sustentabilidade

Artigo

Avaliação do ciclo de vida: uma comparação entre duas pontes

rodoviárias de viga com caixa de concreto pós-tensionadas ideais

Vicent Penad é s-Pl uma, Jos é V. Mart Eu, Tatiana Garc Eu a-Segura e V Eu ctor Yepes *

Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia do Concreto (ICITECH), Universitat Polit è cnica de Val è ncia,
46022 Valência, Espanha; vipepl2@cam.upv.es (VP-P.); jvmartia@upv.es (JVM); tagarse@cam.upv.es (TG-S.)
* Correspondência: vyepesp@upv.es ; Tel .: + 34-96-387-9563; Faxe: + 34-96-387-7569

Recebido: 13 de setembro de 2017; Aceito: 11 de outubro de 2017; Publicado: 17 de outubro de 2017

Resumo: O objetivo da sustentabilidade envolve um consenso entre os fatores econômicos, ambientais e sociais. Devido às mudanças
climáticas, as preocupações ambientais aumentaram na sociedade. O setor da construção está entre os setores de alto impacto
ambiental mais ativos. Este artigo propõe novos recursos para considerar uma avaliação mais detalhada do ciclo de vida (ACV) de
estruturas de concreto armado ou protendido. Além disso, este estudo realiza uma comparação entre duas pontes rodoviárias de viga
em caixão de concreto pós-tensionado ótimas com diferentes cenários de manutenção. O método ReCiPe é usado para realizar a
avaliação do ciclo de vida. A abordagem do ponto médio mostra um perfil ambiental completo com 18 categorias de impacto. Na prática,
todas as categorias de impacto dão sua maior contribuição nas etapas de fabricação e uso e manutenção. Mais tarde,

que dá a maior contribuição. Além disso, a contribuição do CO 2 a fi xação é levada em consideração, reduzindo o impacto ambiental nas
etapas de uso e manutenção e fim de vida.
A abordagem de endpoint mostra resultados mais interpretáveis, permitindo uma comparação mais fácil entre diferentes estágios e
soluções. Os resultados mostram a importância de se considerar todo o ciclo de vida, uma vez que um melhor projeto reduz o impacto
ambiental global apesar de um maior impacto ambiental na fase de fabricação.

Palavras-chave: sustentabilidade; impacto ambiental; avaliação do ciclo de vida; construção LCA; ponte LCA; Receita; construção
sustentável

1. Introdução

O termo 'desenvolvimento sustentável' apareceu pela primeira vez no relatório Nosso Futuro Comum da Comissão Mundial sobre
Meio Ambiente e Desenvolvimento [ 1 ], e pode ser definido como “ desenvolvimento que atenda às necessidades da geração atual sem
comprometer as necessidades da geração futura ”. Este relatório já considera que para alcançar o desenvolvimento sustentável é
necessário levar em consideração fatores econômicos, ambientais e sociais. Posteriormente, muitas outras definições foram
desenvolvidas, a maioria delas considerando esse equilíbrio intergeracional desses três aspectos. Assim, os fatores econômicos,
ambientais e sociais são os aspectos básicos a serem considerados para o alcance da sustentabilidade. Isso implica integrar diferentes
classificações em uma avaliação final que pode ser realizada por um processo de tomada de decisão.

O setor da construção é um dos setores mais importantes e ativos, pelo que o alcance da sustentabilidade é fundamental. A
construção sustentável pode ser definida como aquela que atinge o consenso entre os aspectos econômicos, ambientais e sociais ao
longo de toda a sua vida. Alguns autores [ 2 , 3 ] realizou uma revisão dos métodos de tomada de decisão usados para alcançar a
sustentabilidade no setor da construção. Waas et al. [ 4 ] afirmou que o desenvolvimento sustentável deve ser considerado uma estratégia
de tomada de decisão. Assim, é necessário primeiro avaliar esses três pilares da sustentabilidade

Sustentabilidade 2017, 9, 1864; doi: 10.3390 / su9101864 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustentabilidade 2017, 9, 1864 2 de 21

ao longo de toda a vida de uma obra e, em seguida, aplicar o processo de tomada de decisão para obter uma avaliação única de sua
sustentabilidade.
É claro que enfrentamos problemas ambientais e que a influência humana é um fator vital nesses problemas. Por isso, a
preocupação com as questões ambientais vem aumentando na sociedade. O Quinto Relatório de Avaliação do Painel Intergovernamental
sobre Mudanças Climáticas [ 5 ] mostra que desde 1950 as emissões de gases de efeito estufa (GEE) aumentaram. Esse incremento da
concentração de GEE na atmosfera tem causado mudanças no sistema ambiental, sendo a mais famosa delas o aquecimento global. Além
disso, o Quinto Relatório de Avaliação inclui estimativas da evolução da concentração de GEE na atmosfera ao longo do século XXI.
Nesses cenários, há um caminho ao longo do qual nenhuma mudança de política é feita para reduzir as emissões (RCP 8.5), dois
caminhos intermediários (RC 6 e RC 4.5), e mais um caminho ao longo do qual grandes mudanças são feitas para reduzir as emissões (
RC 2.6). Desses quatro cenários, o único que consegue reduzir a concentração de GEE até o final do século XXI é a trajetória RC 2.6.
Portanto,

O setor de construção é responsável por grande parte dessas emissões de GEE [ 6 , 7 ] Os materiais mais utilizados no setor da
construção são aço, madeira e concreto. O aço tem a vantagem de ser um material reciclável e a madeira tem a vantagem de ser um
material renovável. Embora esses dois materiais tenham seus próprios impactos ambientais, o concreto é o material com maior impacto
nas mudanças climáticas, com a desvantagem de não ser reciclável nem renovável. Atualmente, a produção de concreto é responsável
por mais de 5% das emissões antropogênicas de GEE por ano, principalmente atribuível à produção de clínquer de cimento, onde 1
tonelada de produção de cimento equivale em média a 0,87 tonelada

de CO 2 emissão [ 7 ] Alguns autores [ 8 ] indicam que a produção anual atual de cimento é de cerca de 3 Gton, e que aumentará até atingir
cerca de 5,5 Gton no ano de 2050. O ambiente
impacto da produção de concreto foi estudado por vários autores [ 9 - 11 ] destacando a in fl uência dos componentes da matriz de concreto
no impacto final. Tudo isso implica que a avaliação ambiental no setor da construção é essencial. No entanto, apesar da importância das
emissões de GEE, existem outros impactos ambientais que devem ser levados em consideração para se obter uma avaliação ambiental
completa [ 12 ]

Para tudo isso, a correta avaliação ambiental deve ser realizada, considerando todas as etapas do ciclo de vida e proporcionando
um impacto ambiental completo. Isso pode ser alcançado por meio da avaliação do ciclo de vida (LCA). O LCA é uma ferramenta forte e
versátil para quantificar o impacto ambiental e o consumo de energia ao longo de toda a vida de uma construção. A LCA pode avaliar o
impacto ambiental de um produto, serviço ou processo por meio de uma compilação e avaliação das entradas e saídas de um sistema.
ISO 14040 [ 13 ] afirmou que a LCA envolve 4 fases: (a) definição de objetivo e escopo; (b) inventário; (c) avaliação de impacto; e (d)
interpretação. Numa primeira fase é necessário definir o objetivo, meta e unidade funcional, entre outros. Na segunda fase, os dados
devem ser coletados por meio de medição direta, informações básicas ou bancos de dados. Na terceira fase, os dados são classificados
em várias categorias. Por fim, na quarta fase, as informações devem ser interpretadas. Assim, o LCA permite a avaliação ambiental das
construções civis, tornando-se uma excelente ferramenta para alcançar a sustentabilidade no projeto civil.

A partir de uma revisão dos trabalhos de LCA, fica claro que apenas alguns estudos aplicam LCA para pontes. Os primeiros estudos
foram realizados por Horvath e Hendrickson [ 14 ] e Widman [ 15 ] Depois disso, alguns outros autores avaliaram o impacto ambiental das
pontes, mas a maioria deles não fez essa avaliação para todas as fases do ciclo de vida e se concentrou em apenas uma [ 16 , 17 ] ou levou em
consideração um pequeno número de
indicadores ambientais, normalmente CO 2 e energia [ 18 , 19 ] Não foi até Steele et al. [ 20 ] que o primeiro LCA completo foi realizado e a
maioria dos estudos completos de LCA são muito mais recentes.
Por um lado, Du e Karoumi [ 21 ], Du et al. [ 22 ] e Hammervold et al. [ 23 ] comparam diferentes projetos de ponte e, por outro lado, Pang et
al., 2015 concentra-se na comparação de diferentes atividades de manutenção. Todos eles dividiram o ciclo de vida da ponte em quatro
estágios: fabricação, construção, uso e manutenção e fim de vida. Em algumas obras [ 21 - 23 ], a fase de fabricação é aquela
Sustentabilidade 2017, 9, 1864 3 de 21

com o maior impacto ambiental, mas em Pang et al. [ 24 ] é a manutenção que tem o maior
impacto ambiental. Este trabalho leva as melhores sugestões desses artigos e incorpora o CO 2
a fixação e a desagregação dos principais produtos em seus componentes para ter mais controle e
precisão no LCA.
Este artigo apresenta uma metodologia para a realização da ACV para estruturas de concreto armado, com foco em pontes. As
diferentes fases consideradas para a ISO 14040 são explicadas para uma estrutura de concreto armado discutindo algumas características
consideradas nos estudos completos de ACV revisados. Depois disso, uma comparação entre duas pontes rodoviárias de viga em caixão
de concreto pós-tensionado ideal é realizada considerando estes desenvolvimentos recentes. O objetivo deste estudo é mostrar a
importância de se considerar todo o ciclo de vida. Assim, este artigo compara o impacto ambiental das diferentes fases do ciclo de vida de
uma ponte, a fim de descobrir se um bom projeto reduz o impacto ambiental global devido ao impacto reduzido das atividades de
manutenção.

2. Método LCAM

LCA é um método para obter o impacto ambiental de um produto ao longo de toda a sua vida, avaliando as entradas e saídas de um
sistema. A ACV se tornou um dos métodos mais importantes e aceitos para avaliar, reduzir ou melhorar os impactos ambientais de um
produto, processo ou atividade. Portanto, o LCA é uma ferramenta útil para avaliar a parte ambiental de um estudo de sustentabilidade de
estruturas. A este respeito, ISO 14040: 2006 [ 13 ] será seguida para de fi nir uma metodologia para a realização da ACV de pontes,
apresentando esquemas do processo considerado em cada etapa do ciclo de vida.

2.1. Definição de objetivo e escopo

A primeira etapa define as características do estudo, principalmente o objetivo, a unidade funcional e os limites do sistema. O
objetivo principal é obter uma avaliação quantitativa dos impactos ambientais da ponte que pode ser utilizada para efetuar comparações.
Pang et al. [ 24 ] afirmou que existem três razões principais para realizar uma ACV em pontes: comparação de diferentes alternativas,
comparação de diferentes alternativas de componentes de ponte e comparação de material novo com material convencional. Para fazer
uma comparação entre pontes no mesmo local, é necessário satisfazer três condições: dimensões de convés semelhantes, capacidades
de carga semelhantes e vida útil semelhante. No caso das pontes estarem em locais diferentes, é necessário levar em consideração as
condições externas, como as características geológicas e geotécnicas, parâmetros sísmicos, entre outros. As condições externas afetam o
comportamento da ponte e, portanto, as dimensões da ponte.

Uma vez que as pontes são definidas, é necessário considerar a mesma unidade funcional. A unidade funcional é a unidade para a qual
todas as entradas e saídas serão referenciadas. Embora seja possível comparar toda a ponte, geralmente são usados dois tipos de unidades
funcionais: 1 m de comprimento da ponte e 1 m 2 da ponte. A utilização de unidades de comprimento de 1 m como unidade funcional só é
possível se as pontes tiverem a mesma largura, caso contrário, 1 m 2 deve ser usado como a unidade funcional. Steele et al. [ 25 ] sugerem que
a vida útil deve ser definida em termos da unidade funcional.

Finalmente, a fronteira do sistema define as entradas e saídas que devem ser quantificadas. Um LCA completo cobre toda a vida útil
da ponte. Isso implica definir os limites de cada estágio diferente do ciclo de vida da ponte. Para delimitar os limites do sistema, é
necessário conhecer as informações fornecidas para os bancos de dados. Desta forma, é possível definir um sistema que representa o
processo ou produto que se deseja criar em um local específico. Depois de revisar os estudos de LCA em pontes, pode-se propor que o
banco de dados Ecoinvent [ 26 ] é a base de dados mais adequada para o setor da construção. Nas próximas duas seções, um breve relato
de como usar as informações do banco de dados Ecoinvent será apresentado. Em seguida, será proposto um sistema geral de cada etapa
do ciclo de vida da ponte.
Sustentabilidade 2017, 9, 1864 4 de 21

2.1.1. Ecoinvent

Ecoinvent [ 26 ] é uma das bases de dados mais representativas para inventários de ciclo de vida. Ecoinvent é certi fi cada
mundialmente por sua confiabilidade e atualização permanente, em que os processos e produtos construtivos são uma das áreas mais
importantes. A primeira versão do banco de dados Ecoinvent apareceu por volta de 2004 por meio dos esforços de vários escritórios
federais suíços e institutos de pesquisa da ETH (Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule) para harmonizar e atualizar um inventário do
ciclo de vida (LCI) para uso na avaliação do ciclo de vida (LCA ) Portanto, deve ser entendido como um banco de dados de diferentes
inventários de ciclo de vida [ 27 ] Nessa primeira versão, os processos foram obtidos com base em informações suíças (CH), mas também
havia processos que eram válidos para o Resto da Europa (RER). Em versões posteriores, novas informações sobre diferentes
localizações geográficas foram adicionadas, principalmente do Canadá (CA-QC), Alemanha (DE), Resto do Mundo (RoW) e Global (GLO).
Além do escopo geográfico delineado acima, outras considerações devem ser levadas em consideração, como o escopo temporal ou
técnico.

Tudo isso significa que a obtenção dos impactos ambientais será mais confiável em um lugar e tempo, e mais com uma tecnologia
do que com outra. Este é um detalhe importante a se considerar quando uma ACV for realizada. Por exemplo, a avaliação de 1 m 3 de
concreto na Espanha é diferente da avaliação de 1 m 3 de concreto na Suíça ou a média na Europa, porque as distâncias entre pedreiras e
fábricas de concreto não são as mesmas, e os aspectos de transporte, técnicos e outros podem não ser os mesmos. Portanto,
obviamente, os dados da Suíça permitem uma avaliação mais confiável dos impactos ambientais para a Suíça do que para a Espanha.
Isso pode ser mitigado separando os componentes do processo principal e levando em consideração a incerteza associada.

2.1.2. Incerteza

As considerações de incerteza devem ser levadas em consideração em duas etapas. Em primeiro lugar estão os fatores básicos de
incerteza, que são usados dependendo do tipo de entrada e saída considerada [ 27 ] Em segundo lugar, estão os fatores de incerteza que
consideram os aspectos discutidos no ponto acima. Isso pode ser resolvido usando a matriz de pedigree [ 28 ], que pode ajudar a obter um
fator de incerteza de acordo com cinco indicadores: Confiabilidade, Completude, Correlação temporal, Correlação geográfica e Correlação
tecnológica adicional. Assim, no momento de utilizar um processo da base de dados Ecoinvent, é necessário utilizar o fator básico de
incerteza em função do tipo de dado, e então considerar a origem desta informação para obter a incerteza a partir da matriz genealógica.

2.1.3. Estágios

As etapas a serem consideradas ao longo do ciclo de vida da ponte são fabricação, construção, manutenção e uso e fim da vida
útil. Os processos implícitos nessas etapas devem ser levados em consideração no planejamento e no projeto. Portanto, a classificação
dos processos e impactos (entradas e saídas) em diferentes estágios depende do momento em que ocorrem e não de quando são
considerados. Em seguida, será explicado o sistema de cada etapa e discutidas as vantagens da separação dos principais materiais e
processos. Neste artigo, nos concentramos em pontes rodoviárias de viga em caixa de concreto pós-tensionado, mas esta metodologia
pode ser usada para todas as estruturas de concreto armado com pequenas modificações.

2.1.4. Manufatura

A fase de fabricação inclui o processo de upstream dos materiais usados na ponte, desde a extração da matéria-prima até os
materiais que estão prontos para serem usados. Os materiais mais usados em pontes atualmente são concreto e aço. A base de dados
Ecoinvent possui diversos produtos que representam esses materiais principais, considerando todas as atividades de upstream. Apesar da
conveniência de usar esses produtos gerais, eles normalmente não representam os recursos específicos que queremos levar em
consideração. Como afirmado acima, a separação dos processos ou produtos gerais existentes em vários subprocessos ou produtos tem
algumas vantagens que são ainda maiores na fabricação
Sustentabilidade 2017, 9, 1864 5 de 21

Estágio. Em seguida, são descritos os processos de fabricação dos materiais, mostrando as vantagens de se desagregar os principais
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ronnmmeenntatal imppaacct,t,eexxcceeppttfoforrppoosst-t-
lim
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 6 of 21

the concrete product was created. This separation allows one to use the energy information for the area in which the study will be carried
out. In addition, Kellenberg et al. [ 29 ] and Marceau et al. [ 30 ] define a general process to take into account in the mixing for each 1 m 3 of
concrete production.
Sometimes, by-products such as fly ash or silica fume are used replacing some original products. In these cases, it is considered that
these products do not have environmental impact, except for post-process and transport, since they are by-products from other materials [ 31
]. Furthermore, the waste products of concretemust be considered. Therefore, the real amount of the primarymaterial must be the mass to
obtain 1 m 3 of concrete plus the mass of waste materials. Marceau et al. [ 30 ] state that for 1 m 3 of concrete production, the solid waste
consisting of concrete and small amounts of paste totals

24.5 kg and the wastewater from concrete production accounts for 0.0348 m 3. Thus, the real amount of the primary material can be
calculated (1)–(5). Finally, the distance and mode of transportation of the concrete mix between the factory and the construction zone can
be defined exactly.

Primary Water = Water +Waste water (1)

Total solid = Cemen(t +Gravel +)Sand (2)

Primary Cement = Cement + · Waste concrete (3)

Total solid)
( Cement
Gravel
Primary Gravel = Gravel + · Waste concrete (4)
Total soli) d
(
Sand
Primary Sand = Sand + Total solid · Waste concrete (5)

Reinforced steel is separated into two main production methods: Basic Oygen Furncace (BOF) and Electric Arc Furnace (EAF). In
BOF the iron is combinedwith less than 30%of steel scrap (recycled steel), and in EAF around 90–100% of steel scrap (recycled steel) is
used. BOF and EAF have different environmental impacts, so control of the production method depending on the area of the study is
crucial. The Ecoinvent database considers a ratio of around 19% of recycled scrap in the steel produced by BOF and 100% of steel
recycled in the EAF; therefore, the ration of recycled steel can be controlled. This database takes into account all the by-products and
wastes involved in the product manufacture.

Some steel products from Ecoinvent already consider a steel production ratio to obtain reinforced steel, for example, reinforcing steel
considering 37% of steel obtained by EAF and other steel obtained by BOF, which corresponds to the average for Europe [ 22 ].
Nevertheless, the separation of steel into different production methods allows direct control of the ratio of steel obtained by each production
method and indirect control of the recycled steel ratio, which can differ depending on the area considered such as in Zastrow et al. [ 32 ]. In
addition, as well as the concrete, the distance and mode of its transportation can be controlled more exactly.

2.1.5. Construction

The construction phase includes all the materials and construction machinery associated with the erection of the bridge. According to
the type and location of the bridge, the construction method must be defined. The principal material used in this phase is the formwork, and
the construction machinery considered includes all the different kinds of machinery, such as cranes, dumpers, scaffolding, compactors, and
so on. Most authors who have studied the LCA of bridges [ 21 – 24 ] stated that this phase is much less significant than the others. However,
once the construction method is determined, the amount of energy and diesel consumed by construction machinery must also be
determined according to the literature, data from machinery companies, or other databases. Figure 3 shows a general scheme to take this
phase into account.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 7 of 21
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 7 of 21

FigF ig
u r u e re
. C3.o 3
o nCn s s t t r ron
unudc dc it itai iaog g r r a a m m. .

. 1 a. 6 i.n M te c n e an nd se Use
2.1.6. 2 M te a an
n in a c n e d a U
The maintenance and use phase includes all the activities and processes in the whole service life
T o h f e th m ud a e n s d a p ll la th th d e p w ro h c o e l s e se s s er c v a i n ce b l e ife of
e a bri in
t d e gcon cenan e s a id n e d rethuadese seindephin si c g l n n e ni a n c g ti p v h it a ie se s.a T n h d es p e ro a c ct e i s v s i e ti s es in an
the br d id iv g i e de c d on in si t d : nm
o e t r h e r d ee in ca t t h e e go d r ae ie
aisns nig ldateae
pni na cn ncvi g
h titiape s s e, . tr T a h ff e ic se d a e c to ti u v r ed
ro Cce O s 2ss.ec aM a in n te nc
i s t,ie a s n a d n f d ix p
b ne
ive ided
ad

into th ac r te ei civti a e t s e c g a oenpri ac rtea atin

i seu:s
al nmo a r n t c o e ta
ti rael e
c cs,t of
l i tro tvas hi u
f eefigbt cero.u
id d I r f s t,h
lo sfiaue xn rc ed e dhe
of2.Cbrid
tMOa g i e nt i e s n to a t n a cc ities
l, e tr a a c f t f i i v
can ca mu u se st pa ch rt a i n a sgtal ehorl ai tc tbol i o tu souaf tut lereh,e
r oi b n ras
c i er d s sofu t t r h a e ve b l r e i d ta
i.neIgg f t t h h e etacl rdnoei ce d,ge s, af
u lan cre
tr din
is tofi cthsin
a mu g st t c h h e ange
its ha e b n it v u irou i n m cr p e a a hi
aeno tel nta,lr im c stt.sinhT tgffe ira
i sdcett cd o e ur tr i a s v c,eeo al nrdenaseth
an dsd
uida s n i e n x c t r ra ea d s iei sen tr
ta e
ve
g nav
tn
cl hi l r ey oe dc nn ba m
t r da pact.
slainm

This t t r r a u f c fi k c s. d T e h t u o satu,r i oidensel ac ronoe cdtrn

s i th d nt aafh es fi
ea x c t ra
c ri ch sat at eda r n is c t e ic llt ser ma
a a br vi ye ne fth
ed g ffe
c a a c r t s or a s n a d s .th
t ce rTt u
t hinra
cku fhsefi,c
e tot dlo u c r a. tion
cen ag f e ac o t f o t r r s u a dc fgkth
f esth
eecd a a o f u fi r c d d is e ar
t et rnt in t t aho e
nhuece
vtre
ae.vT r a a r g ia e b d le a s il t y ha tr t affic,
and th T e he traffi eav
c ra c g h e a d ra a c il t y er t i r s a t h
f ie
f ceicrs,a
ai
mttr nh e e t p
be e k o n f otot w s e a v n a d lu t a h te e a d p
the pe s r h c o e u n l t d ru agn ck et a o rt u ic r u d la is r t c a a n s c e. e are the variables that should be known to evaluate a
On the one hand, some authors use a literature review to consider the recommended
partic mul a a i r nt c e a n s a e n.ce activities in order to evaluate the environmental impact [21–23], and others suggest
Odn tu e r l e ea re st v e ie n owe n n s t i a d l e i r m th iin
iff t e h r e en o t n s e ceio,s d a ess
h nsataonor m sstha w
e uo h hrssico ue n a e l h it a e s ra th vir t o o n c m p e ac r t e[c]. m2
In oe 4
anmd d d eni ,da tio
f tmt eehance
n
activit c i l e o s su in re o o rd
f e th r e to b e ri v d a g l etaua e l,iseted to
nethv dp im
irng
e oen al t i h m 2 f 3 ] t,h
n no t n e p f a ea c t t u[r 2 e 1 s – oa e n b d ri o d t g h e er st
d s
ig g n g, e mae d
s s u
te i r f i f a e l r s e a n n t d sc t e h n e arios
to ass a ess
mbien
w h t ic o ae enshnt t,h i eat oi l st
nveohir n m s ess
blp ve ei ni tde
r omon
te e rin
nml eta
thimp
e a n c u t m[ 2 b 4 e]r.o I f n m a a d nc, h raenio c d l s o r s e u q r u ece
in det ifi ep tt ne io ir o ridge
e f d t.h O e n b

is tota th l, at de is
eped
n
ertng
idmined
on, t t h h e e f e egy
nre
aea tsr nu o die fedsethb l r c i o dde
npg ss ti at of
i o g n n,
e um a eminm
lsrian
t aa en
c n e d m t a herc b y ie
e hi an ntam
dne p n otavnlltnient,
umro
l o e n t s o re d latoei tt tnerae ed ffrmt i h ctue m
ss issi ib
it is p e o m rdib nbsaue n r ce
ri ao nd ifte
gu a
nmm
n te
inac n e an p c e e r a io ct dsivums itirerui steb.ed qe O ta n k c eneto
an t a
i hisou
cc
etdn e t r.mined,
the energy On an t dhe di o e t s h e e l r c h o a ntin es on d u,m st so up fm
oies ai[n
dm –sta
3 t 1 e, 3 n 3 ]am n 3a c 6thin
c ed
e th e a r t y c a o n n d cre p t o e ll ccau iar tsnban
s of ti n
ix on
emt s hr r o e u la g t h ed to
ar u b r o i on n naai gi stintemat e
ru
c hncnc e ia a l c d re u in nc i r neebtat roc i c d o g u es n,t a. nd depends on three
traffic ca d r i b s o tu n r a b ti a o n n c. e C d ti e v ciei o
sa ft m
y st fo b r e ce t d ak c e o n
or e s r [h 3]: ad1th n ti o
d, ie th d x in c gir ao a rb
n nd
O m nhe a tfaino c t t h , s e m/
o wb e s ra tu s e[ 3 c 1 o,n 3 c 3 e – n 3 t 6 ra]t th t i oc dnf oCt nteh rr
s ioOtaan2 te c ec re
o su
aunnfi th s r p o e u c g if bo h icac n
c atel ration.
im
conditions, and the depth of embedded steel. Despite the structural problems that result from
Carbo c n a a rb ti o o n n at i i s o t n h,e th c e ru c c a i r a b l o d nd me d n e t p n e fa in ct t o h r i s s [ 31 ]:
n e at c i a o y n o o f f r t e h i e n c f o o n rc c e re d te co re n d c u re c t e e salb e
th ir ne m
id ed gptnsoeatvfoshci,ro
tnr ah ne e e b m ri a d i g
the w s/t b ag r e a,t a io n,d t c h o e n n
c st ot leq
r yn a i t en
u ce n io i n nedC pecsOu i p fi t c ak c e lim s, ri a n n g d the
ts o li f fe yC-
2 clecO in. L t a h gblereas rr[3ud nou
] 7i sdn tu g d a ie ir d a th2 of a th te onc e c cd onr i edu
t t i e on
depth it o s f lie-c
e fb m st.r F u i c x t e u d ra C l O p 2 r c o a b n le b m
y e c d le d b e a d se st d e o el n. F D ic e k s ’ p s i f t i e rs t t h l e aw
o g m h c E a q r u b a o t n e hca ic rw
e c s a t l h cu a l t a r t e e s d u t l h t r f o r uio a n ti(o 6 n),, i t n h k
hnbo
is ation
of the th coe n ca c r r b e oon uces
te na t eefi ic
rco dt fehiet,evnt ni i r seost eneta
hnmicrvl lif
e im
pe, actAis of th t e h e e x b p r o i s dof etaasc
e gisdco r gne ea
ire
n t,e th
a, r n i d s t c h oioeunor es faneC
t qtl a y O in its

life-cy thcl a e t.is

a oL g i e n
adr be[c
g bl to
3] soe7t cmu a d rb ie o d na t t h e e d, C C O is 2 t u h p e t c a oon
k nee c
te n
o nr ft tet our
i ht3 ifnoeencef1gc dm it n s c l r i e f t e e-, c k y i c s le tht boeF
com a cf sick’s
o e n d te o n n

lin.k F e i r x he
first la c w i eO n dc ca
t2 C
em
e n nt b, sel Lt cchiuae la co te n d te t n h t r o o f u C g a h Olin(k u t an
E i q6ne),r, h td
ain we hio ɛc nic isk he th
is m thec c u a l nr aebar oiottwgn irhc a oofticient,
ol e e o ffi
t is th C e O s 2 e/rce. iOfee A qu ison
C Tv lia his, atet ci he abxs n e epos d im a p re li a fie o d f b c y on g c r r o e u t p e i,n r g is th t e hn caehis
toOr nth
a swt ta
a ioa ntt yo ge
i,sf IL
s. inCgrba go la t d o [b 3 e 7 c]ome
em co e n n s t id i e 0.
n re 1 od amf n c d on ɛ c is re 0 t.e 7,85 k 7 i.s T t a h k e in c g o i n n t t e o n a t cc o o f u c n,li t n th
3 65
carbo a n s a sd e, t ud eC m
t i h s at th r e is c 0 o. 7 n 5 t,e L nt ca o n f b ce k e e s r ethi st c ne onan ce ent,
ts m
e r i e n d t u h c e ed cl t i o n E r t d ε ]sehiogw ge h n is er e a q te u d ation
L is th E e q c u o a n ti t o e n n(t 6 o) f ca C n a b O k q e u,a a m i n o m n (7) e i.s
em S tstoec
om
h uiel ud s l[a 3 r 1h w e t d ra th ti a o t t o h2/f CaO.
e C ra 2OTtio of CO
for concrete structures can be fixed along its service life. Figure 4 shows a maintenance and use
can be sc s h i e m n ay, blad ssu me%d t ∙ hat r is 0.75, L can
m p e li i fie w d h b ic y h g fi r x 2o= ec us d p C in d t.s. In this w
be considered 0.65 and ε is 0.7 857. Taking 10 in 0 to accoun ttmheseLag∙ erco nst kg[ ants,
37 ∙Equation
] a% (6) can be reduced
to Equation (7). Some studies [ 31 ] showed ∙ that the ratio of CO 2year
generated for concrete structures
yeteraeanr (1)
can be fixed along its servic k O e gl g i t s h c e on o i n d s ∙ ∙ ∙
0h m
is considered.
m
r
√ mm · ) (∙ ) k (2)
k t( year)
k if g e. .30 ye
=( Fig ur( 8
ar e 3 4 ) ∙ s √ ow ye s ma a2 ·r∙mainte
· m kg mg
CO f2ixed ( kg) = · A(ye
100∙0 m n a ance · k(% ∙)
r Cand use scheme in ·which
% ·fixed
L(%) ε CO 2 (6)
1000 m3

)
( )
·√
k √ mmyear t( year) ( )
kg · k %
CO 2 f ixed ( kg) = 0.383 · ·A m2· C () (7)
1000 m3
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 8 of 21

Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 8 of 21

Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 8 of 21

Figure 4. Maintenance and use diagram.

Figure 4. Maintenance and use diagram.

2.1.7. End of Life Figure 4. Maintenance and use diagram.

2.1.7. End of Life
The end of life phase includes all the activities and processes after the service life of the bridge
2c.o h 1n e. 7c. e luE fei p
T s lhsLtifati a
n dn d eds o. o f Ifn e hs twcl
g e oe,uin
g d e e n sth
eroaeainl lal pts ct tis li eh dv so bi ua e n d ed
d ef s nros d es taer
cepain a kinf eto ret lf ham
tht en a s c e c r o v u i n c t e: iftete
ehnt
teo b
ridge
conclu of des wa.sh
T I tee ed n h s fa t tl(,rh
n negist eor t gede
a ief
auss w pe gec n lcu e ga,l
eee,
oinr yd r oc lo
rh
a leis n l snhias
it ted pito
osvs
cpueisn dn
iat l blilnad
a ded e pf fi rilo n lc)se,dtahft t ee
k t aearm
e d assn ed nn e
ah t rei si
ceh n n aiefce
o vriy ucod
ede nnctelf:tfh e gg
t o h er e bb dt rratr ee
iid ment
mcloul
g e idt n ieo e sn
of wa cd s oe t n e r. a, Int thnis(sp
r e at drartg
s e ot ut reew
s ae a c te l m
na,tlo
tr c oe yn gin eer g
n,,d o pf irdow sh. s oT
na i t s sst p es o earb
in
efe
uh l l
ldr on a
,eed
fii
n
t fi
ldies l s n
d)f,iar td
ntea
a n d
t cksnsa
h ee me a to cctonofi
irny hce d yt:ht
ar ieun net eh ed etainat
ee n
d te e rsodf tmr eion b nt ridge

te t a r g a teesa ts aiae
n rrntae e
tr(rpdnlr ot e r si ercvy
fdtehu e er, acel s tlre
of mfige,
ionrw ah tt siedp.ola
s Tp l henniier gnf la o an r n e dd,fid
e s sna . a s c s oh ayt,nde d e deen fieep e ndd t f h ion e rg d bo e rni s d t tg
demo oo l fi oh i faet ntw s,m e ic nt in i l t le) i s, s iag fi nn r desN p tathh
t r ien
n aesy teh
e et cr om i h n ee ation
d m
m ea m
teo a rl t ii e atil r o ia e r otr t
na l, n s tdra a nt f h t s edp
eaa rte hnt i m tmo i f c e e ntht l e i o f f e w
w i aa n sstte t e h s. e oTfh sf n
om afl d
r i e n a, g tieti,rstt n e ee ssair
ri a dsihn p gho
c iroy
ee nsntsnadveft N o eh tt itep
mianl hcedt ts,tidteio e rsn
ae am
of the r te s rn e et r a v p te l h a rie n e .en d ni e affn.ding
p
oCfotnhseidmearitn ergiasltseealftaenrdthceoirnscererv teicaeslicfoeminmthon e pmlaantenriinaglsain ndbdriedsgigenstprhuacstue.reNso, ttehethreata,rdeespeevnedrainl gwoanysthteo
on th m th o rto t au pr l ea i c m
t e rea
atet m d na a
a riil trtae ei a pndh n
edtith
nl eg otdreta
e n t he raet net etd
e nm e os n, cf tf tet
m henowhe a sgtye
lo
w a a s on tsho ot ti iyhtfer
em
f ics
te fd s ao mt a th
a tih i etovf
r en
egel,l, rieo naehehoe itr nv nue d
nnytm
i sm a.l eiigmFn 5t shpadfiof c wd sa. iffers.
t esr
Cons Ci g d eo e nn r es i ri n d c od c o r d oonnm ays to
a lesr
g s cin tsh leee teoln
ge edmh e n ecnn e co t r e fetl aceif
afatn mss em
oam m. c sp o hm a a t t e e r ri i a a l l s s ei i en stn bs rbtrur ridces
ea id
u r,e
g u t r h e e a r r e e a s r e eay
tugtcts rh,e ve ls sr ewa tov l e w ra
treat t i r t e tdpitaeed n e d p i e n n g di o n n g t o h ee c enhhdno
n esthd,n,set te
ee oc nlo lo g g y y da sa snoc on c
d i i e e t t ye ye o re o
r gf ef ithg oth i n o o n f o th f e th st e u s d t y5u.d r sFey ho
ig. u5 Fwr si es gu
h a ows a
gener g a e l n s e c r ch
h al
e ee osm
mf e th o e f t e h n e d en o d f l o i f fe lif p e h p a h s a e s.e.

Figure 5. End of life diagram.

Most studies consider the ratio g r deofrelicfy ecdlieadg,rabm

u.t there are varying points of view on
Fi F o g i f u s End
u t eof
r elife e 5. l.tEonb
e 5diagram.
the percentage of the steel recycled. Some authors consider a high steel recycling ratio: Hettinger et
al. [3M8]oasntdstD uudieetsaclo. n[2s1id] ecornthsiedreartaiolaorfgseteseteletlorebceyrcelicnygclreadt,iob,uatntdheHream armevravroylidng
e etpaol.in [2t3s]ocfovniseiw deorna
M
t1h0e0ops%
t e s sr nlt
t tce oslfint
i rau eeeegd ngscer
cey hid o t. f rhS
coe as r ttieo t e h lbloend
e raes saeo
cein tet clm
eydce ast i be oh
riot ae e rsy
u r rlsot
nog cl n
is ce ycit dau
c dr,eer gm
b qtuihr e r s e ntet a se r lt ne cg
thiee h g nr
hrae p osat
v tc anytoc:
sr tri
ioe
hct itH
yuolei cgw
nteifino
tsi vrrei
e nteoo st n the

perce aelx
n t.a3e8c
p[ g e t]e ooDe fuu
ad f sn lt ttdfehe litl
r.eeh[ w y 1n c]i iS
lacl 2e ees oocedalw
l ctdrtao
em a uete
rag
no.smt s ohst r ter es ee
n ccsctl
al
eye.
oi trm
in
ndr Og aioa
thrh, n dite
h uat
ae stresorH
hg c ens om
l r ca yce m
id o ae:lr.
li re n vr g otlh r de aH[e gt ae i3e t]t f i co n or g na e s r liad e re t gr a ear l. [ 38 ]
tv a2

and D 1a0re0
u teoa% ul re]yc
1 d 2 c, y o fco
a sf l t.es[et d xn er taram
lri i egl l a eb, r a g tshaere
sanipo gescaeit yo ns
eed c ct
e vn ee l er i ee n icr
l rth ieoq
al gdsrie
tatrrHniriu
a
nc aEeummm
gy et lc
r ri eo
y ovli,snt
[t2hoaetes
np gr
2ald
nht]l.t.es[
a tA2 cho 3 n
an]ss
ecntci bt
i d ooo e nst rp
reu 0ins
r%
ouist
a0etec
osteel1 d
recyc e l a i xb n po g evc r st
et aa,feu stdeli cw
e t irlel eyolfneto
ho dchln h ni rtino
bt eeigit racm
d
ecsos if i tfsn ly
ea oedgtsrw
ase tn crgnt
etpr et ieai quen
eon
rd irmt eOet
t.he m
lho n ec t ra s taisrt euoctoh oFnn
h tncanih.o tss t e,h
t ird
ro s ievne
ct oeaao n euinf
srtrr
rs ot gcr ih
ao or st lethao rrag
gl e isl ex te
a pc ior ted to

a c ld o etyoims vr tm ntmdtaod
t.r ehe v o2 rthn] an oue o fsbt tudy,
pdar[t2i
ui e
o, gf eeaoopxaas rwt lee e, a avtee
t tc rean
ehc
gr net. eu
isrto
evaOrt telahr mne ea m ncllia o nst cr gs
h si nerocssas
ei i o
fulfill ais ree
w ash e soe n fns i t t tiu m ree u tya nn
e EI a.,g A
e se f h o sat r es a eeblc rl olei
er a aeendr nc
r t eg ec
yp a d
v p e l f, e ot,rh t eb h rs eoc
oed e ltih
itde a egs vnelet eg rse rsgildl
e srr,ectaa lsy
ete g
r ilor eb
ec atdh
peyt iaf
eyncg
i crnftE
l elei uro
odn w he
itn e no s. lo
e 2 ce 2 an]t.ido
p thl[o ifAha re
fF se tp
h ib hsaeea w
e rs bc it lone en cg
spon o ,inl y btlhec voids e,etiersaet ol
t hsteel
for ex au a bs m n o edc i i n d tthr o eo u lrl t ein a
al d to iff g e aiversme d te t e h nroe cv nl iaen omn t.a l oasF r s t e h ss is m r e e n adt ins. t toioInron, nadl,l t i ee
h is l r r e a c t y io cle isbed etial c stoa s n en
recyc i l s in e g ss r e a n t t i i o p o e r n e d a i c n c g ur o a n tio co negstth
used for bridges, so the steel that will be recycled in the end of life phase will be the recycled steel
give a more accurate environmental assessment. In addition, the steel recycled can be used for bridges,
so the steel that will be recycled in the end of life phase will be the recycled steel used in a subsequent
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 9 of 21

manufacturing phase. Therefore, in the end of life phase, the unique process that must be considered as concerns the steel recycled is its
transport to the treatment location.
Concrete is more difficult to reuse or recycle, the contribution of recycled concrete on bridges being practically zero. Even so,
recycled or reused concrete can be used in other areas. The ratio of recycled or reused concrete, as for steel, depends on the features of
the area of study. Du and Karoumi [ 21 ] stated that all the concrete is crushed and then transported to landfill, while Hettinger et al. [ 38 ]
consider that only 15% of the concrete is recycled. Other works consider that all the concrete is crushed and then

reused [ 22 ]. As stated above, concrete is a material that fixes CO 2 due to carbonation. This process continues even after the service life is
finished. The area exposed to the environment is a variable
that influence the fixed CO 2. Therefore, the CO 2 fixed by concrete that can be considered in the end of life phase differs according to
whether the concrete has been treated or not. We assumed that all
the concrete is crushed and carbonated [ 31 ]. Lagerblad [ 37 ] provide the coefficient of carbonation according to the concrete strength and
exposure environment. Taking into account a concrete with a strength greater than 35 MPa, the coefficient of carbonation (k) takes 0.5
mm/year 0.5, 0.75mm/year 0.5,
1 mm/year 0.5, 2.5 mm/year 0.5 and 3.5 mm/year 0.5 depending on whether concrete is exposed, sheltered, indoor, wet or buried, respectively.
In those cases, complete concrete carbonation takes
100, 44.4, 25, 4 and 2.04 years, respectively, assuming that the crushed concrete aggregate is 10-mm diameter. The results show the
importance of the exposure environment.

2.2. Inventory Analysis

Inventory analysis comprises the collection of data and processes to quantify the inflows and outflows of the system under study. The
information that forms the life-cycle inventory originates from direct measurements, literature or electronic sources such as databases.
Databases are the most commonly used sources to form the life-cycle inventory due to the greater facility of operating with such
information. Ecoinvent is one of the most complete databases, with many processes that cover extensively construction materials, energy,
transport and treatment of wastes. Therefore, Ecoinvent is a useful database for this sector and is widely used in the complete LCA of
bridges, although other databases are considered too, such as the Steel and Energy Fact Sheet for steel information [ 39 ], and European
Reference Life Cycle for energy information [ 40 ]. In some cases, although the process or material used to evaluate the environmental
impact pertains to the main databases, the specific amount is obtained frommore regional databases or direct measurements.

2.3. Impact Assessment

The purpose of the impact assessment is the evaluation of the inventory results, analyzing and quantifying the environmental
impacts, to finally convert them into environmental indicators. Selecting the method by which to carry out the desired impact assessment is
an important choice in the LCA. For this reason, it is necessary to give a brief review of the different types of impact assessment
approaches: midpoint and endpoint assessment. On the one hand, the midpoint approach defines a complete environmental profile
represented by means of a set of indicators, but although the midpoint approach shows a complete environmental profile, it is difficult to
interpret [ 41 ]. On the other hand, the endpoint approach converts the indicators of the impact categories into just three damage categories
(human health, ecosystem, and resources). The endpoint approach does not provide the detailed environmental profile provided by the
midpoint approach, but is easier to interpret.

The LCAmethods used by the authors to study the complete LCA of the bridges are Eco-Indicator, CML and ReciPe. CML is a
midpoint LCAmethod, while Eco-Indicator is an endpoint LCAmethod. ReciPe can provide both the midpoint and endpoint assessment [ 42 ].
The midpoint approach is more reliable than the endpoint approach, and it is useful when the assessor wants to assess only the
environmental impact, focusing more on a specific process. However, the endpoint approach is easier to understand than the midpoint
approach, and it is useful when the assessor is going to operate with a lot of information, for example, to evaluate the sustainability
(environmental, social and economic
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 10 of 21

factors). The midpoint and endpoint provide the assessment at different levels, both of them helpful for different aspects. For this reason,
the ReCiPe method is suggested to provide both midpoint and endpoint assessment [ 43 ].

2.4. Inte S r u p st r a e in t a a b t i i li o ty n 2017, 9, 1864

10 of 21

Interpretation is the last stage of LCA. The main objective of LCA can vary. The information
them helpful for different aspects. For this reason, the ReCiPe method is suggested to provide both
obtaine m d i c d a p n oi b
nt e an us d e e po
d nd
cnti to
om as p s a esen
r se
emt e[
th4 n 3 v].ironmental impact of different alternatives, options for the
same alternative (different construction methods, materials, maintenance alternatives), or to obtain a
t e be
single v 2 a. 4 lu. I e n t te h r a prion c ta used
a t n to obtain the sustainability. For this reason, to better interpret the results

of the LCA, In t t h e e rpreus t e h mla i s d t p st o a i g n e t en

f nobs it othe
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in t g y va
le m
u l s u t e b an e ae tint satoc dk abtuc eo c o o b hu ta
th en r ensi tcnuf toos r t litr apl.e
e inFcma rt eb ti inmias
tysnoaon
hr to,fe ioto tte.r
L b interpret
C e A the results
uncerta s in
of the LCA, the use of both midpoint and endpoint approaches is recommended. In this way, it is
le d to y study or compare impact categories individually using the midpoint approach, as well as obtaining a single score
3. Case p o o f ss S ib tu
through normalizing the damage categories using the endpoint. In addition,

At u t n h c iaie os nrt ipt ynt, m

u ta s g b e e n t e aacc
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displayed. Then, the LCA for two optimal post-tensioned concrete box-girder road bridges located in an eastern coastal region of Spain will
3. Case of Study
be carried out.
At this point, a general scheme that summarizes all the information explained above will be

3.1. Gen d e i r s a p l la S y c e h d e.m T e hen, the LCA for two optimal post-tensioned concrete box-girder road bridges located
in an eastern coastal region of Spain will be carried out.
Figure 6 shows the general scheme used in the case study. The final goal of the LCA is to obtain t 3 h. 1 e. G
n e e n c e e r s al d
s Se aata
c r htoy evaluate
em the environmental aspects of the bridge, and finally to assess
its sustainab F i ig li u re.
ty 6 In sh is
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the proc th e o s s s e a i n ed th U h n e c d e a rnt s tlhyain cos.gFin u s re id
e i de
bridge life-cycle. Once the scope of LCA of the bridge is determined, the Ecoinvent database is used
features to ac d c e o fi r n d e i to h gt ecph e e ss p a e n d d ig e.c
t n ro al n l c y e, r t t h a e t s o ide d e i p s e us midpoint
pr r o e du m t a s et nF.rdUeinix ed in R y e i C c iP n e s me r t end he do in dd g t o oe ns ctyt id
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bridge l m if i e d-p c o y i c nd lkt ee ia,n

n ntad g po in in t t oa er et.h
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b fhe. nd of each
stage of the bridge life-cycle, taking into account the uncertainty and the results obtained.

6..eeG
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S S u u s s t t a a i i n n a a b b i i l l i i t t y y 2 2 0 0 1 1 7 7,, 9 9,, 1 1 8 8 6 6 4 4 1111ooff2211

3.2. Bridge Studied

3.2. Bridge Studied
As an example, two optimal post-tensioned concrete box-girder road bridges located in an easter A n s c a o n a e s x
, t n w o o f o S pl ppetoar sim e t- a t s e s n e s s i s o e n d e.d T c h o e nc b r r e i t d e g bberi no tsdx h- in
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acna nd of a S w ri r dgid
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o uv e s r ly al m ct i i t o s n ta a teon n,dmant acrdx su i c m ti i o z n e,
c w o e n r s e tr s u e c ax l t esi ci iomi
t nue,dem lt ttoamhzn elesoi a ntyfeizim fa eoce tr twhni i i t t h iap rsl e ct ct th taf eotemu r l i t a i l m p a r t o e d li u m
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te it om n a su i r mi t z h e a t t h t e h c e or b r r o i s d i g o e n
addi e t r io om n r,ma a n i c n e te r n n w sim i i n z g ed u a re n t o h f a 1 t 5 t 0 h y e e b a r r i s d.g T e h c e o b m d
c om i pn tt liit i e o dw im h e. a I ll n the p f
init a eq a ui c r e eme a nt o s pitsdtot ur lif e e n- s s p ri pl g i e eelsi de tscwh te a d ll
rma w c e e re re re o oq mf uc te iown n ts tr d a u ele a c s te 1 d m fo e r te t r h l e e L g h
f t o h r e t p h e e rf L o CA n st r i i n n g g d it e s s l i i g fe n-s s,p a a nl en uni d or t id
f hu 1g e s e50 e sfud ys n we c a n C t A.w T e h r e e
o l c u o ti n ostt n a raingw bus d ti e r iltssio.nwi T a h b gn t s h,on c aPoananl dunicr th gt e h. w T a h s e 1 fi n h w ic a h s
f o ir f s t t w so et e e f o u f n 3 c 5and ti Mt t u h sinewedi ait a s lrrce1oot m s e i r on le t n im0. r 4 s 5 t s y o e l a u r t s i,o w
bu e i a l ns w t i h th et a e in o t f e 3 n 5 an M ce Pa op a e n r d at t i h o e ns in w it e ia re l c n o e r c sr eno 1s sds0. so t4r enoy.i 5ati Tlu
i ay omr n s, hwilwm aw ha si ni hbsccuthtnet tcrot ae w te o
mt at c t o w n o cr m h e e s w e a co
en P a a nc a e n o ssa ti r m.e T w e as se 6 c 5 o. 6 n 8 d y so co e n g c e re n t 50 e e ie
ra Molfv
o m f a 5 i 0 nt M d p t e h r e at i i nl oc ien oti srea rrw n o e s c io e n y h ea lu rs ti.o F n ig w u a r s ew b7 it us shilth htow w P o a fhadt n e
b th ri e d i g n e i.tial corrosion time was 65.68 years. Figure 7 shows the general view of the bridge.

F F i i g g u u r r e e 7 7.. G
G e e n n e e r r a wa o
l l ov fvf it it eheh we e b b r r i i d d g g e e s s..

Some general features to consider that are the same for both bridges are the distance and mode of tra S n o s m
ra.l T f h a e tsst ouoec re c h tw
o a n r s a i c d t e e r ri t s h t a ic t s a o re f t t h ot e h pe ri dbdg
n v e eest uryh ar
c em
h d o is n ta t n
po e r g ta e t n io e n e h e e s t a ra m n e sp fo o r rt b d h c e egr da oe mode
n i n ofth o e f
ans y p, o b r e t c a a ti u o s n e. t T h hoef echylu
sea
raaecn t ar ien o n u d n v d e.r I y n m
rct e twdiner b is y ti t c h s e o p f r t o h p e e t r r p on w f a t s h c e a s r t r u ie d d y,
s t t r ud es sp o o n r t t h d e e g th u is ch ca o s n e, t t h h e e r s e t g u i dy o
h i e st g a r n o c unesnt si hi
de c.o
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eSa p p r a o i p n e a rt n ie d s t o h n e t d 0 d k y m w t a o s t c r a a r n ri s e p d or o t u t t h i e n
ar i e x a in o g f S fa p c a t d i o10 kn e to
thydis
nra m tan o i t x ra in n g sp f o a e,ar c2t to
g0 ry ktee m
th gr
gat os
a gthe gr e e a g ss ac te
toteoarn t s h ta e l m , tr c a e n s s c p o o n r s t id m
th e e re
r nced t:e 2
w to 0 k th m e t m
e o m t ix th in e g co fa n c c t r o e r t y e, t 1 o 0 th k e m si t t o e, he
t a raton ce
n d tr p 0s
s 1me o 0t rt k t m
t t r o an th sp r an n po to rt t t hste h eixeemi l nht cg eo tof tiar st y e,. 20 km to transport the
concrete to the site, and 100 km to transport the steel to the site.

3.2.1. Manufacturing
3.2.1. Manufacturing
TThheeddoossaaggeeooffccoonnccrreetteem
e d4
m a a t t r r i i x x f f o o r r e e a a c c h h s s o o l l u u t t i i o o n n i i s s o o b b t t a a i i n n e C-- 4 aececnc nc o
da v ov m
ri ri e
r rdeoinionnnnt ntg agmat tlol o t t h h e e X X C
d
ambient from EN 206-1 [46]. Table 1 shows the amount of general material per 1 m 2 of bridge and the
ambient from EN 206-1 [ 46 ]. Table 1 shows the amount of general material per 1 m 2 of bridge and
dosage needed to make 1 m 3 o
n c d re o t s e ag
he et eMd a e rc p e e a n u d esin et gcaldo h n 2 w. 1 a.s 4 t.es from
cto p e ro n d e u e c dart ee
miot da nhtok o eugg
se 1o se m
f sd
3 cfctconcrete
bo reyn depending .on [ nthe 30 required
th] e an restrength.
dribq sdeutredThe
iren inwastes from
gt S h e.ct T io e
concrete production are those suggested by Marceau et al. [ 30 ] and described in Section 2.1.4 .
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 12 of 21

Table 1. Amounts of materials.

Solution 1 Solution 2

Strength (MPa) 35 50
Passive steel (kg/m 2) 66.89 74.67
Active steel (kg/m 2) 21.98 19.8
Concrete (m 3/ m 2) 0.674 0.67
Cement (kg/m 3) 300 400
Gravel (kg/m 3) 848 726
Sand (kg/m 3) 1088 1136
Water (kg/m 3) 160 160
Superplasticizer (kg/m 3) 4 7

Reinforced steel is obtained as a combination of the production methods according to the area of the study. In Spain, around 67% of
steel is produced by the EAF method, while the remaining 23% of steel is produced by the BOF method. Assuming the same steel recycling
ratio for each production method as in Ecoinvent (19% of recycled steel in BOF and 100% of steel recycled in EAF), the recycling ratio
considered is around 71%.

3.2.2. Construction

The construction was considered to be cast in place. The constructionmachinery considered in this section was divided into the
machinery needed for the concrete handling and the active reinforcement
handling. For each kind of machinery, the amount of energy and CO 2 emissions was obtained from the Bedec database [ 47 ]. On the one
hand, the handling of concrete requires machinery that consumes
123.42 MJ of energy and emits 32.24 kg of CO 2 per m 3 of concrete. On the other hand, the handling of active reinforcement requires
machinery that consumes 10.2 MJ of energy and emits 2.62 kg of
CO 2 per kg of active steel. In addition, the formwork considered is a wood formwork that can be reused 3 times.

3.2.3. Maintenance and Use

Maintenance activities and traffic detours were considered to be the same for each maintenance period. Therefore, the difference
between the solutions was the number of maintenance periods required. Accordingly, for the same service life, Solution 1 needed two
maintenance periods and Solution 2 only needed one maintenance period. One period of maintenance operation required the closure of the
bridge for 7 days to remove the old concrete cover and replace it with repair mortar. In addition, the traffic detour was considered, taking into
account the average daily traffic (8500 vehicle/day), the percentage of trucks (12%), and the detour distance (2.9 km). For concrete repair,
water blasting was required to remove the old concrete cover. In addition, an adhesion coating was applied to prepare a suitable surface for
the new concrete cover. Finally, repair mortar was cast to form the new cover. All of these activities could only be carried out by a
truck-mounted platform.

As above, the energy and CO 2 emission due to the machinery were obtained from the Bedec database (Institute of Construction
Technology of Catalonia 2016), amounting to 584.28 MJ and 46.58 CO 2 per m 2

repaired for each maintenance period. Finally, fixed CO 2 during the whole service life is considered.

3.2.4. End of Life

End of life considers the machinery used to carry out the demolition and the treatment of the wastes. In this case, 71% of steel is
recycled, and all the concrete is crushed and left to landfill. On the one hand, the ratio of recycled steel matches the ratio of recycled steel
used in the manufacturing phase, so the steel cycle is closed. On the other hand, it is assumed that the crushed concrete will be completely
carbonated.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 13 of 21

3.3. Results

The results were obtained proceeding with the description displayed in the points above. The ReCiPe method was used to carry out
the analysis based on both the midpoint and endpoint approaches. In the midpoint approach, 18 impact categories are shown with the
associated uncertainty. Also, the mean of these impact categories is displayed in bar charts for better comparison among stages. In the
endpoint approach, three damage categories are studied. This allows a greater degree of interpretation.

3.3.1. Midpoint Approach

The midpoint approach provides a complete environmental profile of each stage of the bridge life-cycle represented by 18 impact
categories: Agricultural land occupation (ALO), Climate change (GWP), Fossil depletion (FD), Freshwater ecotoxicity (FEPT), Freshwater
eutrophication (FEP), Human toxicity (HTP), Ionizing radiation (IRP), Marine ecotoxicity (MEPT), Marine eutrophication (MEP), Metal
depletion (MD), Natural land transformation (NLT), Ozone depletion (OD), Particulate matter formation (PMFP), Photochemical oxidant
formation (POFP), Terrestrial acidification (TAP), Terrestrial ecotoxicity (TEPT), Urban land occupation (ULO), and Water depletion (WD).
Although these results are difficult to interpret, this allows one to obtain more reliable results. As stated above, the data obtained from the
database does not correspond exactly with the features of the study. For this reason, the impact categories have an associated uncertainty.

Tables 2 and 3 show the mean and the coefficient of variation for each impact category for each stage of the life-cycle of the bridge.
The uncertainty associated with the inputs causes an uncertainty in the outputs, which is represented in Tables 2 and 3 with the mean and
the coefficient of variation of each impact category. In both solutions, although the mean is different, the coefficient of variation is very
similar because the uncertainty used in both cases was the same. In the manufacturing stage, the impact category with the highest
coefficient of variation is the GWP, followed by IRP and WD. In the construction stage, the ranking is ALO, ULO and MD. Regarding the use
and manufacturing stage, this classification is formed by MEPT, ULO and HTP. Finally, in the end of life stage the impact category with the
highest coefficient of variation is the NLT, followed by MD and MEP. Comparing the stages of production and use and maintenance, it is
observed that the coefficient of variation in the use and maintenance stage is generally higher than the coefficient of variation in the
manufacturing stage.

Table 2. Impact categories for Solution 1.

Manufacturing Construction Use and Maintenance EoL

Acronym Reference Unit
m cv (%) m cv (%) m cv (%) m cv (%)

ALO m 2 × year 155.34 4.13 576.41 33.43 22.23 24.51 3.84 4.89
GWP kg CO 2 eq 3589.85 18.93 1453.67 3.17 2770.57 12.17 − 807.73 − 5.62
FD kg oil eq 577.04 6.44 148.42 6.38 964.35 11.68 24.10 16.00
FEPT kg 1,4-DB eq 70.02 2.79 4.15 7.78 42.92 33.56 0.41 6.57
FEP kg P eq 1.51 4.50 0.15 7.07 0.27 24.77 0.01 5.51
HTP kg 1,4-DB eq 2687.18 2.90 137.99 9.51 429.79 26.39 12.75 6.40
IRP kg U235 eq 414.10 15.96 208.40 4.13 195.61 12.26 22.61 5.49
MEPT kg 1,4-DB eq 69.40 2.75 3.90 8.05 38.01 33.13 0.38 6.67
MEP kg N eq 0.54 9.87 0.11 8.46 1.02 5.62 0.02 21.83
MD kg Fe eq 1685.92 2.50 10.20 14.13 157.81 21.68 1.67 22.48
NLT m2 0.45 7.85 0.08 9.32 1.02 11.04 0.02 23.64
ODP kg CFC-11 eq 0.00 7.15 0.00 5.59 0.00 10.90 0.00 17.09
PMFP kg PM 10 eq 7.08 6.05 1.22 8.16 9.27 6.57 0.23 19.84
POFP kg NMVOC 10.73 9.88 1.88 8.79 28.76 4.94 0.57 26.35
TAP kg SO 2 eq 9.93 9.88 3.23 6.15 17.96 6.56 0.54 16.41
TETP kg 1,4-DB eq 0.84 2.62 0.04 21.79 0.23 21.41 0.00 15.19
ULO m 2 × year 41.60 6.68 14.72 28.80 31.52 28.10 0.37 7.79
WD m3 15,361.74 10.46 3197.70 4.60 2077.07 22.44 323.72 4.92
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 14 of 21

Table 3. Impact categories for Solution 2.

Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864
Manufacturing Construction Use and Maintenance EoL 14 of 21
Acronym Reference Unit
m cv (%) m cv (%) m cv (%) m cv (%)
ALO m 2 × year 186 T.a 0 b 1 le .3.
2074 pact 5 c 6 a 8 te. 9 g 3 orie 3 s 3 f.o 8 r 5 Soluti 1 22.96
7.Im o 0 n. 9 3.84 4.84
GWP kg CO 2 eq 4413.77 21.13 1353.95 3.16 1345.10 11.51 −1099.20 −5.09
FD kg oil eq M 6 na 9 C1 39
6 u.f 3 a 9 cturin 7 g. 56 on.s 3 tr 7 uctio 6 n. 70 U 4 s 7 4e 8d9 Mainte
a.n 1 n 0 a. 7 n 8 ce 23.99 EoL 15.79
Acr y T k er g en D
F o E nmPRef
1, c 4 e-Un B it eq 3.)19 . 2)1 2 1.08
m 0. 41
m
m 78.01 cv (% m 3.91 cv 8(% c 3 v 1.(5%5) c 6 v. %)
6(2
FEP kg P eq 1.71 5.27 0.14 7.45 0.13 23.15 0.01 5.55
AL HO 18 3 6 0. 0 0 1 1.31 4.07 3.20 56 1. 8
m k 2 g × 1, y 4 e-a D r B eq 903 3. 42 33 1.0 8.5 04 10 1.1 9 96 3. .8 44
2 2 2 4 2.. 7 12 6 4. 4
GWP TP kg CO 4413.77 21.13 1353.95 3.16 13 5
41..77 0 8 11.51 7 1.8579.20
− 09 4 − 5.09
FDIRP kgoilUe 22eqq
kg 35 eq 669 39 7.18 7.5 1 6 8.30 13 1 9 .93 4 7. 46 6. 4 7.0 14
4.9 47 9 9 7.. 4 2 8 1 1 1 178
0..43 2 2 2 3.. 6 9 1 9 5 1.5 5. 7 3 9

FE M
P EPT
T kg k 1 g, 4, 41-B-DDBeq eq 7 01 7.27 3.19 3.13 3.9 3 1. 67
78. 8. 8 2.1 50 2 1 1 8. 0. 6 8 7 1..51
3 3 155 0 0.. 3 4 8 1 6 6.. 67 1 2
FE M
P EP kg k P gqeeq N 1.7 0
1. 63 5.2 1 7 1.64 0.1 0 4. 11 7. 8 4.5 93 0 0. 1. 5 3 1 2 5 3. 1. 1 8 5
0 0.. 0 0 2 1 21 5..5 4 5 7
HT P kg 1, k 4- D
gFB 300 1 1 8. 3 6 1 4.44 3.20 2.73 130. 42
9 10 1.4 0 21 7 1 8. 77
eeeq 2 2 0 4.. 2 1 12. 6. 7 6 5 22 6..4 1 4
IR M
PD k U235
g eq q 497.18 18.30 194.4.6 73 4. 14 .484 0 81
9 7. 2.7 3 11.34 0 22.61 5.53 1
PTLT
ME N kg 1,4-D m B 2 eq 77.2 0 7. 48 3.13 7.64 3.6 0 7. 07 8. 9 5.0 84 18 0.. 6 5 7 1 1 3 015
1..91 0 0.. 0 3 2 8 23 6..7 2 1 5
MO
EP DP k k gNg FCe C q- 11 eq 0.63 0.00 11.6 8 4. 54 0.1 0 1. 00 8. 5 9.3 82 0 0. 5. 0 1 0 1 5 0.. 1 0 8 6 0 0.. 0 0 0 2 1 2 6 1.. 8 4 5 7
M M kkgg eM FP eq
10 eq 1864.44 2.73 7.22 9.73 14.84 78.03 20.20 1.66 22.11
P D FP 8.06 1.15 8.62 4.62 6.04 0.23 19.53
NLT m2 0.4 1 8 2.49 7.6 1 4 1.64 0.0 1 7. 77 9. 0. 1 4 0. 5. 1 8 9
ODP
POFP kg NMVOC
kg CFC-11 eq 0.00 8.54 0.00 5 .9
2829
8.4
1
0 .4
0536
0.1 10.06
00.00
0.. 5 0 7 2 2 2 5 3.. 9 2 1 5
16.85
PM T FP A
P kg kPMg S10 O e 2 q eq 8.01 6 1.56 7.2 1 2 1.58 1.1 3 5. 04 8. 6 6.2 45 4 8. 6. 9 2 6 6 6.. 0 04 3 0 0.. 5 2 4 3 1 1 6 9.. 1 5 9 3
PO T F E P TP kg kgNM,V-OC
1 4 D B eq 12.4 0 9. 84 11.6 2 4. 52 1.7 0 7. 04 9 2. 2 2 9. 55 14 0.. 3 1 6 1 2 4 0.. 5 3 8 6 0 0.. 0 5 0 7 1 2 5 5.. 0 9 0 1
TA kg mSO2 2 × e y q ear 11. 4 56 11.5 6 2. 4 9 5. 41 8 1.5 9.6 48
U P LO 2 6 6.. 0 6 3 7 0 0.. 3 5 7 4 7 1.6 8. 1 1 9
TETP kg 1,4-DB eq 0.84 4.99 2.52 1 04
6 8. 54 3. 0. 04 4.41 22.55 0.11 20.36 0.00 15.00
UL W
OD m2× y mea 3 r 4 1 4 7. 9, 9 9 48.35 6.5 1 4 2.29 1 2 4 9. 4 8 1 8.85 29 4. 4. 7 1101 0 5 2. 4 6 8. 25 2 2 067
6.. 9
5 32 0 4. 3. 0 7 8 4 7.. 88 9 1

WD m3 17,948.35 12.29 2988.85 4.70 1026.25 20.95 324.08 4.89

In addition, for a more compressed view of these results, Figures 8 and 9 show bar charts to allow In ea a s d i d er iti c o o n m
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t n hha p ddef ocit tbnf ioh al e
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h e s s e e r life-cycle.
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servi I c n lieobfe t.h solutions, the contribution of the construction stage is very similar due to the fact that
the b I r n id b g o eol th n tss io
e udi ntre sdtrco
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on of et h c o o d n s stio
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t s o ig h n i i g fit ht icdtl fahi nf aher tr fo
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to do tue swrep o s.
n snIdonnthi tthes e s d a e g to,u i r t
is important to highlight that the contribution of the emission of CO 2 from traffic detour depends on
the detour distance and the average daily traffic. For this reason, if the bridge must be closed during
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 16 of 21

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Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 17 of 21
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 17 of 21

3 3.. 3 3..
E ndpoi
2 2.. Ei nt t Appr
ndpo roaoahc c h
n App

In t he
I nt h m edpo
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the
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o aan
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3 3.. Caomp
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Having normalized the three damage categories in the point units, assuming that they have the same H im o
av p in r g ta n n o ac r e m s i c n an th b e e p a un in n, a
o d its h l e u y ti h o a n v 1 e h th a e s
, th li e ze re d s t uf hr lte eeoathe ch
am gda a edgma c e a c t a e t g e o g r o ie ry d t ed. O th s e su ne o in m
h g a t n h d a,t S t o
saa3m f e ea m ch . e s o tr n u e ct h i a o n
94 e. 79 im p p o o co t n t i h b e ut r i e o s n ul an
i r ncetan,tr i t ndo uth
aca af tu
mg r e in c g at s e t g a o g r e y, 1 c 0 a 5 n. 9 b t2 O
eephacn
oon
thd in d t e s d in n d s,ta S g o e l,u 2 t 8 io 3 n. 32 1
h on m r a ib n u t t e i n o a n n i c n e t s h t e ag m
p a o s in a ts 3 i 9 n 4. t 7 h 9 e p u o s i e n a t n c d t i e, a a n n u d 6. fa −r c73i tu
1 ng p stage, 105.92 points in the construction stage,
283.32 points in the use and maintenance stage, and − oints in the end of life. 7 stage,
t 1 ri pmaking
u i t n oat total
n i i noft t of
hefa em l cnifat age
e nu
d us,ta
s rimtgnga e k, 9 in 9 g. 5 a 2
747.32. On the other hand, Solution 2 has a 460.71 point c 3 o 6 n b o i s n h e
t p o o ta in l t o s f i 7 n 47 th. 3 e 2 c. o O n n st t r h u e c o ti t o h n er s h
ta a g n e d,, 1 S 4 o 5 l.u 2 ti p o o n in 2 t h s a i s nna ithd4nt mnu.co
ai
e 60 n7 tst1r eepibano u ata h an
g ce
t nt io saind nu5.83
en e,m − f 4points in stage,
acturing
99.52 points in the construction stage, 145.2 points in the use and maintenance stage, and − 3 p de in i t n s
the end of life stage, making a total of 659.6. These results show the importance of decisio 4 n 5 s. 8 ma o
itn , m p k h i a n s g e, a b t e o c t a a u l s o e su f,6 ed l5r ets9ens. sh i o Th ei th rta p n a c c e t o o f f S d ooennlsc 1
6 p.it u ismti i o
he th p e la e n n n d in o g f l a if nt eedhstsdeaee lgr soeeign wa v o r w n t m e en m a p l o im in ad it e s
i e n ar t l h y e l p m a p i a n c te t n o a f n S c o e lu s t t i a o g n e 1 th in e
if l e a,n h i te nn l g o a wqne eu ds ar di l g it n y p o h f a t s hteeue,r bs m
ia eeal,scad u e s s e p d ite thme taerhntaveeti ninhl esron
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i l ng intn1 o.a T c h c i o s bu e c ne a t n th
w fe i-n cyleFucoigre f t 1 h 4 id e, ihb gn ir ew c,h th en o v foire th nmgl ebo nt a a l l e i n mis i e h n i t g a h r f o f lu S t o io e
ob h s o e l r e v l e i d al e m g o lo st b 7 a 0 l% v p r a o c n t ml i e mp o a r ct S lu o n ti 1 o.n T 2 h i i s s c c a a u n se b d
oee n a w e h,i b ch n of S t o h l e u g en h v e ir m r oeee ncalth ntroi itmnutb api c o t n o o f fioSat no nh 2l eufuti ams ced c t a u u r s ing
in bs th r e v m d an in uf F a i c g t u u r r e iny1 cg a4 o , plmi ht so r s a t s 7 t 0 w%ith ti l o o n ba 1 l, w
i s n ta t g h e e a m ha a s in,te b n y a c n o c nteetrw s ai itassth g 52 a io8nl%n d 1 3,7 w
ut S.o n e tr l i y b.ution of the manufacturing
n a d n t u h f e ac u t s u e ri a n n g d p m e .t 9o h%er
iv r e e t s h p e ec c
stage and the use and maintenance stage is 52.8% and 37.9% respectively.
S off2211
S uu s s t nt aa aabibi ini l l i i t t y y 2 2 0 0 1 1 7 7,, 9 9,, 1 1 8 8 6 6 4 4 1188o

Solution1 Solution2

100%

80%

60%

40%

20%

0%
Manufacturing Construction Use and Maintenance EoL

- 20%

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summarize the midpoint approach results to allow a better interpretation. From this point of view, it is easier to see the
general contribution of each stage and to make comparisons between solutions.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 1864 19 of 21

approach results to allow a better interpretation. From this point of view, it is easier to see the general contribution of each stage and to
make comparisons between solutions. Results show the importance of considering the whole life-cycle. Despite a higher environmental
impact in the manufacturing stage, a better design reduces the global environmental impact due to the lower environmental impact of
maintenance activities. In addition, the global contribution is obtained and found to be 13.3% higher for Solution 1.

Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge the financial support of the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, along with FEDER funding
(BRIDLIFE Project: BIA2014-56574-R).

Author Contributions: This paper represents a result of teamwork. The authors jointly designed the research. Vicent Penad é s-Pl à drafted the manuscript.
Tatiana Garc í a-Segura, Jos é V. Mart í and V í ctor Yepes edited and improved the manuscript until all authors are satisfied with the final version.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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