with his involvement in the so-called teatro besteirol (nonsense theatre) of the
1980s, his participations in Globo TV soaps, and his work as a playwright (Caste-
lo, 1995; Gama, 1998; Wasilewski, 2008). Born in São Cristóvão, in Rio de Janeiro’s
North Zone, in 1956, he had a short experience with a musical show in 1994. In
Falabella canta Disney (“Falabella sings Disney”), the author inaugurated the Café
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 957 – 980 , sep. – dec., 2020
do Teatro in the Gávea Shopping Mall in Rio de Janeiro. The show’s director said
on the occasion: “It was two exhausting months of rehearsals since nobody
there was used to singing” (Dias, 1994).
A set of people who shared foreign aspirations thus started to become
involved, little by little, in the performance of musical works either directly
informed by shows produced for Times Square or filled with allusions to Broad-
way. These figures – who cultivated the theatrical terrain and learned about
Broadway’s artistic conventions – were fundamental to enabling shows origi-
nally from New York to be systematically staged in São Paulo from the 2000s
onward. But before proceeding further, other important elements of this scene
need to be described.
Pedagogical paths
The 1980s also witnessed the beginning of an unprecedented pedagogical en-
vironment. As well as teaching vocabulary and grammar, the English language
school Cultura Inglesa started to offer classes in Musical Theatre to adult stu-
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963
dents. Founded in 1935 by the British consulate, in 1979 the institution decided
to experiment with staging a musical show in English with students from the
choir. The experiment proved something of a success. Since then, more than
40 works have been performed.
The initial idea behind the school’s project had not been to provide pro-
fessional training to aspiring actors. Nevertheless, during the 1990s the estab-
lishment became “a hothouse for people who wanted to make musicals but had
nowhere to go. Because there were no courses, there was no scene,” as former
student Daniel Salve pointed out. A native of São Paulo, Salve was born in 1976
and debuted on stage at the age of 15 in professional shows for children. When
he first learnt about the institution’s course for musicals he thought little of
the idea: “Just imagine, I’m a professional. Audition for an amateur production?
I turned up and was enchanted. I went, took the audition, and passed! Cultura
Inglesa was a school,” he declared.
Enrolled students, the sons and daughters of liberal professionals and
public workers, generally came from the same social background: most of them
studied at private schools in São Paulo city and shared a taste for pop music.
In the environment provided by the foreign language course, these similar in-
terests converged and, over the next few years, fertilized the city’s stages with
musicals referring to Broadway. Here the friendship between Daniel Salve and
Rodrigo Pitta provides a perfect example. The young men first met in 1992 and,
in the years that followed, worked together on seven shows put on by Cultura
Inglesa. In 1997, they decided to travel together to New York: Pitta spent eight
months studying Musical Theatre Direction at the American Music and Drama
Academy (AMDA), 10 while Daniel, between singing and dancing classes, found
time to audition for the musical Rent. 11
After more than a year, the friends returned to Brazil in 1998 and decided
to premiere the show Pocket Broadway in the Studium theatre in Rui Barbosa Street,
São Paulo. Open from Friday to Sunday, the show was described as “a mix of
various musicals performed on Broadway, including The phantom of the Opera, Les
misérables, Grease, Hair and The lion king” (Pocket Broadway, 1998: D2). The produc-
tion was a success according to the new artists. The musical closed after running
for almost a year and achieved a total audience of around 20,000 (Rocha, 2000).
The following year, 1999, Salve obtained the desired role in the Brazilian
version of Rent – to be described later. The investment in time and money, as
well as the experience at Cultura Inglesa and his studies in New York, led to
him being selected from around 900 candidates. On the occasion, the producer
responsible explained in a report published in O Estado de São Paulo: “This is
definitely not a show for amateurs […] It’s impossible for actors who don’t know
how to sing, you can’t bluff it” (Gama, 1999b). Unlike the technical difficulties
faced by casts in previous decades, younger Brazilian artists managed to find
spaces to learn these skills.
social experience and us musical theatre on são paulo’s stages
964
der the sun with another aesthetic genre also emerging at the time.
965
966
the market” (Weffort & Souza, 1998: 207). Even this theatre, he continued, “is a
risky investment,” which is why a law like Rouanet was urgently needed. The
big change took place in 1999 with a Provisional Measure that altered Article
18 of the Rouanet Law and increased the possibility of a 100% reduction of in-
come tax in the case of theatrical arts projects. As a result, the volume of funds
raised exploded. Between 1999 and 2000, for example, the increase was 88%,
jumping from R$ 25,655,375 to R$ 48,389,275 (or US$ 14,340,623.15 to US$
24,746,484.09).
The rapid increase in funding was not met with immediate celebration,
however. Some theatre groups reacted. In May 1999, they published a mani-
festo against the decisions of the Ministry of Culture, opposing in particular
the reform of the law. Calling itself the Movimento Arte contra a Barbárie (Art
Movement Against Barbarism), the group denounced official government pol-
icy and accused it of limiting culture to the commerce of entertainment (Costa
& Carvalho, 2008; Machado, 2012; Romeo, 216). The director Hugo Possolo, a
founder of the Parlapatões group, declared in an interview given to the news-
paper O Estado de São Paulo: “No investment exists to continue the development
of artistic works. On the contrary, what prevails is a policy of events, which
treats theatre and other areas as happening, valued not for their artistic content
but for their publicity potential” (Weiss, 1999: D3). Although the collective of
united artists was “politically heterogenic” and did not advocate any one aes-
thetic project, it brought them together “to fight the common enemy: commer-
cial theatre and the ‘marketing events’” (Romeo, 2016: 62) .
It was into this arena of disputes that the musical Les misérables disem-
barked in the country. We are in 2001 and the producer Corporación Inter-
americana de Entretenimiento (CIE, whose history I describe in the next section)
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 957 – 980 , sep. – dec., 2020
raised R$ 1,331,541 (or US$ 573,841.15 at the time) through tax exemptions
under the Rouanet Law for staging the show in Portuguese. A new phase of
using the law came into force, offering the economic conditions for large US
musicals to arrive in São Paulo. For some of the creators of São Paulo theatre,
Musical Theatre merited a new label: a synonym of commercial theatre, and a
synthesis of “barbarism.” This explains why a section of the performing arts
departments of the public universities of the State of São Paulo have not de-
veloped – at least in recent years – studies of the topic. Many of the generation
of professors employed at the university, and those replacing them, belonged
(or were sympathetic) to the Movimento Arte contra a Barbárie. Academic pro-
duction took a political side: the polarization of “research theatre” versus “com-
mercial theatre,” although already in existence earlier (Ridenti, 2010; Marques,
2014), acquired fresh impetus during this period.
Added to this was the defence of an aesthetic that, in many aspects,
distanced itself from the practices of Musical Theatre. Professor Silvia Fernandes
(2010: 122), from the USP Department of Theatre, argues that “theatre” over
article | bernardo fonseca machado
967
recent decades in São Paulo (and elsewhere) has been “motivated by the desire
to test its limits, stretching the traditional sources of its production to breaking
point”. This was a research aesthetic that aimed to avoid the logic of “repre-
sentation” – that is, it eschewed illusions and fictional plots in favour of the-
atrical actions comprehended as “more real.” This aesthetic agenda, however,
did not match the concerns of the professionals involved in a large portion of
the musicals (McMillin, 2006).
A system of theatrical classification was at work, therefore, based on
people’s taste, located on an interface with the market, and immediately refer-
ring to a specific political stance (Bourdieu, 2007). The effect led to a polarization
through which musicals were defined as direct agents of foreign capital in the
country, complicit with the national “culture industry” itself. The heated escala-
tion with its unpredictable results cooled after the publication in 2002 of the Lei
de Fomento ao Teatro (13.279/02) by the São Paulo City Council (Machado, 2012;
Romeo, 2016). Designed to support the creation and continuation of theatrical
research and production projects, the new law met the demands of the different
groups, reinforcing the tension already existing between them. After 2002, each
theatre sector began to be supported by a separate state mechanism.
To develop the argument, it is necessary to keep in mind how the Roua-
net Law removed the risks to producers interested in musicals. As money pre-
viously allocated to the Federal Revenue, using it for culture generated – in the
eyes of banks and companies – the potential to expand the divulgation of their
brands and using lost funds (otherwise “consumed” by tax payments) in a prof-
itable way. In other words, symbolically significant cultural events were associ-
ated with the company in the agendas of Brazilian metropolises. Theatre pro-
ducers, for their part, saw the law as the possibility to stage expensive musicals,
capable of drawing in the public and generating profit. The future seemed
promising.
Convergences
The dispersed initiatives of the previous decades assumed a more definite
course from 2001. Manipulated by some central figures, the desires, sporadic
in the past, now converged. I turn the spotlight to three specific names: Giuliano
Caterini, Fernando Altério, and the company Corporación Interamericana de
Entretenimiento. Their interests, initially independent, produced a sequence
of theatrical events that eventually synthesized previously diverse economic,
aesthetic, and emotional expectations.
Born in the city La Spezia, in Italy, in 1944, and raised in Argentina, Gi-
uliano Caterini arrived in Brazil in 1964, the year of the military coup. He mar-
ried, had two daughters, and never left the country again. Unknown then in
the São Paulo theatrical world, he adopted a stage name very early on: Billy
Bond. His career began in 1978 as the singer in a punk band. In the next few
social experience and us musical theatre on são paulo’s stages
968
years, he worked as a producer of records and video clips. At the end of the
1980s, Bond decided to set up a theatrical production company – Black and Red
– and dedicate himself exclusively to direction and to running two theatres:
Jardel Filho and Teatro Brigadeiro, both on Brigadeiro Luís Antônio Avenue in
São Paulo.
During the same period, in the Moema neighbourhood, the entrepreneur
Fernando Altério had invested in building a new theatre: The Palace. Born in
1953, a producer of national and international shows, Altério became a regular
figure in the social columns over the 1990s – he held parties and dinners, an-
nounced contracts with artists, and made news winning a cookery competition.
His business decisions became the most daring at the end of the 1990s, when
construction work began on a theatre on the banks of the Pinheiros river: Credi-
card Hall. An unknown Mexican company appeared as a partner of the project
and promised to change the cultural circuit of the city.
The Corporación Interamericana de Entretenimiento was formed in 1990
in Mexico City. At the outset, it promoted live events solely in the national
capital. By its second year, however, the signing of an agreement with Ticket-
master Corporation – a US ticket sales company – expanded its show business
operations to the whole of Mexico and Latin America. In 1996, the corporation
signed a licensing contract with another conglomerate: Walt Disney Theatrical
Worldwide Inc. Thereafter, CIE was authorized to stage shows from the Disney
portfolio in Latin America, Spain, and Portugal. The first production would be
La bella y la bestia (“Beauty and the beast”), which premiered in Mexico City in
1997.
In January 1999, the Mexican company decided to expand its operations
to Brazil. As a strategy, it acquired 30% of Stage Empreendimentos – a consor-
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 957 – 980 , sep. – dec., 2020
tium owned by the aforementioned Fernando Altério with some other partners.
In parallel, CIE also signed a partnership with Billy Bond’s company to ensure
an arm in show production. In the negotiation, the Mexicans acquired two
theatres previously owned by the Italian: Teatro Ópera and Teatro Jardel Filho.
The objective was to produce two musicals in São Paulo, Rent (1999) and O
beijo da mulher aranha (2000). The shows would serve as an experiment to test
the economic viability of Broadway productions in the country.
In November 1999, Rent premiered at Teatro Ópera with a budget of US$
400,000 (corresponding to R$ 776,920 at the time and R$ 2,699,432 today). 14 For
the casting, a panel including a US director and choreographer arrived in the
city. The selection process was not as problematic as Billy Bond had imagined:
“there’s a new generation that sings, acts and dances well enough to give you
goose bumps” (Gama, 1999a: D17). Daniel Salve, the actor selected for the lead
role, had his CV boosted by the shows at Cultura Inglesa and his studies abroad.
The São Paulo actress Alessandra Maestrini, born in 1977, had worked on the
show As malvadas, the first musical production by Möeller and Botelho. Salve
article | bernardo fonseca machado
969
and Maestrini proved how, unlike the shows of earlier years, actors in Brazil
were now able to perform the songs, choreography and acting on stage accord-
ing to US parameters.
The production of O beijo da mulher aranha (“Kiss of the Spider Woman”,
2000), 15 for its part, was budgeted at US$ 1 million (corresponding to R$1,842,900
at the time, worth R$ 6,403,212 today). 16 A ton of machinery and hundreds of
computerized scenery and lighting changes were brought to the production’s
design. To meet these demands, the Teatro Jardel Filho was reformed. The lead-
ing actors were Claudia Raia and Miguel Falabella. According to a report in
Estadão (Nunes, 2000a; 2000b), the show was the realization of one of Raia’s
oldest dreams: “The Spider Woman is a fetish, a strong character, which match-
es my personality,” she told the newspaper. In an anecdotal tone, she added:
“The funniest thing is that the first time I watched the show, on Broadway, I met
Miguel [Falabella] and we both said how we wanted to put it on stage one day”
(Nunes, 2000b). Another fan of musicals would join the group of artists involved.
During the first rehearsals, singers had difficulties with the version submitted
by the first translator. Raia sought an alternative solution and recommended
the already well-known Claudio Botelho. He took the test, passed, and was hired.
At the time, the Mexican company’s work model was an innovation. As
the productions were large and expensive, the foreign owners of the rights
demanded an organized system already put into practice in the original produc-
tions. It became common for theatrical work to be divided into sectors: Produc-
tion (with the production director, production manager, executive producer,
administration, accountancy, ticket sales), Marketing, Press, Artistic Team (ar-
tistic director, resident director, musical director, choreographer), the Cast (main
actors, understudies, chorus, swings), and Technical Team (technical director,
costume designer, accessories designer, automation, machinery, sound engineer,
wig stylist, makeup artist, special effects technician, sound designer and light-
ing designer). The form in which the backstage of shows was organized derived
– with varying degrees of approximation – from these guidelines (Pierce, 2013;
Duarte, 2015).
For many artists, Rent and O beijo da mulher aranha offered a job, as well
as the introduction of new working conditions thanks to the economic vigour
promised by CIE. In March 2001, the supplement Economia in the O Estado de São
Paulo newspaper observed the hegemony that the company had achieved in
Brazil: “The Mexican group Corporación Interamericana de Entretenimento (CIE)
is on the way to becoming the largest company in the country’s show business
industry” (Medeiros, 2001: B30). The report claimed that US$ 45 million 17 had
been invested in just two years – it had bought Stage Empreendimentos, taking
control of theatres like Credicard Hall and DirecTV Music. Altério became the
president of the company in Brazil and Billy Bond was chosen as the person
responsible for the theatre sector. In March 2001, Alterio explained: “I don’t even
social experience and us musical theatre on são paulo’s stages
970
by CIE, the restoration work cost around R$ 10 million (US$ 4,309,601 at the
time). The place was completely transformed and equipped to meet the techni-
cal requirements of large scales – an orchestra pit, sound desks, modern light-
ing and a huge audience. The report focused on the internationalization that
the production would represent, marking a definitive event for the city – a
before and after. The funds evoked by the article left no room for doubt: the
country would be joining an already consolidated entertainment network and,
once inside the “club,” it “would never again leave.”
On 20 April 2001, Guia da Folha reporting on the series of events, stamped
the headline: “Broadway is here.” For Staut (2001: 10), “The inauguration of
Teatro Abril signified another step in the consolidation of a kind of São Paulo
mini-Broadway in the case of the Mexican company Corporación Interameri-
cana de Entretenimiento”. Some paragraphs later, it was the turn of Altério to
declare: “We decided to invest in the [Paramount] theatre due to its cultural
and architectural importance. The Bela Vista region has a similar history to that
of Broadway […]” As the producer said: “In the 1920s, when the Paramount was
article | bernardo fonseca machado
971
Conclusion
In the following years, the capital interests – American, Mexican, and Brazilian
– were able to recuperate its investments without risk through a tax benefit
scheme provided by a cultural incentive law. New production companies
emerged that specialized in putting on shows in the “Broadway format.” Artists
who previously worked sporadically with musicals – like Claudia Raia, Claudio
Botelho, Daniel Salve, and others – began to regularly exercise the function of
actors, translators, and directors in these new productions. The desires re-
pressed over the years – expressed not only in the continual attempt to produce
shows in dialogue with Broadway repertoires, but also in English school cours-
es – could finally find a home in the promising horizon of work that began to
emerge. The result was the creation of expensive shows and the building of
new theatre halls, as we saw at the start of the article. The São Paulo theatre
scene had changed substantially.
In 2001, asked about the expectations for musicals to continue to be
produced in Brazil, Claudia Raia would say: “The future is promising” (Franco,
2001: E5). What sounded like a prophecy gradually became true with the con-
solidation of a system of shows, schools, and producers. Ten years later, O Es-
tado de São Paulo printed a resounding headline: “A decade to the sound of
musicals – ten years after the premiere of the precursor Les misérables, Broad-
way-style shows have conquered terrain.” The triumphant tone, the narrative
of success and the confidence of the subjects involved took up half a page of
the newspaper. According to the text, “everything began on 25 April 2001 when
Les misérables opened at the Teatro Abril […], beginning a new and productive
era” (Brasil, 2011: D4). The enthusiastic description situated the experience in
“a true [theatrical] revolution.”
Subjects, investments, legislation, and desires converged to establish
this theatre system in continual reference to Broadway, a radiating centre in-
social experience and us musical theatre on são paulo’s stages
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Notes
1 A f irst version of this text was presented at the 42nd
annual meeting of ANPOCS. My thanks for the valuable
comments from the people present, especially Bernardo
Ricupero, Simone Meucci and Heloisa Pontes. The text was
transformed into Chapter 2 of my doctoral thesis, Atos da
diferença: trânsitos teatrais entre São Paulo e Nova York no
início do século XXI, presented at the University of São Pau-
lo (2018 ) under the super vision of Lilia Schwarcz. This
article is based on the thesis version. I thank the generous
suggestions of both the anonymous reviewers and the
journal’s editors. Their comments helped me improve and
develop these ideas.
2 All the figures cited in the text were adjusted for the equi-
valent in US dollars using the tool available on the website
of the Brazilian Central Bank: <https://www.bcb.gov.br/
conversao> Accessed 23 December 2020.
3 The information on the producer was obtained from the
lengthy interview granted to Tania Carvalho (2008).
4 My fair lady is a musical based on the play Pygmalion by
Bernard Shaw, with libretto and lyrics by Alan Jay Lerner
and music by Frederick Loewe. The show opened on Broad-
way on 15 March 1956. Until the end of its run, in 1962, the
show was presented 2,717 times, a record at the time.
5 To learn more about the trajectory of Brazilian actresses
during the period, I suggest consulting Pontes (2010).
6 Created, directed and choreographed by Michael Bennett,
the Chorus line’s libretto was written by James Kirkwood
Jr. and Nicholas Dante. With lyrics by Edward Kleban and
music by Marvin Hamlisch, the show opened in April 1975,
remaining 15 years on Broadway without interruption.
7 According to the “citizen tool” made available by the Cen-
tral Bank, the amount would correspond in November 2020
to R$ 4,051,703.82. As a parameter, I used the adjustment
provided by IPCA/IBGE available on the website of the Bra-
zilian Central Bank: <https://www3.bcb.gov.br/CALCIDA-
DAO/publico/exibirFormCorrecaoValores.do?method= exi
birFormCorrecaoValores>. Accessed 23 December 2020.
8 Initially, each share was worth Cr$ 1.5 million (around R$
20,258 when adjusted for November 2020), but, after ad-
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Dos “plásticos enrolados e/ou plásticos com roupa velha no interior”, Ricarda
sugeriu um novo feitio: uma lata de 250ml a suster tecidos ou roupas velhas,
como se de um funil se tratasse: a base alongada e a superfície plana e dura na
qual se bate, criando uma caixa de ressonância percussiva, envolvida por cou-
ro sintético, ficando a parte afunilada entre as coxas para garantir firmeza –
explica Zizi. Esse formato manteve-se igual também no outro coletivo da roça
Agostinho Neto, o Raiz di Terra e, em vários momentos, ambos os coletivos
faziam questão de enfatizar o fato de o instrumento estar em consonância com
o usado pelos grupos de batuko e funaná em Cabo Verde e, na diáspora cabo-
verdiana na Europa, particularmente em Portugal. Nos coletivos de tchabeta de
outras roças, era visível ainda, o uso de bolsas de plásticos enrolados com
roupa gasta por dentro.
A presença e a monumentalização das práticas ditas culturais de um
povo são lidas em muitas das pesquisas sobre as diásporas cabo-verdianas
(particularmente nas pesquisas sobre práticas culturais e modos de ser e estar
do cabo-verdiano) enfatizando a ideia de que “onde existem os cabo-verdianos,
há um território Cabo Verde” intato, criado e produzido, à procura de sempre
manter essa ligação com o território original e criando réplicas (Cidra, 2008;
Barbosa & Ramos, 2008; Góis & Marques, 2008; Ribeiro, 2012). Distanciando-me
dessa perspectiva de recriação da tradição e da ideia de uma cabo-verdianidade,
que perpassaria e habitaria a pessoa cabo-verdiana, argumento que os cabo-
verdianos nas roças santomenses sinalizam outras dimensões, pois, como pon-
tua Gilroy (2001), há toda uma “articulação” entre dinâmicas locais e globais, e
a diáspora negra, o Atlântico Negro, em nenhum momento, se resume a uma
unidade homogênea, pois as conexões e as relações tecidas e elaboradas no
plano local são potencialmente múltiplas e singulares.
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 981 – 1000 , set. – dez., 2020
987
“como perdidos no mato” por “viverem ainda no meio do mato”, “viverem em senza-
las, a comer dos frutos do mato”.
Francisca, sexagenária beneficiária da pensão do Estado cabo-verdiano, sai
todas as madrugadas na companhia do filho para ir buscar, mato adentro, os búzi-
os de mato e, revendê-los na cidade. Assim como Francisca, um pouco por todas as
roças, muitos saem na madrugada para coletar os búzios de mato, com candeeiro a
petróleo e facão na mão: “não tem mulher, não tem homem, vai só. Não tem que
estar parado não, não dá, tem que buscar meio de vida”. Bastante usual na ilha de
São Tomé, os búzios de mato são grandes caracóis usados no preparo de vários
pratos gastronômicos, molhos apimentados à base de leite de coco, azeite de palma
(azeite de dendê), ou fritos/grelhados, substituindo outras proteínas animais, pois,
mesmo na cidade, as carnes bovina e suína costumam ser as mais caras no mer-
cado, estando seu consumo, por vezes, limitado aos coletivos com maior poder
aquisitivo. Os búzios de mato, coletados no mato sem custo para os moradores das
roças, constituem forma de geração de renda de muitas famílias nas roças e na ci-
dade, além de garantir o consumo de proteína animal.
Apesar das precariedades existentes nas roças, em umas mais acentuadas
do que em outras, agudizadas pelos problemas estruturais do país, particularmente
a eminente instabilidade política e a pobreza estrutural, a ideia de que na roça se
passa fome é inconcebível entre meus interlocutores. E o perigo das narrativas
únicas, elaboradas com as paisagens arruinadas das então “casas de patrão”, “ca-
sas de empregados” e “senzalas” (Semedo, 2016), nas suas formas de ser e de estar,
é criar uma “história única” acoplada ao registo de fome e de miséria. Completa-
mente dissociado e irreal, porém, o regime de fome sufoca-se e implode.
Igualmente, o enunciado de que a migração para as roças santomenses não
foi o “tipo-ideal” da migração cabo-verdiana constrange e impossibilita olhar o
mundo como percebem-no e como procede-se. “Viver em senzalas, a comer dos fru-
tos do mato”, faz do mato um território povoado de afetos e relações, e “a floresta e
os trabalhos nas parcelas concedidas pelo governo santomense” traduzem a materi-
alização de um projeto emancipatório, o de poder fazer a casa própria sem a compra
do terreno e usar a madeira do mato, a baixo preço, para a construir.
Nessa chave, o território santomense foi se constituindo, entre os coletivos
cabo-verdianos, num espaço em que houve a experimentação da reterritorialização
não só num estado ontológico de dor, na vida escravizada com o contrato nas roças,
como também, no encontro com um território verdejante, sem o espectro da fome.
Em certa medida, o projeto de um espaço verde, com chuva e não mais faminto,
como Cabo Verde na época, reterritorializou-se em São Tomé e Príncipe, onde uma
espécie de um novo território existencial cabo-verdiano foi elaborado, bem como
as experiências musicocoregráficas cabo-verdianas.
Se até os anos 1990 o batuko se restringia ao espaço presencial, a partir do
século XXI (2000) passa a circular pelos espaços físicos enquanto realidade audio-
visual. Era desnecessário um deslocamento físico e social, dado que a cena musi-
“somos descendentes!” − contranarrativas e agenciamentos musicais...
988
989
Por ser Nha Ninha a única anciã no grupo, questionei-a, ciente de que
as variações nas práticas e nas nomenclaturas poderiam ser uma chave rele-
vante nas artes de fazer tchabeta. “Minha filha, tempo antigo assim chamavam,
nós seguimos com a tradição.” Visto que essas artes de fazer seriam remanes-
centes à primeira onda da migração de cabo-verdianos para São Tomé e tendo
em conta que mesmo entre os registros dos outrora fazedores de batuko, entre
os quais Nha Nacia Gomi e Untoni Denti D’Oru, ou pesquisadores folcloristas,
como Tomé Varela da Silva (1985, 1988) e António Gonçalves (2006), não há
referência, possivelmente seriam as primeiras manifestações da criação do
território Cabo Verde e das socialidades dessa diáspora no arquipélago santo-
mense.
Igualmente, as narrativas musicais de ambos os coletivos de tchabeta
operam na rememoração das experiências silenciadas enquanto um ato políti-
co e na criação de um espaço em que as musicalidades, o tchabeta, a africani-
dade e os modos de vida nas roças constituem a atualização menos de uma
mobilidade malsucedida e mais de modos de vida cabo-verdianos, de criação
de um território cabo-verdiano negro e africano no território santomense. Das
experiências quotidianas vividas, rememoradas e partilhadas, trago duas nar-
rativas musicais do coletivo Ouro Verde:
Era na 46, 47, minha mãe e meu pai vieram para São Tomé procurar
trabalho
Porque Cabo Verde não tinha trabalho
Minha gente agora como Cabo Verde está bom de viver
Aqueles que conseguiram ir foram e nunca mais voltaram, aqueles que
não conseguiram ir ficaram todos por cá
Nós somos descendentes, filhos de cabo-verdianos que nasceram em
São Tomé e Príncipe, vamos manter nossa cultura firme.
“somos descendentes!” − contranarrativas e agenciamentos musicais...
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É história que nós ouvimos de quem passou o massacre, tiveram vida massacra-
da, conversámos com eles para vermos como as coisas na época correu e para
vermos como colocar na letra. Antigamente tempo de massacre e muitos cabo-
verdianos, angolanos, moçambicanos, santomenses todos passaram muito mas-
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 981 – 1000 , set. – dez., 2020
sacre, morreram mal, com porrada, acorrentados, ficaram muito mal. Tem os
que sobreviveram, tem aqueles que morreram, e aqueles que morreram morreram
numa situação difícil, penosa, com injúrias, maltratados, falta de água e de co-
mida. Mas aqueles que sobreviveram lutaram mesmo, outros mataram branco,
para conseguirem sobreviver e conseguiram sobreviver. Fizemos essa música
porque muitos passaram mal, acorrentados, alguns fugiram para o mato, não
ouviste falar de fugidos!? Passaram mal com fome, com chicote nas costas (Zizi).
Aqueles contratados que vieram de Cabo Verde, conforme nos contaram, Cabo
Verde estava mal, difícil, vieram contratado. Muitas pessoas tinham vontade de
vir cá em busca de vida melhor. Eu sou filha daqueles que vieram, descendente
dos que vieram, de filhos de cabo-verdianos. Estamos em São Tomé agora, nós
não somos cabo-verdianos, somos descendentes de cabo-verdianos, mas nasce-
mos em São Tomé. Nós seguramos a cultura da nossa mãe e do nosso pai para
artigo | carla indira carvalho semedo
991
não cair, porque eles vieram, vieram com tradição deles, nós também vamos
segurar a tradição para não deixar cair. Maioria de nós que estamos cá, somos
só descendentes, porque dos que vieram ficaram poucos, muitos já morreram,
nós somos filhos cabo-verdianos que está em São Tomé e Príncipe. Nós, os des-
cendentes, tem que pegar tradição com toda força para não deixar cair (Zizi).
eu acho que a imagem que levam de São Tomé é também um pouco pejorativa,
de modo a denegrir também um pouco a vivência, a imagem das comunidades.
De fato, os cabo-verdianos passam aí dificuldade, então eu acho eles veem so-
mente afirmar aquilo que é mau, que os cabo-verdianos estão a viver. Mas há
também cabo-verdianos que estão a viver muito bem, há filhos cabo-verdianos
que já foram ministros, ocuparam altos cargos no governo. Mas, isso não levam.
Vêm só buscar esta situação das comunidades mais desfavorecidas. […] Nós
devemos também mostrar as boas coisas, ou fazer junção das duas coisas, porque
há cabo-verdiano no bairro de Hospital vivem muito bem. Têm suas própr ias
casas, têm seus negócios. Há cabo-verdiano noutra zona que tem sua roça, tem
seus animais. Então eles vêm mais buscar estas pessoas que, por infelicidade,
não deram muito bem na vida, vivem uma situação mesmo lamentável. Eu acho
que dev ia mudar também um pouco o cenár io ( Saydel, descendente de Cabo
Verde, nascido em São Tomé)
“somos descendentes!” − contranarrativas e agenciamentos musicais...
992
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Cabo Verde, mostram que está em jogo sinalizar como as relações com as espa-
cialidades, o mato, a coexistência com a natureza em toda a sua plenitude, são
recuperadas pelos descendentes de pessoas cabo-verdianas na roça de Agostin-
ho Neto, e não só como uma contranarrativa reatualizada nas narrativas music-
ais do ritmo tchabeta. As narrativas, as contranarrativas, enfatizam o cuidado de
como narrar e como conceber as corporeidades, e são acionadas para demarcar a
forma como os cabo-verdianos nas roças são vistos – “perdidos no mato, animal-
izados” – pelos santomenses e pelos cabo-verdianos não santomenses. O modo
como essa diáspora se pensa na relação com Cabo Verde opera numa relação di-
alética para se pensar esses lugares e essas ontologias, em que as musicalidades
condensam os vários afetos, forças e sociabilidades, subtraindo, anulando ou
intensificando-os nesses encontros.
Destarte, a experiência do tchabeta constitui artifício acionado e aco-
plado dentro de um trabalho de criação de modos ontológicos de pensar o
lugar dos descendentes de cabo-verdianos em São Tomé, quer na relação com
os forros santomenses, quer na relação com os cabo-verdianos não santo-
menses, destacando que não estão “perdidos no mato”, como tem sido pos-
tulado, bem como que Cabo Verde não é “sempre” um lugar melhor que São
Tomé e Príncipe.
Outrossim, percebendo os agenciamentos musicais enquanto atualiza-
ção de um passado vivido que vai sendo atravessado e atualizado num pre-
sente vivido, a experiência temporal de pessoas cabo-verdianas nas roças
santomenses permite revisitar as unidades de medida do tempo e as tempo-
ralidades. Desta feita, permite um diálogo com a perspetiva deleuziana sobre
tempo e memória, quando os atos de criação musicais e as narrativas musi-
cais de tchabeta possibilitam criar movimentos trans-históricos não porque
restituem outras relações às condições de descendentes de pessoas cabo-
verdianas e do trabalho contratado na sociedade santomense, mas um movi-
mento a despeito delas, pois “a história só pode recuperar ou recolocar nos
sistemas pontuais” (Deleuze & Guattari, 2008: 95), uma vez que agenciam
realidades e mundos outros.
Do mesmo modo, pelo fato de o tchabeta ter sido e estar sendo criado
em decorrência desses vários momentos de desterritorialização e reterrito-
rialização de pessoas cabo-verdianas nas roças santomenses, percebo um
certo paralelismo em pensar a prática musicocoreográfica enquanto um “cris-
tal de tempo” 6 (Deleuze, 2011), no qual várias temporalidades se aglutinam
e não se anulam, pois possibilita atravessar as várias temporalidades, não
mais o “tempo de castigo”, do contrato, pois, “um presente do futuro”, não
mais haverá o “branco” a subjugá-los; nem aos mais jovens cabe rememorar
o contrato, visto que a apropriação da roças e as possibilidades de poder
construir uma moradia, sem necessitar da autorização prévia da Edilidade
local, atualizam um projeto emancipatório de um presente-passado.
“somos descendentes!” − contranarrativas e agenciamentos musicais...
994
995
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NOTAS
1 Este artigo propõe uma releitura dos resultados da pes-
quisa realizada no âmbito do doutorado em antropologia
social pelo Programa de Pós-Graduação em Antropologia
Social da Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro /Museu
Nacional, com apoio de bolsa Capes PEC-PG. A tese resul-
tante de tal pesquisa debruça-se sobre a comunidade
cabo-verdiana residente nas roças de São Tomé e Príncipe,
explorando tanto as narrativas dessa migração como as
exper iências dessa comunidade no presente tempo et-
nográfico.
2 Sobre a metodologia, a pesquisa de campo foi realizada
exclusivamente na ilha de São Tomé de janeiro a julho de
2013 e de novembro de 2014 a janeiro de 2015. Interessou
registrar as narrativas dos idosos cabo-verdianos alusivas
à experiência de contrato e, no Arquivo Histórico Nacional
de São Tomé e de Cabo Verde, pesquisas sobre a migração
contratada. Num segundo momento, fez-se etnografia do
quotidiano e as relações na roça Agostinho Neto a partir
do contato com os dois grupos de Tchabeta lá existentes.
3 Conforme os registros históricos (Carreira, 1977; Carreira,
1983; Andrade, 1996), a formação da diáspora cabo-ver-
diana teria começado entre finais do século XIX e inícios
do XX, muito condicionada pelas vulnerabilidades ecoló-
gica e ambiental (clima árido e escassez de chuvas). Ini-
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 981 – 1000 , set. – dez., 2020
997
Referências bibliográficas
998
999
1000
Abstract Keywords
Cape Verde, located on the West Coast of Africa, is recog- Gentrification;
nized as being a highly migratory country. Among several new-build gentrification;
Cape Verdean destinations, the migratory experience in São urban mobility;
Tomé and Príncipe was conceived and narrated as the por- urban policies;
trait of the Cape Verdean “worst migration”, reverberating socio-spatial inequalities.
the experimentation of slavery and reinforcing a denied
negritude. In light of the way the Tchabeta musical-choreo-
graphic practice appears mobilized in the practices of Cape
Verdean people and the descendants in São Tomé and Prín-
cipe, musicality is a mechanism of reterritorialization and
creation of an existential territory in the São Toméan archi-
pelago. And what is at stake is a re-updating of the various
crystals of time: a repressed and silenced Batuko from colo-
nial time/from white to a tchabeta which allows other spac-
es and other existential modes in the territory of São Tomé.
http://dx.doi.org /10.1590 /2238-38752020v10310
Opposition to gender has become a central element in the discourses and ini-
tiatives of the “global right”. Although the convergence between anti-gender
movements and other manifestations of the new right takes distinct and some-
times contradictory forms 2 (Paternotte & Kuhar, 2018; Corrêa, Paternotte & Ku-
har, 2018), the dismantling of a series of polices for social inclusion and reduc-
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1001 – 1022 , sep. – dec., 2020
ing inequalities is at stake. Ideologues of the new right such as Steve Bannon 3
and Olavo de Carvalho have waged a “culture war” 4 on enemies like “gender
ideology,” “globalism” and “cultural Marxism.” As Mirrlees (2018: 49) argues,
these epithets act as full-blown “political instruments of intersectional hate”
that are applied to values, practices, and identities of a progressive, liberal, or
left-wing inclination. They are mobilized and combined in varying forms de-
pending on the type of enemy to be attacked: organizations, parties or spe-
cific groups like “communists, blacks, gays, feminists and all those who do not
share their mental universe” (Messenberg, 2017: 637).
Much as they prove theoretically and empirically flimsy, many of these
counter-narratives are based on the reinterpretation of empirical data, concepts
and, more generally, theoretical perspectives developed by academics: “cul-
tural Marxism” is a distortion of the tradition of Western Marxism, especially
Gramsci and the first generation of the Frankfurt School; “globalism” is a dis-
tortion of the critiques of the economic dimension of globalization, considered
an integral part of “cultural Marxism”; “gender ideology” and “gender theory”
gender ideology: an analysis of its disputed meanings
1002
1003
1004
been called in to fill the gap” (Connell, 2005: 46). Hence, the religious discourse
of the Catholic Church became modernized through an anthropology of com-
plementarity according to which human beings are conceived as biologically
sexed and the sexes as essentially different (biological dualism), “though not
unequal” (Case, 2016: 155). Difference was distinguished from inequality through
a kind of anti-colonialism that, read more closely, reveals itself to be a form of
opposition to international organizations like the UN, UNESCO, the OECD, and
others that have developed gender equality policies. A speech by Pope Francis
in Poland on World Youth Day, July 16, 2016, clearly illustrates this strategy:
In Europe, America, Latin America, Africa, and in some countries of Asia, there
are genuine forms of ideological colonization taking place. And one of these – I
will call it clearly by its name – is [the ideolog y of ] gender. Today children – chil-
dren! – are taught in school that ever yone can choose his or her sex. Why are
they teaching this? Because the books are provided by the persons and institu-
tions that give you money. These forms of ideological colonization are also sup-
ported by inf luential countries. And this [is] terrible! […] In a conversation with
Pope Benedict […] he said to me: ‘Holiness, this is the age of sin against God the
Creator.’ God created man and woman; God created the world in a certain way…
and we are doing the exact opposite. God gave us things in a ‘raw’ state, so that
we could shape a culture; and then with this culture, we are shaping things that
bring us back to the ‘raw’ state! (quoted in Bracke & Paternotte, 2016: 143).
in which the former takes a primary role; more fundamentally, what is in ques-
tion are the diverse forms of social constructivism.
It is precisely under the guise of constructivism, understood in the broad
sense of a form of anti-essentialism and anti-reductionism, that the studies of
gender ideology developed in the social sciences can be understood. Since their
earliest formulations, these studies have emphasized the socially constructed
dimension of the meanings of femininity and masculinity. As occurs in the
anti-gender discourse, studies of gender ideology also present an ample termi-
nological variation: 6 gender ideology, sexual role ideology, gender role ideology,
attitudes about gender, attitudes relating to gender, gender equality, and beliefs
about gender are expressions that have been used with a similar meaning in a
series of research studies in areas like sociology, anthropology, psychology, ad-
ministration, literary studies and so on (Davis & Greenstein, 2009). The use of
one term over another is generally due to conceptual distinctions within the
field, 7 but Kroska (2007: 1867-1868) summarizes the issue adroitly:
article | cynthia lins hamlin
1005
Both gender ideolog y and gender role ideolog y refer to attitudes regarding the
appropriate roles, rights, and responsibilities of women and men in society. The
concept can ref lect these attitudes generally or in a specific domain, such as an
economic, familial, legal, political, and/or social domain. Most gender ideolog y
constr ucts are unidimensional and range from tradit ional, conser vat ive, or
anti-feminist to egalitarian, liberal, or feminist. […] Gender ideolog y also some-
times refers to widespread societal beliefs that legitimate gender inequality. […]
Used in this way, gender ideolog y is not a variable that ranges from conservati-
ve to liberal; instead, it refers to specific types of beliefs – those that support
gender stratification.
1006
linked to the United States Census, the World Values Survey, and surveys like
those developed by the International Social Survey Program. As Kroska empha-
sizes, this type of survey tends to work with one-dimensional conceptions of
gender ideology. Recent research, though, has argued in favor of multivariate
approaches that transcend the developmentalist premise expressed in the tra-
ditional/modern divide. Grunow, Begall and Buchler (2018), for example, in a
comparative study of eight European countries, construct distinct clusters
through the identification and differential combination of five profiles that
potentially coexist in different domains of social life: egalitarian, essentialist
egalitarian, intensive parental care, moderate traditional and traditional (see
too Araújo & Scalon, 2006).
Studies on gender ideology can also take a historical and critical ap-
proach, as in the case of Besse (1999), who describes the reconfiguration of
Brazilian patriarchy in the Vargas Era (1930-1945) through an ideological anal-
ysis of the gender system in the family, education, the labor market, and poli-
tics. Gender ideology appears in these domains as a way of reconciling the
demands of modernization and economic development with the stability of
existing power relations.
Studies of gender ideology have been particularly impactful in the soci-
ology of work. An example is the classic text The second shift by Hochschild and
Machung (2003) in which the authors break with the quantitative emphasis
characteristic of most attitude scales by replacing closed questionnaires with
participant observation and interviews. Their aim is to understand the “emo-
tional work” involved in the interpersonal tensions between couples in eco-
nomic contexts marked by rapid change. The comprehension of this emotion-
al work involves the identification and negotiation of “traditional,” “egalitarian”
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1001 – 1022 , sep. – dec., 2020
1007
ity” or “patriarchal ideology” –, the term appears in analytic topics and perspectives
as distinct as Saffioti (2009: 26 and ff), Longino (1993: 102 and ff), De Lauretis (1987,
Chapter 1) and Collins (1990: 183 and ff). An endless multiplicity of such examples
exist, but Raewyn Connell provides a good summation of what is involved:
In Gender and power [Connell, 2003], I have a chapter called “Sexual ideolog y” (which
would have been better called “Gender ideolog y” ). Looking at it now, I think the
chapter oscillates bet ween the t wo meanings in a potentially confusing way. In
Gender: in world perspective [Connell & Pearse, 2015] I tried to solve such ambiguities,
and integrate the cultural analysis better into the structural analysis, by defining
culture/symbolism/communication as one of the four substructures of gender. This,
in effect, generalizes the “neutral” version of ideolog y, which is treated as a terrain
of social practice on which political struggles occur. The critical analysis becomes
a second layer of analysis, when we see cultural formations such as fashion, theology,
sport, pop music and school curr icula as bearers of gendered interests resulting
from structural inequality. […] the feminist and social-scientific literature shows
both the critical and the neutral usage of “ideolog y” when it treats gender. In my
work they sometimes intermingle (e.g. chapter 11 of Gender and power), and someti-
mes move towards one or the other pole. (E.g. my discussion of hegemonic mascu-
linity rests on a critical theor y of ideolog y, derived ultimately from Gramsci and
Lukács.) I think you would be right to say that I’m not a “gender ideology” researcher.
But you would have to say that I have tried to integrate the problem of ideolog y into
an approach to gender that also gives weight to material interests, economies, states,
violence and sexuality. The point (I think) is that good ideology-critique never stands
alone (personal communication via email. Reproduced with the author’s permission).
Even in cases where the analysis of gender ideology is not the sole or the pri-
mary aim of the research, therefore, it may constitute an important aspect of the ex-
amination of the cultural dimension of gender relations in society. Use of the term
varies from case to case – for instance, adhering to a theoretical framework inspired
by Lukács, Saffioti uses a critical conception of the term; De Lauretis also works
with its critical meaning, but from a perspective rooted in Althusser; Collins oscil-
lates between a critical meaning associated with the work of authors like Franz
Fanon and Paulo Freire, and a more descriptive meaning.10
Having demonstrated the diffusion of the term in the humanities, as well
as the plethora of meanings associated with its use, I now turn to the work of Viola
Klein to illustrate how its meanings in the sociology of knowledge prompt a series
of questions that ultimately lead to conceiving of gender itself as a social construct.
Viola Klein’s pioneering work focuses particularly on the relation between knowl-
edge and the social production of gender, albeit not always in a consistent fashion.
1008
raries, such as Margaret Mead, Simone de Beauvoir and Mirra Komarovsky, Klein
shared with them and others of their generation themes like the malleability
of the human personality, the social construction of femininity, and the ideo-
logical justifications that reinforce women’s position of subordination (Tirrant,
2006). In Klein’s case, these themes, fundamental to the later development of
the concept of gender, also involved another form of constructivism that was
epistemological in kind.
Born in Vienna during the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Klein came from
a politically progressive Jewish family in which women’s independence was
encouraged. In 1928, she spent a year studying at the Sorbonne before head-
ing to the University of Vienna and later moving to Czechoslovakia with her
family. After four years working as editor at a newspaper, she studied French,
Spanish, philosophy, and psychology (including psychoanalysis), obtaining
her first doctorate at the University of Prague in French literature in 1937.
Although Klein was already interested in the “woman question” – she pub-
lished articles on marriage and on the persistence of prostitution in the So-
viet Union – the topic of her first thesis was the work of Louis-Ferdinand
Céline, known for his direct prose, closer to the working classes, and for his
antisemitic positions (Tirrant, 2006; Lyon, 2007). Klein’s analysis of the “the
social nature of linguistic constructions and usage addressed in her thesis,
and the ways in which oppressive lived realities become ideologically con-
structed in opportunistic political and scientific discourse” (Lyon, 2007: 831)
are still pertinent and relevant, and profoundly marked her intellectual tra-
jectory. It was also through the research involved in this thesis that she came
across Karl Mannheim’s work. In 1939, shortly before the German invasion
of Prague, Klein and her brother fled to England where she worked as a
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1001 – 1022 , sep. – dec., 2020
housemaid for about two years before obtaining a scholarship from the Czech
government in exile to study social sciences at the London School of Econom-
ics. In 1941, she met Mannheim, also exiled in London after the rise of Na-
zism, with the idea of a project on women’s emancipation (Lyon, 2007).
Since the 1930s, while still at the University of Frankfurt, Mannheim
had already considered the situation of women to be an important theme,
supervising various female doctoral students. In 1932, in a speech addressed
to Dutch students, Mannheim (1993) makes this importance clear when he
argues that class cannot be considered the only social group capable of self-
consciousness and rational transformation of the world. For him, the impulse
towards self-consciousness has been present throughout history and arose
from contact with alterity or the perspective of an Other. In this sense, self-
consciousness cannot be reduced to a class perspective but includes other
groups, like intellectuals, women, or young people. In sum, groups that found
themselves in a crisis due to the discrepancy between their objective social
situation and the conceptions through which they framed their actions, lead-
article | cynthia lins hamlin
1009
ing towards self-knowledge and towards the critique of the kind of knowl-
edge produced about them. This was translated to the plane of women in the
following form:
1010
Klein’s proposed research question was to know “whether there are traits
which can be called typically feminine, what these traits are, and whether they
have always been regarded as characteristic of women” (Klein, 1972: 1). She
believed that, given its emotional resonance, the theme was particularly suited
to demonstrating the influence of unconscious and irrational factors on scien-
tific theories. Considering scientific knowledge to be situated within a broader
“cultural system,” she concluded that the theories produced about women reflect
three main elements: the status of women in each society, the ideologies relat-
ing to women in a given historical period, and the personal attitudes of research-
ers in relation to women. These three elements were integrated into her anal-
ysis of the “feminine character” 11 in biology (Havellock Ellis), philosophy (Otto
Weiniger), psychoanalysis (Freud), experimental psychology (Helen Thompson),
psychometry (L. M. Terman and C. C. Miles), history (Mathilde Vaerting), anthro-
pology (Margaret Mead) and sociology (W.I. Thomas).
From a theoretical standpoint, Klein began with the incompatibility be-
tween the “objective situation of women,” who were beginning to participate
in the public sphere in large numbers, and the perspectives that were supposed
to inform their actions, which still emphasized an ideology of domesticity. Lim-
iting her analysis to middle and upper-middle class women, based on the prem-
ise that working class women were never outside the paid labor market, Klein
explains this objective situation through factors like shrinking family size, the
creation of a compulsory school system, and greater attention to education in
general, as well as an increase in the number of women in the paid labor mar-
ket before marriage. This situation created a dilemma at the psychological
level, resulting from the contrast between changes in the material dimension
without something comparable occurring at the ideological level. Thus, women
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1001 – 1022 , sep. – dec., 2020
from her generation were guided by two incompatible ideologies: one empha-
sizing “the quality of rights and capacities,” the other emphasizing traditional
roles linked to the domestic sphere: “The characteristic feminine conflict of
our time is that put forward by the domestic sphere on the one side, and the
business sphere on the other” (Klein, 1972: 33).
But it is in scientific knowledge production that Klein would seek the
traces of these ideologies and conclude that, in different degrees and emphases,
theories concerning the “feminine character” are heavily influenced by an ide-
ology of domesticity that emphasizes traits like “passivity, emotionality, lack
of abstract interests, greater intensity of personal relationships, and an instinc-
tive tenderness for babies” (Klein, 1972: 164).
From a methodological viewpoint, her thesis adopts Mannheim’s “inte-
grative method,” combining different aspects of the same problem according
to how it was treated by authors who studied the topic within a particular
period:
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The search for truth in sociological matters calls not only for a thorough exami-
nation of the facts, but for a dynamic process of self-cr iticism, in which the
diag nosis of our own ‘perspective’ (i.e. our place in the histor ical and social
process) and a continuous analysis of the unconscious motivations guiding our
observations are of prime importance (Klein, 1972: 3).
Inspired perhaps by this kind of reflection, Klein did not limit herself to
simply revealing the ideological dimension of the theories about the feminine
character in her own time, but included a socio-psychological premise that
also anticipates questions connected to what we today understand as pro-
cesses of subjectivation: women, as well as
foreigners, Jews, Negroes, etc. […] are subject to collective judgements instead
of being treated on their own merits. […] To be judged, not as an individual but
as a member of a stereotyped group, implies an incalculable amount of restric-
tions, discouragement, ill-feelings – even if the occasional f lattering generali-
zation may help to bolster up a weakening ego (Klein, 1972: 4-5 ).
Nowhere in her thesis does Klein define the concept of ideology, but
there are indications that she subscribes to Mannheim’s dual conception: 12 as
well as making use of the concept to refer to systems or worldviews – espe-
cially political ones (when she refers, for instance, to “democratic ideology” or
“liberal ideology”) –, ideology also appears as a synonym for stereotypes associ-
ated with psychological feelings, as in a later publication:
[A]lthough there is no uniform feminine ‘t ype,’ societ y carr ies, as part of its
ideological baggage, a stereotype of Woman, a sort of rough model purporting
to contain the essential characteristics, while all the existential features are but
variations on a basic theme. Stereotypes – def ined by Kimball Young as false
classificatory concepts to which, as a rule, some strong emotional-feeling tone
of like or dislike, approval or disapproval, is attached – are popular means to
simplify, indeed to oversimplify, a complex social reality (Klein, 1950: 3, empha-
sis in original).
1012
sponse to all problems. 13 In her analysis of Margaret Mead’s work, for example,
she points to the dangers of social planning (Klein, 1972: 136), which can be
used “to produce uniformity, rigid control, a short-termed and one-sided effi-
ciency, and endless monotony and frustration.” For her – in a way that is sur-
prising given the context in which her work was produced, namely the develop-
ment of policies focused on women –, the antidote to totalitarianism was to
reject “the standardization of two sex temperaments as two ‘clearly contrasting,
complementary, antithetical’ personality types” (Klein, 1972: 6), as well as the
danger of the universalization of a male perspective.
Incidentally, Klein’s pioneering research anticipated what became central
preoccupations of contemporary feminist social epistemology. Indeed, she made
many contributions. She was not alone in this endeavor, of course. Margaret
Mead, Mirra Komarovsky and Simone de Beauvoir, to mention just some figures
of her generation, helped combat the reductionism and essentialism that dom-
inated intellectual production about women. In applying the sociology of knowl-
edge to gender, Klein raises questions still relevant today concerning the rela-
tionship between the contexts of production of sexual ideologies, their subjec-
tivizing effects, and their consequences for the gender domain.
I am not questioning whether the language of roles or the use of the
concept of ideology are the best ways to explore concepts such as binarism, es-
sentialism or the universalism/particularism relation that constitute some of
Klein’s principal contributions to feminist and gender theories that followed in
her wake. Everything indicates that they are not, especially if we consider that
the affinity of her thought with so-called “liberal feminism” does not allow those
questions to be further investigated – something that would require a much
more radical critique of the inequalities inherent to capitalism, as well as of
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1001 – 1022 , sep. – dec., 2020
Conclusion
The term gender ideology cannot be reduced to the anti-intellectual or anti-
academic meaning preached by the global right, a meaning that has been the
subject of a series of excellent genealogical analyses by social scientists. Prior
to its transformation into a weapon of the “culture war,” the term had been
article | cynthia lins hamlin
1013
used in feminist and gender studies to target those very ideas that inform the
political project of the global right. Despite this fact, we need to recognize that
the movements linked to the global right share an important element with
academia: a narrative structure, in other words a discourse, centered on think-
ing about thought. In this specific sense, it amounts to a narrative about epis-
temology – that is, about the production of what counts as knowledge and truth.
But there are substantial differences. In a context marked by the supposed
disappearance of shared minimum standards of objectivity and truth, an im-
portant element in the epistemic project of the global right is the systematic
assault on teaching, research and media institutions and others linked to cul-
tural production. This constitutes a very particular gesture of what philosophers,
historians and sociologists of science have characterized as “agnotology”: the
social production of ignorance based on the erasure, forgetting or distortion of
certain forms of knowledge, frequently for economic and/or political ends (Proc-
tor, 2008). This, in sum, is what the discourses on “cultural Marxism,” “globalism”
and “gender ideology” are all about.
These epistemological narratives are deeply linked to producing doubt
and disbelief in established sources of knowledge and information. In this spe-
cific sense, ignorance is not simply the opposite of knowledge, the vacuum that
precedes it, the lack of knowledge derived from focusing interest somewhere
else, or, as we can learn from Klein’s work, a perspectivism associated with the
researcher’s social position. Ignorance here is the result of an active construc-
tion, a strategic maneuver with the objective of relativizing or even denying
positions well-established by the academic and scientific community by block-
ing information, by creating disinformation or, purely and simply, by lying (Kou-
rany, 2018). This kind of strategy marked the concept of gender after the Unit-
ed Nations conferences in 1994 and 1995, which began to be conceived through
a notion of ideology that amounts to a mere term of abuse (see note 8).
Thus, the central point of my argument is that the silence of social sci-
entists in relation to the sociological use of gender ideology as a category –
whether by limiting their analyses to the meaning used by conservative move-
ments, or by explicitly denying that this is a category used by the social sci-
ences – has non-trivial consequences. Following the anthropophagic logic of
capitalism, terms like “ideology,” “gender” and “colonization” – to limit myself
to those used by Pope Francis – have been appropriated by movements of the
global right. If one of the focal areas of contemporary feminist studies consists
of making visible the production of women, this strategy contributes precisely
to erasing female authors who helped pave the way for the type of knowledge
that today allows us, among other things, to question the sexual politics of the
global right.
Clearly, this does not imply a theoretical or even political concordance
with the development of an academic literature about gender ideology. What
gender ideology: an analysis of its disputed meanings
1014
1015
Notes
1 Versions of this paper have benefitted from the criticisms
and suggestions of a large number of people, including
Betânia Ávila, Frédéric Vandenberghe, Fuyuki Kurasawa,
Gabriel Cohn, Márcia Couto, Ricardo Antunes, Silke Weber,
and Simone Brito, as well as members of the Study Group in
Social Theor y and Subjectivities at PPGS /UFPE. Special
thanks to Raewyn Connell for the exchange of emails that
helped me elucidate her work considerably. Finally, I also
express my gratitude to the anonymous reviewers of Socio-
logia & Antropologia.
2 In Holland, for instance, far-right parties have demonstrat-
ed a very particular and paradoxical form of opposing gen-
der as part of anti-immigration policy. Parties like the PVV
and the PvD maintain that gender equality is a fundamental
Dutch value at risk of disappearing due to the recent “Is-
lamization” of Europe. At the same time, these parties have
been characterized by a strong parliamentary opposition to
any measures designed to reduce gender inequalities. In
other words, they are “for gender equality but against meas-
ures to ensure gender equality” (Verloo, 2018: 25).
3 For an excellent analysis of the ideological program of Steve
Bannon, former adviser to Donald Trump’s campaign who
elected Eduardo Bolsonaro (son of Brazilian president Jair
Bolsonaro) as the main representative of his populist army
in Latin America (the Neo-Nationalist International), see
the essay by Jeffrey Alexander (2018). Under the suggestive
title “Rag ing against the Enlightenment,” the author ex-
plains not only the bellical nature of Bannon’s project but
also its profoundly anti-Enlightenment meaning.
4 Although the notion of “culture war” was never used by
Gramsci himself, the term has been used in reference to his
political theory, which, very brief ly, addresses the possibil-
ity of building a communist society in the West through
democratic means: in place of revolution, the articulation,
on the cultural dimension, of a series of values, ideas and
traditions that ensure the “intellectual and moral direction”
of particular groups not through force but through the crea-
tion of a consensus (Gramsci, 2011: 290). In Brazil, appropri-
ating Gramsci’s political concepts, Olavo de Carvalho in-
gender ideology: an analysis of its disputed meanings
1016
1017
1018
bibliogaphy
1019
1020
1021
1022
Cynthia Sarti I
1024
1025
1026
Você só consegue se livrar do torturador, na medida em que você tem uma ação
política, e essa ação política só é possível se você começa a falar sobre o que
aconteceu. Enquanto você não falar sobre o que aconteceu, o torturador continua
te dominando, porque ele te domina pelo medo, ele te domina pelo sequestro...
ele não queria só que você falasse no momento da tortura, ele queria que você
calasse para sempre. [...] Enquanto você não retomar a ação política, você não
consegue se livrar dele. Você não consegue se curar disso.
[...] A ação política não necessar iamente era ação par tidár ia, pelo contrár io.
Era uma ação de denúncia, uma ação que f izesse que você, na sociedade, to-
masse uma posição com relação ao que aconteceu. 8
o alinhamento das palavras, o arado sobre a folha branca, a inscrição como res-
posta. É, aqui, neste exato momento, que se trava a luta. Cada traço inscrito é
um tiro, é um golpe, il n’y a de bombe que le livre, cada linha é lança, gume, faca
que penetra na carne dura do inimigo vário.
1027
1028
1029
assim, de trabalhar no registro dessa inscrição simbólica, dos limites a partir dos
quais a sociedade e nela os indivíduos não toleram o ato, ou o acontecimento, e o
nomeiam violência, nomeação que dá à dor a ela associada a possibilidade de um
lugar. Interessam, assim, a uma pesquisa antropológica em sua busca de “dar con-
torno a isso que chamamos de violência” precisamente essas fronteiras a partir
das quais se definem socialmente o tolerável e o intolerável, em meio às quais se
move o sujeito, com suas possibilidades, em suas permanentes negociações com
o mundo social. Isso significa considerar as circunstâncias sociais e políticas da
enunciação da violência, os atores em jogo e a situação na qual a violência é enun-
ciada, como argumentado anteriormente (Sarti, 2014, 2015a). 12
Experiências incorporadas
Este trabalho de investigação supõe ainda as formulações da psicanálise segundo
as quais as experiências de violência não se apagam, mas permanecem de alguma
maneira inelutavelmente, fazendo com que a inquietação em torno da lembrança,
em tempos e contextos políticos distintos e sob formas diversas, atravesse e as-
sombre toda experiência de violência (Gagnebin, 2006).
Seligmann-Silva (2005), ao analisar a relação entre literatura e trauma, ar-
gumenta que afirmar o trauma não significa excluir a simbolização, mas apenas
apontar seus limites. A experiência do trauma que faz silenciar, lembra o autor,
não se apaga, mas permanece. Não tem repouso. Alonso (2006) refere-se ao tempo
do inconsciente como “o tempo que não passa”, a partir da afirmação de Freud de
que a passagem do tempo não tem registro no inconsciente. Segundo a psicana-
lista, a forma na qual se constroem as lembranças nos mostra isso: “O tempo do
inconsciente não é um tempo que passa, é um ‘outro tempo’, o tempo da ‘mistura
dos tempos’, o tempo do ‘só depois’, o ‘tempo da ressignificação’. Nesse sentido,
Barbosa e Kupermann (2016: 33) ressaltam que Primo Levi, “sempre tratava sobre
sua experiência no Lager no tempo presente”.
No plano subjetivo, assim, a reconstrução da vida permanece um processo
incessantemente trabalhado pela temporalidade, implicando que o passado seja
evocado, mas a cada vez em termos diversos, por elos distintos entre presente e
passado, segundo os eventos individuais e coletivos do presente, movimentos que
são deslocamentos recorrentes e que abrem a possibilidade de permanentes res-
significações da experiência vivida no passado nos termos das questões colocadas
pelo momento presente (Sarti, 2016a). 13
Indaga-se a própria noção de experiência não como atributo individual nem
sequer como atributo que possa ser explicado pela referência a seu caráter cole-
tivo. Sabe-se, pressuposto básico de qualquer ciência social, que nenhuma expe-
riência prescinde de seu caráter simultaneamente individual e coletivo, mas o que
interessa à investigação sobre o sofrimento associado à violência é o caráter ne-
cessariamente relacional da experiência, cujo sentido só pode ser apreendido quan-
do compartilhado.
rastros da violência: a testemunha
1030
A testemunha
Analisando os distintos sentidos dos testemunhos depois da Segunda Guerra Mun-
dial, Wieviorka (1998) argumenta que o julgamento de Eichmann em Jerusalém
estabelece o “advento da testemunha”, como a figura que marca os processos de
memória na segunda metade do século XX, aquela que é solicitada a ser ouvida em
uma perspectiva judicial, fazendo de seu testemunho um dever. No entanto, não é
na perspectiva do “dever de memória” que se interroga, aqui, a testemunha, mas
sim situando-a como uma “maneira de entender a relação entre violência e subjeti-
vidade”, como se refere Das (2020, p. 116) ao ato de testemunhar. Segundo a análise
artigo | cynthia sarti
1031
da autora, se a violência assinala a morte do mundo tal como era habitado antes,
fornece também um novo modo de voltar a habitá-lo. Voltar não se refere a um re-
torno, mas a outra possibilidade, em outros termos. São essas formas em que se é
levado a habitar o mundo outra vez, apesar de todo o sofrimento, que se questiona,
com base nas narrativas das testemunhas. Busca-se, com a autora, alargar o sentido
da testemunha “não apenas no sentido de estar no contexto dos acontecimentos,
mas também de estar marcada por eles” (Das, 2020, p. 111).
Como argumentado, a possibilidade de voltar a habitar o mundo, sob
novas formas, no caso dos que viveram a experiência de prisão e tortura du-
rante a ditadura militar brasileira, vinculou-se ao movimento individual ou
coletivo de busca do reconhecimento da violência sofrida, que foi se configu-
rando, sem repouso, de maneiras diversas, tanto na ação política, tal como
expressa pela ex-presa política citada, e materializada pela ação de ex-pri-
sioneiros junto a familiares dos mortos e desaparecidos como também em
iniciativas individuais, igualmente marcadas pela tenacidade. Entre tantos
testemunhos, foi assim com o pai de Ana Rosa Kucinski, cuja saga solitária,
tortuosa e obstinada em busca de localizar a filha sequestrada, desaparecida
e morta durante a ditadura foi narrada em terceira pessoa, por seu filho, Ber-
nardo Kucinski, no já mencionado livro K., cujo título nomeia o protagonista
da história.
Há, ainda, em outro registro, os testemunhos que falam da impossibili-
dade de inscrever a experiência de dor e violência em qualquer ordem de sen-
tido, que permita dar-lhe inteligibilidade e a ela sobreviver por meio de sua
ressignificação. Interpreto o testemunho de Salinas Fortes (2012), publicado em
seu livro inicialmente em 1988, como uma evidência da dificuldade de inscrição
da experiência da tortura no curso de sua vida (Sarti, 2019). Para a psicanalista
Maria Auxiliadora Arantes (2013: 387), em sua reflexão sobre a tortura, não se
extinguem as lembranças da tortura, como evidenciam os testemunhos. “Mui-
tas vezes retornam, incidem sobre o corpo, materializam-se como adoecimen-
to precoce e intermitente. Escorrem pelas lágrimas, em palavras liquefeitas. E
pior, abraçam a morte como último refúgio do apagamento da dor”. Foi o que
aconteceu com frei Tito de Alencar Lima, cuja história, segundo a psicanalista,
“é definitiva”. Banido do país em 1971, frei Tito suicidou-se na França em 1974,
aos 31 anos. 16
Se existe o testemunho é porque algo de indizível precisa ser dito. Agam-
ben (2008) ressalta, nesse sentido, o paradoxo como constitutivo do testemunho:
é a testemunha quem fala, mas, se há o testemunho, isso acontece em função
da impossibilidade de dizer diante da violência. Analogamente, referindo-se ao
trabalho terapêutico com sobreviventes de campos de extermínio, tortura e
violência, Gondar e Antonello (2016: 16) afirmam o paradoxo que lhe é intrín-
seco, quando ressaltam a contribuição que suas narrativas trazem à clínica
psicanalítica:
rastros da violência: a testemunha
1032
Na sua forma, ele é, por assim dizer, um comentário perpétuo sobre o testemu-
nho. Não nos pareceu possível fazer outra coisa. Contudo, tendo em vista que, a
uma certa altura, nos pareceu evidente que o testemunho continha como sua
parte essencial uma lacuna, ou seja, os sobreviventes davam testemunho de
algo que não podia ser testemunhado, comentar seu testemunho significou ne-
cessariamente interrogar essa lacuna – ou, mais ainda, tentar escutá-la.
testemunha não seria somente aquele que viu com os próprios olhos [...] a tes-
temunha direta. Testemunha seria aquele que não vai embora, que conseg ue
artigo | cynthia sarti
1033
ouvir a nar ração insuportável do outro e que aceita que suas palavras levem
adiante, como num revezamento, a história do outro: não por culpabilidade ou
por compaixão, mas porque somente a transmissão simbólica, assumida apesar
e por causa do sofrimento indizível, somente essa retomada ref lexiva do passa-
do pode nos ajudar a não repeti-lo infinitamente mas a ousar esboçar uma outra
história, a inventar o presente.
1034
novas formas.
1035
NOTAS
1 Trata-se da pesquisa “Fig uras da violência: a vítima, a
testemunha”, desenvolvida com recursos do CNPq (Bolsa
Produtividade em Pesquisa).
2 Essa perspectiva foi definida em função da apresentação
original deste texto durante a XII Reunião de Antropolo-
gia do Mercosul, em Posadas, Argentina, de 4 a 7/12/2017,
na mesa-redonda Dictaduras, activismo en DDHH y res-
puestas estatales en América Latina.
3 Tradução minha do texto original: “A partir de las preocu-
paciones políticas por la democracia, de los desarrollos de
los nuevos movimientos sociales y su mirada sobre la co-
tidianidad, del pensamiento sobre la ciudadanía y la cons-
titución de la subjetividad ciudadana, abonados por la
práctica política de lucha de los movimientos de derechos
humanos, se ha implantado en la región un nuevo marco
inter pretativo de la esfera pública, de la relación entre
Estado y sociedad, y de los mecanismos y articulaciones
entre el plano de las condiciones materiales, las institu-
ciones, la subjetividad y el nivel simbólico-cultural.”
4 Em um dos momentos da escr itura deste texto, veio a
público a notícia do aparecimento de um documento da
CIA, de 1974, escrito por seu então diretor, William Corby,
em que afirma ter o presidente Ernesto Geisel autorizado
a continuidade da política de “execução sumária” dos opo-
sitores do regime militar feita por seu antecessor, Emílio
Garrastazu Médici, reacendendo a polêmica em torno da
revisão da Lei de Anistia de 1979 e a questão da não res-
ponsabilização dos autores dos cr imes de violação dos
direitos humanos, oficialmente reconhecidos pelo relató-
rio da CNV (O Estado de São Paulo, 11 maio 2018: A10).
5 Para detalhamento das linhas gerais que caracterizaram
o processo de construção da memória da ditadura brasi-
leira, a partir da Lei de Anistia, de 1979, que contribuíram
para definir o desenho desta pesquisa, remeto a textos
anteriores (Sarti, 2014, 2015a).
6 O caráter de luta, intrínseco à construção da memória, foi
destacado por Jelin (2003: 16), ao afirmar que o cenário
das lutas políticas pela memória não é simplesmente uma
confrontação entre memória e esquecimento, mas entre
distintas memórias.
rastros da violência: a testemunha
1036
1037
REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
1038
Minnesota Press.
Crenzel, Emilio. (2010). Introducción. Memorias y repre-
sentaciones de los desaparecidos en la Argentina, 1983-
2008. In: Los desaparecidos en la Argentina: memorias, repre-
sentaciones e ideas (1983-2008). Buenos Aires: Biblos, p. 11-23.
Das, Veena. (2020). Vida e palavras: a violência e sua descida
ao ordinário. Trad. Bruno Gambarotto, rev. téc. Adr iana
Vianna. São Paulo: Editora Unifesp.
Das, Veena et al. (eds.). (2001). Remaking a world: violence,
social suffering and recovery. Berkeley/Los Angeles/London:
University of California Press.
Didi-Huberman, Georges. (2012). Imagens apesar de tudo.
Trad. Vanessa Brito e João Pedro Cachopo. Lisboa: KKYM
(Coleção Imago).
Durkheim, Émile. (2003) [1895]. As regras do método socio-
lógico. 4 ed. São Paulo: Martins Fontes.
artigo | cynthia sarti
1039
1040
p. 125-139.
Sarti, Cynthia. (2016b). Narrar a dor: o livro K e outras
narrativas. Interseções, 18/2, 307-323.
Sarti, Cynthia. (2015a). La victime et le témoin durant la
dictature militaire au Brésil: une antropologie de la mé-
moire. Brésil(s), 8, p. 125-146.
Sarti, Cynthia. (2015b). Sofr imento e memór ia: Retrato
calado. In: Aguilera, Yanet (org.). Imagem e exílio: cinema e
arte na América Latina. São Paulo: Discurso Editor ial, p.
39-52.
Sarti, Cynthia. (2014). A construção de figuras da violên-
cia: a vítima, a testemunha. Horizontes Antropológicos,
20 /42, p. 77-105.
Scott, Joan W. (1999). Experiência. In: Silva, Alcione Lei-
te da; Lago, Mara Coelho de Souza & Ramos, Tânia Regi-
artigo | cynthia sarti
1041
1042
Mylene Mizrahi I
dança, mas que, podemos dizer, é o efeito de leituras críticas em curso desde
os anos 1980. Tais leituras críticas são passíveis de ser amplamente sintetizadas
pelo desmantelar do chamado grande divisor natureza e cultura. Daniel Miller
tem uma posição singular nesse debate: ao mesmo tempo em que é figura
crucial para o projeto de repensar o lugar que as coisas ocupam na análise social
é também reiteradamente acionado em propostas que visam produzir aborda-
gens inovadoras. Esses projetos, ao buscar avançar analítica e conceitualmen-
te no tema, frequentemente tomam como ponto de partida as bases colocadas
por Miller, muitas das vezes sugerindo que o antropólogo britânico poderia ter
ido mais longe no processo de fazer das coisas entrada analítica de pesquisa.
Podemos assim dizer que Miller aglutina, seja por meio de suas próprias
pesquisas, seja por meio das leituras que elas suscitam, muitos dos caminhos
que o tema da materialidade vem traçando. Miller pode ser, portanto, tomado
como um nó que articula essas muitas teorias, ao mesmo tempo em que se
mantém firme naquilo que delas o diferencia. Esse poder articulador, a meu
ver, deriva, de um lado, de sua habilidade de produção e manutenção de cone-
o que a “humildade dos objetos” pode nos dizer sobre a beleza no rio de janeiro
1046
1047
este último autor, a ideia de “agência dos objetos” produz como enquadramen-
to necessário concebermos as coisas como incondicionalmente inanimadas, sem
vida. Dependem para agir, outrossim, das instâncias humanas, que seriam, es-
tas sim, as reais detentoras de agência. Tal separação é acionada de modo
evidente por Miller na formulação de sua teoria da materialidade. Podemos,
entretanto, encontrá-la também na concepção de Gell (1998) de que os objetos
de arte são agentes secundários e distribuem a agência primária que tem por
origem a mente criativa humana. Igualmente, a ação social que se institui na
rede de mediadores, como conceituada por Latour (2005), pressupõe como con-
dição necessária a presença de instâncias humanas que, em interação com as
não humanas, produzirão eventos. 1
Seja como for, a noção de “humildade dos objetos” veio ao encontro de
minha própria posição de antropóloga interessada no rendimento que os dis-
cursos em torno da estética adquirem para a análise social, me permitindo
escapar às disputas do campo. Pois se chego a Miller a partir de meus interes-
ses nos usos e significados atribuídos aos bens de consumo, chego às materia-
lidades por meio de uma discussão própria à antropologia da arte, como colo-
cada por Els Lagrou (2007), que toma como ponto de partida as proposições de
Gell a fim de propor caminhos para uma dessubstancialização do objeto. Foi
assim que articulei as formulações de Miller à proposta de uma antropologia
da arte, como colocada por Gell, que buscava resgatar o laço entre forma e
função, rompido pela noção de estética universal. Tratava-se de reconceituar a
estética com meus amigos funk. A “humildade dos objetos” e os discursos sutis,
mas não menos políticos, produzidos pela estética estiveram lado a lado.
A atenção ao caráter humilde dos objetos se afinou a uma abordagem
da estética conduzida pelo acompanhar de seus discursos silenciosos. Foi assim
que conciliei uma abordagem que aposta no potencial de diferenciação onto-
lógica entre pessoas e coisas com as proposições dessubstancialistas de Lagrou
e a coloquei em diálogo com perspectivas usualmente tomadas como antitéti-
cas àquelas epitomizadas por Miller, tanto as relativas aos sistemas classifica-
tórios de bens (Lévi-Strauss, 1989; Sahlins, 2003; Bourdieu, 1984) quanto as
abordagens que defenderam um uso heurístico das coisas na pesquisa antro-
pológica (Henare, Holbraad & Wastell, 2007). A chave para tal liberdade adquiri
não somente por meio de minha formação teórica e conceitual, desde o início
norteada pelo mundo dos objetos, mas pelo treino igualmente fundamental na
etnografia, fundeado no reconhecimento da centralidade que a condução de
um trabalho de campo sistemático e intensivo apresenta para a antropologia.
É, portanto, a partir da articulação das diferentes abordagens da mate-
rialidade que imprimi ao longo de minha trajetória de pesquisa que estabeleço
minha relação de colaboração com Miller. Voltemos a ela.
Minha pesquisa de mestrado se desenrolou majoritariamente no bai-
le funk que ocorria nas noites de sábado e vésperas de feriados em um clube
o que a “humildade dos objetos” pode nos dizer sobre a beleza no rio de janeiro
1048
1049
1050
que eu desse carona para Thamyris e Cida. Eu respondi que sim, claro, comen-
tando que iria para o Leblon e poderia deixá-las em algum ponto que lhes
parecesse conveniente. Silvia, com sarcasmo, disse que “de nada adianta quem
vai para o Leblon oferecer carona para quem está indo para Madureira”. Seu
comentário me desconcertou e ao perceber que as duas não iriam mais comigo,
pois minha carona de nada prestava mesmo, decidi mudar de rumo e levar
Thamyris e Cida para Madureira.
Os cabelos femininos estiveram sempre à minha volta. Desde o mestra-
do, ouvi conversas em torno deles e já na pesquisa de doutorado presenciei, em
visitas à casa da família, eventos de colocação de extensões de cabelos. Mas foi
só após essa minha primeira incursão ao salão de Madureira, propiciada pelas
provocações de Silvia, que passei de fato a atentar para eles. Para tal, contribuiu
ainda uma outra tarde, seguinte a essa.
Estávamos Silvia, Thamyris e Tó, amiga da família e que igualmente
realizava serviços domésticos eventuais na casa, e eu, sentadas descontraida-
mente na sala de estar. Conversávamos amenidades com a televisão ligada, e
registro de pesquisa | mylene mizrahi
1051
aproveitei para trazer à baila o tema dos cabelos, que tanto tinha me mobili-
zado na semana anterior. Comentei sobre o fato de ainda não ter atentado
para sua importância e sobre minha vontade de olhar sua produção mais de
perto. Silvia e Thamyris se entreolharam e fizeram um comentário jocoso sobre
a pouca velocidade com que dirigi na outra tarde. De fato, eu dirigia em velo-
cidade baixíssima ao longo desses deslocamentos, pois precisava conciliar a
atenção na estrada com a atenção nas conversas que mantínhamos dentro do
carro.
Tó, quase saltando, se levanta do sofá e enfatizando seus gestuais, fala
com firmeza: “o cabelo é a coisa mais importante mapoa!”. De nada valia um
“corpão” sem cabelos, disseram, e acrescentaram que se eu ainda não atentara
para os cabelos era porque os tinha. Em outros termos, eu, uma mulher branca,
não poderia sozinha notar a importância dos onipresentes cabelos femininos,
pois eles não tinha para mim o significado que adquiria para elas. O silêncio
dessa onipresença, porém, revelar-me-ia ainda muitos e muitos significados.
Como disse-me Thamyris quando decidi levar a sério seus discursos em torno
dos cabelos, parecia que eu estava vendo um novo mundo. E estava mesmo.
O adensamento da discussão sobre os cabelos gerou uma série de des-
dobramentos conceituais levados adiante em minha pesquisa de pós-doc e
foram acompanhados de um refinamento da noção de corpo artefatual coloca-
da na tese. Tais desdobramentos, concretizados por meio de quatro diferentes
artigos, estiveram sempre em diálogo com as discussões sobre a materialidade
como colocadas por Miller, ainda que em cada um deles eu privilegiasse a in-
terlocução com um par de autores diferentes. O rendimento conceitual que os
cabelos apresentaram reiteraram o rendimento analítico da noção de “humil-
dade dos objetos”.
Os cabelos ambíguos, como denominei o estilo cuja produção acompa-
nhei com Thamyris, Cida, Tó, Silvia, entre outras, condensam de modo ímpar
a maneira pela qual as coisas e a estética podem ser loquazes em seu silêncio.
Cabelos nem lisos, como os das brancas, mas tampouco crespos, como os afros
ou black. Cabelos com os quais minhas amigas buscavam fluidez por meio da
aparência, fazendo da ambiguidade racial agência, muitas vezes produzidos
por extensões de cabelos humanos, caros e trabalhosos em sua realização. Por
meio desses cabelos e da articulação entre beleza, poder de compra e raça,
minhas amigas subvertiam a sobreposição de raça e classe que se instituiu no
Brasil (Mizrahi, 2015).
Ao acompanhar a produção dos cabelos femininos vi as mulheres pro-
duzirem-se como um em si, ao menos no que tocava à relação com os homens.
E se, para estes, chegar a uma festa enlaçando com cada um de seus braços
uma mulher era o que causava um “baque”, para as mulheres, diferentemente,
o homem cumpria o papel de secretário, motorista, segurança. Nesse mundo
funk, muitas vezes representado como machista e misógino, cercar-se de mui-
o que a “humildade dos objetos” pode nos dizer sobre a beleza no rio de janeiro
1052
1053
tética – estivesse ela nas formas visuais, sonoras ou artefatuais (Mizrahi, 2007)
– que novamente as relações raciais e de gênero retornaram. Friso que meu
ponto de partida não foi raça e gênero, mas a atenção à estética, mais especi-
ficamente às estéticas corporais e aos cabelos, que colocaram os marcadores
sociais de diferença como urgentes. Os cabelos ambíguos mostraram um estilo
particular de lidar com o racismo e os preconceitos de classe, um modo silen-
cioso de fazê-lo, o que me levou a ampliar o escopo de minha pesquisa com os
cabelos femininos, para além do contexto relacional funk. Passei a conversar
com jovens universitárias negras para explorar cabelos que encerram modos
mais explícitos de lidar com essas mesmas clivagens, como os afros ou as ex-
tensões de cabelos sintéticos coloridos.
Atentar para as materialidades e para a estética me conduziu incialmen-
te às relações de gênero, mais adiante às relações raciais e por fim a um repen-
sar do corpo. Comecei assim minha trajetória de pesquisa a partir de um foco
analítico sobre as materialidades, depois deixei esse foco de lado, repousando,
até que o próprio campo me levou de volta a ele. O que me permitiu ainda
propor tomarmos o consumo como prática criativa, por meio do qual o sujeito
se produz e faz ver ao mundo como o entende e se entende nesse mesmo mun-
do. O consumo pode ser assim um insumo na produção de si, feita essencial-
mente por meio do corpo e da aparência.
Com este breve ensaio busquei dar mostras do modo como a abordagem
da materialidade de Daniel Miller me ajudou a avançar em minhas próprias
teorizações. Penso que a longevidade desse diálogo pode ser atribuída à possi-
bilidade de articulação que as proposições de Miller oferecem com outros au-
tores e formulações que, por caminhos distintos, tiveram por interesse analí-
tico e conceitual as coisas. Talvez tenha sido justamente o caráter humilde que
as coisas findaram por adquirir em minha própria pesquisa a garantia desse
diálogo profícuo.
1054
Nota
1 Iniciei essa discussão em outra ocasião (Mizrahi, 2016) e
a levo adiante em artigo que se encontra em elaboração.
referências bibliográficas
Bourdieu, Pierre. (1984). Distinction. London: Routledge
and Kegan Paul.
Butler, Judith. (1993). Bodies that matter: on the discursive
limits of sex. London: Routledge.
Gell, Alfred. (1998). Art and agency: an anthropological theory.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Henare, Amira; Holbraad, Martin & Wastell, Sari. (2007).
Introduction: thinking through things. In: Thinking through
things: theorizing artefacts ethnographically. London /New
York: Routledge, p. 1-31.
Ingold, Tim. (2012). Trazendo as coisas de volta à vida:
emaranhados cr iativos num mundo de mater iais. Hori-
zontes Antropológicos, 18/37, p. 25-44.
Lag rou, Els. (2007). A f luidez da forma: arte, alteridade e
agência em uma sociedade amazônica (Kaxinawa, Acre). Rio
de Janeiro: Topbooks.
Latour, Bruno. (2005). Reassembling the social. Oxford: Ox-
ford University Press.
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1045 – 1056 , set. – dez., 2020
1055
1056
Juliano Spyer I
O projeto “Por que postamos” (Why we post, em inglês), liderado pelo antropó-
logo Daniel Miller da UCL e realizado entre 2012 e 2018, resultou em 11 livros,
um curso online, um site 1 contendo o resultado da pesquisa de maneira resumi-
da e acessível para leitores não especialistas, traduzido para todas as línguas
dos países em que a pesquisa de campo aconteceu, um canal no YouTube 2 com
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1057 – 1070 , set. – dez., 2020
1058
1059
rios possíveis durante esse período. Além disso, se entende que a proposta
seja apenas um exercício e que existam muitas oportunidades de o estudante
fazer adaptações e mudanças na hora em que confronta suas expectativas com
a realidade do campo. Muitas coisas podem dar errado em relação ao que a
proposta antecipou, e o estudante responde a essas dificuldades e também às
reflexões novas que o início da pesquisa proporcionou. Não é incomum, por-
tanto, que a tese produzida por muitos dos meus colegas de doutorado tenha
sido sobre assuntos muito diferentes daqueles que cada um deles inicialmen-
te pensou em estudar.
Numa pesquisa colaborativa de proporções globais como a do “Por que
postamos”, não é possível contar com essa liberdade para mudar de curso a
partir de oportunidades que se abram. Uma das condições para permitir a com-
paração de dados entre dois ou mais campos de pesquisa é que se esteja pes-
quisando o mesmo tema. Simultaneamente, entretanto, os participantes tiveram
liberdade para examinar aspectos de seu interesse dentro da temática principal.
O roteiro de trabalho que nossa equipe seguiu foi produzido durante os
meses anteriores à viagem a campo, conforme detalharei adiante. Nosso time
chegou ao trabalho de campo com minucioso roteiro de tarefas que precisavam
ser executadas, muitas vezes concomitantes. Esse documento informava, por
exemplo, temas a observar a cada mês visando à produção de relatórios que
circulavam e eram comentados por todos os participantes.
Nesse sentido, os interesses de pesquisa individuais dos componentes da
nossa equipe estavam submetidos aos objetivos definidos em conjunto durante
as discussões preparatórias da equipe. Isso não significa dizer que não realiza-
mos pesquisas etnográficas, mas antes que nosso trabalho tinha um componen-
te coletivo que nos impunha limitações. No dia a dia os colegas de grupo cum-
priam atividades iguais planejadas por pesquisadores que trabalhavam indivi-
dualmente. Junto com a aplicação de questionários e a realização de entrevistas,
a maior parte do nosso tempo foi dedicada a participar das rotinas do local.
1060
questões definidas pelo grupo, mas cada pesquisador tinha liberdade para adi-
cionar perguntas que considerasse relevantes para o seu campo.
Além de questionários e roteiros de entrevistas com questões comuns
para os nove campos, estabelecemos que cada uma dessas atividades seria
realizada de maneira sincronizada nas mesmas datas pelos nove pesquisadores.
A coordenação permitiria o uso do material coletado previamente em atividades
futuras. Por exemplo, dependíamos dos resultados das sessões prévias de co-
leta de material visual compartilhado em sites de rede social, aplicação de ques-
tionários e realização de entrevistas para elaborar questionários aplicados
coletivamente no período final das nossas pesquisas.
Ao trabalhar de maneira cooperativa, conseguimos compartilhar a reso-
lução de questões práticas como a mencionada a seguir. Em vez de resolver in-
dividualmente questões práticas da pesquisa, como a formulação do documen-
to de autorização a ser assinado após a gravação de entrevistas em campo, for-
mulamos esse material conjuntamente. Nenhum material foi usado sem ter as
devidas autorizações, incluídas as dos responsáveis legais quando o informante
registro de pesquisa | juliano spyer
1061
1062
1063
1064
Uma das questões propostas durante esse encontro foi sugerida por Cos-
ta, que estava trabalhando em Madrin, na Turquia. Ela queria saber se nas de-
mais localidades, pais de adolescentes decidiam por seus filhos a aceitação ou
rejeição de um pedido de amizade em rede social. A pergunta foi incluída no
questionário mas, com base nos 12 meses prévios de convívio com os morado-
res da localidade baiana onde eu estava morando, eu sabia que isso não acon-
tecia, ou seja, que filhos não pediam autorização a seus pais para aceitar ou
rejeitar um pedido de amizade no Facebook ou em outra rede social. Apesar
disso, durante a aplicação do questionário, muitos dos participantes começaram
a responder “sim” a essa questão. Posteriormente esclareci que eles estavam
entendendo algo diferente do que a pergunta proposta por Costa pedia. Em vez
de responder sobre pais e mães controlando quem se tornava amigo online do
filho ou filha, eles se referiam a pedidos de amizade que chegavam de pessoas
que eles não conheciam pessoalmente, mas que eram amigos de amigos. Na
localidade em que eu morei era comum receber convites de amizade de pesso-
as desconhecidas. Quem recebia o convite mostrava a foto e o perfil da pessoa
que solicitava o contato para parentes que supostamente conheciam essa pes-
soa, a fim de se informar sobre quem ela era. Essa questão, portanto, deu-me
oportunidade de perguntar mais sobre os critérios e procedimentos no uso das
redes sociais: o que representava esse vínculo? Ele emulava algum tipo de re-
lação fora das interações online ou era algo exclusivo desse ambiente? E de
fato havia fora da internet uma versão desse tipo de relacionamento associado
à ideia de “conhecer de vista”, no qual se sabe quem a pessoa é em função dos
vínculos em comum que existe entre você e essa pessoa.
Este último exemplo resume uma das vantagens de se fazer pesquisas
em grupo, que é ser forçado, ao acompanhar o que acontece nas outras locali-
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1057 – 1070 , set. – dez., 2020
1065
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Considerações finais
A principal vantagem dessa solução para o trabalho acadêmico no caso de pes-
quisas feitas em grupo pode ser vista também como desvantagem. O fato de eu
estar trabalhando com oito pessoas obrigou-me a seguir um roteiro rígido e não
mudar de assunto no meio da pesquisa. Em contrapartida, acompanhei o traba-
lho dos outros membros da equipe, tirei proveito de suas reflexões e experiências
etnográficas. Essa experiência de aprendizado que acontece pelo relacionamen-
to dentro de grupos é descrita na literatura antropológica sobre aprendizado
(Lave & Wenger, 1991).
Além de influenciar positivamente na ampliação do impacto da pesquisa,
nossa experiência de trabalho em grupo teve consequências positivas também
no aspecto da saúde mental do pesquisador. O trabalho solitário de pesquisa
acadêmica em geral e antropológica em particular costuma cobrar um preço
alto do estudante, especialmente do antropólogo que se compromete a passar
muitos meses em um lugar distante do seu, como foi o nosso caso. O mesmo
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1057 – 1070 , set. – dez., 2020
1067
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NOTAS
1 Os livros e vídeos que resultaram desse projeto
estão publicados sob licenças Creative Com-
mons e disponíveis em: <www.ucl.ac.uk /why-
-we-post>.
2 <https://www.youtube.com/user/whywepost>.
3 Todos os livros da coleção “Por que postamos”,
em todas as línguas em que foram traduzidos,
estão disponíveis nesta página: <https://www.
uclpress.co.uk/collections/series-why-we-post>.
Devido ao fato de estar disponível para venda
nos formatos impresso ou ebook, mas também
poder ser baixada integralmente grátis em for-
mato PDF, essa coleção de livros antropológicos
se tornou acessível para bibliotecas, acadêmicos
e estudantes, pr incipalmente em localidades
em que esse material não chegaria, e isso con-
tribuiu para a série ultrapassar a marca de um
milhão de downloads em agosto de 2020.
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1057 – 1070 , set. – dez., 2020
1069
referências bibliográficas
Haapio-Kirk, Laura. (2017). Why we post: digital methods
for public anthropology. Teaching Anthropology, 7/1.
Lave, Jean & Wenger, Etienne. (1991). Situated learning: le-
gitimate peripheral participation. Cambr idge: Cambr idge
University Press.
Miller, Daniel. (2017) Anthropolog y is the discipline but
the goal is ethnog raphy. HAU: Journal of Ethnographic
Theory, 7/1, p. 27-31.
Miller, Daniel. (2016). Why we post: the comparative an-
thropolog y of social media. In Proceedings of the 8th ACM
Conference on Web Science.
Miller, Daniel. (2015). “The Results of the Why We Post
Project.” Why We Post, Why We Post – UCL. Disponível em:
<www.youtube.com/watch?v= swj5KRf4Db0>. Acesso em
18 dez. 2020.
Miller, Daniel & Sinanan, Jolina. (2017). Visualising Face-
book: a comparative perspective. London: UCL Press.
Miller, Daniel et al. (2019a). Como o mundo mudou as mídias
sociais. London: UCL Press.
Miller, Daniel et al. (2019b). Contemporary comparative
anthropology – The Why We Post Project. Ethnos, 84/2, p.
283-300.
Miller, Daniel et al. (2016). Why we post. Anthropology
News, 57/9, e44-e47.
as escolhas metodológicas para produzir pesquisas colaborativas e comparativas
1070
Livia Barbosa I
bém, Material culture and mass consumption, a partir de agora referido como MCMC,
objeto de nossas homenagens pelos 33 anos de publicação.
Teoria das compras foi publicado com o subtítulo O que orienta as escolhas
dos consumidores, talvez como expectativa dos editores de que com isso pudes-
sem atrair gama maior de interessados e atenuar o peso acadêmico da obra. A
apresentação do livro começava com a frase “Daniel Miller não é um autor
conhecido no meio acadêmico brasileiro” (Barbosa, 2002: 11), afirmação que se
viu desmentida ao longo destes últimos 18 anos no âmbito dos estudos de
consumo no Brasil, cuja própria constituição, embora ocorra de forma indepen-
dente, tem nos trabalhos de Daniel Miller uma de suas principais inspirações
teóricas.
MCMC, entretanto, não foi traduzido, como a maioria dos demais livros
recomendados, e a coleção, inicialmente programada para mais de dez títulos, se
encerrou. Refletir sobre a obra teórica inicial de Daniel Miller e sua importância
no âmbito dos novos estudos de consumo, a partir de agora referido como NEC,
se faz, portanto, fundamental pelas contribuições que ela aporta a esse campo.
daniel miller e os estudos de consumo no brasil
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palavra matter, que, como o próprio autor salienta, tem uma conotação mais
emocional do que outros termos assemelhados e refletiria melhor as particu-
laridades daquele para quem ela importa (Miller, 1998). Tarefa essa que só po-
de ser realizada pelo exercício etnográfico aprofundado, a força fundamental
a guiar Miller ao longo de toda a sua trajetória.
A etnografia para Miller é o instrumento metodológico ímpar capaz de
desafiar formas tradicionais e cristalizadas de ver a realidade e, por conseguinte,
de produzir conhecimento relevante sobre o mundo a partir de novos olhares. Por
isso ele enfatiza a necessidade de a antropologia “não ser ideológica”, ou seja
tratar todas as sociedades como iguais, não romantizar o “primitivo” e/ou “fetichi-
zar” o contemporâneo. Ambos são merecedores de atitude respeitosa e empática.
No processo etnográfico, a observação dos sujeitos nas suas condições re-
ais de existência ocupa, segundo Miller, um lugar privilegiado. Ao observar o que
as pessoas fazem, podemos perceber que outras coisas são relevantes além daqui-
lo que elas afirmam que fazem e dizem considerar importante. Coisas que muitas
vezes os sujeitos não reconhecem ou não percebem, mas que podem ser captadas
registro de pesquisa | livia barbosa
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NOTAS
1 Acknowledging consumption: a review of new studies (Miller,
1995) reúne um conjunto das mais significativas contri-
buições daquele momento.
2 Isso não significa que antes desse período o consumo não
tivesse sido objeto de atenção acadêmica no Brasil. Ao
contrário, uma revisão histórica do tema pode ser encon-
trada em Barbosa e Wilkinson (2017)
3 Dentre esses eventos destaca-se o Enec que em suas nove
edições até o momento e 18 anos de existência trouxe ao
Brasil os seg uintes pesquisadores da área de consumo,
alg uns, aliás, mais de uma vez: Colin Campbell, Frank
Cochoy, Daniel Miller, Alan Warde, Gary Cross, Geert Spa-
argaren, Michele Micheletti, Frank Trentman, Philippe
Steiner e Ken Albala. Richard Wilks participou como pa-
lestrante em uma das edições por videoconferência.
4 Para questão semelhante ver Incômodos best sellers, de José
Carlos Durand (2015), que analisa a maneira como alguns
clássicos da publicidade nos Estados Unidos foram tradu-
zidos, lidos e interpretados no Brasil.
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1071 – 1085 , set. – dez., 2020
1081
Referências bibliográficas
1082
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Nostalgia e esperança
Entre as características da vida moderna, a noção da passagem do tempo se
estabelece na consciência como uma sequência de acontecimentos ordenados
a partir de uma realidade presente e dividida entre as experiências do passado
e as expectativas do futuro. Implica processos subjetivos de revitalização do
que foi e de projeção do que virá, num deslocamento afetivo descompassado
com a ideia de tempo enquanto fluxo contínuo e regular da vida.
Imagens desse descompasso figuram mediante dois sentimentos inscri-
tos no tempo: a nostalgia, revivescência do passado, e a esperança, desabrocho
ao futuro. Com base no pressuposto das discrepâncias entre o tempo objetivo
e a experiência subjetiva, discutimos a seguir essas dimensões, tomando como
referência as teses de David Berliner e Vincent Crapanzano.
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Eles não podiam se imaginar fora da situação em que se encontravam. Mesmo que
tivessem uma solução, o que não tinham (ao menos não que pudessem levar a sé-
r io), não podiam ag ir com base nela. Eles simplesmente esperavam. Estavam
aprisionados na estrutura da espera. Aquilo em que tinham esperança era em uma
solução – algo que não conseguiam vislumbrar. Sua esperança era tão indefinida,
que não conseguiam transformá-la em um desejo efetivo” (Crapanzano, 2004: 115).
1093
Considerações Finais
Em outro lugar (Coelho, 2010), discutimos a importância de estudar as formas
como as emoções se articulam entre si, formando complexos emocionais,
como no caso do amor e do ciúme. É essa a perspectiva adotada por Katz
(2013) para examinar a dinâmica entre humilhação e raiva presente em cenas
de homicídios, em que a agressão física aparece, aos olhos do agressor, como
reflexões sobre o tempo e as emoções na antropologia: definições, práticas e políticas
1094
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remos em outro lugar (Coelho & Durão, 2012) a essa matriz teórica para pensar
especificamente o papel da esperança na atuação do Grupo Cultural AfroReggae
(GCAR). Ali, discutimos duas oposições presentes em um conjunto de pequenas
histórias (tratadas como fábulas) que o grupo conta sobre si mesmo: mártir/
sobrevivente e utopia/esperança. Mostramos, em nossa análise, que o grupo
opta pelo sobrevivente para protagonizar suas narrativas sobre si mesmo, per-
mitindo-nos assim “entender a ação social do GCAR como regida pelo senti-
mento de esperança, capaz de pautar a ação cotidiana em função de um futu-
ro desejado e representado como tangível” (Coelho & Durão, 2012: 925).
Um segundo exemplo de fenômeno da vida política que pode também
ser discutido com base em uma articulação entre esses sentimentos que jogam
com o tempo é a propaganda política eleitoral. Brader (2006: 1) discute algumas
campanhas de propaganda política nas eleições presidenciais norte-americanas,
analisando as implicações da opção pela instilação do medo ou pela incitação
à esperança (e é importante assinalar a menção, ainda que breve, à presença
de “sentimentos enterrados de nostalgia”.
O papel da nostalgia é a chave analítica que orienta a coletânea já dis-
cutida de Angé e Berliner (2015). Nela, um vasto conjunto de fenômenos polí-
ticos é analisado, como, por exemplo, a nostalgia do período imperial vivida
pelos húngaros no contexto pós-socialista (Hann, 2015: 96) e a “experiência de
imersão” dos visitantes de um parque inspirado num bunker soviético, na Li-
tuânia (Lankauskas, 2015: 35).
Em outro lugar (Oliveira, 2018), analisamos também a nostalgia como epi-
centro de uma “gramática emocional do exílio”, tomando como base a composição
dramática do personagem Henrik no romance As brasas, do escritor húngaro Sán-
dor Márai. Na obra, o sentimento de desabrigo decorrente da quebra de fidelidade
entre dois amigos caracteriza um tipo de exílio incorporado por uma dimensão
temporal, no qual o personagem se perde no passado. No entanto, a nostalgia de
Henrik não está restrita ao passado, mas aberta a ouvir novamente o amigo que
regressa e reestabelecer algum grau de correspondência afetiva entre os dois.
Trata-se de uma nostalgia vinculada à esperança de restituição afetiva.
Esse conjunto de exemplos nos estimula, assim, a sugerir a fecundidade
desse arcabouço conceitual formado pelo entrelaçamento de emoções e tempo
para a análise da vida política em múltiplas dimensões, de natureza mais ou
menos explícita. Na política, a tese dos horizontes imaginativos fornece ins-
trumental teórico particularmente fecundo aos estudos sobre os movimentos
sociais e, em especial, sobre certa ordem dos sentimentos em período eleitoral,
como observamos recentemente no Brasil. Considerando a experiência eleito-
ral, cabe uma reflexão sobre a cadeia de experiências e de informações, cons-
tituintes do processo de decisão do voto, e sua relação com o medo de uma
possibilidade indesejada, do ponto de vista daquele que escolhe no presente o
candidato que o representará no futuro.
reflexões sobre o tempo e as emoções na antropologia: definições, práticas e políticas
1096
1097
1098
NOTAS
1 Uma primeira versão deste trabalho foi apresentada no
18 o Congresso Mundial IUAES, realizado em Florianópolis,
Santa Catarina, em julho de 2018.
2 A expressão é inspirada na ideia de Ramon Sarró (2009),
quando pensa a antropologia como “a arte” de chegar “tar-
de demais”, de “se atrasar”. Ocorre quando os antropólo-
gos entram em contato com sistemas tradicionais em vias
de colapso e sentem certo arrependimento, dada a sensa-
ção de algo perdido no tempo.
3 Nessa e nas demais citações em idiomas estrangeiros, a
tradução é nossa.
Referências Bibliográficas
1099
1100
This paper deals with the relations between emotions, time Keywords
and politics engendered by the tension between subjective Emotions;
experiences and the organization of the flow of life as past, time;
present and future. It considers the variety of meanings hope;
related to the experience of time in order to explore social nostalgia;
and political aspects associated to the displacement of emo- emotions and politics.
tions from immediate realities and to examine the multiple
affective relations individuals establish with time, revital-
izing the past or imagining the future in order to elicit forms
of political action. Its structure comprehends two sections
dedicated each to bibliographical reviews of two feelings:
nostalgia (based on Berliner, 2015) and hope (based on Cra-
panzano, 2004). Final considerations approach issues con-
cerning the analytical fruitfulness of the conceptual frame-
work hereby outlined, presenting several possibilities to the
construction of objects of research related to forms of po-
litical action.
RESENHAS
http://dx.doi.org /10.1590 /2238-38752020v10316
1104
não descreve uma situação unificada. três e quatro. O dois, “From conve-
Abrange desde aspectos dos imaginá- nience to compliance”, ilustra a ma-
rios de vigilância, construídos pela neira como o caráter ubíquo da vigi-
nossa exposição contínua a filmes, lância contribui para moldar um ima-
séries, livros, reportagens, câmeras, ginário social que naturaliza a vigilân-
controles biométricos etc., que não cia − e alimenta suas práticas −, que
nos deixam nunca esquecer de que a por sua vez alimenta os imaginários,
vigilância é uma fato da vida moderna, num movimento circular. O autor
até aspectos das práticas de vigilância, mostra, por exemplo, como práticas
a nossa contribuição para o desenrolar de vigilância de aeroportos contri-
de uma vida ligada à vigilância, que buem para criar insegurança, ansie-
pode ser tanto de envolvimento (ins- dade e medo, particularmente sobre
talação de câmeras em residências ou grupos sociais já estigmatizados, co-
veículos, registro de situações cotidia- mo o dos árabes. Destaca ainda, um
nas a partir de smartphones e uso de tipo de vigilância mais sutil, que é o
mídias sociais para vigilância de ou- tratamento de dados por parte de re-
resenha | iafet leonardi bricalli
1105
des de varejo, que podem ser usados uma vez que os dispositivos de rede
para construção de perfis de usuários estão embebidos no ambiente vivido
visando moldar políticas de marketing e são partes das interações cotidianas.
ou definir acesso a melhores condi- Nas mídias sociais assistir aos outros
ções de pagamento. As pessoas, por é parte da história, mas tornar-se vi-
sua vez, respondem intencionalmente sível é a outra parte. Trata-se de uma
à vigilância, organizando suas vidas vigilância sobre si mesmo, uma busca
em torno dela, protegendo suas casas constante de aperfeiçoamento e de-
e os membros de sua família ou che- sempenho, uma concorrência a si
cando o que os seus parceiros ou mesmo e aos outros, motivada por
crianças estão fazendo. busca de pertencimento e adequação,
O capítulo três, “From novelty to e reveladora de narcisismo. A “virada
normalization”, aborda o modo como participatória”, ou seja, quando são os
os imaginários e as práticas da vigi- próprios indivíduos que se revelam
lância se relacionam com a atração sem a necessidade de uma participa-
exercida pelas tecnologias. Exemplos: ção externa, ocorre dentro de uma
reconhecimento facial como jogos em mudança político-econômica de um
aplicativos ou no Facebook; design de complexo de “vigilância-industrial”
smartphones; as smartcities; e o uso, vo- em que a vigilância era vista como
luntário ou não, de sensores nos cor- algo mau, para um complexo de “vigi-
pos e nos vestuários para medir de- lância-inovação”, em que ela é consi-
sempenhos individuais. A parte final derada uma força para o bem.
do capítulo é muito importante, pois A terceira parte do livro, “Co-crea-
Lyon mostra como a criação de perfis tion: culture, ethics, politics”, é forma-
a partir do cruzamento dos dados da da pelos capítulos cinco e seis. O cinco,
vigilância podem ser instrumentos de “Total transparency”, objetiva trazer
classificação social. Baseada na gestão para a discussão os temas explorados
de riscos e oportunidades, tal classi- nos capítulos anteriores à luz de um
ficação pode determinar a quem se romance intitulado O círculo, escrito
deve destinar bens e serviços ou quem por Dave Eggers. Segundo Lyon, o livro
deve ser considerado suspeito ou cri- é paradigmático na ilustração do que
minoso. Isso pode afetar acessos a o autor entende por vigilância no sé-
serviços de saúde, crédito, segurança culo XXI, assim como 1984 o foi para a
social, educação e opções de emprego. vigilância do século XX. O “Big Brother
O capítulo quatro, “From online to está assistindo você” muda para “Tudo
onlife”, ilustra o campo em que a cul- o que acontece deve ser conhecido’. O
tura da vigilância talvez melhor se livro é uma metáfora do imperativo da
manifeste: as atividades online diárias, transparência que comanda todos os
particularmente nas mídias sociais. aspectos da vida cotidiana de todos os
Como o próprio título do capítulo su- cidadãos comuns e representa uma
gere, hoje é praticamente impossível distopia que, ao contrário do caráter
separar a vida online da vida offline, sombrio de 1984, possui contornos su-
a vigilância como cultura
1106
aves mas nem por isso menos preocu- desempenho para explicar a cultura
pantes, ao evidenciar a padronização da vigilância em sua forma mais ca-
de estilos, a aversão ao diferente, ao racterística, as atividades online diá-
estrangeiro, ao Outro. rias nas mídias sociais, faltou explici-
No capítulo seis, “Hidden hopes”, tar que a captura das subjetividades
Lyon pretende fugir de abordagens é justamente uma das dimensões
deterministas segundo as quais nada mais importantes do capitalismo con-
pode ser feito para deter as forças po- temporâneo (Dardot & Laval, 2014). Em
líticas e econômicas globais que mol- outras palavras, não basta dizer que a
dam a cultura da vigilância, pois, se- vigilância funciona a partir de nós; é
gundo o autor, a ação humana nunca preciso enfatizar como o capitalismo
é restrita aos códigos da cultura do- funciona a partir de nós, uma aborda-
minante. É uma tentativa de encontrar gem que traz ainda novos elementos
brechas na cultura da vigilância de para se pensar o que significa, de fato,
modo a utilizá-la de modo positivo. capitalismo de vig ilância (Zuboff,
Nas palavras de Lyon, uma vigilância 2015), conceito que se limita à previ-
para os outros e não sobre os outros. são e modificação do comportamento
Como o fundamental da vigilância do humano e ao tratamento econômico
século XXI é a participação ativa dos dos dados produzidos pelos usuários.
indivíduos, então isso exige um olhar
autorreflexivo para nossas próprias Recebida em 14/3/2020 |
vontades e desejos de assistir, regis- Aprovada em 21/7/2020
trar e exibir nossas vidas e a dos ou-
tros. Resistir à vigilância não é apenas
encontrar meios de se proteger da
vigilância (privacidade), mas encon-
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1103 – 1107 , set. – dez., 2020
1107
Referências bibliográficas
Michael L. Cepek I
Luiz Costa’s The owners of kinship: asym- The existence of an extensive ethno-
metrical relations in Indigenous Amazonia graphic and linguistic corpus of Kan-
is a major achievement. Incorporating amari materials gives Costa the abil-
decades of Amazonianist anthropol- ity and freedom to focus on a specific
ogy as its conditions of conceptual and dynamic: the way in which the act of
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1109 – 1113 , sep. – dec., 2020
1110
transform our deepest theoretical as- cell,” of the processes Fausto describes.
sumptions. Despite the strangeness Costa’s choice to highlight the practice
of his realization, Costa explains that of pet-keeping serves as an effective
though the prototypical example of response to Joanna Overing’s charge
feeding is a woman giving food to her (2003): that Amazonianists who dwell
pet, its meaning extends to the wider on the capture and incorporation of
notion of “provisioning.” In this sense, alterity through warfare and cannibal-
the Kanamari concept of one’s body ism exoticize Amazonian indigeneity
as that which encompasses and as- and ignore its more characteristic
sures one’s existence is similar to an quality as a kind of humdrum, peace-
idea held by the young Marx. In his ful, and symmetrical sociality. What
early writings, Marx (1964) argues that could be more “mundane,” in Costa’s
our “real body” is our “inorganic body,” words, than raising the infant animals
or the features of the social and mate- that Kanamari hunters bring back to
rial world that lie outside ourselves their villages? Even here, Costa argues,
yet enable our lives through what Ber- feeding emerges as a way to use asym-
tell Ollman (1976) calls our “internal metrical means to transform preda-
relations” with them. For Marx, as for tion into commensality, or “kinship.”
the Kanamari, our body is that which Costa employs the idea of feeding to
allows us to live by providing our understand many aspects of Kanamari
means of existence. In this sense, be- culture and history. His first substan-
cause of our asymmetrical depend- tive chapter examines how feeding
ence on it, it is not that difficult to and the dependency it generates oper-
understand how our “body” can also ate in aligned though distinct ways in
be our “owner.” pet-keeping and shamanism. The sec-
Costa’s main intervention into the ond offers a conceptual and linguistic
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1109 – 1113 , sep. – dec., 2020
1111
and kinship emerged from a preexist- as I know Costa would respond con-
ing state of generalized predation vincingly to my suggestions concern-
centered on the figure of the jaguar. ing any missteps in his work. None-
What impressed me most about Cos- theless, one must try.
ta’s book is how he used the “schema” First, Costa’s analysis can feel overly
of feeding as a conceptual key to de- abstract and schematic. It is, after all,
velop a cumulative understanding of a difficult book. His copious morpho-
Kanamari culture and history from l og i c a l b re a k d ow n s o f K a n a m a r i
chapter to chapter. In other words, its lexemes and phrases cloak his work
structure as well as its argument make in intellectual authority, but I am not
The owners of kinship a powerful testa- sure they add much to his arguments.
ment to the productivity of the tools Even more, I worry that they alienate
it employs. Such tools include Costa’s many readers, as they are too techni-
own ethnographic data as well as ac- cal for the average ethnographer but
counts of “variants” of Kanamari con- too general for the specialist linguist.
cepts and practices found in dozens At no point did I doubt Costa’s ethnog-
of other Amazonianist ethnographies. raphy, but I did want to see more of
Much more than the writings of sen- his “primary material.” As a novelist
ior Amazonianists who switched only would say, I wished Costa would have
gradually from particularism to com- “shown” more and “told” less. Costa
parativism, Costa’s ethnography- continuously tells the reader how Kan-
cum-ethnology emerges from the gate amari people act/speak/think/feel. Yet
as a mature example of what Carlos he provides few in-depth descriptions
Fausto (personal communication) of actual events and interactions. In
once described to me as neo-structur- addition, the book is relatively free of
alist, “neo-classical, Franco-Brazilian fleshed-out individuals and extensive
anthropology”. This theoretical orien- verbatim statements.
tation has become the most conceptu- Many of Costa’s claims are provocative
ally productive approach in Amazoni- – for example, that Kanamari parents
anist anthropology, and reading The view their newborns as feared ene-
owners of kinship tells us why. mies, or that the main reason the Kan-
The owners of kinship is that rare book amari detest “whites” is because they
that is so compelling that one cannot consume the livestock they raise. Yet
help but attempt to find faults with it Costa does not show how such posi-
in order to feel more secure about tions are voiced or enacted by actual
one’s own data and approach. As an people in actual contexts. Because of
Amazonianist interested in many of the omission, no matter how much
the same questions as Costa, strug- conceptual sense Kanamari stances
gling to articulate the ways in which make, the reader is left unsure wheth-
my anthropology differs from The own- er they actually shape Kanamari
ers of kinship is an incredibly produc- thought, affect, and experience. In
tive exercise. But it can also feel futile, short, one can finish The owners of kin-
feeding and owning in amazonia
1112
ship understanding the conceptual I told Costa how my data did not
structure of Kanamari culture, but she match some of his general claims – for
might have little sense of what life example, that Cofán people have a
feels like for a Kanamari person. lexeme that unambiguously means
Costa’s discussion of dependence, “body” and that some of them attempt
magnification, and agency begs for an to entice their pets to reproduce – he
engagement with the question of was fascinated rather than doubtful.
“value.” How do these concepts figure Costa’s curiosity should not surprise
in Kanamari conceptualizations of an us. After all, his interpretation of how
ideal life? As Kanamari people pursue the Kanamari couvade protects the
their ideals, what capacities and inca- parents rather than the child is a star-
pacities do they create in themselves tling rejection of an Amazonianist
and their consociates? By exploring commonplace. Ultimately, Costa’s
these questions, Costa’s book could careful yet creative syntheses are
have become the first monograph to what make The owners of kinship so
utilize all three of Eduardo Viveiros de easy to appreciate. By putting the Kan-
Castro’s “analytical styles” of Amazo- amari into open-ended conversation
nianist anthropology (Viveiros de Cas- with so many other Amazonians,
tro, 1996). Costa combines the “sym- Costa affirms, transforms, and adds to
bolic economy of alterity” and “moral the conceptual models that regional
economy of intimacy” approaches by specialists use to interpret their data.
exploring how feeding transforms If I could suggest one ethnography to
alterity into commensality. But Kan- bring to the field for a neophyte Am-
amari society is also deeply asym- azonianist, it would be The owners of
metrical. Value and inequality are kinship. It asks so many questions, of-
central to the “political economy of fers so many answers, and makes so
sociol. antropol. | rio de janeiro, v.10.03: 1109 – 1113 , sep. – dec., 2020
control” approach, and if Costa had many suggestions about where one
used it, he would have been the first might look, what one might find, and
to pull off a miraculous Amazonianist how one might make sense of it.
hat trick.
Finally, most ethnographers trained in Received on 27/7/2020|
a more Boasian, North American tradi- Approved on 2/9/2020
tion will be skeptical of Costa’s gen-
eralities. He writes about “the Amazo-
nian owner” (155), “Amazonian social
theory” (229), and what is true
“throughout Amazonia” (115, 226). He
even issues absolutes: “in Amazonia,
filiation is always an adoptive filiation”
(22) and “the process of kinship in
Amazonia always involves making kin
out of others” (229). To his credit, when
review | michael l. cepek
1113
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and pets: warfare and shamanism in
Amazonia. American Ethnologist, 26/4,
p. 933-956.
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society. Cambr idge: Cambr idge Uni-
versity Press.
Overing, Joanna. (2003). In praise of
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cial living in an Amazonian commu-
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Viveiros de Castro, Eduardo. (1996).
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espaçamento duplo e em páginas de tamanho A4 (210x297cm), numa
única face.
5. Coletânea
Botelho, André & Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz (orgs.). (2009). Um enigma
chamado Brasil. São Paulo: Companhia das Letras.
6. Artigo em coletânea organizada pelo mesmo autor
Gonçalves, José Reginaldo Santos. (2007). Teorias antropológicas e
objetos materiais. In: Antropologia dos objetos: coleções, museus e
patrimônios. Rio de Janeiro: Iphan, p. 13-42.
7. Artigo em coletânea organizada pelo autor em conjunto com outro
Villas Bôas, Glaucia. (2008). O insolidarismo revisitado em O problema do
sindicato único no Brasil. In: Villas Bôas, Glaucia; Pessanha, Elina Gonçalves
da Fonte & Morel, Regina Lúcia de Moraes. Evaristo de Moraes Filho, um
intelectual humanista. Rio de Janeiro: Topbooks, p. 61-84.
8. Artigo em coletânea organizada por outro autor
Alexander, Jeffrey. (1999). A importância dos clássicos. In: Giddens,
Anthony & Jonathan Turner (orgs.). Teoria social hoje. São Paulo: Ed.
Unesp, p. 23-89.
9. A rtigo em Periódico
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Veiga Junior, Maurício Hoelz. (2010). Homens livres, mundo privado:
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Luhmann, Niklas. (2010). Introdução à teoria dos sistemas. Petrópolis:
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Sallum Jr., Brasílio & Casarões, Guilherme. (2011). O impeachment de
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1119
ENVIO DE CONTRIBUIÇÕES
Sociologia & Antropologia não assume responsabilidade por conceitos
emitidos pelos autores, aos quais solicita que declarem
responsabilidade pelo conteúdo do manuscrito submetido, bem como
que especifiquem, em caso de coautoria, a participação de cada um na
sua versão final, da pesquisa à redação.
A Declaração de Singapura sobre Integridade em Pesquisa foi desenvolvida como parte da II Conferência Mundial sobre Integridade
em Pesquisa, realizada de 21 a 24 de julho de 2010, em Singapura, como guia global para a condução responsável de pesquisas. Não
é um documento regulatório, nem representa as políticas oficiais dos países e organizações que financiaram ou participaram na Con-
ferência. Para informações sobre políticas oficiais, normas e regras na área de integridade em pesquisa, devem ser consultadas as
agências nacionais e organizações apropriadas. A Declaração original em inglês está disponível em: <http://www.singapore
statement.org>.
1124