Developments in the use of green

(biodegradable), recycled and 3

biopolymer materials in technical
nonwovens
P. Goswami, T. O’Haire
University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom

3.1 Introduction: the use of sustainable fibres

in nonwovens
The worldwide consumption of nonwovens is increasing; this is true for domestic,
technical and for disposable hygiene nonwovens (Wiertz, 2014; Hounslea, 2011).
The rise of developing economies and an ageing population will place extra strain
on resources, and there is a need to develop materials that have a much lower environ-
mental impact and are sustainable. In addition, there is growing consumer awareness
of the impact of domestic and industrial products on the environment. Media attention,
NGO campaigning and product marketing have led to increased consumer expecta-
tions concerning material sourcing, manufacture and use of nonwoven products.
Alongside this market pressure, there has also been tighter government regulation con-
cerning environmental impacts that apply to a range of industries; textiles and
nonwoven producers are not immune.
Due to the various pressures, merchants and manufacturers are considering the
environmental impact of products alongside the performance and cost requirements.
In the past, the concept of product sustainability may have been one-dimensional
and considered only limited aspects of product manufacture, use or disposal. The prac-
tice of measuring the impact through whole life assessments means that producers
must consider the raw material use and energy of production, along with the environ-
mental impacts and benefits during product use and consider likely scenarios at end-of-
life. It is often the case that using nonwovens brings a significant environmental
benefit, which can justify the carbon footprint of the product (EDANA, 2011). Further
benefits can be achieved using renewable or recycled polymers or materials which
either readily biodegrade or are easily recycled upon the end of the product life. For
example, the use of a recycled polypropylene (PP) geotextile (nonwoven) could reduce
the carbon footprint of a construction project that would outweigh the carbon footprint
of producing and transporting the nonwoven product (Panthi, 2011; Heerten, 2009).
This chapter will detail the core issues affecting sustainability with respect to nonwo-
vens and will give relevant examples of applications that represent the state-of-the art.

Advances in Technical Nonwovens. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100575-0.00003-6

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
98 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

3.1.1 Sustainable nonwovens

The environmental impact of the production, use and end-of-life recovery of nonwo-
vens has been demonstrated to be lower compared to the materials they have replaced
(EDANA, 2011). This was found to be true for a number of case studies; for example, a
life cycle assessment by EDANA on the use of nonwoven baby wipes found a 7.5
times reduction in the volume of water used to service this parental need over a con-
ventional washcloth (EDANA, 2011). This reduction in water is not the only benefit,
as the use of disposable wet wipes contributes to well-being, as human waste is not
entering the domestic laundry cycle, and the wipes require no further handling. Other
applications also see significant savings in CO2 emissions and energy demand, among
other life cycle benefits. One example being when nonwovens are used in geotextiles
for road construction, and slope retention, where nonwoven use has been shown to
have significantly less environmental impact when compared to a fabricated version
of the same material, due to benefits in production, distribution and eventual disposal
of the product (Wallbaum, 2014). The following section highlights the principle areas
for consideration when producing a ‘sustainable’ nonwoven.

3.1.2 Material sourcing

The reliance on petrochemicals for nonwovens is destined to change with increasing
material consumption with movement towards polymers sourced from regenerative
processes (Wiertz, 2014). There is already evidence of this shift, as the production
of nonwoven materials from renewable resources is increasing, along with the num-
ber of biopolymers available. Where petrochemical-derived polymers remain
economical or essential, the production of nonwoven products can be made more
sustainable by including recycled polymers and fibres.

3.1.3 End-of-life impact

The end-of-life of nonwovens after use is also of concern; wipes and sanitary nonwo-
vens have been shown to accumulate in domestic waste streams and cause blockages in
water treatment pipelines (Future Water Association, 2015). Wipes, like many
nonwoven products, can enhance the quality of life and are designed to meet a real
need with minimal environmental impact. However, the need for dispersible sanitary
nonwovens that does not accumulate is real. The guidelines for marketing products as
‘flushable’ are given by INDA (2013). Flushable wipes lose integrity after becoming
saturated with water after use, and the dispersed fibres then pass to waste treatment
facilities, where they can be collected using filtration or broken down through degen-
erative biological processes.

3.1.4 Biodegradability
Biodegradability refers to the ability of a material to decompose after interactions with
biological elements. Many plastics are highly stable and are slower to biodegrade.
Developments in the use of green (biodegradable), recycled and biopolymer materials 99

These nondegradable plastics accumulate at the rate of 25 million tonnes per year,
with plastic-based nonwovens forming part of this number (Pometto and Lee,
1992). Biodegradable polymers that are designed to break down in landfill, compost-
ing and anaerobic treatment plants are of interest, as they can be tailored to degrade at
the end of their useful life and will not to persist in the environment for extended
periods.

3.1.5 Recycling
The ability to recycle nonwoven materials is seen as a significant means of increasing
product sustainability by reducing the volume of nonwovens going to landfill or incin-
eration. Polyethylene (PE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), common materials in
the production of nonwovens, are easily processed through municipal recycling and
sorting streams, and sorted material can be redirected to the production of new
products.
The sustainability of a nonwoven product can be evaluated by considering each
aspect, along with impact of production and distribution. A truly sustainable product
will deliver tangible benefits to the consumer whilst minimising the negative impact on
the environment. This costebenefit ratio is usually measured using a holistic life cycle
assessment. Due to the various factors involved, defining the most sustainable option is
not always straightforward and may require numerous assumptions or estimations.
When life cycle assessments are used, it can reveal unexpected results. For example,
nonwovens formed from conventional PET and PE require the consumption of a
nonrenewable resource; however, the benefits in performance and lifespan of these
products, combined with ease of recycling, mean that the commodity plastics can be
the most sustainable option and bring significant ecological benefits (Pourdeyhimi,
2011). This is an important consideration as polyolefins and PET dominate the market,
occupying 95% of the polymer-to-web sector in 2011 (Wiertz, 2014).

3.2 Types and use of green (biodegradable) synthetic

polymers in nonwovens
3.2.1 Biodegradability
With products that are unsuitable for recycling via municipal collection, the most
common route for waste is to landfill or incineration. The long-term impact of waste
nonwovens sent to landfill can be reduced by producing nonwovens from materials
that are capable of being broken down in the environment. Biodegradability is the
capacity for biological degradation of organic materials by living organisms down
to the base substances such as water, carbon dioxide, methane, basic elements
and biomass. Most natural and synthetic materials will biodegrade given an infinite
time span (Fedorak, 2005; Kyrikou and Briassoulis, 2007). However, given increased
product consumption, there is a desire for materials to degrade quickly once they have
100 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

reached the end of their functional life. Typical time spans for a product to be consid-
ered biodegradable is 3 years for decomposition in a natural biological environment
(Kyrikou and Briassoulis, 2007). However, there are multiple environments in which
biodegradation can occur: landfill/soil burial; anaerobic digestion; composting and
marine and aquatic environments, which expose the materials to different ambient
conditions. Various test mechanisms exist, and the standard requirements and assess-
ment methods for biodegradability and compostability are listed in various interna-
tional standards (EN 13432:2000, ASTM D6400). For the majority of products, soil
burial and composting will be the primary measure for biodegradation.
Polymers that are disposed in landfill may become exposed to enhanced levels of mois-
ture, heat, electromagnetic energy (visible light and UV radiation), external forces and
chemicals. The combination of physical and biological degradation can lead to a complete
breakdown of the material to base elements such as CH4, CO2 and SO4 (Fedorak, 2005).
Physicalechemical degradation caused by moisture, heat, light and aggressive environ-
ments act faster than biodegradation, but it is often the latter that is needed to complete
the final step of mineralisation. The commodity polymers are difficult and slow to degrade
due to unreactive backbones that do not respond to biological attack.
There are two principle groups of organisms that can break down organic matter:
bacteria and fungi. The biological process may be either aerobic or anaerobic, depend-
ing on the local conditions and availability of oxygen. Each polymer will have a typical
degradation period depending on the environment; for cotton, this could be less than a
year, but for polyolefins, the timeframe for biodegradation could be hundreds of years
(Arutchelvi et al., 2008).
Composting, along with recycling and incineration, is being developed in many
countries as an alternative to disposal in landfill. A composting environment can facil-
itate polymer breakdown and accelerate the decomposition of polymers that are slow
to break down with conventional landfill and soil environments. Ingeo PLA (polylactic
acid) produced by Natureworks is marketed as being compostable (Natureworks,
2015). Composting can speed up the natural breakdown of cleavable polymer chains
such as Viscose and Tencel but is less effective on resilient polymers such as PE, PP
and PET (Gulich et al., 2014; Lenzing, 2010; M€ uller et al., 2001)
Composting on an industrial scale requires significant infrastructure and is less suit-
able for agrotextile and geotextile nonwovens. However, when the polymer product is
marked as compostable, it can enter municipal processing streams through domestic
organic waste collection services, allowing materials to be broken down but also
contribute to the volume of compost produced. For example, the Biofibrocar project
developed by AITEX, Spain, proposed using PLA and PLA/hemp nonwovens in auto-
motive interiors and door linings designed to be reclaimed and composted upon
disposal of the car (Gulich et al., 2014).

3.2.2 Natural fibres

Common natural textile materials such as cotton, wool and flax can biodegrade when
disposed of in appropriate landfill and industrial composting conditions (Mochizuki,
2011). Cellulosic fibres are relatively quick to biodegrade, and a light cotton cloth
Developments in the use of green (biodegradable), recycled and biopolymer materials 101

can be broken down in an efficient compost heap in 1e6 months (Li et al., 2010). This is
due to the presence of the glycoside bond that is open to depolymerisation through inter-
action with enzymes (Fedorak, 2005); the organisms then consume the resulting sugar
glucose products. Wool is a more resilient protein fibre but is also digested with bacteria
and fungi, along with insect larva, and can fully degrade in a soil burial after 6 months in
the ground (IWTO, 2015). The biodegradability of natural materials means there is more
concern regarding the cultivation and processing of natural fibres than the end-of-life
impact. For example, the cotton plant is notoriously thirsty, and wool requires a water
intensive scouring process to remove natural grease and impurities before processing.
Alternative natural materials, such as bast fibres, combine biodegradability with a
significantly lower carbon and water footprint, along with desirable physical properties.
This has led to them being used increasingly for needle-punched nonwovens for agricul-
tural and insulation applications (Choudhury, 2010).
Similar to the bast fibres, fibres derived from plant leaves can also be formed into
biodegradable nonwovens. One example of this is the Pinatex nonwoven, currently
used as a backing for imitation leather and produced from pineapple leaves, which
are a waste material that are otherwise sent for disposal (Ananas-Anam, 2014). How-
ever, natural materials comprise only 3% of the fibre-based nonwovens market, and so,
their combined impact on the environment is less of a concern than man-made mate-
rials (Wiertz, 2014).

3.2.3 Synthetics
In the main, the synthetic fibres exhibit poor biodegradability and tend to persist for
excessive periods in the environment. The technical requirement for plastics to be sta-
ble and retain performance in a range of environments has led to a generation of
high-performance stabilised polymers and nonwovens, which are highly resilient
and unaffected by the levels of physical, chemical and biological attacks typical of
landfill and dumping sites. The rate of biodegradation after soil burial and landfill
of the primary man-made polymers varies, ranging from negligible/nonexistent for
PET and PE, over many years to 8 days for the 95% degradation of Lyocell (Lenzing,
2010). In between these two extreme examples are materials such as polycaprolactone
(PCL) and PLA, the former taking 6 weeks for 95% degradation when buried in soil in
conditions typical in landfill (Gouda et al., 2012).
For a wide range of products, it is desirable to biodegrade at a much faster rate than
conventional synthetic materials in order to minimise the long-term effects on the envi-
ronment. The regenerated cellulosic fibres produced through the viscose rayon and
Lyocell routes could be considered the first biodegradable synthetic fibres (Kyrikou
and Briassoulis, 2007). Like with natural cellulosic fibres, enzymatic processes also
cleave the backbone of these fibres. Regenerated cellulosic fibres are currently used
to create sustainable disposable nonwovens for sanitary and hygiene applications
that break down in waste treatment plants (INDA, 2012). More recently, there have
been new developments in the production of eco-friendly PET and other materials
with purported biodegradability. Aliphatic polyesters, such as PCL, are vulnerable
to attack by bacteria and fungi, breaking it down to water-soluble products (Nishida
102 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

and Tokiwa, 1993). Research has also been published that suggest that poly(ester
amide)s (PEA) could combine good thermal and mechanical performance with biode-
gradability (Fonseca et al., 2014). PEAs have been formed into nonwovens for highly
specialised tissue engineering applications where biocompatibility is more important
than sustainability (Hemmrich et al., 2008). Pilot studies have shown that PEA can
be melt processed on a spunbond line with commercially viable extrusion rates of
2000e6000 rpm, making them potentially high-volume, low-cost materials (T€andler
et al., 2001). In addition to these aforementioned polymers, there are numerous niche
and novel materials that biodegrade that are currently being used for specialist appli-
cations. One example is the use of collagen and gelatine in technical nonwovens,
currently used in biomedical applications, but could find use in domestic and dispos-
able applications where rapid breakdown of product is required.

3.3 Types and use of recycled materials in nonwovens

3.3.1 Recycling
Recycled materials feature heavily in many nonwoven production streams, as the prod-
uct specifications for nonwovens are often less demanding than other fabric formation
steps and can accept nonideal and reclaimed polymers and fibres in the products.
Various reclaimed materials are available in sufficient volumes and at a low cost,
which makes them attractive as feed materials for nonwovens. Recycled material
can be repurposed through mechanical means or through the thermal processing of
suitable materials.

3.3.2 Fibre recycling

A common means of incorporating recycled materials into nonwovens is to create
needle-punched nonwovens produced in part or entirely from waste fibrous materials.
Wool from mattress fillings and duvets are formed into nonwovens for low-cost appli-
cations, such as insulation and oil sorption (Radetic et al., 2003). Textiles from apparel
can also be formed into nonwovens using fabric shredding to break the products down
to threads and fibres. These materials are known as shoddy fibres and are found in
various streams of nonwoven production. Shoddy fibres are usually found in some
automotive nonwovens where virgin polypropylene is needle-punched, with a signif-
icant amount of shoddy fibres for use in boot linings and carpeting (Yamasaki, 2004).
The shoddy is in fibre and yarn form, and can add bulk, resilience and mechanical
integrity, and can improve the appearance and handle of a product. Another example
of fibre recycling is the nonwovens produced by Beyer-Fasern, Germany, which are
made from needle-punched jute and sisal sacks, and are then used in biodegradable
agrotextile and geotextile products.

3.3.3 Melt processing

Industrial and postconsumer plastic waste collected through municipal waste can be
reformed into useable raw materials by remelting and reprocessing. The principal
Developments in the use of green (biodegradable), recycled and biopolymer materials 103

example of this is the recycling of PET bottles to form new products, including
textile fibres. For most applications, the performance of recycled-PET (rPET) fibres
mirrors that of the virgin product. This holds true for many nonwovens, as Poole
Company, USA, reported that recycled wipes have virtually the same performance
characteristics as virgin PET products (Nonwovens-Industry, 2014). As there is
no polymerisation step, the use of rPET is estimated to have an energy use of
66 MJ/kg of fibre compared to 125 MJ/kg for virgin PET and 250 MJ/kg for virgin
nylon (O Ecotextiles, 2009). However, historically, there has been an assumption of
performance deterioration when using recycled materials, and it was common prac-
tice for reprocessed plastics to be used in less demanding applications than virgin
polymers. However, improved understanding of polymer degradation has led to
closed-loop operation, where a product is recycled to make a very similar new prod-
uct. The supply of rPET is expected to increase with 2.1 million tonnes of recycled
material forecast to be available for 2017, compared to 1.7 million tonnes of PET
bottles recycled in 2012 (Plasteurope, 2013). The major market for rPET continues
to be fibres. Nonwovens made from rPET fibres are currently used in demanding
automotive applications, specifically: bonnet linings; boot floor coverings; cabin
insulation and wheel arch linings.
The melt processing of postconsumer waste is not limited to PET, and this process
can also be applied to PP, PE and poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) products that can be
reprocessed in to pellets and fibres with ease. Alongside direct polymer-to-web pro-
duction, staple fibres produced from recycled products are readily available and are
commonly formed into nonwovens.

3.4 Types and use of biopolymers in nonwovens

There have been steps to move away from petrochemicals in to alternative materials
that are less dependent on depleting stocks of oil. Biopolymers are materials that are
derived from a material that is seen as renewable through natural biological processes.
ASTM D6866 describes a renewable raw material as one that is generated from a
living source and that can be continually replenished at the rate they are consumed.
This section will deal with synthetic biopolymers as opposed to naturally formed bio-
logical fibres, such as wool and flax. Biopolymers are typically polymerised in an in-
dustrial process where the monomeric materials are from biological sources, making
the product renewable. The raw materials for biopolymers can be sourced from ligno-
cellulosic material, plant sugars, starches, marine life and as a by-product of microor-
ganism metabolism. Currently, biopolymers occupy a small segment of the plastics
market with 1% share forecast for 2016 (European Bioplastics). However, strong
growth year-on-year has been demonstrated in the plastics and nonwovens sector,
and this is expected to continue, Fig. 3.1.

3.4.1 Cellulose II
Cellulose can be regenerated into textile fibres (Cellulose II) through the dissolution and
then precipitation into filaments. The viscose and the Lyocell process are the two main
104 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

Global production of biopolymers

14
12.00
12
Volume (million tonnes)

10

8
6.73
6
3.61
4
1.62 1.67 1.94 2.04
2 1.49

0
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2020†
Recorded Forecast
Figure 3.1 Predicted increase in bioplastics production.
Aeschelmann, F., Carus, M., 2014. Bio-based Building Blocks and Polymers in the World:
Capacities, Production and Applications, Status Quo and Trends Towards 2020. Nova Institute,
Germany and yScion, 2014. Investment in Bioplastics Research Pays off, Press Release. Scion
Connections, United States.

routes in regenerating a cellulosic fibre, and the principle is essentially the same in both:
cellulose feedstocks from wood pulp are dissolved in an aggressive bath and chemically
altered to form a spinning dope. The solution is then spun into a precipitant bath and
then goes on to form either filament or staple fibres. Regenerated cellulosic fibres
have physical and chemical properties similar to cotton, and so, find uses where water
absorbency and close to skin comfort is desirable. Key applications for regenerated
cellulosic fibres are in the hygiene, wipes and incontinence sector. The technical appli-
cations for these products include fluid filters, automotive interior components and
medical swabs and wound dressings. These products are typically spunlaced but are
also processed using needle-punching and chemical bonding (Rodie, 2010).
The use of regenerated cellulosic fibres continues to grow, and annual consumption
increased by 9.6% to 5.8 million tonnes in 2013 from the previous year. In addition,
sales of Modal and Tencel fibres for nonwovens also increased by 13% in 2013
from 2012 (Lenzing, 2014). The use of these fibres in nonwoven materials is expected
to continue to grow in line with the general growth of the nonwoven industry. How-
ever, the price of man-made cellulosic fibres is intrinsically linked to the price of cot-
ton, a highly volatile commodity that brings in significant risks to any manufacturer
using such products (Mital, 2012).

3.4.2 Polylactic acid

PLA is the most prevalent of the starch based-biopolymers, which are produced using
lactic acid building blocks, which, in turn, are fermented from the dextrose present in a
range of renewable farming crops, such as rice, corn and sugar beets. Its chemical
structure can be seen in Fig. 3.2.
Developments in the use of green (biodegradable), recycled and biopolymer materials 105

Figure 3.2 Chemical structure of PLA.

Currently, the raw materials necessary for the renewable bio-PLA is typically sourced
from cornstarch that is grown solely for this purpose. Alternatives to cornstarch are being
explored, and Natureworks, a major PLA producer, has already moved to sourcing starch
from sugarcane in Thailand. The future possibility is that the process could be adapted to
use low-cost, high-volume lignocellulosics such as wood chips or wood grass to form
PLA that would significantly reduce the environmental impact and CO2 production.
The long-term goal is for Ingeo PLA to be sourced from a system that relies on the con-
version of CO2 or CH4 to lactic acid through a commercially viable chemical process.
Currently, PLA from cornstarch is seen as sustainable from a resource utilisation
point of view when compared to materials derived from oil-based feedstock (Vink
et al., 2003; Siede, 2014). In addition, the production and utilisation of PLA results
in lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and environmental impact compared to
alternative polymers, Fig. 3.3. Future generations of PLA feedstock are forecast to
be GHG neutral or better due to the conversion of CO2 by the bio stock.
Ingeo PLA currently has an estimated cradle-to-gate GHG of 0.5e0.7 kg CO2/kg,
compared to 1.6e1.7 and 2e2.2 kg CO2/kg for PP and PET, respectively, depending
on production method and mode of calculation (Corbion Purac, 2013; Natureworks,
2009). In comparison to wool or cotton fibres, PLA requires significantly less water
and land for the production of an identical weight of fibres (Hagen, 2013). When com-
bined, these positive factors result in a highly sustainable polymer that has the potential

kg CO 2 per kg of polymer
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0

PC 5.0

PS 2.2

PET 2

PP 1.7

LDPE 1.7

PLA 0.5

PLA† 0

†– Predicted target for generation II PLA

Figure 3.3 Calculated net cradle-to-gate GHG emissions for primary polymers and PLA.
Data collected from Corbion Purac, 2013. PLA Bioplastics, Press Release. Corbion Purac,
Netherlands.
106 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

to become a major component in the nonwoven industry. PLA is also readily processed
on existing PET staple and filament lines, often without modification, which has made
adoption of this biopolymer easier for nonwoven produces. However, the advantage in
using PLA comes at additional costs to the producer: currently, Ingeo PLA markets at a
price that is higher than fibre grade PET and fine cotton, and the tensile strength
is significantly lower than PET and nylon (Natureworks, 2006). A low melting
point (170 C) and low glass transition range (66e70 C) also limits the use of PLA
in applications where high temperatures are expected or possible in normal product
life (Solarski et al., 2005). However, a recent patent application for the use of PLA
nonwovens in tea and coffee bags suggests that for most domestic applications, the
PLA will meet the expected performance criteria (Foss and Turra, 2014).
The current range of applications for PLA nonwovens is extensive. Spunbond ma-
terial is currently produced by Fitesa, USA, for the use in feminine hygiene products
and as the top sheet in incontinence products. CL Nonwovens, China, are using PLA in
spunbonded nonwovens for use in agricultural, dust protection and packing materials.
Needle-punched PLA staple fibres are currently finding applications in mattress
wadding and in automotive carpeting. Crimped PLA staple fibre is also being blended
with wool to create high mattress toppers, which are made highly stable through ther-
mobonding the PLA component.

3.4.3 Chitosan
The examples given previously discussed biopolymers that were derived from terres-
trial plant biomass. This is not always the case, and biopolymers can be sourced from a
range of living matter. Chitosan is a polymer that is sourced from chitin, an abundant
material found in the exoskeletons of crustaceans and molluscs. Chitin is available in
large quantities as a by-product of the shrimp canning industry, comprising approxi-
mately 40% of shrimp processing waste. Much of this processing waste is dumped
in the sea, and so the reuse of this product has a direct ecological benefit by reducing
the volume of chitin released in to coastal environments (Arbia et al., 2013). Chitin is
extracted from crustacean matter and then deacetylated to form chitosan. Chitosan is
suitable for solution processing into fibres using suitable fibre spinning processes
and has acceptable mechanical and chemical performance for most applications
(Kumar, 1999). The unique biological properties of chitosan nonwovens has resulted
in applications in the wound care sector, but the decreasing cost of producing chitosan
has increased the volume of spunlaced disposable wipes and medical garments.

3.4.4 Other biopolymers

The group polyhydoxyalkanoate (PHA) is a form of ‘green’ polyesters that are found
in niche nonwoven products (Chen and Wu, 2005). PHA biopolymers are formed by
polymerising products produced by microorganism digestion and excretion when
consuming renewable materials such as food crops. In principle, PHA polymers are
biodegradable and thermoprocessable, making them attractive materials for use in con-
ventional processing lines. The high biocompatibility of PHAs has led to the use of
Developments in the use of green (biodegradable), recycled and biopolymer materials 107

these materials as specific medical implants, and the ability to tailor the mechanical
performance and breakdown time has led to the design of specific materials for
different types of biological implants (Chen and Wu, 2005).
There has also been considerable effort in sourcing the materials needed for com-
modity polymers from renewable resources. Low-density polyethylene can also be
produced from a bioresource, namely, ethanol extracted from sugarcane. Brazilian
chemical company, Braskem, produce a branded product, I’m green polyethylene.
The production of this product is argued to be a net remover of CO2 from the atmo-
sphere (Ziem and Murphy, 2013). I’m green polyethylene is being incorporated in
to various nonwovens markets, including a range of hygiene products where the
bio-PE acts as a sheath to an Ingeo PLA core, an example of two biopolymers being
combined to blend the softness of PE with the robust strength of PLA (INDA, 2015).
Polymers part sourced from biological materials are also available: poly(trimethy-
lene terephthalate) (PTT) is produced by DuPont and trademarked as Sorona. This
polymer is produced from 1,3-propanedoil and terephthalic acid, the former being
formed from corn and the latter being derived from petroleum products (Kurian,
2005a). Sorona PTT is suitable for forming nonwovens through a range of processes
and combines the mechanical softness and drape of Nylon 6 with the chemical resil-
ience of PET (Kurian, 2005b). Whilst Sorona is not a 100% biopolymer, it represents
a significant step by large polymer manufacturers in moving the industry away from
purely petroleum-based materials and has been awarded biopreferred status by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture.

3.5 Reuse and recycling of nonwoven materials

The potential reuse and recycling of nonwovens is a key requirement in minimising
the life cycle impact of many polymers. As discussed earlier, the ability to recycle
plastics is one of the key advantages of using these materials, and if done, can
have significant environmental benefits. This is especially true for the key petro-
chemical fibres such as PP, PET and PE. Recycling of plastic materials is done
through municipal collection, sorting and distribution streams. This allows domestic
and industrial waste to be quickly recycled back into the production streams. Many
nonwovens are constructed from a single polymer material and can be relatively easy
to recycle without a need for disassembly. Recycling is seen as an effective means of
reducing the volume of material that goes to landfill. This is especially true for
disposable nonwovens, and dedicated processes are currently being trialed to enable
composite materials found in incontinence and hygiene products to feed back again
into production streams (Nonwoven.co.uk, 2015).

3.5.1 Municipal recycling, recovery and separation

The majority of nonwoven waste material is generated by domestic and personal con-
sumption, and so, consumer waste streams are the primary routes for recycling the
greatest volumes of nonwovens. In order to reuse postconsumer nonwovens, it is
108 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

necessary for a system of collection, sorting and distribution to be in place (Ahlstrom,

2011; Plasteurope, 2013). The collected products are then separated out at sorting
facilities. In contrast to the supply, the end users of recycled waste plastics and fibres
expect a degree of uniformity in a consignment but may also conduct a secondary sort-
ing process to eliminate any contaminating matter from the process stream.
A key requirement of a recycling process is the ability to separate a range of con-
sumer products quickly and with high volume. It is a common stipulation that any
product for recycling should be processed using readily available municipal waste
and sorting streams. As a result, a product cannot be marketed as recyclable unless
it is easily separated; thus, composite nonwovens are difficult to market as recyclable
without a simple means of separation. However, innovations by Fater SpA, Italy, have
demonstrated that it is possible to process composite materials such as disposable di-
apers. This new process is able to recycle and separate absorbent hygiene products to
produce two separate streams of products from multicomponent products. A cellulosic
stream creates fibres for use in domestic pet care, spill control and as a viscose feed
stock. A second product stream contains mixed PE and PP products for use as melt
processing feed stock. The materials recovered are fully sterilised, and separation ef-
ficiencies of >95% are claimed (Nonwoven.co.uk, 2015).
Currently, only PET, high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and PP are being properly
separated in municipal recycling streams in meaningful volumes across the developed
world. However, it is predicted that innovations in continuous plastics detection and
separation will eventually lead to materials such as PLA being easily redirected and
reprocessed from domestic waste streams in the near future.

3.5.2 Melt processing of bulk materials

As with bottles and other moulded plastics, nonwovens produced from thermoplas-
tics can be melted down, mixed with virgin polymer and formed into pellets for
reuse in the textile stream. The high volume of PE, PP and PET used in consumer
products can be easily converted into granules using commonly available melt pro-
cessing equipment. Wellman International, Ireland, produce a range of rPET staple
fibres from waste PET bottles designed for further recycling and processing at the
end of the nonwovens useful life, which is marketed as a closed-loop production
cycle (Wellman International, 2015)
The use of single polymer products makes the subsequent recycling of materials
through thermochemical means much easier and less labour intensive. Homogenous
nonwovens made from thermoplastics are easily recycled back into pellets through
melt processing.
The number of steps in this process is also being reduced, and the need for granulation
is seen as unnecessary in some instances; Ahlstrom uses a direct recycling extruder to
produce nonwovens directly from waste and trim nonwoven material without the inter-
mediate step of producing pellets. This reduces the need to transport and melt the product
twice; thus, this process results in a significantly reduced environmental footprint for
both the operations and final product (Ahlstrom, 2011). However, for nonthermoplastic
fibres, this process is not possible, and alternative reuse streams must be sought.
Developments in the use of green (biodegradable), recycled and biopolymer materials 109

3.6 Conclusions and future trends

3.6.1 Conclusions
Increased consumer awareness and demands for more transparent and environmentally
friendly processes has led producers and retailers to consider the full life cycle of their
nonwoven products. This considers not only the source of the material, but also the
impact of production, delivery, use and end-of-life scenarios. Nonwovens have been
shown to deliver significant benefits to society and can do so in a sustainable manner
(Wallbaum, 2014; Brandt et al., 2014). The high availability of recycled material has
led to an increase in the use of recycled fibres and plastics in technical nonwovens. PP,
PE and PET nonwovens can be recycled using existing municipal processing routes,
and so, a high volume of nonwoven can potentially be reused at the end of product
life (Olivo, 2015). Biodegradable polymers are being considered for applications
where product disposal is likely and the chances of recovery and reuse are low. The
use of sustainable materials in nonwoven disposable applications is seen as a positive
step forward and a way of balancing human needs with a reality of finite resources.
The use of petrochemicals continues to dominate the synthetics nonwoven market
and shows little signs of changing, despite an increased market share for bioplastics.
The ease of recycling these products through municipal streams means that the life cy-
cle impact of PP, PE and PET products and processes is significantly reduced. How-
ever, the sourcing of these materials from petrochemicals remains a concern, and there
has been an increase in the use of plant-based synthetics, notably PLA. The reuse of
consumer waste, in particular, PET bottles, as a means of producing nonwoven mate-
rials is a more sustainable approach and reduces the environmental footprint of both
the nonwoven and the source materials.
Companies are being more selective in their choice of polymer material and the ease
of converting existing equipment to process materials, such as PLA, is facilitating this.
The process of sorting and delivering recycled material and fibres has also improved,
allowing a broader range of nonwoven applications for recycled matter. However, it
should be noted that the selection of a nonwoven material or process based on only
one consideration while ignoring all others is inappropriate, and the most sustainable
approaches consider all aspects, including air and water pollution, energy use and
resource consumption.
The production of products with associated environmental claims can facilitate con-
sumer choice, drive competition and add value to a product range. However, the use of
vague terminology in various environmental claims inevitably can lead to confusion
and mistrust between consumers and producers. Marketing statements such as
‘organic’, ‘sustainable’, ‘eco’ and ‘recycled’ have become prolific, and steps have
been taken to help standardise environmental claims and the requirements for such.
In particular, there has been a shift to ensuring that any product marketed as environ-
mentally friendly must meet the cradle-to-grave or the cradle-to-cradle criteria. Clear
guidance has been provided in ISO 14021:5, which states that vague terminology
should be avoided and that any claim must be ‘true not only in relation to the final
product but also shall take into consideration all relevant aspects of the product
110 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

life-cycle’. In addition, the EDANA specifications for marketing products as environ-

mentally friendly require that the term ‘sustainable’ is applied to articles where a
genuine commitment from an organisation to limit the environmental impact of prod-
ucts or processing has been shown (EDANA, 2007). Various agencies and organisa-
tions have issued guidelines on the requirements for a nonwoven to be listed or
marketed with a green or sustainable slant, for example, the United Kingdom Depart-
ment for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs has published guidelines stating that a
sound environmental claim should contain the following principles (DEFRA, 2011):
1. A claim is relevant and reflects a genuine benefit:
• Environmental impacts of a product/service are understood;
• Claim is relevant to the principle impacts of product/service;
• Claim offers clear additional benefit over standard industry practice; and
• Comparisons to other products are clear and relevant.
2. Claim is presented clearly and accurately:
• Claim is a truthful and accurate representation of the likely environmental benefit;
• The scope and boundaries of a claim are clear;
• Claim uses plain language and images/symbols are not likely to be misinterpreted; and
• Supporting information is clear and relevant.
3. The claim can be readily substantiated:
• Evidence for a claim is robust and tested using the most appropriate standard methods;
• Claims of future environmental performance substantiated by evidence; and
• Substantiating information available to public or enforcement authorities if necessary.
There are additional guidelines and recommendations regarding claims of sustain-
ability and environmental benefits specific to nonwovens, which are issued through in-
dustry bodies, such as INDA and EDANA, along with specific environmental
standards, such as the EU Ecolabel and Oeko-Tex.

3.6.2 Future trends

The worldwide consumption of nonwovens is expected to grow significantly in both
the short and medium term with the continued economic growth of the middle classes
in Asia being a significant driver. It is clear that the nonwovens industry must be able
to meet this growing demand with products and processes that do not harm the pros-
pects of high quality of life for future generations. As in the apparel industry, there is
now greater consumer awareness surrounding nonwoven products and the impacts of
production and disposal. The nonwovens industry has already made significant steps to
improve sustainability, and nonwoven companies are expected to continue to innovate
to make products and processes more sustainable throughout the full product life cycle.
Many companies now incorporate the desire for sustainable practice into company
policy, and this culture change is seen as an important driver for generating innovative
and environmentally considerate solutions (EDANA, 2015). As research and develop-
ment into new materials and processes continues, it is expected that the relative price of
biopolymers and biodegradable polymers will reduce, thus broadening the range of
nonwoven applications they are expected to be found in. It should also be reiterated
that the use of nonwoven materials would go some way to minimising the
Developments in the use of green (biodegradable), recycled and biopolymer materials 111

environmental impact of many products and endeavours. The use of a relatively low
weight of nonwoven agrotextiles and geotextiles can reduce the demand for other re-
sources, whether they are water, concrete, power or man hours, and the consumption of
these fabrics is expected to increase.

Sources of further information and advice

National bodies and trade organisations are ever updating the latest information on sus-
tainable practices and life cycle analyses. In addition, many manufacturers advertise
the sustainable aspects of their products and release information into the public domain
in support of such claims. The following sources of information are useful starting
points for further research:
European Platform on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA): http://ec.europa.eu/environment/ipp/
lca.htm
United States Environmental Protection Agency: introduction to eco-labels and standards:
http://www.epa.gov/greenerproducts/standars/index.html/
EDANA Sustainability Launchpad: http://www.edana.org/industry-initiatives/sustainability/
European Bioplastics trade body: http://ec.european-bioplastics.org/bioplastics/
PETCORE Europe is a trade association working towards increasing the recycling of PET:
http://www.petcore.org/
INDA produce a guidance document on determining the flushability of disposables: http://
www.inda.org/issues-advocacy/flushability/
The life cycle analysis of various Ingeo® PLA products can be found here: http://www.
natureworksllc.com/the-ingeo-journey/eco-profile-and-lca/life-cycle-analysis/
WRAP is a registered charity that has published information on sustainable textiles: http://
www.wrap.org.uk/sustainable-textiles/
OpenLCA is a life cycle and footprint analysis software package that is free to use: http://
www.openlca.org/

References
Aeschelmann F, Carus M. Bio-based Building Blocks and Polymers in the World: Capacities,
Production and Applications, Status Quo and Trends Towards 2020. Germany: Nova
Institute; 2014.
Ahlstrom. Great Advances in Resource Efficiency: Recycling Nonwoven Process Waste, Press
Release. Finland: Ahlstrom; 2011.
Ananas-Anam. Pinatex™ Is Born to Truly Challenge the Textile Market. Philippines:
Ananas-Anam; 2014. http://www.ananas-anam.com/.
Arbia W, Arbia L, Adour L, Amrane A. Chitin extraction from crustacean shells using biological
methods - a review. Food Technology and Biotechnology 2013;51:12e25.
Arutchelvi J, Sudhakar M, Arkatkar A, Doble M, Bhaduri S, Uppara PV. Biodegradation of
polyethylene and polypropylene. Indian Journal of Biotechnology 2008;7:9.
Brandt B, Pilz H, Schweighofer J, Aspalter K. Benefits of Using Nonwovens and Related
Products: Sustainability Assessment. Belgium: EDANA; 2014.
112 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

Chen G-Q, Wu Q. The application of polyhydroxyalkanoates as tissue engineering materials.

Biomaterials 2005;26:6565e78.
Choudhury PK. Jute Agrotextiles e Properties and Applications. India: Indian Jute Industries’
Research Assoication; 2010.
Corbion Purac. PLA Bioplastics, Press Release. Netherlands: Corbion Purac; 2013.
DEFRA. Green Claims Guidance. United Kingdom: Department for Environment, Food and
Rural Affairs; 2011.
EDANA. Industry Initiatives: Sustainability. Belgium: EDANA; 2007. http://www.edana.org/
industry-initiatives/sustainability.
EDANA. Sustainability Report. third ed. Belgium: EDANA; 2011. http://www.sustainability.
edana.org/Content/Default.asp/.
EDANA. Sustainability Report. fourth ed. Belgium: EDANA; 2014e2015. http://www.edana.
org/industry-initiatives/sustainability.
O Ecotextiles. Why Is Recycled Polyester Considered a Sustainable Textile? United States: O
Ecotextiles; 2009.
Fedorak PM. Microbial processes in the degradation of fibers. In: Blackburn RS, editor.
Biodegradable and Sustainable Fibers. United Kingdom: Woodhead Publishing; 2005.
Fonseca AC, Gil MH, Sim~oes PN. Biodegradable poly(ester amide)s e a remarkable oppor-
tunity for the biomedical area: review on the synthesis, characterization and applications.
Progress in Polymer Science 2014;39:1291e311.
Foss SW, Turra JM. Teabags and Coffee/Beverage Pouches Made from Mono-component and
Mono-constituent Polylactic Acid Fibers. 2014. United States patent Application 14/
146,475.
Future Water Association. Southern Water: £7m Spend on 4 Schemes to Tackle WwTW
Blockages. United Kingdom: Future Water Association; 2015.
Gouda M, Swellam A, Omar S. Biodegradation of synthetic polyesters (BTA and PCL) with
natural flora in soil burial and pure cultures under ambient temperature. Research Journal of
Environmental and Earth Sciences 2012;4:325e33.
Gulich B, Pascaul J, Naumann R. Melt spun fibers based on compostable biopolymers for
application in automotive interiors. In: 53rd Man-Made Fibers Congress, 12the14th
September 2014, Dornbirn, Austria; 2014.
Hagen R. The potential of PLA for the fiber market. Bioplastics Magazine 2013;8:12e5.
Heerten G. Reduction of climate damaging gases in geotechnical engineering by use of
geotechnical engineering by use of geosynthetics. In: International Symposium on
Geotechnical Engineering, 3rde4th December 2009, Bangkok, Thailand; 2009.
Hemmrich K, Salber J, Meersch M, Wiesemann U, Gries T, Pallua N, Klee D. Three-dimensional
nonwoven scaffolds from a novel biodegradable poly(ester amide) for tissue engineering
applications. Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Medicine 2008;19:257e67.
Hounslea T. Sustainable nonwovens set to rise sharply. United Kingdom: World Textile In-
formation Network; 2011.
INDA. Tencel, the Botanic Fiber-Yejimiin Introduces Premium Sanitary Pad in Korea. United
States: Association of the Nonwovens Fabrics Industry; 2012.
INDA. Code of Practice: Comminicating Appropriate Disposal Pathways for Disposable
Nonwoven Products to Protect Wastewater Systems. United States: Association of the
Nonwoven Fabrics Industry; 2013.
INDA. New Nonwoven Material Made Entirely from Plant-based Materials Wins 2015
INDA Rise Durable Product Award. United States: Association of the Nonwoven
Fabrics Industry; 2015.
Developments in the use of green (biodegradable), recycled and biopolymer materials 113

IWTO. Wool and Biodegradability: Fact Sheet. Belgium: International Wool Textile Organi-
sation; 2015.
Kumar R. Chitin and chitosan fibres: a review. Bulletin of Materials Science 1999;22:905e15.
Kurian JV. A new polymer platform for the future d sorona® from corn derived
1,3-propanediol. Journal of Polymers and the Environment 2005a;13:159e67.
Kurian JV. Sorona polymer: present status and future perspectives. In: Mohanty AK, Misra M,
Drzal LT, editors. Natural Fibers, Biopolymers and Biocomposites. United States: CRC
Press; 2005b.
Kyrikou I, Briassoulis D. Biodegradation of agricultural plastic films: a critical review. Journal
of Polymers and the Environment 2007;15:125e50.
Lenzing. Technical Bulletin 01: Biodegradability. Austria: Lenzing; 2010.
Lenzing. Annual Results for 2013. Austria: Lenzing; 2014.
Li L, Frey M, Browning KJ. Biodegradability study on cotton and polyester fabrics. Journal of
Engineered Fibres and Fabrics 2010;5.
Mital R. India Spun Yarn Export Market Prices, Monthly Report June 2012. India: Emerging
Textiles; 2012. http://www.emergingtextiles.com/.
Mochizuki M. Poly (lactic acid): synthesis, structures, properties, processing, and applications.
Textile Applications 2011;4:469.
M€uller RJ, Kleeberg I, Deckwer W-D. Biodegradation of polyesters containing aromatic con-
stituents. Journal of Biotechnology 2001;86:87e95.
Natureworks. Ingeo™ Fibre Apparel Product Guidelines: Fiber to Fabric. United States:
Natureworks; 2006.
Natureworks. The Ingeo™ Journey. United States: Natureworks; 2009.
Natureworks. Renewing Ingeo™: End-of-life Options: Landfill. United States: Natureworks;
2015. http://www.natureworksllc.com/the-ingeo-journey/end-of-life-options/landfill/.
Nishida H, Tokiwa Y. Distribution of poly(b-hydroxybutyrate) and poly(ε-caprolactone) aerobic
degrading microorganisms in different environments. Journal of Environmental Polymer
Degradation 1993;1:227e33.
Nonwoven.co.uk. Recycling Used Hygenic Disposables. 2015. http://www.nonwoven.co.uk/
2015/01/recycling-used-hygienic-disposables.html.
Nonwovens-Industry. Smart Spin RPET for Nonwovens. Issue March 2014. United States:
Nonwoven-Industry; 2014.
Olivo T. Nonwovens Come Full Circle. Issue April 2015. United States: Nonwovens-Industry;
2015. http://www.nonwovens-industry.com/.
Panthi L. Carbon Footprint and Environmental Documentation for Product-a Case Analysis on
Road Construction (Masters thesis). Norway: Norwegian University of Science and
Technology; 2011.
Plasteurope. PET Recycling Europe, Press Release. Germany: Plasteurope; 2013.
Pometto AL, Lee B. Process of Biodegradation of High Molecular Weight Polyethylene by
Aerobic Lignolytic Microorganisms. 1992. United States Patent 5,145,779.
Pourdeyhimi B. Technical Textile Applications e Have They Come Full Circle? Textile World
Report; May 2011.
Radetic MM, Jocic DM, Jovancic PM, Petrovic ZL, Thomas HF. Recycled wool-based
nonwoven material as an oil sorbent. Environmental Science & Technology 2003;37:
1008e12.
Rodie JB. Fibers for Nonwovens. United States: Textile World; 2010.
Scion. Investment in Bioplastics Research Pays off, Press Release. United States: Scion Con-
nections; 2014.
114 Advances in Technical Nonwovens

Siede G. Biopolymers. Biopolymers? Biopolymers! In: 53rd Man-Made Fibers Congress,

10the12th September 2014, Dornbirn, Austria; 2014.
Solarski S, Ferreira M, Devaux E. Characterization of the thermal properties of PLA fibers by
modulated differential scanning calorimetry. Polymer 2005;46:11187e92.
T€andler B, Schmack G, Vogel R, Blechschmidt D, Lindner R. Melt processing of a new
biodegradable synthetic polymer in high-speed spinning and underpressure spunbonding
process. Journal of Polymers and the Environment 2001;9:149e56.
Vink E, Rabago K, Glassner D, Gruber P. Applications of life cycle assessment to NatureWorks
polylactide (PLA) production. Polymer Degradation and Stability 2003;80:403e19.
Wallbaum H. Environmental benefits by using construction methods with geosynthetics. In:
10th International Conference on Geosynthetics, 21ste25th September 2014, Berlin,
Germany; 2014.
Wellman International. Wellman Sustainability: The Wellman Product Cycle. 2015. http://www.
wellman-intl.com/sustainability.aspx/.
Wiertz P. Challenges and opportunities facing the global nonwovens industry. In: 53rd
Man-made Fibers Congress, 10the12th September 2014, Dornbirn, Austria; 2014.
Yamasaki Y. Overview of Recycling Technology in Textile Industry in Japan and the World.
Japan: Japan Chemical Fibers Association; 2004.
Ziem S, Murphy R. Environmental Assessment of Braskem’s Biobased PE Resin. United
Kingdom: E4tech and LCAworks; 2013.