Lesson 1: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OR THE
EARTH
The Universe
❖ is defined as all existing matter and
space considered as a whole. The
observable universe is believed to be at
least 93 billion light years in diameter
and constantly expanding since the big
bang 13.8 billion years ago.
Theory on the Origin of the Universe
❖ Scientists test ideas through
experiments and observation or through
scientific method. They build upon ideas
that pass examinations. The ideas that
are not accepted, however, are usually
deconstructed, reformulated, and
retested. They followed the evidence
where it leads, and they questioned
everything.
Big Bang Model of the Universe (1929)
❖ It describes the universe as originating
in an infinitely tiny, infinitely dense point
or singularity between to 13 to 14 billion
years ago. The essential statement of
the theory is usually attributed to the
Belgian Roman catholic priest Georges
Henri Joseph Edouard Lemaitre in 1927.
“Big bang” - an expansion of space
The Bigbang Timeline
● Planck - singularity
● Planck length - gravitational
force - strong nuclear force -
inflationary epoche - quark
epoche - quarks clumped
together and form hadrons -
hydrogen and helium - star/sun -
stellar nucleosynthesis -
supernova - the birth of
elements - celestial elements
●
A. Inflationary Epoch (Lasted in 10 −35s to
10-33 s)
❖ The universe expanded quickly from the
size of an atom to 1035 meters in width.
B. Formation of the Universe (10 -6 seconds)
❖ The universe continues to expand. It
became distinct: gravity, strong nuclear
force that held the nuclei together, weak
nuclear force and electromagnetic force.
By the first seconds, the universe is
made up of fundamental particles and
energy : quarks, electrons, photons, and
neutrinos.
C. Formation of Basic Elements (3 seconds)
❖ Protons, and neutrons combine to form
hydrogen nucleic. Then hydrogen began
to combine in pairs to form helium
nuclei. This process is called
nucleosynthesis.
D. Radiation era (10,000 years)
❖ Most of the energy in the universe was
in the form of radiation. These include
different wavelengths of light, X-rays,
radio waves and UV rays. They formed
what is called the cosmic wave
background radiation.
❖ Cosmic microwave background
E. Matter domination (300,000 years)
❖ Matter began to dominate and at the
end of the radiation era at this stage,
lithium atom began to form. Electrons
 joined with hydrogen and helium nuclei
to make scales neutral atoms.

F. Birth of the Stars and Galaxies (300 million

yrs)
❖ The slightly irregular areas of the gas
cloud, gravitational attract nearby matter
and become denser. The dense gas
clouds collapsed and eventually gained
enough mass to ignite producing light.
The huge gas cloud can be the ❖ In the eighteenth century, the
birthplace of dozens of stars. The group understanding of how the Solar System
of stars became the galaxies. originated became more than just
❖ Oxygen to iron descriptive models: it became scientific.
Higher heat to form elements The following scientific theories present
● Planck - singularity the explanation of the origin of the Solar
● Planck length - gravitational System. It is important to note that these
force - strong nuclear force - theories build up on the idea of angular
inflationary epoche momentum.
❖ Angular momentum is the quantity of
THE SOLAR SYSTEM rotation of a body, which is the product
of its moment of inertia and its angular
❖ A model is a representation of an idea, velocity.
an object or even a process that is used
to describe and explain phenomena that
cannot be experienced directly.
Scientists use models to predict a
phenomena or event, such as the origin
of the Solar System. Therefore, a model
is a scientist's description of an event at
that time, demonstrating how science
knowledge is tentative.

❖ There are two popular models about the

Solar System:
➢ Claudius Ptolemy's geocentric
model, which states that the
earth is at the center of the
Solar System,
➢ Nicholas Copernicus'
heliocentric model, which states
that the sun is at the center of
the Solar System.
Nebular Hypothesis
❖ Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) and
Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827) were
the first to propose the earliest theory of
how the Solar System originated.
❖ Nebula - giant cloud of dust ang gas
❖ Nebular disc -
❖ proto sun - first star
❖ Bigger object - stronger gravitational
force
❖ Sun took 10 million years to form
❖ The Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis
presumes that the Solar System began THE PLANETS
as a cloud of dispersed interstellar gas
called nebula. The mutual gravitational ❖ Currently, we have 8 official planets
attraction between particles caused present in our solar system. They are
them to start moving and colliding, and divided into two classifications:
they were kept together by electrostatic Terrestrial Planets and Jovian Planets.
forces. The resulting nebular aggregates
became larger than others, grew more
rapidly, and ultimately became the
planets.

Terrestrial Planets
❖ were also known as the rocky planets.
These planets are the first four planets
in our solar system inside the asteroid
belt. The following are the terrestrial
planets: 1. Mercury 3. Earth
2. Venus 4. Mars

Jovian Planets - name came from ga

❖ (also known as the Gaseous Planets)
were the planets outside the asteroid
belt. These planets were composed
mainly of gasses and had a metallic
core. The following planets were the
Jovian planet.
1. Jupiter 3. Uranus
2. Saturn 4. Neptune
Trivia: The 3 Criteria of the International
Astronomical Union (IAU) for a full-sized planet
are:
1. It is in orbit around the Sun.
2. It has sufficient mass to assume
hydrostatic equilibrium (a nearly round
shape).
 3. It has “cleared the neighborhood” 1. Lithosphere
around its orbit. 2. Asthenospheres
- No asteroids around its orbit 3. Mesosphere
4. Inner/Outer Core
❖ Why Pluto downgraded as a planet?
❖ Pluto have no fixed orbit Compositional Layer
Summary
❖ The theory that was accepted by most Crust - it is made up of large rocks divided into
of the people were the Bigbang Theory. two forms; oceanic crust and continental crust.
❖ There are two popular models about the
The former is composed of the elements
Solar System: Claudius Ptolemy's
iron(Fe), Oxygen (0), Magnesium (Mg), Aluminium
geocentric model, which states that the
(Al) while the latter granite, sedimentary and
earth is at the center of the Solar
metamorphic rocks.
System, and Nicholas Copernicus’
❖ Crust is 50-70 km in depth
heliocentric model, which states that the
sun is at the center of the Solar System.
❖ The Kant-Laplace nebular hypothesis
presumes that the Solar System began
as cloud of dispersed interstellar gas
called nebula.

❖
❖

Lesson 2: ORIGIN AND STRUCTURE OR THE

EARTH

Mantle – is mostly solid rocks and minerals and

Earth Systems
Earth
❖ is characterized by its blue waters, rocky
brown and green land masses with
white grounds set against the black
background. It is made up of erratic,
complex and interactive systems that
make it constantly changing planet.
marked by malleable semi-solid magma. It
represents about 85% of the total weight and
mass of the planet.
❖ It is believe that the first 50 miles is
composed of a very hard rigid rock. The
next 150 miles is said to be superheated
solid rock.

Compositional Layer:
1. Crust 2. Mantle 3. Core

Mechanical Layer
 ❖ Inner Core – The final layer of the Earth
is the inner core which is an exceedingly
hot, dense huge of mostly iron 2500 km
wide. The temperature of the inner core
ranges from 5,000°C to 6,000°C which is
enough to make metal melt. It has
strong pressure around it making the
metal stay solid. With this unusual set of
circumstances, some scientists tend to
assume that the inner core is not totally
Core - The earth's core is entirely made up of solid but rather as plasma behaving as
metal alloy such as iron(Fe) and nickel (Ni). solid.
Other elements found in the Earth's core are
siderophiles. These are the elements that
dissolve in iron and are classified as "precious Seismic
metals". It is divided into two: inner core and Waves – is
outer core. caused by
breaking
down of
rocks or
explosions.

Lithosphere (Geosphere)
❖ Outer Core - it is the second largest and
❖ It is subsystem that composed of
second to the last layer of our planet. It
minerals and rocks. It extends from
is about 2,200 km thick and composed
crust to core.
of entirely superheated liquid molten
❖ It is subject to motion forming
lava of liquid iron and nickel. The Nife
continents and different landforms.
alloy of the outer core is extremely hot
❖ It produces soil due to uplifting of rocks
and its temperature range is between
beneath the earth.
4,500° to 5,500° Celsius. The liquid
metal of the outer core has very low
viscosity, which makes it easily
deformed and malleable.

Hydrosphere
❖ The Earth's hydrosphere can be in a
form of liquid, vapor and ice such as
glaciers, ice caps and ice bergs. This
frozen part is called Cryosphere.
❖ Mostly ninety seven (97%) percent of
the Earth's water is in the form of
oceans (salty) and the rest is freshwater
(non salty). Three-quarters of this fresh
water is solid and exists in the ice
sheets.
Ocean Zones
❖ Oceans may be divided into layers
known as zones. The zones may be
horizontal or vertical.
❖ Horizontal zones divide the ocean from
land to the sea. It consist of coastal and
pelagic zone.
Horizontal Zones
Coastal zone
❖ is the region in which sea bottom is
exposed during low tide and is covered
during high tide. Some animals have
adapted to this environment like sea
stars, sea urchins and some species of
coral.
Pelagic zone
❖ is located seaward of the coastal zone's
low tide mark. This is always covered
with water. There are two divisions:
neritic zone and oceanic zone.
❖ Neritic zone lies above the continental
shelf. It extends from the low tide mark
outwards from the seashore and
extends to a depth of 200m. Sunlight
penetrates the water. Many sea animals
are found in this zone.
Vertical Zone
❖ Vertical zones begin at sea level and end
at the deepest point in the ocean. There
are five zones. Each zone receives a
different amount of sunlight.
Vertical Zones
Epipelagic zone or the sunlight zone (0-200m)
❖ is the zone that gets a lot of sunlight
resulting to an abundance of aquatic
 plants. Common animals found in this
zone include seals, sea turtles, sea lions,
ray, and sharks.
Mesopelagic zone or the twilight zone
(2001000m)
❖ is characterized by dim light due to the
limited amount of sunlight it receives.
Ono plants are found in this region. Lilly
fish, octopus, and squid are found in this
region.
Bathypelagic zone or the midnight zone (1000 –
4000m)
❖ does not receive any sunlight. Animals
that live here lack eyes. Some animals
can be found in this are like viperfish,
anglerfish, stripe eel, and tripod fish.
Abyssopelagic zone or the abyss (4000 –
6000m)
❖ is described as deep sea. Most animals
living in this area are invertebrates like
blind shrimps, small squids, and hagfish.
Hadalpelagic zone or the trenches (6000 –
bottom)
❖ is the deepest part of the ocean. This
zone is mostly found in deep water
trenches and canyons. Some animals
exist here like sea cucumber and tube
worms.
Atmosphere
❖ This thin layer of gas envelops our
planet is necessary to sustain life
because it contains gases essential for
humans and animals to breathe. It
enables plants to make their own food,
traps heat to keep us warm, protects us
from harmful radiation from the space
and drives ocean currents that spread
heat which regulates our climate. The
greenhouse gases help keep our planet's
temperature to a level conducive to life.
Layers of the Atmosphere
1. Troposphere
❖ lowest layer is
the troposphere. It
contains about 80% of
the total mass of the
atmosphere. Most of the
water vapor present in
the atmosphere is found
in the troposphere. All
weather-associated cloud types are
found in this layer.
2. Stratosphere
 ❖ extends up to 50km high. It is in this
region where we can find the ozone layer
which absorbs and scatters the solar
ultraviolet radiation.
4. Thermosphere
❖ extends up to 500 km
above the mesosphere. It is
where aurora and satellites
occur. The temperature in this
layer can rise to as high as 1500
degrees Celsius.

Biosphere
❖ The biosphere contains all the Earth's
living things (plants and animals). It is
sometimes referred to as the "zone of
life". From a geophysical standpoint,
biosphere is the global ecological
system integrating all living things and
their relationship, including their
interactions with the elements of the
lithosphere, hydrosphere, and
atmosphere. The term "biosphere" was
coined by geologist Edward Suess 1875.

Biomes
❖ The biosphere is divided into biomes.
Biomes are the world's major
communities. They are classified
according to the predominant vegetation
characterized by adaptations of
3. Mesosphere organisms to that particular climate.
❖ This region is
above the 1. Aquatic
stratosphere and ❖ includes freshwater (ponds,
extends to 85 km. lakes, rivers, etc.) and marine
Meteors usually (ocean, estuaries, etc.). The
burn up in this aquatic regions house
region as they numerous species of plants
approach our and animals.
planet. The
coldest region in 2. Forests
the atmosphere is ❖ includes tropical, temperate, and
the upper boreal, and boreal forest as well as a
mesosphere. taiga. Each type of forest has
distinctive features dominated by
grasses rather than large shrubs or
tree.
 A rock is an aggregate of one or
more minerals. For example, a
coal is a sedimentary rock
composed of carbon.

3. Desert
❖ is characterized by low rainfall (less Physical Properties of Minerals
than 50cm/year). Most desserts have 1. Luster
specialized vegetation as well as 2. Hardness
specialized animals that can adapt to its 3. Color and Streak
condition. 4. Crystal Structure/ Habit
5. Cleavage
6. Specific Gravity
7. Other Properties

Transparency
● A mineral is transparent if it allows the
4. Tundra light to pass through and you can see
❖ is the coldest of all the biomes, it has objects through it.
low biotic diversity and simple
vegetation structure.

Summary
❖ Lithosphere focuses on land surfaces
like the continents.
❖ Cryosphere is under hydrosphere
because it was the frozen part of the
earth. Natural ice on arctic areas came
from water.
❖ lonosphere was the area where in the
aurora borealis and the movement of
radio waves that was used on the
internet or cellular phones occurs.
❖ Biosphere was present on all the three
spheres.
Lesson 3: EARTH MATERIALS AND
RESOURCES
Minerals and Rocks
Minerals
Mineral has the following characteristic:
● is inorganic, represented by a chemical
formula, is solid found in nature.
Luster
● indicates how light is
reflected off a surface of a
mineral. There are
qualitative terms to
describe this properties
such as metallic, vitreous,
pearly, dull, greasy and
silky
● Metallic, Dull, Metallic, Luster, Vitreous,
Pearly
Hardness
● refers to the mineral
resistance to be scratched. This
property is dependent on the
chemical composition and the
crystallized structure of a mineral.
MOH’S SCALE OF HARDNESS
 Crystal Structure and Crystal
Habit
RATING DESCRIPTION MINERAL
EXAMPLE ● Minerals may be
classified based on their crystal
1: VERY SOFT EASILY CRUMBLES. CAN TALC structure.
BE SCRATCHED WITH A
FINGERNAIL (2:2)

2. SOFT CAN BE SCRATCHED GYPSUM Crystal structure

WITH A FINGERNAIL (22) ● describes the orderly geometric spatial
3. SOFT CAN BE SCRATCHED CALCITE arrangement of atoms in the internal
WITH A COPPER PENNY structure of a mineral.
(3.5)
Minerals and Rocks: Earth and Life Science
4. SEMI-HARD CAN BE SCRATCHED FLUORITE
WITH ANAL (5.2)
FLUORITE

5. HARD CAN BE SCRATCHED APATITE

WITH ANAL (5.2)

6. HARD MINERAL WITH FELDSPAR

HARDNESS OF 6 OR
MORE CAN SCRATCH
GLASS

7. VERY HARD CAN BE SCRATCHED QUARTZ

WITH A CONCRETE NAIL
(7.5)

8. VERY HARD TOPAZ

9. EXTREMELY EXTREMELY HARD CORUNDUM

HARD USED IN INDUSTRIAL
TOOLS FOR CUTTING
AND GRINDING

10. THE DIAMOND IS USED TO DIAMOND

HARDEST CUT ALL MINERALS

Color And Streak

Crystal structure^
● Minerals come in
Cleavage
different colors especially
● It describes how a mineral breaks along
mineral gems. Mineral
weakness plain.
gems are rare and are
Cleavage in one direction. Example: MUSCOVITE
used to make jewelry
Cleavage in two directions. Example: FELDSPAR
● Streak of a
Cleavage in three directions. Example: HALITE
mineral refers to the color of the mineral
Cleavage in two directions. Example: CALCITE
in powdered form. You can do streak
test plate (back side of a porcelain
plate)
 Luster non-metallic - vitreous;
transparent to translucent

Hardness soft (2-2.5)

Color white

Streak white

Form/Habit cubic

Cleavage perfect cubic

Specific Gravity light (2.2)

Specific Gravity
● It describes the minerals density in Other Properties salty taste; very soluble;
comparison to the density of a standard produces reddish spark in
like water. flame

Other Properties
● Carbonate minerals like
calcite, dolomite, and azurite react with
hydrochloric acid (HCI).
● Minerals containing irons like Rock
magnetite are attracted by a magnet. Rock Cycle.
● Gold, silver and copper ● Refer to the rock cycle. It shows the
minerals are good conductor of origin of the igneous rock, sedimentary
electricity. and metamorphic rocks and their
interrelationship

MINERAL NAME HALITE (TABLE SALT)

Chemical Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Composition
 Igneous Rock

Igneous rocks form by

crystallization and
solidification of molten
rock. They made up 80%
of the mass of the
Earth's crust. It is mostly
classified based on their
texture and mineral composition.
● OBSIDIAN

Types of Igneous Rocks

Suppose you start with
Volcanic rocks
metamorphic rocks. The
● are formed from
magma cools and solidifies
magma erupted from
through the process of
a volcano. It is the
crystallization which may
most common rock
occur either beneath the
types on Earth's
surface of the Earth or at the surface through
surface particularly in
volcanic eruption. The resulting rock is called
the ocean. Basalt,
igneous rocks.
rhyolite, andesite, Pumice and komatiite
are examples of volcanic rocks.
The igneous rock undergo
● PUMICE
weathering. The eroded
materials are deposited as
Plutonic rocks
sediments. The sediments
● are crystallized slowly
undergo lithification
cooling magma below the
(conversion into rock) to
surface of the Earth. Gabbro,
become sedimentary rocks when compacted
granite, diorite and peridotite
and cemented.
are plutonic rocks.
● Granite
If the sedimentary rocks are buried deep within
the Earth. They will be subjected to heat and
Sedimentary Rocks
pressure changing them into metamorphic
70% percent of the rocks in the earth's surface
rocks. If the metamorphic rocks are subjected to
are sedimentary in origin.
higher temperature, they will melt forming
magmas. The magma will solidify into igneous
Sedimentary Rocks
rocks, starting the cycle.
● are formed from
consolidation of materials
(sediments) from pre-existing
rocks, from precipitation or
from life processes.
● Sandstone
● Like volcanic rocks, some sedimentary
rocks are “lithified” right at the surface,
 for instance by direct precipitation from recrystallize. Examples of this are mica and
seawater. chlorite.
Nonfoliated Textures
Detrital sedimentary rocks Are metamorphic rocks
are from weathered rocks without layering,
such as igneous rocks. banding or alignment.
Marble, hornfels and
quartzite are rocks with
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks non-foliated texture.
are formed by inorganic and
organic processes, i.e. Summary
precipitation from solution or ● Rocks are the accumulation of minerals.
derived from life processes. ● There are three types of rock:
Inorganic processes such as sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous.
evaporation and chemical ● Mining was the process of acquiring
activity, produce chemical minerals on the earth.
sediments. Organic processes form biochemical
sediments from shells and skeletons of dead What is mineral? Is mineral the same as rock?
marine organisms. Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic solid
with orderly crystalline structure and a definite
Metamorphic Rocks chemical composition. These are the basic
building blocks of rocks.
Metamorphic rocks are derived from any pre
existing rocks by mineralogical, chemical and/or Rocks are an aggregate of minerals. A rock can
structural changes, in response to marked be composed of a single mineral or more
changes in temperature, pressure or the commonly composed of an aggregate of two or
introduction of chemically active fluids, without more minerals. Rocks do not have a definite
melting the rocks. chemical composition.

Water is not a mineral since it is not solid and

crystalline. Tube ice is not because it is not
naturally occurring. Snowflakes meet all
requirements in defining a mineral.
Can you cite examples of mineral use in our
daily lives?
1. Halite (salt) for cooking
2. Graphite (pencil) for writing
3. Diamond and gold as jewelry

Textures of Metamorphic Rocks Lesson 4: ENERGY RESOURCES

Foliated textures are brought Energy

about by pressure. Pressure ❖ Energy is all around us.
causes mineral grains to realign ❖ Energy in our planet flows in its
and certain minerals to subsystems – the atmosphere,
hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.
 It moves in and out of these systems,
and during any energy transfer between
them, some is lost in the surroundings,
as heat, light, sound, vibration, or
movement.
Uses of Energy
❖ Energy is not only used for electricity
generation to power computers, mobile
phones, home appliances, and other
stuff people use everyday. It is also
necessary for transportation as motor
fuels, among others.
❖ Geothermal energy harnessed natural
heat from deep within the Earth. This
internal heat is also responsible for
melting rocks to form magma. It is
important for geothermal reservoirs to
have a heat source, permeable rock or
fault that will allow fluid to rise close to
the surface, adequate water recharge,
and an impermeable cap rock to prevent
heat escape.

Energy Sources
❖ Some energy sources are easily
replenished but most of the resources
man mainly use are replaced very slowly
or not within man's lifetime. Energy
sources are classified either as
renewable or non-renewable.
Non-Renewable Energy Sources
Renewable Energy Sources
❖ Fossil fuel is the world's main energy
❖ Biomass includes plant materials (e.g.
source. This includes coal, oil, and
rice/coconut husks, fuelwood, and agro
natural gas.
wastes) or animal waste utilized to
produce biofuels such as ethanol and
Fossil fuels
biodiesel.
❖ Photovoltaic cell panels are commonly
1. Coal - is an end product of the burial of
used to collect and convert solar energy
plant material. Commonly wetlands
- radiation from the sun – into electricity.
such as swamps and bogs provide the
However, on the planet's surface, the
conditions to form coal. This is the most
intensity of this inexhaustible energy
abundant fossil fuel. However, coal
source is relatively low due to distance
originates mainly from dead tree and
between and the sun.
plant matter.
❖ Wind energy is harnessed by windmills
or turbines wherein the kinetic energy of
the wind is converted into mechanical or
electrical energy.
❖ Hydroelectric energy is one of the top
three sources for electricity generation
along with fossil fuels and nuclear fuels.
Dams are commonly used in the country
for electricity generation. Dams may
also be used for purposes like irrigation, Types of Coal
water supply, flood control, recreation,
navigation, and fish farming. A. Lignite
 ❖ is a soft, brownish-black coal that forms
the lowest level of the coal family. In
some lignite, you can still see the texture
of the original wood.
B. Sub-bituminous
❖ is sometimes called as black lignite, is a
category of coal which appears as
grey-black or dark brown.
C. Bituminous
❖ is sometimes called “soft coal”.
Compared with the sub-bituminous coal,
there is more energy in bituminous coal.
D. Anthracites
❖ the hardest coal and gives off a great
amount of heat when it burns.
E. Oil and Natural Gas
❖ are hydrocarbons in liquid and gaseous
form – oil and natural gas - have been
technically termed petroleum or crude
oil (liquid form).
Oil and natural gas
❖ are formed from dead marine organisms
that subside to earth. While moving
downwards, The dead remains
experience an increasing heat and
pressure turning them to oil and natural
gas that later on, move upwards due to
pressure. When moving upward, most of
the fuels were trapped by a rock fold
turning the area into an oil and gas
reservoir.
Summary
❖ Energy exists in different forms.
❖ There are two types of energy
resources: Renewable and
Non-renewable.
❖ Renewable energy resources can be
generated in a short period of time.
❖ Non-renewable resources require a long
period of time to be generated or
harvested.
Lesson 5: Water Resources
Water
The expanse of the water on the surface of the
Earth with both liquid and frozen water covers
71% of the surface. 97% of Earth's water is
occupied mostly by all oceans and salt water,
and the majority is locked up in glaciers and ice
caps, mainly in Greenland and Antarctica. Only
3% is fresh water.
Groundwater
Groundwater is the water below
Earth's surface. It occupies
cracks and pore spaces into
bedrock and between sediment
particles. Geologic spaces that
can hold and transmit large
quantities of water are called
aquifers.
 Types of aquifers
Unconfined aquifers
❖ are geologic units in which the water is
exposed to atmospheric pressure.
Confined aquifers
❖ are under pressure and separated from
the ground surface and atmospheric
pressure by confining layer, or aquitard.
as the pathways and rate of water
movement to streams. These factors
vary significantly across a catchment.
Over-abstraction
❖ When water is taken from aquifers,
groundwater levels fall. If the amount of
water taken is greater than the amount
of water falling as rain, it is called
over-abstraction.

Summary
❖ There's only a little amount of drinkable
Surface Water
water.
Surface waters are water in the river, lake or
❖ Water cycle helps to generate
freshwater wetland. It is replenished naturally by
freshwater.
precipitation and loss through discharge to the
❖ Fresh water can be easily contaminated
oceans, evaporation, transpiration and seepage.
because most of the freshwater can be
found underground.
HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT THE WATER
QUALITY

Pollution
❖ Water pollution is any contamination of
water with chemicals or other foreign
substances that are detrimental to
human, plant, or animal health. These
pollutants include fertilizers and
pesticides from agricultural runoff;
sewage and food processing waste;
lead, mercury, and other heavy metals;
chemical wastes from industrial
discharges; and chemical contamination
from hazar- dous waste sites.

Landscape Changes
❖ Streamflow is determined by climate,
water use within the catchment as well