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The Relationship Between Isometric Force-

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 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ISOMETRIC FORCE-TIME
CURVE CHARACTERISTICS AND CLUB HEAD SPEED IN
RECREATIONAL GOLFERS
BRIAN K. LEARY,1 JASON STATLER,1 BRITTON HOPKINS,1 RACHAEL FITZWATER,1 TUCKER KESLING,1
JACOB LYON,1 BRETT PHILLIPS,1 RANDALL W. BRYNER,1 PRUE CORMIE,2 AND G. GREGORY HAFF1,2
1
Division of Exercise Physiology, West Virginia University School of Medicine, Morgantown, West Virginia; and 2Center for
Exercise and Sport Science Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia

ABSTRACT force development from 0 to 150 milliseconds and average

Leary, BK, Statler, J, Hopkins, B, Fitzwater, R, Kesling, T, Lyon,
J, Phillips, B, Bryner, RW, Cormie, P, and Haff, GG. The
relationship between isometric force-time curve characteristics
and club head speed in recreational golfers. J Strength Cond
Res 26(10): 26852697, 2012The primary purpose of the
present investigation was to examine the relationships between
club head speed, isometric midthigh pull performance, and
vertical jump performance in a cohort of recreational golfers.
(r = 0.38, p = 0.11) and maximal club head speed (r = 0.36,
p = 0.12). The present findings suggest that the ability to
exhibit high ground reaction forces in time frames ,200
milliseconds are related to high club head speeds.
KEY WORDS rate of force development, golf, midthigh pull,
vertical jump performance, eccentric utilization ratio
INTRODUCTION

Twelve recreational golfers (age, 20.4 6 1.0 years; weight,
77.0 6 9.8 kg; height, 177.8 6 6.3 cm; body fat, 17.1 6
7.6%; handicap, 14.5 6 7.3; experience, 8.9 6 3.6 years)
completed 3 testing sessions: (a) familiarization session and
body composition measurements; (b) measurement of force-
time curves in the isometric midthigh pull, countermovement,
and static vertical jump (SJ); and (c) measurement of club head
speed. During sessions 1 and 2, subjects performed 5 coun-
termovement jumps, 5 SJ, and 2 isometric midthigh pulls. Iso-
metric peak force was measured at 30, 50, 90, 100, 200, and
250 milliseconds. Rate of force development was measured
among 030, 050, 090, 0100, 0200, and 0250
milliseconds. Peak rate of force development was determined
as the highest value in a 10-millisecond sampling windows.
During session 3, subjects performed 10 maximal golf swings
with a driver to measure club head speed; peak and average
club head speed were analyzed across the 10 swings. Golf
handicap was moderately correlated with average (r = 20.52,
p = 0.04) and maximal club head speed (r = 20.45, p = 0.07).
Force at 150 milliseconds during the isomeric midthigh pull
test was moderately correlated with average (r = 0.46, p =
0.07) and maximal club head speed (r = 0.47, p = 0.06).
Moderate correlations were also found between the rate of
Address correspondence to G. Gregory Haff, g.haff@ecu.edu.au.
26(10)/26852697
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
2012 National Strength and Conditioning Association
G
olf is one of the most popular sports in the world
with an estimated 35 million participants world-
wide (19). Because of its worldwide popularity,
considerable scientific inquiry has been under-
taken to optimize golf technique and ultimately improve
competitive performance (9,17,19,32). Recently, it has been
suggested that muscular strength (32), power (17), and the
ability to apply the stretch-shortening cycle (17,19) can
impact a golfers performance capacity. Specifically, these
characteristics seem to impact the overall driving distance
that can be achieved by the golfer (17).
When considering the golfers driving distance, kinematic
and kinetic studies reveal that in order to maximize perfor-
mance, correct swing mechanics must be coupled with the
application of large ground reaction forces (17,19). Hume
et al. (19) suggested that the ability to generate high ground
reaction forces is an essential part of being able to achieving
a high club head speed. Specifically, applying vertical forces
with the lower body is essential to the ability to produce
high ground reaction forces during the downswing in golf
(19,24). Golfers who are able to apply higher ground reac-
tion forces with appropriate swing mechanics seem to gen-
erate greater club head speeds and hit the ball significantly
farther (17). Ultimately, the club head speed seems to differ-
entiate between higher skill (lower handicap) and lower skill
(higher handicap) golfers as indicated by the high correla-
tion (r = 0.95) between the club head speed and a golfers
handicap (9). Because of its ability to differentiate between
higher and lower level golfers, Fradkin et al. (9) suggested

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Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 Force-Time Curve Characteristics and Club Head Speed
that the club head speed is a useful tool for measuring golf
performance in a laboratory or testing situation.
When examining the factors that impact club head speed,
it has been revealed that the ability to express lower-body
strength and power are crucial components that underpin
successful performances in golf (17,32). When golfers under-
take strength training interventions as part of their physical
preparation, a concomitant increase of 1.6 to 6.3% in club
head speed (6,32) and an increase of 4 to 5% in driving
distance (7,32) have been observed to occur when strength
is increased by approximately 7% (6). Additionally, Keogh
et al. (20) reported that maximal lower-body strength is
significantly correlated with club head speed (r = 0.533,
p , 0.05). Although maximal strength seems to be an
important characteristic underpinning the ability to have
a high club head speed, the ability to apply forces rapidly
during the downswing may be of more importance because
of the limited time afforded for force application (17). The
downswing of an elite golfer generally occurs in a time
frame between 200 and 300 milliseconds (17,24) with the
average downswing occurring in approximately 230 milli-
seconds (19). Because of the short time frame necessary
for the application of force during the downswing, a critical
factor to consider when evaluating golfers is the rate of force
development (17). Specifically, because of the light load (golf
club) and the relatively short duration allowed for force
application (,300 milliseconds), the athletes initial and peak
rate of force development may be related to overall club
head speed and the ability to drive the golf ball.
One method for evaluating an athletes ability to develop
peak force (maximal strength) and express rates of force
development is the use of isometric testing. Isometric testing,
such as the midthigh clean pull, generates force-time curves
that can be evaluated and compared with specific perfor-
mance measures (15). For example, force-time curve charac-
teristics collected during this type of isometric muscle action
has been related to vertical jump performance (13,15),
weightlifting performance (13), throwing performance (30),
and sprint cycling performance (31). When examining force-
time curve characteristics, it is important to consider the
time frame in which force needs to be applied in the actual
sporting performance. For example, previous literature sug-
gests that activities that require force to be developed in
,250 milliseconds primarily rely on a combination of initial
and peak rates of force development (27). Because the aver-
age downswing occurs in approximately 230 milliseconds, it
is likely that the rate of force development during this time
frame is a large contributor to the performance capacity of
a golfer. To the authors knowledge, no studies have been
published that have explored isometric force-time curve
characteristics of golfers and examined if peak force and
the rate of force development relate to markers of golfing
performance such as club head speed.
The rate of force development and peak force generated
during an isometric midthigh pull have generally been
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related to jumping ability and the capacity to express high
power outputs (15). The ability to express high power out-
puts with the lower body is generally believed to be an
important contributor to golfing success (17). Specifically,
lower-body power, as determined with a vertical jump test,
is highly correlated with club head speed (r = 0.60) (17).
Because the modern golf swing is considered to be
a stretch-shortening activity (19), a measure of this activity
should be indicative of performance capacity in golfers.
McGuigan et al. (23) suggested that the stretch-shortening
cycle can be evaluated with the eccentric utilization ratio.
Specifically, performance in the countermovement vertical
jump (CMJ) is divided by the performance capacity in the
static vertical jump (SJ) to give a quantitative evaluation of
the athletes ability to use the stretch-shortening cycle (23).
Although commonly analyzed in the evaluation of athletes
from many collegiate, amateur, and professional sports, this
measure has not, to the authors knowledge, been performed
with golfers.
Overall, isometric and dynamic force-time curve charac-
teristics and the eccentric utilization ratio are modifiable and
are strongly impacted by the type of training undertaken by
the athlete (28). It is hoped that investigating the potential
relationships between force-time curve characteristics and
club head speed will give valuable information about the
type of strength training needed to optimize club head speed
and ultimately driving distance (19).
Therefore, the primary purpose of the present investiga-
tion was to examine the club head speed and its relationship
to both isometric and dynamic force-time curves. And the
secondary purpose was to determine if there are any
differences in the tested parameters between higher and
lower handicap golfers. It is hypothesized that club head
speed will be related to maximal strength, peak rate of force
development, and peak power output. Additionally, based
on the current literature, it is hypothesized that lower
handicap golfers will exhibit greater peak forces, rates of
force development, and power outputs.
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
The present investigation was a cross-sectional examination
of the club head speed, isometric midthigh pull performance,
CMJ performance, and SJ performance for a group of
recreational golfers with limited resistance training experi-
ence. Subjects participated in 3 testing sessions, which were
performed at the same time of the day to control for diurnal
effects, over a 2-week time period at the end of a typical golf
season (Figure 1). All subjects were instructed to maintain
their normal diet and refrain from golfing, resistance training,
or any other structured training sessions for 48 hours before
each of the testing sessions.
Session 1 was used to screen subjects for participation in
the study, collect subject characteristics, and perform
a familiarization session for the vertical jumping and
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Figure 1. Study Design.

isometric testing protocols. Seven to 10 days after partici- Subjects

pating in the first session, all subjects participated in the Twelve male recreational golfers who were 20.4 6 1.0 years of
second session in which the CMJ, SJ, and isometric midthigh age were recruited to participate in this investigation. The
pull were assessed. The testing order was based on the subjects had a minimum of 2 years of golfing experience (av-
previously published studies using these tests which indicate erage 8.9 6 3.6 years) and an average handicap of 14.5 6 7.3
that there are no order effects when using these tests (21,22). years. Additionally, all subjects were not regularly participat-
Three to 4 days after session 2 was completed, an assessment ing in a resistance training regime. All subjects voluntarily read
of club head speed was performed with the use of the sub- and signed an informed consent form in accordance with the
jects own driver. A summary of the 2 testing sessions can be West Virginia University Institutional Review Board (H-
found in Figure 2. 21611) and guidelines established by the American College
of Sports Medicine before par-
ticipating in this investigation.
Subjects were also screened for
contraindications to exercise
and testing before engaging in
any testing procedures. Finally,
all subjects completed a golf
history questionnaire that was
designed to establish level of
golfing ability. A summary of
the subject characteristics can
be found in Table 1.
Procedures
Anthropometric Data. Body
mass was determined to the
nearest 0.01 kg using a cali-
brated electronic scale (Bod
Pod; Life Measurement Instru-
ments, Concord, CA, USA).
Stature was measured to the
nearest 0.1 cm with the use of
a stadiometer. Body composi-
tion was assessed with the use
of air displacement plethys-
Figure 2. Individual Testing Day Format. mography (Bod Pod; Life Mea-
surement Instruments). The

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 Force-Time Curve Characteristics and Club Head Speed

TABLE 1. Subject characteristics.*

Total sample Handicap #13 Handicap .13 One-way ANOVA

(n = 12) (n = 6) (n = 6) 12b
Characteristic Mean 6 SD Mean 6 SD Mean 6 SD p d

Age (y) 20.4 6 1.0 20.7 6 1.0 20.1 6 1.0 0.40 0.60 0.25
Height (cm) 177.8 6 6.3 176.5 6 7.6 179.2 6 4.9 0.49 0.42 0.17
Weight (kg) 77.0 6 9.8 74.1 6 9.0 79.8 6 10.5 0.34 0.58 0.24
Body fat (%) 17.1 6 7.6 15.7 6 7.7 18.5 6 7.9 0.55 0.36 0.14
Handicap (n) 14.5 6 7.3 9.7 6 3.2 19.3 6 5.5 0.004 2.13 0.96
Experience (y) 8.9 6 3.6 10.1 6 3.0 7.7 6 3.9 0.25 0.69 0.30

*ANOVA = analysis of variance.

determined body density was then placed into the Siri research that suggests that dynamic warm-ups result in better
equation to estimate the percentage of body fat (29). This performances in vertical jumping (22), isometric midthigh pulls
method of body composition analysis has consistently (14), and club head speed assessments (10,11).
exhibited a high reliability with intraclass correlation (ICC)
$ 0.98 in our laboratory. Vertical Jump Testing. Five minutes after the standardized
warm-up procedure was completed, subjects performed
Pre-Testing Warm-up. Each subject first performed a 5-minute a CMJ and an SJ assessment based on the previously
warm-up on a cycle ergometer (Cyclops, Saris, Inc., Madison, published methods (4,5,15,22). All vertical jumps were per-
WI, USA) at a cadence of 70 rpm at a resistance that yielded an formed on a custom testing apparatus that used a force plate
intensity of 90 to 100 W. After completing the cycle ergometer (Rice Lake Scales, Fairmont, WV, USA) and 2 linear position
warm-up, subject then undertook a 5-minute standardized transducers (PT5A-150; Clesco Transducer Products, Chats-
dynamic warm-up based on the previously published literature worth, CA, USA) (Figure 3). Samples were collected at
(10,11,26). After the completion of the warm-up, subjects res- 1,000 Hz using a BNC-2010 interface box with an analog-
ted passively for 5 minutes followed by the completion of the to-digital card (NI PCI-6014; National Instruments, Austin,
vertical jump and isometric midthigh pull testing procedures TX, USA). A custom LabView (version 8.1; National Instru-
for session 2 or the club head speed testing for session 3. This ments) software program was used to record and analyze all
basic warm-up procedure was selected based on the previous jump trials completed in this investigation.
The first vertical jump test
performed was the CMJ test.
This order was selected based
on the previously published re-
search in which no order effect
occurs when performing the
CMJ and SJ tests with this pro-
tocol (21). During this test, each
subject performed a series of 5
CMJs to a self-selected squat
depth on a force plate while
holding a polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pipe that was attached
to 2 linear position transducers,
across their shoulders (4). A se-
ries of 5 vertical jumps was se-
lected based on the work by
Cormack et al. (3) who demon-
strated higher reliability with 5
Figure 3. Vertical Jump Testing Apparatus. LPT = Linear Position Transducer (PT5A-150; Clesco Transducer CMJ protocols.
Products). After the completion of the
CMJ assessment, subjects
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Figure 4. Isometric Midthigh Pull Testing Apparatus.
rested for 5 minutes before undertaking the SJ portion of the
session. The SJ protocol was based on the previously
published methods (15,22). Briefly, subjects were required
to assume a squat position with a 908 knee angle measured
with a handheld goniometer (22). Once the bottom position
was achieved, it was held for a countdown of 3,2,1, jump.
This 3-second hold was used to eliminate the involvement of
the stretch-shortening cycle (15,22). This basic procedure
was repeated 5 times, based on the previously published
methods that suggest 5 trials result in significantly more re-
liable jump data (3). Additional trials were performed if test-
ers noted any movement in the squat position that would be
indicative of activating the stretch-shortening cycle.
Isometric Midthigh Pull Testing. After the completion of the
vertical jump protocols, all subjects rested for 5 minutes and
were fitted to a custom isometric testing apparatus (Sorinex,
Inc., Irmo, SC, USA), which allowed for a bar to be fixed at
any desired height above the floor using a combination of
locking pins and hydraulic jacks (15). A force plate (Rice
Lake Scales) was placed into the rack system, and the bar
position was set to correspond with the subjects second pull
position, where the knee and hip angles were 142 6 78 and
146 6 118, respectively (Figure 4). All force plate data were
sampled from one analogue channel with a sampling fre-
quency of 1,000 Hz using a BNC-2010 interface box with
an analog-to-digital card (NI PCI-6014; National Instru-
ments). A custom LabView (Version 8.1; National Instru-
ments) software program was used to record and analyze
all isometric midthigh pull data.
The testing procedures were based on the methods
established by Haff et al. (15). Briefly, once the bar height
was set, subjects were strapped to the bar with standard
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the TM
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
lifting straps and athletic tape
(15,22). Once the subjects were
placed in the appropriate posi-
tion, both knee and hip angles
were measured with the use of
a handheld goniometer. During
each isometric pull test, sub-
jects were instructed to pull as
hard and fast as possible for 5
seconds to ensure maximal
forces and rates of force devel-
opment were achieved
(12,15,22). Five minutes of re-
covery was given between each
of the 2 isometric midthigh
pull trials. If the athlete or in-
vestigator deemed the trial to
be less than maximal or there
was a .250 N difference be-
tween trials, an additional trial
was performed. The 2 best tri-
als were then used for subse-
quent force-time curve analyses and the determination of
reliability.
Club Head Speed Testing. Club head speed was determined
with the use of a SwingMate Club Head Speed Analysis
System (Beltronics, West Chester, OH, USA). The method-
ology used in this investigation was adapted from the
previously published research on club head speed (9). A
driver was selected for this test because it was found in pilot
testing that this club allowed for the highest reliability when
using the SwingMate Club Speed Analysis System (ICCa =
0.93, 90% CI = 0.800.97; CV% = 2.3%, 90% CI = 1.83.9%).
In this study, each subject used a self-selected driver for the
assessment of club head speed. Five minutes after complet-
ing the standardized warm-up previously presented, each
subject performed 10 practice wings while using the Swing-
Mate Club Speed Analysis System. After completing the
practice trials, subjects rested for 5 minutes before perform-
ing 2 series of 5 maximal effort club swings with each series
separated by 5 minutes of recovery. During each trial, sub-
jects were required to hit a golf ball into a target off a tee
with a maximal effort using methods adapted from those
presented by Fradkin et al. (9). An experienced golfer me-
ticulously monitored each swing, and appropriate additional
trials were undertaken until 5 technically sound swings were
completed.
Force-Time Curve Assessment
All force-time curves collected during the vertical jump and
isometric midthigh pull tests were analyzed with custom
LabView (Version 8.1; National Instruments) software pro-
grams that were created based on the previously established
methods (1,4,12,15,22). All force plate and linear position
VOLUME 26 | NUMBER 10 | OCTOBER 2012 | 2689
 Force-Time Curve Characteristics and Club Head Speed
transducer signals underwent rectangular smoothing with
a moving half-width of 12 before being analyzed for specific
force-time curve characteristics.
Vertical Jump Analyses. CMJ and SJ were assessed for vertical
displacement, peak velocity, peak force, peak power output,
and rate of force development. Vertical displacement and
peak velocity were determined from the linear position
transducers, whereas the force plate system was used to
determine ground reaction forces (4). Peak and average
power were then calculated from the product of the velocity
and force data. All force and power data were then divided
by body mass to express the results with a per kilogram
value. Additionally, the absolute data were normalized by
allometrically scaling the data to account for body dimen-
sion. This was accomplished by dividing each variable by the
body mass raised to the two-third power (8). Both relative
and allometrically scaled analyses were performed based on
the previously established analysis methods (21,22).
The rate of force development was calculated with 2 meth-
ods. First, the average rate of force development was calculated
from the initiation of the concentric jumping movement
(0 millisecond) to the peak force achieved before takeoff. Peak
rate of force development was calculated by determining the
greatest change in force across a 10-millisecond sampling
window.
Additionally, the eccentric utilization ratio was calculated
by dividing the CMJ performance by the SJ performance
with both peak power and peak force data (23).
The measurements achieved during the vertical jump
assessments were determined to be reliable for peak force
(ICCa = 0.97), average rate of force development (ICCa =
0.83), peak rate of force development (ICCa = 0.89), peak
power (ICCa = 0.95), peak velocity (ICCa = 0.95), and
vertical displacement (ICCa = 0.88). Similar reliabilities for
these analysis methods and measurements have been pre-
sented previously in the scientific literature (4,22).
Midthigh Clean Pull Analyses. The force-time curves collected
during the isometric midthigh clean pull were analyzed with
previously established methods and then averaged for further
analyses (1,15,25,33). Peak force was established as the high-
est force value achieved during the 5-second isometric test.
Additionally, force at 30, 50, 90, 100, 150, 200, and 250 milli-
seconds were determined for each trial. Normalized force
values were determined for all quantified forces by using al-
lometric scaling methods. This was accomplished by dividing
the achieved force values by the subjects body mass raised to
the two-third power (i.e., peak force/body mass0.67) (8).
The rate of force development was then calculated with
several methods. First, the peak rate of force development
was determined as the highest rate of change in force
determined across a 10-millisecond sampling window. Rates
of force development were also quantified among 030,
050, 090, 0100, 0150, 0200, and 0250 milliseconds. the SJ exhibited a moderate correlation (r = 0.47, p = 0.06) with
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Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
The variables analyzed were determined to be reliable for
all isometric peak force variables (ICCa $ 0.98), rates
of force development (ICCa $ 0.81), and peak power
(ICCa $ 0.91). The reliabilities established in this study
are similar to those achieved in other published studies that
have used similar methodologies (4,15,22).
Club Head Speed Analysis
The club head speed was determined with a SwingMate
Club Head Speed Analysis System (Beltronics). This device
uses radar technology to determine each swings club head
speed in miles per hour, which was then converted to meters
per second to compare with the previously published data.
This method of analyzing club head speed was determined
to be reliable as indicated by a high ICC (ICCa = 0.89, 90%
CI = 0.820.94) and a low coefficient of variation (CV% =
4.0%, 90% CI= 3.54.5%).
Statistical Analyses
All data are reported as mean 6 SD. The subject population was
subdivided into 2 categories based on the golf handicap: #13
handicap and .13 handicap. One-way analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was used to determine if there was significant differ-
ence between the 2 groups for selected characteristics and per-
formance variables. Effect sizes were determined with the use of
Cohens d and reported for each of these analyses. The alpha
level was set at p # 0.05 for all ANOVAs.
A multiple regression analysis was used to examine the
relationships between isometric, vertical jump, and club head
speed variables. Statistical significance was set at p # 0.05 for
all correlations. Correlations were evaluated as follows: 0.1
to 0.29 = small, 0.30 to 0.49 = moderate, 0.50 to 0.69 = large,
0.70 to 0.89 = very large, 0.90 to 0.99 = nearly perfect, and
1.0 = perfect (18). Magnitude-based inferences were then
performed based on the methods of Batterham and Hopkins
(2). All statistical analyses were performed with SPSS 19.0
(SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA).
RESULTS
Relationship Between Club Head Speed and Vertical
Jump Performance
None of the correlations between the CMJ and SJ vertical
jump force-time curve variables exhibited statistically signif-
icant correlations with either average or maximal club head
speed (Table 2).
However, moderate correlations were found between aver-
age club head speed and the peak force (r = 0.30, p = 0.18),
allometrically scaled peak force (r = 0.37, p = 0.34), and average
power output (r = 0.36, p = 0.13) during the countermovement
jump. Similarly, maximal club head speed exhibited moderate
correlations with peak force (r = 0.35, p = 0.14), allometrically
scaled peak force (r = 0.30, p = 0.18), peak rate of force
development (r = 0.39, p = 0.11), and peak power output
during the SJ test. The peak rate of force development during
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TABLE 2. Pearson product moment correlations between club head speed and dynamic and isometric force-time
curve variables.

Average club Max club

Variable head speed head speed

Isometric midthigh pull

Force at 30 ms 0.04 0.05
Force at 50 ms 0.28 0.10
Force at 90 ms 0.30 0.18
Force at 100 ms 0.30 0.19
Force at 150 ms 0.36 0.36
Force at 200 ms 0.31 0.32
Force at 250 ms 0.16 0.12
Peak force 0.19 0.20
Allometrically scaled force at 30 ms 0.09 20.01
Allometrically scaled force at 50 ms 0.28 0.12
Allometrically scaled force at 90 ms 0.27 0.16
Allometrically scaled force at 100 ms 0.28 0.17
Allometrically scaled force at 150 ms 0.46* 0.47
Allometrically scaled force at 200 ms 0.38 0.40
Allometrically scaled force at 250 ms 0.16 0.14
Allometrically scaled peak force 0.10 0.13
Rate of force development from 0 to 30 ms 0.08 20.08
Rate of force development from 0 to 50 ms 0.23 0.06
Rate of force development from 0 to 90 ms 0.28 0.15
Rate of force development from 0 to 100 ms 0.28 0.16
Rate of force development from 0 to 150 ms 0.38 0.36
Rate of force development from 0 to 200 ms 0.32 0.32
Rate of force development from 0 to 250 ms 0.16 0.11
Peak rate of force development 0.28 0.19
Countermovement vertical jump
Peak force 0.30 0.21
Allometrically scaled peak force 0.37 0.22
Relative peak force 0.13 0.02
Peak rate of force development 20.08 0.13
Peak velocity 0.14 0.18
Peak power 0.23 0.22
Average power 0.36 0.30
Rate of power development 0.16 0.09
Vertical displacement 0.20 0.25
Static vertical jump
Peak force 0.39 0.34
Allometrically scaled peak force 0.35 0.30
Relative peak force 0.23 0.20
Peak rate of force development 0.47 0.38
Peak velocity 0.22 0.26
Peak power 0.39 0.39
Average power 0.28 0.29
Rate of power development 0.23 0.24
Vertical displacement 0.16 0.20
Measure
Eccentric utilization ratio for power 20.18 20.20
Eccentric utilization ratio for displacement 0.09 0.13

*Approached statistical significance p = 0.07.

Approached statistical significance p = 0.06.

VOLUME 26 | NUMBER 10 | OCTOBER 2012 | 2691

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 Force-Time Curve Characteristics and Club Head Speed

TABLE 3. Isometric midthigh pull peak force results.*

Total sample Handicap #13 Handicap .13 One-way ANOVA

(n = 12) (n = 6) (n = 6)
Variable Mean 6 SD Mean 6 SD Mean 6 SD p d 12b

Isometric force at
30 ms (N) 47.9 6 24.5 35.8 6 14.8 60.0 6 33.1 0.13 0.94 0.45
50 ms (N) 183.3 6 87.9 154.2 6 64.4 212.3 6 104.0 0.27 0.67 0.29
90 ms (N) 535.8 6 254.7 464.2 6 155.8 607.4 6 325.8 0.35 0.56 0.23
100 ms (N) 594.9 6 261.0 516.6 6 148.9 673.2 6 336.1 0.32 0.60 0.25
150 ms (N) 849.7 6 314.1 813.7 6 179.8 885.7 6 426.1 0.71 0.22 0.10
200 ms (N) 1,188.7 6 405.4 1,204.0 6 264.4 1,173.3 6 539.6 0.90 0.07 0.06
250 ms (N) 1,401.4 6 350.4 1,361.5 6 266.3 1,441.3 6 442.1 0.71 0.22 0.10
Peak (N) 2,137.8 6 323.4 2,172.7 6 242.5 2,102.9 6 410.3 0.73 0.21 0.10
Allometrically scaled
isometric force at
30 ms (N$kg20.67) 2.5 6 1.3 2.0 6 0.9 3.0 6 1.4 0.17 0.84 0.37
50 ms (N$kg20.67) 9.9 6 5.1 8.6 6 3.7 11.3 6 6.2 0.38 0.53 0.22
90 ms (N$kg20.67) 29.2 6 15.7 25.7 6 9.1 32.8 6 20.7 0.47 0.45 0.18
100 ms (N$kg20.67) 32.4 6 15.9 28.6 6 8.6 36.2 6 21.1 0.44 0.47 0.19
150 ms (N$kg20.67) 45.3 6 14.0 45.1 6 10.1 45.5 6 18.1 0.44 0.03 0.06
200 ms (N$kg20.67) 63.6 6 19.3 67.3 6 17.4 60.0 6 22.0 0.97 0.34 0.14
250 ms (N$kg20.67) 75.8 6 18.8 76.1 6 18.6 75.5 6 20.9 0.95 0.03 0.06
Peak (N$kg20.67) 116.8 6 25.7 121.4 6 21.3 112.3 6 30.8 0.56 0.34 0.14

*ANOVA = analysis of variance.

the average club head speed, which approached statistical
significance.
When examining the maximal club head speed, only
moderate correlations were determined for the variables
analyzed. However, moderate correlations were found between
the maximal club head speed and peak force (r = 0.34, p = 0.14),
allometrically scaled peak force (r = 0.30, p = 0.18), peak rate of
force development (r = 0.38, p = 0.11), and peak power
(r = 0.39, p = 0.11) during the SJ.
Small-to-moderate nonstatistically significant correlations
were determined between average club head speed and the
eccentric utilization ratio for peak power (r = 20.18,
p = 0.29) and vertical displacement (r = 20.20, p = 0.27).
Only small nonstatistically significant correlations were

TABLE 4. Isometric midthigh pull peak rate of force development results.*

Total sample Handicap # 13 Handicap . 13 One-way ANOVA

(n = 12) (n = 6) (n = 6)
Variable Mean 6 SD Mean 6 SD Mean 6 SD p d 12b

RFD
030 ms (N$s21) 2,831.1 6 1,578.5 2,172.6 6 1,068.4 3,489.6 6 1,816.4 0.16 0.88 0.41
050 ms (N$s21) 4,319.6 6 2,356.4 3,600.6 6 1,657.3 5,038.4 6 2,868.6 0.31 0.61 0.25
090 ms (N$s21) 6,364.6 6 3,136.5 5,483.8 6 1,897.4 7,245.4 6 4,022.6 0.36 0.56 0.23
0100 ms (N$s21) 6,319.6 6 2,861.0 5,460.1 6 1,610.1 7,179.0 6 3,693.5 0.32 0.60 0.25
0150 ms (N$s21) 5,911.7 6 2,032.8 5,620.7 6 1,139.4 6,202.8 6 2,754.8 0.64 0.28 0.12
0200 ms (N$s21) 6,128.6 6 2,002.7 6,167.0 6 1,352.4 6,090.1 6 2,754.8 0.95 0.04 0.06
0250 ms (N$s21) 5,753.8 6 1,460.9 5,563.6 6 1,120.1 5,944.0 6 1,831.3 0.67 0.25 0.11
Peak RFD (N$s21) 12,393.1 6 5,323.1 12,191.8 6 4,906.5 12,594.3 6 6,178.0 0.90 0.07 0.06

*ANOVA = analysis of variance; RFD = rate of force development.

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 TABLE 5. Vertical jump performance data.*

One-way ANOVA
Total sample (n = 12) Handicap #13 (n = 6) Handicap .13 (n = 6)
Variable Mean 6 SD Mean 6 SD Mean 6 SD p d 12b

Measure
Countermovement vertical jump
Peak force (N) 1,685.5 6 196.9 1,645.8 6 178.8 1,725.2 6 222.6 0.51 0.39 0.16
Allometrically scaled peak force (N$kg20.67) 93.6 6 4.1 93.7 6 3.6 93.4 6 4.9 0.89 0.07 0.06
Relative peak force (N$kg21) 22.1 6 0.9 22.4 6 0.8 21.8 6 0.8 0.21 0.75 0.33
Peak rate of force development (N$s21) 7,624.4 6 1,920.5 8,068.4 6 2,258.1 7,180.4 6 1,555.4 0.45 0.46 0.18
Peak velocity (m$s21) 3.1 6 0.3 3.1 6 0.4 3.1 6 0.1 0.99 0.00 0.05
Peak power (W) 4,693.4 6 805.3 4,677.5 6 1,054.4 4,709.3 6 560.9 0.95 0.04 0.06
Allometrically scaled peak power (W$kg20.67) 260.3 6 34.2 265.0 6 45.4 255.7 6 21.4 0.66 0.26 0.11
Relative peak power (W$kg21) 61.5 6 7.7 63.2 6 9.6 59.7 6 5.7 0.46 0.44 0.18
Average power (W) 1,681.5 6 344.5 1,631.6 6 431.4 1,731.5 6 262.8 0.64 0.28 0.12
Peak rate of power development (W$s21) 21,550.8 6 5,049.4 20,950.5 6 6,272.5 22,151.0 6 3,985.3 0.70 0.23 0.10
Vertical displacement (m) 0.38 6 0.07 0.41 6 0.05 0.35 6 0.07 0.12 0.99 0.48
Static vertical jump
Peak force (N) 1,478.0 6 205.0 1,461.3 6 225.2 1,494.8 6 202.8 0.79 0.16 0.08
Allometrically scaled peak force (N$kg20.67) 6 6 6

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

82.2 8.1 83.2 10.2 81.2 6.0 0.69 0.24 0.10

the
Relative peak force (N$kg21) 19.4 6 1.9 19.9 6 2.4 19.0 6 1.2 0.41 0.48 0.19
Peak rate of force development (N$s21) 5,184.5 6 2,584.4 5,562.0 6 3,205.4 4,806.9 6 2,019.2 0.64 0.28 0.12
Peak velocity (m$s21) 2.9 6 0.3 2.9 6 0.3 2.9 6 0.2 0.66 0.00 0.05
Peak power (W) 4,093.6 6 647.1 4,079.1 6 741.9 4,108.1 6 608.6 0.94 0.04 0.06
Allometrically scaled peak power (W$kg20.67) 6 6 6
VOLUME 26 | NUMBER 10 | OCTOBER 2012 |

227.8 30.2 231.7 33.4 223.9 29.2 0.68 0.25 0.11

Relative peak power (W$kg21) 53.8 6 7.1 55.3 6 7.3 52.4 6 7.3 0.51 0.40 0.16
Average power (W) 1,999.7 6 404.1 2,029.7 6 322.8 1,969.8 6 502.9 0.81 0.14 0.08
Peak rate of power development (W$s21) 12,971.7 6 5,272.1 14,734.0 6 3,365.9 11,209.4 6 6,508.8 0.27 0.68 0.29
Vertical displacement (m) 0.32 6 0.06 0.33 6 0.05 0.31 6 0.06 0.54 0.36 0.14
Eccentric utilization ratio for power 1.15 6 0.14 1.15 6 0.19 1.15 6 0.07 0.99 0.00 0.05
Eccentric utilization ratio for displacement 1.19 6 0.11 1.25 6 0.13 1.13 6 0.05 0.07 1.02 0.50

*ANOVA = analysis of variance.

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 Force-Time Curve Characteristics and Club Head Speed
found between maximal club head speed and the eccentric
utilization ratio for displacement (r = 0.13, p = 0.34).
Relationship Between Club Head Speed and Isometric
Midthigh Pull Performance Characteristics
Small-to-moderate nonstatistically significant correlations
were determined between absolute force variables (peak force
and force at 50, 90, 100, 150, 200, and 250 milliseconds) and
both average and maximal club head speeds. Following
allometric scaling, the force at 150 milliseconds was moder-
ately correlated with average (r = 0.46, p = 0.07) and maximal
club head speed (r = 0.47, p = 0.06). The remainder of the
allometrically scaled force data (peak force and force at 50, 90,
100, 200, and 250 milliseconds) exhibited small-to-moderate
nonstatistically significant correlations with average and max-
imal club head speeds (Table 2).
Similar to the peak force data, the isometric rate of force
development data demonstrated small-to-moderate correla-
tions with average and maximal club head speed (Table 2).
Interestingly, while not statistically significant, a moderate
correlation was found between rate of force development
from 0150 ms and average (r = 0.38, p = 0.11) and maximal
club head speed (r = 0.36, p = 0.12).
Comparison Between Lower and Higher Handicap Golfers
Golfers with a greater number of years of experience had
a lower handicap as indicated by the large significant
correlation between the variables (r = 20.55, p = 0.03).
Additionally, handicap was significantly correlated with aver-
age club head speed (r = 20.52, p = 0.04). The correlation
between handicap and maximum club head speed (r = 20.45,
p = 0.07) approached statistical significance, suggesting that
subjects with lower handicaps exhibited higher club
head speeds.
There were no statistically significant differences between
the subjects for any subject characteristics other than the
handicap (Table 1), where there was a significant difference
(p = 0.004, d = 2.34) between the low handicap group (hand-
icap = 9.7 6 3.2) and high handicap group (handicap = 19.3 6
5.5). The average club head speed tended to be higher in the
low handicap group (48.3 6 4.9 m$s21) when compared
with the high handicap group (44.4 6 3.5 m$s21). This
difference exhibited a large effect size but failed to reach
statistical significance (p = 0.14, d = 0.93). The difference
in maximal club head speed between the lower handicap group
(51.4 6 3.3 m$s21) and higher handicap group (47.5 6
3.0 m$s21) approached statistical significance (p = 0.06) and
exhibited a large effect size (d = 1.23). When comparing the
low and high handicap groups, there were no significant differ-
ences in isometric midthigh pull force variables (Table 3).
Additionally, there were no significant differences in isometric
rates of force development data between the low and high
handicap groups (Table 4). There were also no significant dif-
ferences between the low and high handicap groups for any
of the force-time curve data collected during either the CMJ
or SJ tests (Table 5).
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The eccentric utilization ratio for displacement exhibited
a large statistically significant correlation with the golfers hand-
icap (r = 20.57, p = 0.027). When comparing the low and high
handicap golfers, the eccentric utilization ratio for vertical dis-
placement approached statistical significance (p = 0.07) and
demonstrated a large effect size (d = 1.02).
DISCUSSION
It is well established in the scientific literature that club head
speed differs between higher (lower handicap) and lower
skilled golfers (higher handicap) (9). Fradkin et al. (9) reported
a significant (p , 0.001) correlation (r = 0.95) between club
head speed and golf handicap. In support of these findings, the
present study demonstrated a significant correlation between
club head speed and golf handicap (r = 20.52, p = 0.04).
Specifically, lower handicap golfers exhibited a higher club
head speed than their higher handicap counterparts. Exami-
nation of the data presented by Fradkin et al. (9) reveals that
golfers with a handicap ,10 produced average club head
speed of .46 m$s21, whereas golfers with a handicap .19
produced average club head speed of ,45 m$s21. Similar club
head speeds were determined for the present study where the
lower handicap golfers (9.7 6 3.2) had average club head
speed of 48.3 6 4.9 m$s21 and higher handicap golfers
(19.3 6 5.5) had average club head speed of 44.4 6 3.5 m$s21.
Even though the lower handicap golfers average club head
speed was approximately 8.9% greater than the higher hand-
icap golfers, there was no statistical difference (p = 0.14, d =
0.93) between the 2 groups. When the maximal club head
speed was examined, it was determined that the lower hand-
icap golfers had an approximately 8.2% greater club head
speed (51.4 6 3.3 m$s21) than the higher handicap group
(47.5 6 3.0 m$s21). The difference in maximum club head
speed between these 2 groups only approached statistical sig-
nificance (p = 0.07), but a very large effect size (d = 1.23) was
determined for the difference between the 2 groups. From
a practical standpoint, the large effect size determined
between handicap and club head speeds is a significant obser-
vation because it gives support for the contention that lower
handicap golfers produce higher club head speeds. Couple
these findings with the evidence presented by Fradkin et al.
(9), and there is compelling evidence that club head speed is
able to differentiate between lower and higher handicap golf-
ers. Therefore, the assessment of club head speed may be
useful when evaluating golfing performance potential.
Unexpectedly, peak force during the isometric midthigh
pull only demonstrated small non-significant correlations
with average (r = 0.19, p = 0.28) and maximal club head
speeds (r = 0.20, p = 0.27). Additionally, when the force
values were allometrically scaled to account for the golfers
body dimensions (8), small nonsignificant relationships were
also determined between peak forces and average (r = 0.10,
p = 0.38) and maximal club head speed (r = 0.13, p = 0.35).
Furthermore, there were no significant differences between
the isometric peak forces achieved by the low and high

handicap golfers for absolute or allometrically scaled values.
One possible explanation for why there was a lack of
relationship and an inability to differentiate between low
and high handicap golfers could be related to the time frame
in which peak forces were achieved. In this study, peak
forces occurred at 1,550.8 6 258.8 milliseconds, which is
much longer than the time frame required for the application
of forces typically seen during the downswing in golf (17,24).
Peak ground reaction forces during a golf swing are
reported to occur in ,250 to 300 milliseconds because the
average downswing occurs somewhere between 200 and
300 milliseconds (17,24), with the average downswing occur-
ring in approximately 230 milliseconds (19). Therefore, look-
ing at the peak forces achieved at time, increments ,250
milliseconds may be more beneficial when examining the
force-generating capacity of golfers. In this investigation,
the highest correlations were found between club head
speed and peak force achieved at 150 milliseconds. Specif-
ically, moderate nonstatistically significant correlations
were determined between peak forces at 150 milliseconds
and the average (r = 0.36, p = 0.13) and peak club head
speed (r = 0.36, p = 0.13). However, when the peak forces
were allometrically scaled, there was a moderate correlation
that approached statistical significance between peak forces
at 150 milliseconds and average (r = 0.46, p = 0.07) and
maximal club head speeds (r = 0.47, p = 0.06). When the
lower and higher handicap golfers were compared, there
were no significant differences between peak forces at 150
milliseconds during the isometric midthigh pull.
Because the time frame in which force is applied is
a critical component of an effective downswing, the overall
rate of force development should be expected to relate to
club head speed (17). Specifically, it may be expected that
rates of force development between 0 to 150 and 0 to 200
milliseconds would be related to club head speed. Some
support for this contention can be found in the moderate
nonsignificant correlations that were found between the
rate of force development from 0 to 150 milliseconds and
average (r = 0.38, p = 0.11) and maximal club head speeds
(r = 0.36, p = 0.12) and between the rate of force development
from 0 to 200 milliseconds and average (r = 0.32, p = 0.16)
and maximal club head speeds (r = 0.32, p = 0.16). Based on
this relationship, it would be expected that lower handicap
golfers would therefore express higher rates of force develop-
ment in these time frames. Unexpectedly, when comparing
the lower handicap golfers to their higher handicap counter-
parts, there were no statistical differences in their rates of force
development. Careful examination of the effect sizes at the
different time frames analyzed during the isometric midthigh
pull revealed that as the time of peak force measurement
increased from 30 to 250 milliseconds, the effect size
decreased (Table 3). Additionally, this same pattern was noted
for the rates of force development. From a practical stand-
point, these data suggest that more proficient golfers (lower
handicap) are able to generate larger forces more rapidly at
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critical time points throughout a golf swing. Additionally,
these data seem to suggest that the ability to apply these
forces with the lower body in approximately 150 to 200
milliseconds is an important ability when attempting to
produce higher club head speeds.
Even though the rate of force development did not
differentiate between lower and higher handicap golfers, it
is possible that it is still an important characteristic. The peak
rate of force development has consistently been related to
both CMJ and SJ performance (12,15,25). In this study, large
correlations were determined between the peak rate of force
development and vertical displacement during the CMJ
(r = 0.69, p , 0.05) and SJ (r = 0.68, p , 0.05). Based on
the available data, the ability to exert high rates of force
development is important for the successful performance
of jumping activities.
In this investigation, there were only moderate correla-
tions between CMJ displacement and handicap (r = 20.33).
Additionally, only small correlations were found between
CMJ displacement and average club head speed (r = 0.20)
and maximal club head speed (r = 0.25). When comparing
lower and higher handicap golfers, there were no significant
differences noted for the CMJ displacements. However,
there was a large effect size (d = 0.99) for this comparison,
and the lower handicap golfers did jump approximately 1.7%
higher than the higher handicap golfers. These findings were
unexpected in that previous literature has indicated that the
CMJ displacement is highly correlated with the club head
speed (r = 0.60), which has the ability to differentiate
between lower and higher handicap golfers (17). One possi-
ble explanation for the lack of relationship between the CMJ
performance and club head speed could be related to the
time in which force was generated during the jumping
movement. For example, in general, the golfers in this study
achieved a peak rate of force development in 259 6 89.2
milliseconds and peak force in 676.9 6 108.0 milliseconds,
which is longer than the time frame in which force is
applied during a golfers downswing (approximately 230
milliseconds). Interestingly, lower handicap golfers achieved
their peak rate of force development significantly sooner
than their higher handicap counterparts (time to peak
rate of force development: lower handicap = 208.7 6 80.9
milliseconds; higher handicap = 308.7 6 70.5 milliseconds;
p = 0.05, d = 1.32). However, no significant difference was
found between the lower and the higher handicap golfers
when examining the time to peak force (lower handicap
= 659.1 697.2 milliseconds; higher handicap = 692.7 6
124.5 milliseconds; p = 0.27, d = 0.30).
Interestingly, when examining the SJ performance, it was
noted that the peak rate of force development was moder-
ately correlated with average club head speed (r = 0.47, p =
0.06). When the time to peak rate of force development was
examined, it was determined that it occurred at 184.5 6 88.7
milliseconds. Moderate correlations (r = 0.34, p = 0.14) were
also observed when examining the relationship of peak force
VOLUME 26 | NUMBER 10 | OCTOBER 2012 | 2695
 Force-Time Curve Characteristics and Club Head Speed
to average club head speed. Peak force was achieved during
the static jump in 472.5 6 77.4 milliseconds, which is signif-
icantly sooner than the time course for force application
during the countermovement jump. Ultimately, the fact that
the peak rate of force development and application of peak
forces occurred sooner in the SJ test and in a time frame
similar to the average time course of the downswing in golf
supports the contention that the timing of force application
and the rate of force application are important parameters to
consider during the downswing in golf.
The golf swing is often characterized as a stretch-short-
ening cycle activity (19). One method for evaluating the
ability of an athlete to engage the stretch-shortening cycle
is the eccentric utilization ratio, which is created by dividing
a countermovement vertical jump by an SJ performance (23).
When the ratio is higher, it is indicative of a greater ability
to engage the stretch-shortening cycle. In this study, this
ratio was significantly correlated with the golfers handicap
(r = 20.57, p = 0.027). Specifically, lower handicap golfers
exhibited an eccentric utilization ratio that was approxi-
mately 11% higher than the higher handicap golfers. This
difference approached statistical significance (p = 0.07) and
exhibited a large effect size (d = 1.02). These higher eccentric
utilization ratios results would be expected because the abil-
ity to produce force rapidly has been suggested to enhance
the eccentric utilization ratio (23). Although the eccentric
utilization ratio seems to differentiate between lower and
higher handicap golfers, the ratio as a whole is not strongly
correlated with the swing speed.
Based on the current study, it seems that several
underlying characteristics are important in achieving a higher
club head speed. Specifically, high rates of force develop-
ment that are applied in a time frame ,200 milliseconds and
higher peak forces contribute to the development of higher
club head speeds. Based on these findings and the current
body of knowledge, training activities that have the ability to
enhance the rate of force development and force generated
in time periods ,250 milliseconds are important for devel-
oping golf performance and enhancing club head speed (17).
These activities may include weightlifting movements (15,
30) and ballistic movements such as jump squats (16).
Even though the present data are compelling, further
research is required to further understand the relationships
between strength and power characteristics and perfor-
mance in golf to develop sport-specific resistance training
interventions that are intended to enhance golf performance.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The primary findings of this study were that club head speed
is related to a golfers handicap and that golfers with lower
handicaps are able to generate higher club head speeds.
Because of the very short time frame allotted to apply forces
during a downswing (,230 milliseconds), the ability to
apply force in this time frame is of particular importance.
This study reveals that the force generated within 150
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milliseconds and the rate of the force application during
this time frame are of particular importance when attempt-
ing to achieve high club head speeds. From a practical stand-
point, these relationships give evidence as to which types
of resistance training activities might be beneficial for inclu-
sion in the training practices of the golfer. Specifically,
resistance training activities that result in increases in the
rate of force development and peak force-generating capac-
ity during time periods #150 milliseconds are of particular
importance to the golfer. Based on the scientific literature,
the combination of targeted strength exercises, weightlifting
movements, and ballistic activities that are commonly related
to improvements in the rate of force development and peak
force-generating capacity (30) should be considered in the
preparation practices of the golfer. When these types of
training activities are used to develop lower-body strength
and power in golfers, the club head speed has the potential to
be increased by 1.6 to 6.3% (32). Therefore, strength and
conditioning professionals should consider all training activ-
ities and practices that target both peak force and rate of
force development when attempting to maximize club head
speed and improve golfing performance. Further research is
warranted to determine the exact periodization model that
should be employed and to determine how these recommen-
dations affect the long-term development of the golfer.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors have received no funding for the completion of
this project.
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