Hidrodinâmica e Propulsão PDF

Hidrodinâmica e Propulsão
Engenharia de Máquinas Marı́timas
Jorge Trindade
ENIDH
2012
Índice
1 Introdução 1
1.1 Geometria do navio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Principais dimensões dos navios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Coeficientes de forma do navio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Comportamento hidrodinâmico do navio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Métodos empı́ricos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Métodos experimentais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Simulações numéricas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Resistência 13
2.1 Análise dimensional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Leis da semelhança . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Semelhança geométrica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Semelhança cinemática . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.3 Semelhança dinâmica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Decomposição da resistência . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 Resistência de onda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.2 Resistência de atrito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.3 Resistência viscosa de pressão . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Ensaios de resistência em tanques de reboque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Cálculo da resistência . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.1 Métodos de extrapolação . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.2 Resistências adicionais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Previsão com dados sistemáticos ou estatı́sticos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.7 Ensaios à escala real . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3 Propulsão 35
3.1 Sistemas de propulsão . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.1 Hélices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.2 Outros meios de propulsão . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Hélices propulsores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.1 Geometria do hélice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.2 Valores caracterı́sticos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Teoria da quantidade de movimento . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.1 Força propulsiva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
i
ii ÍNDICE
3.3.2 Coeficiente de carga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.3.3 Rendimento ideal do hélice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4 Ensaios com modelos reduzidos de hélices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4.1 Diagrama em águas livres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.2 Rendimento . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.3 Índice de qualidade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5 Séries sistemáticas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5.1 Série sistemática de Wageningen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5.2 Outras séries sistemáticas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5.3 Diagrama de 4 quadrantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6 Cavitação . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.1 Origem da cavitação . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.2 Controle da cavitação . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6.3 Consideração da cavitação na selecção do hélice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6.4 Ensaios experimentais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.7 Selecção do hélice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.7.1 Variáveis de optimização . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.7.2 Tipos de problema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.8 Interacção entre casco e hélice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.8.1 Ensaios de propulsão . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8.2 Potência e velocidade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.8.3 Extrapolação dos resultados do ensaio de propulsão . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4 Instalações Propulsoras 67
4.1 Introdução . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Propulsão diesel-mecânica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2.1 Accionamento de auxiliares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.2 Engrenagens redutoras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2.3 Configuração ”pai-e-filho” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3 Propulsão diesel-eléctrica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3.1 Propulsão por motor eléctrico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3.2 Propulsores azimutais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4 Selecção do motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.4.1 Turbinas e motores eléctricos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4.2 Motores diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Índice Remissivo 83
A Previsão Baseada nos Ensaios de Propulsão 87
B Provas de velocidade e Potência 121
C Condições das Provas de Velocidade e Potência 133
D Selecção de Motores Propulsores 141
E Derating 175
Lista de Figuras
1.1 Plano de flutuação, longitudinal e transversal de um navio. . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Plano geométrico de um navio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Principais dimensões dos navios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Marcação no costado das linhas de carga do navio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Tanque de provas utilizado por W. Froude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Tanque de testes actual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Bacia para testes com ondulação. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.8 Bacia para testes com águas geladas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9 Escoamento num hélice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.10 Malha colocada à esquerda e desfasada à direita. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.11 Representação esquemática de um “PC-cluster”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.12 Um “PC-cluster” com 24 nós computacionais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.13 Decomposição 1D, 2D ou 3D do domı́nio espacial de um problema. . . . . . . . 11
1.14 Troca de valores nas fronteiras dos sub-domı́nios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Decomposição da resistência. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.2 Sistema de ondas gerado por um ponto de pressão em movimento. . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Sistemas de ondas da proa e da popa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Interacção entre os dois sistemas de ondas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Curva da resistência de onda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Variação do coeficiente da resistência de atrito com o número de Reynolds e
com a rugosidade da superfı́cie. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7 Distribuição de pressão num escoamento ideal, invı́scido. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.8 Modelo à escala reduzida para ensaios de resistência. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
cT F r4
2.9 Representação gráfica da dependência de com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
cF 0 cF 0
2.10 Redução de velocidade (%) em águas pouco profundas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 Hélice com tubeira. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.2 Hélices de passo fixo e de passo controlável. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Hélices em contra-rotação. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 Hélices supercavitante. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5 Propulsão por jacto de água. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 Propulsores azimutais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.7 Propulsores cicloidais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
iii
iv LISTA DE FIGURAS
3.8 Geometria do hélice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.9 Distribuição espacial de velocidade e pressão para a teoria da quantidade de
movimento. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.10 Diagrama de águas livres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.11 Aspecto geométrico das pás da série B de Wageningen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.12 Diagrama em águas livres de um hélice da série sistemática de Wageningen. . . 50
3.13 Notação do diagrama com 4 quadrantes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.14 Diagrama em águas livres de 4 quadrantes para os hélices Wageningen B-4.70. 53
3.15 Efeito da cavitação no valor dos parâmetros relativos a águas livres. . . . . . . 54
3.16 Pressão de vapor da água em função da temperatura. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.17 Diagrama de Burrill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.18 Instalações de ensaio do RINA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.19 Imagem da cavitação num hélice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.20 Modelo para ensaios de propulsão. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.21 Resultados dos ensaios de propulsão. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.1 Variantes de instalações propulsoras diesel-mecânicas lentas e de média veloci-

dade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2 Instalações propulsoras diesel-mecânica (em cima) e diesel-eléctrica (em baixo). 69
4.3 Acoplamento com relação variável de velocidades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4 Conversão da frequência da energia eléctrica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.5 Instalação propulsora com quatro motores, engrenagens redutoras e dois hélices. 73
4.6 Instalação com dois motores diesel diferentes, engrenagens redutoras, embrai-
agens e geradores acoplados aos veios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.7 Motor eléctrico de propulsão. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.8 Instalação diesel-eléctrica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.9 Representação esquemática de uma instalação diesel-eléctrica. . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.10 Propulsores azimutais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.11 Diagrama de carga de um motor diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Lista de Tabelas
1.1 Valores de K na fórmula de Alexander. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Valores do coeficiente de correcção cA em função do comprimento do navio. . . 29
3.1 Séries sistemáticas de propulsores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.2 Coeficiente para atribuição do diâmetro máximo do hélice pela Eq. (3.34). . . . 59
3.3 Constante para o cálculo do diâmetro equivalente em água livres pela Eq. (3.35). 59
v
vi LISTA DE TABELAS
Capı́tulo 1
Introdução
1.1 Geometria do navio
A variação da proporção relativa das dimensões principais de um navio tem um importante
efeito nas suas caracterı́sticas operacionais. Afecta as suas caracterı́sticas hidrodinâmicas, a
sua resistência estrutural e, naturalmente a capacidade de carga.
Os navios existentes, em particular as unidades de construção mais recente, constituem
uma boa “fonte de inspiração” para o pré-dimensionamento de um navio novo. No que diz
respeito à informação mais detalhada, estas bases de dados são, regra geral, bem resguardadas
pelos gabinetes de estudo e projecto, bem como pelos estaleiros construtores. No entanto,
alguns destes dados estão disponı́veis nos registos publicados pelas sociedades classificadoras
e por alguns gabinetes de estudo.
Depois de um processo iterativo de dimensionamento do navio, durante o qual são tidas
em consideração as variáveis de optimização seleccionadas, a solução final da forma do navio
constitui o plano geométrico do navio. Na prática, este plano geométrico é gerado por uma
das seguintes vias:
- deformação de um navio de referência;
- modelo matemático para definição de forma em função de parâmetros do navio;
- utilização das séries sistemáticas.
1.1.1 Principais dimensões dos navios

O casco de um navio é uma forma tridimensional, na maior parte dos casos simétrica rela-
tivamente a um plano vertical longitudinal do navio. O contorno do casco fica definido pela
sua intersecção com três planos ortogonais (Fig. 1.1):
- o plano de flutuação de projecto;
- o plano longitudinal;
- o plano transversal.
1
2 CAPÍTULO 1. INTRODUÇÃO
Figura 1.1: Plano de flutuação, longitudinal e transversal de um navio.
O plano longitudinal, único plano de simetria do navio, é o plano de referência. A forma

do navio cortada por este plano é o perfil. O plano de flutuação de projecto é um plano
perpendicular ao plano longitudinal, escolhido como plano de referência. Os planos paralelos
ao plano de flutuação de projecto são conhecidos como planos de água, ou de flutuação, e as
linhas de intersecção como linhas de água. Os planos de flutuação são simétricos relativamente
ao plano longitudinal. Os planos perpendiculares ao plano longitudinal e ao plano de flutuação
de projecto são os planos transversais. As secções transversais exibem simetria relativamente
ao plano longitudinal.
A secção do navio equidistante das perpendiculares e normal aos planos de flutuação de
verão e longitudinal é designada por secção de meio-navio, ou secção mestra. Na Fig. 1.2
está representado um plano de linhas do navio, que inclui o plano do casco, no qual, por
convenção, sempre que o navio é simétrico, se exibem metades das secções. Do lado direito
representam-se metades das secções avante de meio-navio e do lado esquerdo metades das
secções a ré. O plano de linhas do navio inclui ainda o plano da metade da boca, no qual são
representados os planos de flutuação.
Figura 1.2: Plano geométrico de um navio.

1.1. GEOMETRIA DO NAVIO 3
Na Fig. 1.3 estão representadas as dimensões mais frequentemente utilizadas para definir
o navio. Quanto ao comprimento do navio, são três as definições a considerar:
- o comprimento entre perpendiculares, Lpp , distância medida ao longo do plano de flu-
tuação de verão entre a perpendicular da popa e a perpendicular da proa;
- o comprimento na linha de água, Lwl , distância na linha de flutuação que se verifique, se
nada for referido deverá entender-se a linha de flutuação de verão, entre as intersecções
da proa e popa com a mesma linha de flutuação;
- o comprimento fora a fora, Loa , distância entre os pontos extremos a vante e a ré do
navio, medida numa direcção paralela à linha de flutuação de verão.
Designa-se por boca, a máxima distância entre as faces interiores das chapas de costado
nos dois bordos do navio, na secção mestra, se outra secção não for indicada. O pontal é a
distância na vertical, medida a meio navio, entre a face inferior do convés e a face superior
da chapa da quilha. O calado de um navio em qualquer ponto do seu comprimento é a
distância na vertical entre a quilha e a linha de água. O calado varia não só com o estado de
carregamento do navio mas também com a densidade da água em que este se encontra.
A altura desde a linha de flutuação e o convés é designada por bordo livre. Pode ser
calculado pela diferença entre o pontal e o calado.
Um aspecto importante relativamente à segurança de um navio mercante prende-se com
a alocação regulamentar de um valor mı́nimo do bordo livre, como forma de garantir uma
reserva de estabilidade suficiente para a segurança da navegação. Este valor mı́nimo do bordo
livre depende do local de navegação e da época do ano. No costado do navio estão marcadas
as linhas de carga por forma a permitir verificar facilmente se as condições de segurança são
verificadas. O valor de referência é a linha de Verão que é marcada no centro de um cı́rculo,
Fig. 1.4. Ao lado deste cı́rculo, são marcadas na horizontal linhas adicionais que correspondem
ao:
- bordo livre de Inverno, superior em 1/48 avos do bordo livre de Verão;
- bordo livre de Inverno no Atlântico Norte, ainda superior em 50 mm;
- bordo livre tropical, inferior em 1/48 avos do bordo livre de Verão;
- bordo livre em água doce, inferior em ∆ / (40 t) cm, sendo ∆ o deslocamento em ton e
t as ton por cm de imersão;
- bordo livre tropical em água doce é inferior em 1/48 avos do bordo livre de Verão ao
bordo livre em água doce.
1.1.2 Coeficientes de forma do navio

O deslocamento do navio é o peso do volume de água que o navio desloca quando a flutuar
em águas tranquilas,
∆ = ρg∇ (1.1)
em que ρ é a massa volúmica da água em que o navio se encontra a flutuar, g é a aceleração
da gravidade e ∇ o volume deslocado.
A partir das principais dimensões da navio, definem-se os seguintes coeficientes de forma:
Figura 1.3: Principais dimensões dos navios.
- o coeficiente de finura total (“block coeficient”):
∇
Cb = (1.2)
Lpp BT
onde:
- ∇ é o volume do deslocamento;
- Lpp o comprimento entre perpendiculares;
- B a boca (máxima abaixo da linha de água);
- e T é o calado médio do navio.
- o coeficiente de finura da flutuação:

Awp
Cwp = (1.3)
Lwp B
em que:
- Awp é a área do plano de flutuação;

1.1. GEOMETRIA DO NAVIO 5
Figura 1.4: Marcação no costado das linhas de carga do navio.
- Lwp o comprimento na linha de flutuação;

- e B a boca (máxima na linha de flutuação).
- o coeficiente de finura da secção mestra:
Am
Cm = (1.4)
BT
representando por:
- Am a área imersa na secção mestra;
- B a boca na secção mestra;
- e T o calado a meio navio.
- o coeficiente prismático longitudinal:
∇
Cp = (1.5)
Am Lpp
em que novamente:
- ∇ é o volume da querena;
- Am a área imersa a meio navio;
- e Lpp o comprimento entre perpendiculares.
Como exemplo da utilização dos coeficientes de forma no estabelecimento de relações
empı́ricas para inı́cio do projecto de um navio, pode-se indicar a fórmula de Alexander,
V
Cb = K − 0.5 × √ (1.6)
L
em que K apresenta os valores da Tab. 1.1 de acordo com o tipo de navio. A fórmula de
Alexander estabelece uma relação empı́rica entre o coeficiente de finura total do navio, a sua
velocidade e o comprimento. Pela especificidade de cada caso, o coeficiente de finura total
Cb do navio poderá depois desviar-se do valor inicialmente previsto durante o processo de
optimização das caracterı́sticas do navio.
Tipo de Navio K
Petroleiro 1.13
Graneleiro 1.11
Carga geral 1.10
Navio de linha 1.05
Ferry 1.08
Rebocador 1.18
Tabela 1.1: Valores de K na fórmula de Alexander.
1.2 Comportamento hidrodinâmico do navio

A análise do comportamento hidrodinâmico do navio pode ser decomposta em diversas áreas,
de entre as quais se pode salientar:
- a resistência;
- a propulsão;
- o comportamento do navio no mar;
- a capacidade de manobra.
O cálculo do escoamento e o projecto de hélices pode ser considerado como um sub-tópico do

tema resistência e propulsão.
As metodologias para o cálculo ou para a previsão dos parâmetros relevantes do compor-
tamento do navio podem ser classificadas como:
- empı́ricas e estatı́sticas;
- experimentais em modelos à escala reduzida, ou à escala real;
- numéricas, através de soluções analı́ticas ou com recurso à mecânica de fluidos compu-

tacional.
Os princı́pios fundamentais destas metodologias são sumariamente descritos nas secções

seguintes.
1.3 Métodos empı́ricos

Os métodos empı́ricos baseiam-se num modelo fı́sico relativamente simples e na análise por
regressão para a determinação dos coeficientes relevantes, a partir de um só navio ou de uma
série de navios. Os resultados assim obtidos são depois expressos sob a forma de constantes,
fórmulas, tabelas, gráficos, etc.
Numerosos estudos realizados entre 1940 e 1960 permitiram criar séries de “boas” formas
de carenas. O efeito da variação dos principais parâmetros do casco, como por exemplo o
coeficiente de bloco, foi determinado por alteração sistemática daqueles parâmetros.
1.4. MÉTODOS EXPERIMENTAIS 7
Figura 1.5: Tanque de provas utilizado

por W. Froude. Figura 1.6: Tanque de testes actual.
1.4 Métodos experimentais

Esta abordagem baseia-se no teste de modelos em escala reduzida para extrair informação que
possa ser extrapolada para a escala do navio. Apesar dos grandes esforços de investigação e
normalização, a correlação modelo-navio está sujeita a algum grau de empirismo. Cada uma
das principais instalações de teste (túneis, bacias, etc.) tende a adoptar os métodos de ensaio
e tratamento da informação que melhor se adaptam à experiência já incorporada nas suas
bases de dados. Esta não uniformidade de processos dificulta, se não mesmo em muitos casos
impossibilita, o aproveitamento estatı́stico dos dados de uma forma agregada.
Embora a metodologia base para a avaliação da resistência de um modelo num tanque de
testes se mantenha praticamente inalterada desde os tempos de Froude (1874), vários aspectos
técnicos sofreram grande evolução. De entre estes, podem-se salientar:
- as técnicas experimentais não-intrusivas, como a Laser-Doppler Velocimetry, que per-

mitem a medição do campo de velocidades na esteira do navio para melhorar o projecto
do hélice;
- a análise do padrão da formação ondosa gerada pelo modelo para estimar a resistência
de onda;
- nos testes de modelos com propulsão autónoma, é possı́vel agora medir grandezas rela-
cionadas com o propulsor como o impulso, binário, rpm, etc.
Instalações com caracterı́sticas bem diferentes surgiram entretanto para possibilitar outro
tipo de estudos. Trata-se de bacias equipadas com geradores de ondas, para ensaios de modelos
com o objectivo de estudar as questões de manobrabilidade e de comportamento do navio no
mar, Fig. 1.7.
Outro tipo de bacias para ensaios de modelos de navios, Fig. 1.8, dedica-se preferencial-
mente a estudos e ensaios relacionados com a presença de gelo no mar.
Por último, um outro tipo de instalação de teste nesta área dedica-se ao estudo do desem-
penho de hélices propulsores. Neste tipo de instalação, que iremos abordar com um pouco
mais de detalhe no Cap. 3, para além da determinação de várias caracterı́sticas de desempenho
do hélice, pode-se vizualizar o padrão de cavitação no hélice.
Figura 1.7: Bacia para testes Figura 1.8: Bacia para testes com
com ondulação. águas geladas.
Figura 1.9: Escoamento num hélice.
1.5 Simulações numéricas

As simulações de escoamento obtidas pela mecânica de fluidos computacional são ainda consi-
deradas pela indústria como pouco precisas para a previsão da resistência de um casco ou da
força propulsiva de um hélice. No entanto, o contributo da mecânica de fluidos computacional
está a tornar-se cada vez mais importante em determinados passos do processo de projecto.
Casos tı́picos de aplicação são, por exemplo:
- a simulação de escoamento invı́scido, com superfı́cie livre, para análise do comporta-
mento da proa, interacção com o bolbo, formação ondosa, etc.
- as simulações de escoamento viscoso na zona da popa, desprezando a formação ondosa
para avaliação do comportamento de apêndice ou análise do escoamento de aproximação
ao hélice.
No caso mais geral, o escoamento de fluidos incompressı́veis em regime não-estacionário é
modelado pelas seguintes equações:
1.5. SIMULAÇÕES NUMÉRICAS 9
- Equação da continuidade,
∂ui
=0 (1.7)
∂xi
- Equação de conservação da quantidade de movimento,
∂ρui ∂ ∂p ∂ 2 ui
+ (ρui uj ) = − +µ + ρbi (1.8)
∂t ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj
- Equação de conservação da energia (forma simplificada),
∂θ ∂ (θuj ) κ ∂2θ
+ = (1.9)
∂t ∂xj ρc ∂xj ∂xj
em que xi é a coordenada na direcção i, ui é a componente da velocidade na direcção i, ρ

e µ são a massa especı́fica e a viscosidade do fluido, respectivamente, p é a pressão, κ é a
condutividade térmica, c é o calor especı́fico, θ é a temperatura, b é a componente na direcção
i das forças exteriores por unidade de massa e t é o tempo.
As equações são discretizadas no espaço de acordo com uma malha colocada ou desfasada.
Na Fig. 1.10 está indicada a localização das variáveis, no caso bi-dimensional, para cada
uma daqueles tipos de malhas. Cada um daqueles tipos de malha de discretização apresenta
Figura 1.10: Malha colocada à esquerda e desfasada à direita.
algumas vantagens e desvantagens. As mais importantes estão relacionadas com:
- a complexidade da programação;
- o tratamento das fronteiras do problema;
- a solução para o acoplamento pressão-velocidade (formato xadrez na solução da pressão).
Selecionado o tipo de malha a utilizar, outras opções há a tomar para desenvolver o método
de solução. Algumas das mais comuns são:
Figura 1.12: Um “PC-cluster”

Figura 1.11: Representação esquemática com 24 nós computacionais.
de um “PC-cluster”.
- SIMPLE / método de projecção;
- volume finito / diferenças finitas;
- aproximação dos termos convectivos/difusivos das equações;
- “upwind”;
- diferenças centrais de ordem 2;
- diferenças centrais de ordem 4;
- o método de integração para a evolução temporal;
- Euler;
- Crank-Nicolson;
- Adams-Bashforth;
- Runge-Kutta.
Tratando-se de cálculos complexos, o tempo de cálculo poderá ser reduzido, sem acréscimo
significativo de custos, com recurso de um “PC-cluster”, Fig. 1.11.
Este tipo de estruturas computacionais caracterizam-se por dispor de:
- 20 a 1000 CPU;
- 2 a 8 GB RAM por nó;
- comunicação em rede com velocidade superior a 1 Gbps;
- elevada capacidade para armazenamento de dados;
- sistema operativo estável.

1.5. SIMULAÇÕES NUMÉRICAS 11
Para a solução de um problema de mecânica de fluidos num “PC-cluster” é necessário pro-

ceder à decomposição do domı́nio espacial do problema (Fig. 1.13) e recorrer a rotinas de uma
das várias bibliotecas disponı́veis para efectuar a troca de dados entre os nós computacionais,
como por exemplo a biblioteca Message Passing Interface, necessária para a continuação do
cálculo. Na Fig. 1.14 estão representados esquematicamente aquelas comunicações de dados
relativos às fronteiras dos sub-domı́nios de cálculo.
Figura 1.13: Decomposição 1D, 2D ou 3D do domı́nio espacial de um pro-

blema.
Figura 1.14: Troca de valores nas fronteiras dos sub-domı́nios.

Capı́tulo 2
Resistência
2.1 Análise dimensional
A resistência do navio a uma velocidade constante é a força necessária para rebocar o navio
a essa velocidade em águas tranquilas. Se a querena não tiver apêndices, a resistência diz-se
da querena simples. Designaremos por potência efectiva, ou potência de reboque, a potência
necessária para vencer a resistência do navio a uma dada velocidade,
Pe = V RT (2.1)
em que V é a velocidade do navio e RT a sua resistência total.

A resistência do navio RT = f (V, L, ρ, ν, g) depende:
- da velocidade do navio V ;
- das dimensões do navio, representadas aqui por uma dimensão linear L;
- da massa especı́fica do fluido ρ;
- da viscosidade cinemática do fluido ν;
- da aceleração da gravidade g.
Assim, a resistência do navio deverá ser uma função da forma
RT = V a Lb ρc ν d g e (2.2)
Ao estudar a resistência de um navio é importante calcular não o seu valor absoluto, mas
também a sua relação com outro valor, dimensionalmente semelhante, tomado como referên-
cia. Vamos dar o nome de coeficientes especı́ficos a estas relações. No caso da resistência
total do navio, o valor do coeficiente é obtido por
RT
cT = (2.3)
1
ρSV 2
2
em que ρ é a massa especı́fica do fluido, S a superfı́cie molhada do navio e V a sua velocidade.
13
14 CAPÍTULO 2. RESISTÊNCIA
Resolvendo o sistema de equações gerado pela Eq. (2.2) em ordem a a, b e c, e considerando

a definição do coeficiente em 2.3 dada pela Eq. (2.3), temos

2 2 V L gL
RT = ρV L f , (2.4)
ν V2
Ou seja, a análise dimensional mostra que o coeficiente de resistência total do navio,

V L gL
ct = f , (2.5)
ν V2
depende dos grupos adimensionais designados por número de Froude,
V
Fr = √ (2.6)
gL
e por número de Reynolds,
VL
Re = (2.7)
ν
calculados para o navio.
2.2 Leis da semelhança

No caso dos ensaios de modelos para avaliação da resistência de uma querena, podemos
considerar três formas de semelhança:
- semelhança geométrica;
- semelhança cinemática;
- semelhança dinâmica.
2.2.1 Semelhança geométrica

Verificar-se semelhança geométrica significa a existência de uma razão constante entre qual-
quer dimensão linear na escala real do protótipo (comprimento, boca, calado do navio, etc.)
Ls e o dimensão linear na escala do modelo Lm . Aquela razão é a escala geométrica do modelo
λ,
Ls = λ Lm (2.8)
Consequentemente, temos para as áreas,
As = λ 2 Am (2.9)
e para os volumes,
∇s = λ 3 ∇m (2.10)
2.2. LEIS DA SEMELHANÇA 15
2.2.2 Semelhança cinemática

A semelhança cinemática significa a existência de uma razão constante entre o “tempo” na
escala real, ts e o “tempo” na escala do modelo tm , a escala cinemática τ :
ts = τ · tm (2.11)
A verificação simultânea das condições de semelhança geométrica e cinemática resulta nos
seguintes factores de escala:
- para a velocidade:
λ
Vs = Vm (2.12)
τ
- e para a aceleração:
λ
as = am (2.13)
τ2
2.2.3 Semelhança dinâmica
Obter semelhança dinâmica significa que a razão entre cada uma das forças actuantes no navio
à escala real e as correspondentes forças actuantes no modelo é constante, escala dinâmica do
modelo κ,
Fs = κ · Fm (2.14)
As forças presentes, actuantes sobre o navio e sobre o modelo, podem ser classificadas de
acordo com a sua natureza como:
- as forças de inércia;
- as forças gravı́ticas;
- as forças de atrito.
Forças de inércia
As forças de inércia regem-se pela lei de Newton, expressa por
F = m·a (2.15)
em que F é a força de inércia, m a massa do corpo, e a a aceleração a que ele é sujeito.
Considerando o volume deslocado pelo navio ∇, a massa do navio é
m = ρ·∇ (2.16)
sendo ρ a massa volúmica da água.
Então, a razão entre as forças de inércia é uma equação que incorpora os três factores de
escala, lei da Semelhança de Newton, é dada por
Fs ρs · ∇s · as ρs λ4
κ= = = · (2.17)
Fm ρm · ∇m · am ρm τ 2
que pode ser re-escrita como
2
Vs 2

Fs ρs 2 λ ρs As
κ= = ·λ · = · · (2.18)
Fm ρm τ ρ m Am Vm
Forças de origem hidrodinâmica

As forças de origem hidrodinâmica são normalmente descritas recorrendo a um coeficiente
adimensional c na seguinte forma, semelhante à Eq. (2.3),
1
F = c· ρ·V 2·A (2.19)
2
em que V é uma velocidade de referência, por exemplo a velocidade do navio e A uma área de
referência como, por exemplo, a área das obras vivas com mar calmo. Aplicando a Eq. (2.19)
ao navio e ao modelo e combinando as duas equações, obtem-se
cs · ρs · Vs2 · As Vs 2

Fs cs ρs As
= = · · (2.20)
Fm cm · ρm · Vm2 · Am cm ρm Am Vm
Daqui resulta que igualando o valor dos coeficientes no navio e no modelo, cs = cm , fica
garantida a verificação da lei da semelhança de Newton.
Forças Gravı́ticas
As forças gravı́ticas podem ser descritas de forma semelhante às forças de inércia, para o
navio
Gs = ρs · g · ∇s (2.21)
e para o modelo
Gs = ρs · g · ∇s Gm = ρm · g · ∇m (2.22)
daqui resultando uma nova escala,

Gs ρs ∇s ρs
κg = = · = · λ3 (2.23)
Gm ρm ∇m ρm
Para que se possa verificar a semelhança dinâmica, os factores de escala devem apresentar
o mesmo valor, ou seja, κ = κg . Se
ρs λ4
κ= ·
ρm τ 2
e
ρs
κg = · λ3
ρm
então, para que κ = κg é necessário verificar-se
√
τ= λ (2.24)
Esta nova relação permite eliminar a escala temporal em todas as relações apresentadas,
ficando a proporcionalidade apenas dependente de λ como, por exemplo, na Eq. (2.12), fazendo
Vs √
= λ (2.25)
Vm
2.2. LEIS DA SEMELHANÇA 17
Número de Froude
A Eq. (2.25) pode ainda assumir a forma de uma relação entre a dimensão linear e a
velocidade do modelo e do navio,
V V
√s = √m (2.26)
Ls Lm
Adimensionalisando a razão entre a velocidade V e a raiz quadrada do comprimento L
com a aceleração da gravidade, g = 9.81 m/s2 , obtemos o número de Froude
V
Fr = √ (2.27)
g·L
Na ausência de forças viscosas, igual número de Froude assegura semelhança dinâmica.
Para igual número de Froude, as ondulações no modelo e à escala real, desde que de pequena
amplitude, podem considerar-se geometricamente semelhantes.
A lei de Froude é verificada em todos os ensaios de modelos de navios, ensaios de resis-
tência, propulsão, comportamento no mar e manobrabilidade. A aplicação da lei de Froude
impõe os seguintes factores de escala para a velocidade,
Vs √
= λ (2.28)
Vm
força,
Fs ρs
= · λ3 (2.29)
Fm ρm
e potência,
Ps Fs · Vs ρs
= = · λ3.5 (2.30)
Pm Fm · Vm ρm
Forças de atrito
As forças viscosas R, com origem no atrito entre camadas de fluido, são modeladas por
∂u
R = µ· ·A (2.31)
∂n
∂u
em que µ é a viscosidade dinâmica do fluido, A a área sujeita ao atrito e o gradiente de
∂n
velocidade, avaliado na direcção normal ao escoamento.
A razão das forças de atrito no navio e no modelo é dada por
∂us
µs · · As
Rs ∂ns µs λ2
κf = = = (2.32)
Rm ∂um µm τ
µm · · Am
∂nm
Na presença das forças de atrito, para verificar a condição de semelhança dinâmica, será
necessário que κf = κ, ou seja:
µs λ 2 ρs λ4
= (2.33)
µm τ ρm τ 2
Se introduzirmos a viscosidade cinemática, como ν = µ/ρ, obtém-se:
νs λ2 V s · Ls
= =
νm τ Vm · Lm
ou seja,
Vs · Ls Vm · Lm
= (2.34)
νs νm
Número de Reynolds
Então, de acordo com a Eq. (2.34), se apenas estiverem presentes forças de inércia e de
atrito, a igualdade do número de Reynolds,
V ·L
Re = (2.35)
ν
assegura semelhança dinâmica entre o modelo e o navio.
Para o cálculo do número de Reynolds, a viscosidade cinemática da água do mar (m2 /s)
pode ser estimada, em função da temperatura θ (◦ C) e da salinidade s (%), por
ν = (0.014 · s + (0.000645 · θ − 0.0503) · θ + 1.75) · 10−6 (2.36)
Semelhança dinâmica
O número de Froude e o número de Reynolds estão relacionados por,
√ p
Re V · L gL gL3
= = (2.37)
Fr ν V ν
A semelhança de Froude é facilmente obtida para testes em modelos porque para modelos
mais pequenos a velocidade de teste diminui. A semelhança de Reynolds é mais difı́cil de
obter pois modelos mais pequenos exigem superior velocidade de teste para igual viscosidade
cinemática.
os navios de superfı́cie estão sujeitos a forças gravı́ticas e de atrito. Assim, nos testes de
modelos à escala reduzida ambas as leis, de Froude e de Reynolds, deveriam ser satisfeitas;
s
Res νm L3s νm 1.5
= · = ·λ = 1 (2.38)
Rem νs L3m νs
No entanto, não existem, ou pelo menos não são economicamente viáveis, fluidos que permitam
satisfazer esta condição. Para diminuir os erros de extrapolação dos efeitos viscosos, a água em
que são realizados os testes pode ser aquecida para aumentar a diferença entre as viscosidades.
2.3 Decomposição da resistência

A resistência do navio tem origem complexa e, para facilidade de análise, é tradicionalmente
decomposta em vários termos. No entanto, não existe uniformidade nos diversos textos quanto
à forma como realizar aquela decomposição. Uma das abordagens a este assunto consiste
em considerar as decomposições constantes na Fig. 2.1. De acordo com a figura, podemos
considerar a seguinte decomposição da resistência total:
2.3. DECOMPOSIÇÃO DA RESISTÊNCIA 19
- a resistência de onda;
- a resistência de atrito;
- a resistência viscosa de pressão.
Figura 2.1: Decomposição da resistência.
Para além dos termos relativos a uma querena simples em águas tranquilas, outras com-
ponentes adicionais da resistência deverão ser consideradas:
- a resistência aerodinâmica, resistência ao avanço no ar da parte emersa do casco e

superestruturas do navio;
- a resistência adicional em mar ondoso, resistência resultante da acção de ondas inciden-

tes sobre a estrutura do navio;
- a resistência adicional devida aos apêndices da querena.
2.3.1 Resistência de onda

Quando o navio avança na superfı́cie tranquila do mar é rodeado e seguido por uma formação
ondosa. Esta formação é quase imperceptı́vel a baixa velocidade. No entanto, a partir de
uma dada velocidade torna-se claramente visı́vel e, a partir daı́, tem dimensão crescente
com a velocidade. Para além da dependência com a velocidade, a formação ondosa depende
também da forma da querena.
Nos estudos de resistência de onda não se pode afirmar que uma dada velocidade é elevada
ou baixa sem conhecermos também a dimensão do navio. Assim, surge frequentemente a
referência ao conceito de velocidade relativa, como razão entre a velocidade do navio e um
parâmetro representativo da dimensão do navio,
V
vrel = √ (2.39)
L
com V em nós e L em pés, em substituição do adimensional número de Froude.
Numa perspectiva do estudo hidrodinâmico do escoamanto, o navio pode ser considerado
como um campo de pressão em movimento. Kelvin resolveu analiticamente o caso simplificado
do sistema de ondas criado pelo movimento de um ponto de pressão. Demonstrou que o padrão
da formação ondosa inclui um sistemas de ondas divergentes e um outro sistema cujas cristas
das ondas se apresentam normais à direcção do movimento, como representado na Fig. 2.2.
Ambos os sistemas de ondas viajam à velocidade do ponto de pressão.
Figura 2.2: Sistema de ondas gerado por um ponto de pressão em movi-

mento.
O sistema de ondas associado ao movimento de um navio é bastante mais complicado.

No entanto, como primeira aproximação, o navio pode ser considerado com um campo de
pressão em movimento composto por uma sobrepressão considerada pontual na proa e uma
depressão, também pontual, na popa. Assim, num navio que se desloque a uma velocidade
relativa elevada, a formação ondosa provocada é constituı́da por dois sistemas principais de
ondas, Fig. 2.3:
- o sistema da proa;
- o sistema da popa.
Cada um dos sistemas de ondas formados, com origem na proa e na popa do navio, é
constituı́do por dois tipos de ondas:
- as ondas transversais;
- as ondas divergentes.
Geralmente, os dois sistemas de ondas divergentes são detectáveis apesar de o sistema da

popa ser muito mais fraco. Não é normalmente possı́vel isolar o sistema transversal da popa,
sendo apenas visı́vel a ré do navio a composição dos dois sistemas, transversal e divergente.
Figura 2.3: Sistemas de ondas da proa e da popa.
A proa produz um sistema de ondas semelhante ao descrito por Kelvin para um ponto de
pressão em movimento e, pelo contrário, na popa forma-se um sistema de ondas semelhante,
mas com uma depressão localizada na popa. Conforme representado na Fig. 2.3, se a linha
que une os pontos de maior elevação das cristas das ondas divergentes fizer com a direcção
longitudinal do navio um ângulo α, então a direcção destas fará um ângulo 2α com a mesma
direcção.
O comprimento de onda de ambos os sistemas transversais é igual e dado por:
2πV 2
λ= (2.40)
g
Existe uma interacção entre as formações ondosa transversais dos sistemas de ondas da
proa e da popa. Se os sistemas estiverem “em fase”, de tal forma que as cristas das ondas
coincidam, o sistema resultante terá maior altura e, consequentemente, maior energia. Se,
pelo contrário, a cava de um dos sistemas de ondas ficar sobreposta com uma crista do outro
sistema, a energia consumida para gerar o sistema de ondas será reduzida. A velocidade V
e o comprimento do navio L são muito importantes para a determinação da energia total do
sistema de ondas gerado e, consequentemente, para a resistência de onda do navio.
Continuando a assumir o modelo fı́sico que aproxima o movimento do navio por um
campo de pressão em movimento, a distância entre os dois pontos de pressão, proa e popa,
é aproximada por 0, 9 L. Sabendo que uma onda gravı́tica com comprimento de onda λ se
desloca em águas profundas à velocidade
r
λg
C= (2.41)
2π
para que haja coincidência de uma crista ou cava do sistema da proa com a primeira cava
gerada na popa, deverá verificar-se
V2 g
= (2.42)
0, 9L Nπ
Tomando em consideração a Fig. 2.4, verifica-se que as cavas vão coincidir para N =
1, 3, 5, ... enquanto que para N par as cristas do sistema da proa coincidem com as cavas do
sistema da popa. Se não existisse esta interacção entre os dois sistemas de ondas a resistência
de onda apresentaria uma evolução “bem comportada” crescente com a velocidade do navio,
Figura 2.4: Interacção entre os dois sistemas de ondas.
conforme representado pela linha tracejada da Fig. 2.5. Na realidade, a partir de uma dada
velocidade a partir da qual esta interacção se torna significativa, verifica-se a existência de
elevações e depressões na curva correspondendo aos casos extremos de interacção entre os
sistemas de ondas. É de esperar que a maior elevação se verifique para N = 1 porque a
velocidade é mais elevada para esta condição.
Como a curva de resistência de onda exibe estes máximos e mı́nimos locais, o navio deve
ser projectado para operar num mı́nimo local da curva de resistência de onda, a velocidade
económica.
Quando o comprimento de onda das ondas transversais é igual ao comprimento do na-
vio, o número de Froude é aproximadamente 0, 4. Até este valor do número de Froude, as
ondas transversais são as principais responsáveis pelas elevações e depressões na curva da
resistência de onda. Se o número de Froude aumentar, aumentará também a resistência de
onda sobretudo à custa da influência das ondas divergentes. O máximo da resistência de
onda verifica-se para F r ≈ 0, 5. A velocidade correspondente designa-se por “velocidade da
querena”. Acima da “velocidade da querena” a resistência de onda do navio decresce. Navios
rápidos que operem acima da velocidade de querena deverão naturalmente dispor de potência
instalada suficiente para vencer aquele pico de resistência.
Bolbo de proa
A finalidade da instalação dos bolbos de proa é a redução da resistência de onda. O
mecanismo de redução consiste na interferência dos sistemas de onda. O sistema de ondas
gerado pela pressão elevada no bolbo interfere com o sistema de ondas da proa, reduzindo a
sua amplitude. A interferência favorável ocorre quando a cava do sistema transversal de ondas
Figura 2.5: Curva da resistência de onda.
do bolbo surgir na crista do sistema de ondas da proa do navio. Esta situação de interferência
favorável sendo optimizada para uma dada velocidade, pode no entanto ser considerada como
tendo efeito favorável num determinado intervalo de velocidades.
Efeito da profundidade restrita

Os efeitos da profundidade finita começam a fazer-se sentir quando a profundidade h é
menor que metade do comprimento de onda da formação ondosa gerada pelo movimento do
navio, h < λ/2. Doutra forma, podemos considerar profundidade infinita sempre que,
λ
h> (2.43)
2
No caso de profundidades muito pequenas, h < 0, 05λ∞ , a velocidade de propagação deixa
de depender do comprimento de onda, Eq. (2.41) e passa a depender apenas da profundidade
p
C= gh (2.44)
Neste caso, a velocidade de grupo é igual à velocidade de propagação, a velocidade crı́tica:

p
Cg = C = gh (2.45)
Para caracterizar o efeito da profundidade é usado o número de Froude baseado na pro-

fundidade h:
√
- se V / gh < 0, 4, o padrão de ondas é semelhante ao caso de profundidade infinita;
√
- se V / gh se aproximar de 1, o ângulo da envolvente aproxima-se de 90◦ ;
√ √
- se V / gh > 1, sin α = gh/V .
2.3.2 Resistência de atrito

A resistência de atrito do navio resulta do escoamento em torno da querena com número de
Reynolds elevado. Quando um corpo se move num fluido em repouso, uma fina camada de
fluido adere ao corpo em movimento, ou seja, tem velocidade nula relativamente ao corpo.
A variação de velocidade é elevada nas proximidades da superfı́cie do corpo e diminui com
o aumento da distância ao mesmo. É prática habitual convencionar-se para a definição da
espessura da camada limite, a distância a partir da superfı́cie do corpo até que a velocidade
do fluido seja 1% da velocidade do corpo.
Desenvolve-se assim da proa para a popa do navio uma camada limite tridimensional. Esta
camada limite inicia-se em escoamento laminar e sofre transição para o regime turbulento.
Normalmente, esta transição ocorre junto à proa do navio. Esta transição é controlada pelo
número de Reynolds do escoamento. Considerando o caso da placa lisa plana, a transição
ocorre para valores entre Re = 3×105 e Re = 106 . Em regime turbulento os efeitos dissipativos
de energia vão além do atrito molecular. Com crescente número de Reynolds, verificam-se
intensas trocas de quantidade de movimento em camadas adjacentes do fluido, ou seja, maior
transporte de energia.
No caso de uma placa plana, a espessura da camada limite turbulenta pode ser aproximada
por:
δx
= 0, 37 (ReL )−1/5 (2.46)
L
Num navio, o gradiente lontitudinal de pressão na região da proa é, em geral, favorável
ao escoamento. Pelo contrário, este gradiente é adverso na região da popa e a camada limite
aumenta significativamente de espessura deixando de poder ser considerada pequena quando
comparada com o comprimento ou a boca do navio. Para todos os efeitos práticos, a camada
limite de um navio pode ser considerada completamente turbulenta.
A dependência da resistência de atrito com o número de Reynolds e com a rugosidade da
superfı́cie é indicada pelo gráfico da Fig. 2.6. Para uma superfı́cie rugosa, a resistência segue
a linha da superfı́cie lisa até que, para um dado valor de Re, se separa e tem a partir daı́
um andamento quase horizontal, ou seja, o coeficiente torna-se independente do Re. Quanto
mais rugosa for a superfı́cie mais cedo se evidencia este comportamento.
A resistência de atrito de um navio é habitualmente dividida em duas componentes:
- a resistência a que ficaria sujeita uma placa plana com área equivalente;
- o aumento de resistência originado pela forma do navio.
A resistência de atrito foi estimada durante décadas por expressões empı́ricas como, por
exemplo, a fórmula de Froude:
RF = 1 − 0, 0043 (θ − 15) f SV 1,825 (2.47)

Figura 2.6: Variação do coeficiente da resistência de atrito com o número

de Reynolds e com a rugosidade da superfı́cie.
em que θ é a temperatura do fluido, expressa em ◦ C e

0, 258
f = 0, 1392 + (2.48)
2, 68 + L
Outra fórmula empı́rica muito popular para a previsão do coeficiente da resistência de atrito é
devida a Schoenherr e conhecida como fórmula da ATTC (American Towing Tank Conference)
0, 242
√ = log (Re · cF ) (2.49)
cF
Esta correlação prevê coeficientes de atrito excessivos quando aplicada a modelos muito
pequenos. Para ultrapassar este problema foi proposta na ITTC (International Towing Tank
Conference) de 1957 uma nova fórmula,
0, 075
cF = (2.50)
(logRe − 2)2
designada por linha de correlação modelo-navio da ITTC 1957.
2.3.3 Resistência viscosa de pressão

A componente da pressão originada pelas ondas formadas pelo movimento do navio já foi
considerada. Resta agora considerar a resistência originada por diferenças de pressão a actuar
no casco devida a efeitos viscosos do escoamento. Num escoamento ideal, ver Fig. 2.7, a
pressão exercida na popa do navio seria igual à exercida na proa, ou seja força resultante
nula. Na prática, os efeitos viscosos vão reduzir a pressão exercida na popa do navio.
Parte desta resistência será devida à geração de vórtices nas descontinuidades do casco.
Outra parte será devida a um aumento de espessura da camada limite nalguns casos po-
tenciada por fenómenos de separação do escoamento. Estes aspectos são fundamentalmente
condicionados pela forma do casco pelo que são normalmente considerados como uma “resis-
tência de forma”.
Figura 2.7: Distribuição de pressão num escoamento ideal, invı́scido.
2.4 Ensaios de resistência em tanques de reboque

Apesar da crescente importância dos métodos numéricos, os ensaios com modelos à escala
reduzida de navios em tanques de reboque são ainda essenciais para a avaliação hidrodinâmica
dos novos projectos e para a validação de novas soluções.
Os testes devem ser realizados em condições que permitam considerar que o modelo e o
navio têm comportamentos semelhantes por forma a que os resultados obtidos para o modelo
possam ser extrapolados para a escala real do navio. Com este objectivo, os ensaios realizam-
se respeitando a igualdade do número de Froude.
Os testes são realizados em tanques de reboque, com água imóvel e o modelo rebocado por
um “carrinho” ou, em alternativa, os testes podem ser realizados em “tanques de circulação”,
em que o modelo está imóvel e a água circula.
No primeiro caso, após um percurso inicial de aceleração, a velocidade do “carrinho” deve
ser mantida constante para obter um regime estacionário e garantir o rigor das observações
efectuadas. A fase final é de desaceleração e imobilização do modelo. Assim, os tanques de
reboque apresentam frequentemente centenas de metros de extensão.
O comprimento do modelo, como o exemplo representado esquematicamente na Fig. 2.8,
é escolhido de acordo com as condições experimentais no tanque de reboque. O modelo deve
ser tão grande quanto possı́vel por forma a minimizar efeitos de escala relativos aos aspectos
viscosos, nomeadamente as diferenças relativas a escoamentos laminares e turbulentos e as
questões relacionadas com fenómenos de separação do escoamento. Por outro lado, a dimensão
do modelo deve ainda permitir evitar deformações resultantes de esforços no modelo e no
equipamento de teste.
A dimensão do modelo deve ser suficientemente pequena para permitir que o “carrinho”
de reboque do modelo atinja a velocidade correspondente e evitar os efeitos de águas res-
tritas nos testes efectuados. Estes constrangimentos conduzem naturalmente a um intervalo
prático de comprimentos admissı́veis. Os modelos para ensaios de resistência e propulsão
têm normalmente comprimentos entre 4 m < Lm < 10 m. A escala dos modelos está entre
15 < λ < 45.
2.5. CÁLCULO DA RESISTÊNCIA 27
Figura 2.8: Modelo à escala reduzida para ensaios de resistência.
Durante o movimento, o modelo mantém o rumo através de fios-guia, sendo livre para
adoptar o caimento que resultar do seu movimento. Ainda de acordo com a Fig. 2.8, a
resistência total de reboque do modelo é dada por,
RT = G1 + sin αG2 (2.51)
Com os ensaios de resistência com o modelo à escala reduzida pretende-se obter dados
que permitam estimar a resistência do navio sem o propulsor e apêndices, ou seja, dita da
querena simples. Dos ensaios no tanque de reboque obtém-se a resistência nas condições do
tanque, ou seja:
- águas suficientemente profundas;
- ausência de correntes;
- ausência de vento;
- água doce à temperatura ambiente.
O número de Reynolds é normalmente superior duas ordens de grandeza na escala do navio

que na escala do modelo, tipicamente na ordem de 109 e 107 , respectivamente. O modelo tem
frequentemente uma fita rugosa para estimular artificialmente a transição da camada limite
laminar para turbulenta mais perto da proa do modelo. Globalmente, o desvio originado
pelo facto de não se manter constante o número de Reynolds no ensaio é depois compensado
através de correcções empı́ricas.
2.5 Cálculo da resistência

2.5.1 Métodos de extrapolação
A resistência do modelo tem depois de ser convertida por forma a obter-se uma estimativa
da resistência do navio na escala real. Para tal, estão disponı́veis, entre outros, os seguintes
métodos:
- o método ITTC 1957;

- o método de Hughes/Prohaska;
- o método ITTC 1978;
- o método Geosim de Telfer.
Actualmente, o método mais frequentemente utilizado na prática é o método ITTC 1978.
Método ITTC 1957

Para a aplicação deste método, a resistência total da querena, RT , é considerada decomposta
nos seguintes termos,
RT = RF + RR (2.52)
a resistência de atrito, RF , e a resistência residual, RR .

Os coeficientes de resistência, adimensionais, são genericamente calculados por,
Ri
ci = 1 2
(2.53)
2 ρV S
Na aplicação deste método de previsão é considerado igual para o modelo e para o navio
o coeficiente de resistência residual,
cR = cT m − cF m (2.54)
determinado a partir do coeficiente de resistência total do modelo,

RT m
cT m = 1 2
(2.55)
2 ρm Vm Sm
e da fórmula “ITTC 1957” (Eq. (2.50)) para o cálculo do coeficiente de resistência de atrito
cF ,
0.075
cF =
(log10 Re − 2)2
O coeficiente de resistência total para o navio é então estimado por:
cT s = cF s + cR + cA = cF s + (cT m − cF m ) + cA (2.56)
em que cA é um factor de correcção tradicionalmente associado à rugosidade do casco. De

facto, embora o modelo esteja construı́do a uma dada escala geométrica, a rugosidade das
superfı́cies do modelo e do navio não respeitam esta escala. O valor de cA pode ser obtido
por correlações empı́ricas como, por exemplo,
cA = 0.35 × 10−3 − 2 × Lpp × 10−6 (2.57)
ou a partir de valores tabelados (Tab. 2.1).

A previsão da resistência total do navio é dada por
1
RT s = cT s · ρs Vs2 Ss (2.58)
2
Lpp (m) cA
50 - 150 0,0004-0,00035
150 - 210 0,0002
210 - 260 0,0001
260 - 300 0
300 - 350 -0,0001
350 - 400 0,00025
Tabela 2.1: Valores do coeficiente de correcção cA em função do compri-

mento do navio.
Método de Hughes-Prohaska
O método de Hughes-Prohaska é normalmente classificado como um método de factor de
forma. É considerada a decomposição da resistência total em duas componentes, uma asso-
ciada à resistência de onda e outra dependente da forma do casco. Considerando então os
coeficientes adimensionais, fica
cT = (1 + k) · cF 0 + cw (2.59)
Para a determinação do factor de forma, presume-se aqui a relação
cT F r4
= (1 + k) + α (2.60)
cF 0 cF 0
que é particularmente válida para valores reduzidos de velocidade.
Após vários ensaios a diferentes velocidades, diferentes números de Froude, é possı́vel
construir um gráfico semelhante ao representado na Fig. 2.9 e, com base naqueles valores,
obter o valor de k por regressão linear.
cT F r4
Figura 2.9: Representação gráfica da dependência de com .
cF 0 cF 0
Este factor de forma, (1 + k),é assumido como independente dos valores de F r e de Re e

igual para o navio e modelo.
O procedimento de cálculo do método de Hughes-Prohaska é o seguinte:
- determinar o coeficiente de resistência total,
RT m
cT m =
1
ρm Vm2 Sm
2
- determinar o coeficiente de resistência de onda, o mesmo para o modelo e o navio,
cw = cT m − cF 0m · (1 + k) (2.61)
- determinar o coeficiente de resistência total para o navio,
cT s = cw + cF 0s · (1 + k) + cA (2.62)
- determinar a resistência total para o navio, novamente por
1
RT s = cT s · ρs Vs2 Ss
2
O coeficiente da resistência de atrito, cF 0 , é neste caso obtido pela correlação de Hughes,
0.067
cF 0 = (2.63)
(log10 Re − 2)2
Quanto ao coeficiente de correcção cA , a ITTC recomenda a aplicação universal de
cA = 0.0004 (2.64)
na aplicação deste método.
Método ITTC 1978
É uma modificação do método de Hughes-Prohaska, geralmente mais preciso que os ante-

riormente apresentados. Ao contrário dos métodos anteriormente descritos, este método de
extrapolação dos resultados obtidos nos ensaios com modelos à escala reduzida inclui o efeito
da resistência do ar.
A previsão do coeficiente de resistência total para o navio é, também aqui, descrita em
termos do factor de forma, ou seja,
cT s = (1 + k) cF s + cw + cA + cAA (2.65)
em que:
- cw é o coeficiente de resistência de onda, igual para o navio e modelo;
- cA é o coeficiente de correcção;
AT
- e cAA a resistência do ar, cAA = 0.001 · .
S
O coeficiente da resistência de atrito é determinada de forma semelhante à preconizada

para o método ITTC 57, Eq. (2.50).
Para a determinação da correcção devida pela variação da rugosidade da querena, é acon-
selhada aqui a seguinte fórmula:
r
3 ks
cA · 10 = 105 3 − 0.64 (2.66)
Loss
em que ks é a rugosidade do casco e Loss é o comprimento do navio no plano de flutuação.

Para navios novos ks /Loss = 10−6 e cA = 0.00041.
Os detalhes sugeridos pela ITTC na aplicação deste método estão indicados no Apêndice
A.
Método Geosim
Este método foi proposto por Telfer em 1927. Dos métodos aqui enunciados, é considerado
como o método de extrapolação com previsões mais precisas da resistência do navio. A
grande vantagem do método resulta de não recorrer a qualquer decomposição, teoricamente
questionável, da resistência total.
São realizados vários ensaios com modelos geometricamente semelhantes mas a diferentes
escalas. Isto significa que os testes podem ser realizados, para a mesma velocidade equivalente,
com igual número de Froude e diferente número de Reynolds. O coeficiente de resistência total,
obtido naqueles ensaios, é representado em função de logRe−1/3 . Para cada um dos modelos,
obtém-se uma curva da resistência, em função do F r, que permite fazer a extrapolação para
a escala do navio.
Pela grande quantidade de modelos a construir e ensaios a realizar, trata-se de um método
muito dispendioso, utilizado sobretudo apenas para fins de investigação.
2.5.2 Resistências adicionais

As condições de ensaio dos modelos são substancialmente diferentes daquelas em que o navio
irá operar. As principais diferenças a considerar resultam de:
- a presença de apêndices na querena;
- a navegação em águas pouco profundas;
- o vento;
- a crescente rugosidade do casco durante a vida do navio;
- as condições de mar.
Para estimar as alterações causadas por estes itens no comportamento do navio, usam-se
correcções empı́ricas, baseadas em pressupostos fı́sicos, para correlacionar os valores obtidos
no modelo, ou no navio em provas de mar, com os estimados para as condições normais de
serviço do navio. A resistência adicional devida a apêndices e a resistência do navio em águas
pouco profundas são os tópicos sucintamente abordados nos parágrafos seguintes.
Resistência adicional dos apêndices

Os modelos de navios à escala reduzida podem ser testados com apêndices à escala geomé-
trica apropriada. No entanto, nem sempre nesta altura do projecto estes estão completamente
definidos. Por outro lado, o escoamento em torno dos apêndices é predominantemente go-
vernado pelas forças de origem viscosa. Seria então necessário, para obter resultados fiáveis,
verificarem-se condições de semelhança de Reynolds, o que, como já referido, não é viável
se, cumulativamente, pretendermos manter a igualdade do número de Froude. Consequente-
mente, a presença dos apêndices em condições de semelhança de Froude tem pouca relevância.
Em primeira análise, os apêndices do casco contribuem para um aumento da superfı́cie
molhada do navio. Por outro lado, da sua presença surgem também alterações no factor de
forma do casco. Para a determinação da resistência de forma dos apêndices pode recorrer-se a
dois ensaios, com e sem apêndices, a uma velocidade superior. Se admitirmos que a resistência
de onda é igual nos dois casos, a diferença de resistência verificada, tendo descontado a
diferença de resistência de atrito resultante da variação da área molhada, dá-nos a resistência
de forma dos apêndices.
Os valores tı́picos de acréscimo de resistência originados pela presença de apêndices são
os seguintes:
- robaletes: 1 a 2%;
- impulsores:
- de proa: 0 a 1%;
- transversais de popa: 1 a 6%;
- aranhas de veios: 5 a 12% (“twin-screw ” pode chegar a 20%);
- leme: 1%.
Resistência em águas pouco profundas

Quando um navio navega em águas pouco profundas verifica-se um aumento, quer da resis-
tência de atrito, quer da resistência de onda. Em particular, a resistência aumenta signifi-
cativamente
√ para valores próximos do número de Froude crı́tico, baseado na profundidade,
Fnh = V / gH = 1.
O aumento da resistência do navio quando a navegar em águas pouco profundas foi es-
tudado por Schlichting. A sua hipótese de trabalho foi a seguinte: a resistência de onda é a
mesma se o comprimento de onda da ondulação transversal for igual.
O gráfico da Fig. 2.10 permite prever a perda de velocidade do navio em águas pouco
profundas. Correcções simples não são possı́veis para águas muito pouco profundas já que os
fenómenos envolvidos são complexos. Nestes casos, só testes em modelos ou simulações por
CFD poderão contribuir para uma melhor previsão.
2.6 Previsão da resistência com dados sistemáticos ou estatı́s-

ticos
Na fase preliminar do projecto de um navio podem ser utilizados métodos aproximados para a
previsão da resistência baseados em ensaios de séries sistemáticas de navios ou, pela regressão
2.6. PREVISÃO COM DADOS SISTEMÁTICOS OU ESTATÍSTICOS 33
Figura 2.10: Redução de velocidade (%) em águas pouco profundas.
estatı́stica de dados experimentais relativos a modelos e a navios à escala real.

Séries sistemáticas são conjuntos de formas de querena em que se provocou a variação,
sistemática, de um ou mais dos seus parâmetros de forma. As variações sistemáticas são
feitas em torno de uma “forma mãe” (“parent form”). Os resultados dos ensaios de resistência
dos modelos que constituem a série permitem determinar um coeficiente adimensional de
resistência para uma forma de querena contida ou interpolada na série.
Taylor mediu, entre 1907 e 1914, 80 modelos obtidos por variação sistemática de:
- a razão entre o comprimento e a raiz cúbica do deslocamento (5 valores de L/∆1/3 );
- a razão entre a boca e o calado (B/T = 2, 25; 3, 75);
- o coeficiente prismático (8 valores de 0,48 a 0,86);

a partir de uma “forma mãe”: o cruzador “Leviathan”.
Estes dados foram posteriormente re-trabalhados por Gertler em 1954, disponibilizando
diagramas de resistência residual.
Outra série sistemática, com particular interesse para os navios mercantes, é a série 60,
devida aos trabalhos de Todd. Consta de 5 “formas mãe” com coeficientes de finura, 0,60,
0,65, 0,70, 0,75 e 0,80. Para cada uma daquelas “formas mãe” existem variações de L/B,
B/T , etc.
Como exemplo de um método de previsão da resistência de navios envolvendo dados
estatı́sticos pode-se indicar o método de Holtrop e Mennen. Este método pode ser aplicado
para efectuar uma análise qualitativa do projecto de um navio no que diz respeito à sua
resistência. O método baseia-se na regressão estatı́stica de resultados de ensaios em modelos
e de resultados de provas de mar de navios. A base de dados é muito vasta cobrindo uma
gama muito alargada de tipos de navios. No entanto, para formas muito especı́ficas de navio,
a precisão das previsões pode reduzir-se pelo menor número de elementos daquele tipo na
base.
2.7 Ensaios à escala real

Os resultados obtidos nas provas de mar de um navio são talvez o mais importante requisito
para a aceitação deste pelo armador. A especificação detalhada destas provas deve estar
claramente contratualizada entre o armador e o estaleiro. Entre outros organismos, a ITTC
recomenda alguns procedimentos para a realização destas provas. As recomendações para as
provas de velocidade e de potência estão incluı́das no Apêndice B.
Os problemas surgem normalmente em consequência de as provas se realizarem em condi-
ções diferentes, quer das que foram consideradas como condições de projecto, quer daquelas
que se verificaram nos ensaios com o modelo à escala reduzida.
O contrato de construção deve especificar uma velocidade contratual do navio, à carga de
projecto, para uma dada percentagem da MCR do motor, em águas tranquilas e profundas e
na ausência de vento. São raras as ocasiões em que é possı́vel realizar as provas de mar em
condições próximas das condições contratuais. As condições em que se realizam as provas de
mar incluem, frequentemente:
- condição de carga parcial ou em condição de lastro;
- presença de correntes e ondulação;
- águas pouco profundas;
Para prevenir maior diversidade de resultados, é habitual definir contratualmente valores

limite para as condições ambientais em que as provas de mar se realizarão. As condições
recomendadas pela ITTC para a realização das provas de velocidade e potência estão no
Apêndice C. As diferenças entre as condições contratuais e verificadas durante a realização
das provas de mar impõem a utilização de correlações para corrigir os resultados obtidos para
as condições de contrato. Para além de todas as incertezas experimentais, todo este processo
de correcção, com recurso a gráficos e tabelas, oferece muitas dúvidas de aplicação.
A “prova da milha” pode ser avaliada com velocidade “over ground ” ou velocidade “in
water ”. A velocidade na água exclui o efeito das correntes. A velocidade “over ground ”
era avaliada através de equipamentos de navegação mas, a disponibilidade de sistemas de
posicionamento por satélite (GPS) permitiu eliminar muitos problemas e incertezas destas
provas. Para reduzir os efeitos de ventos e correntes, as provas de velocidade, consumo, etc.
devem ser realizadas repetidamente em sentidos opostos.
De notar que as provas de mar de um navio vão muito para além das provas de veloci-
dade e potência. Todas as funcionalidades do navio, operacionais e de segurança, deverão ser
demonstradas. Para as restantes provas, nomeadamente as que dizem respeito à manobrabi-
lidade do navio, existem também recomendações exaustivas da ITTC para a sua realização.
Capı́tulo 3
Propulsão
3.1 Sistemas de propulsão
Em qualquer tipo de navio temos presente um propulsor cuja finalidade é a geração de uma
força propulsiva. As soluções propulsivas são muito diversas mas predominantemente os navios
continuam a utilizar hélices simples como meio de propulsão. Outros meios de propulsão com
expressão significativa em aplicações especı́ficas são:
- os hélices “especiais”, com particular destaque para os hélices com tubeira e os hélices
contra-rotativos;
- os sistemas de jacto de água (“water-jets” ou “pump-jets”);
- os propulsores azimutais (“AziPod’s)”;
- e os propulsores cicloidais (“Voith-Schneider ”).

Na escolha da solução propulsiva deverá ser sempre considerado o seu rendimento e a
interacção com a querena. Outro aspecto genérico a considerar durante o projecto da solução
propulsiva é o fenómeno da cavitação originada pela velocidade elevada do movimento das
pás do hélice na água.
3.1.1 Hélices
O hélice é colocado tradicionalmente à popa do navio para recuperar parte da energia dis-
pendida para vencer a resistência da querena. Na forma mais tradicional da popa dos navios,
a esteira nominal é muito não-uniforme. A uniformidade da esteira da querena é uma das
condições necessárias para o bom funcionamento do hélice. A utilização da popa aberta ou
de um bolbo na popa permite melhorar a esteira.
As pás do hélice, animadas de velocidade de rotação e de avanço, funcionando como
superfı́cies sustentadoras, estão distribuı́das simetricamente em torno do cubo. As secções
das pás funcionam como perfis alares a ângulo de ataque gerando uma força de sustentação.
Esta força de sustentação contribui para a força propulsiva axial e para o binário resistente
ao veio.
Classificam-se com hélices “direitos” aqueles que, quando observados de ré, rodam no
sentido horário. Nos navios com dois hélices, são normalmente utilizados:
35
36 CAPÍTULO 3. PROPULSÃO
- um hélice direito a estibordo;
- e um hélice esquerdo a bombordo.
Nestes navios, a popa é relativamente plana e os veios estão expostos e suportados por
aranhas (“shaft brackets”). A presença destas aranhas provoca ainda não-uniformidades na
esteira em que, devido à forma da popa, o escoamento entra no hélice com um certo ângulo.
Figura 3.1: Hélice com tubeira.
A aplicação de uma tubeira aceleradora, Fig. 3.1, permite aumentar o rendimento, relati-
vamente a um hélice convencional, no caso de hélices fortemente carregados como os aplicados
em rebocadores, arrastões, petroleiros, etc. Outro objectivo da aplicação das tubeiras pode
ser a uniformização do escoamento de entrada no hélice. Para este fim trata-se normalmente
de tubeiras assimétricas colocadas avante do hélice. Frequentemente este tipo de tubeiras é
instalada depois de o navio estar em serviço.
Figura 3.2: Hélices de passo fixo e de passo controlável.

3.1. SISTEMAS DE PROPULSÃO 37
Para um hélice de passo fixo, a velocidade do navio e a força propulsiva são controladas
pela velocidade de rotação do hélice. Para um hélice de passo controlável, a força propulsiva
pode também ser controlada por variação do passo do hélice. A variação do passo obtém-se
por rotação das pás em torno de um eixo, à direita na Fig. 3.2. Utiliza-se quando a velocidade
de rotação é constante, ou variável numa gama restrita, quando o hélice tem de funcionar em
mais de uma condição.
Apesar de constituı́rem uma solução cara, pela complicação de chumaceiras e engranagens
necessária, encontram-se exemplos de propulsão por hélices contrarotativos. São dois hélices,
em que o hélice de trás tem um diâmetro ligeiramente menor que o hélice da frente, a rodar
em sentidos contrários, permitindo ao hélice de trás eliminar a perda de energia cinética
de rotação do hélice da frente, Fig. 3.3. Em consequência, apresentam rendimentos tı́picos
superiores a um hélice isolado.
Figura 3.3: Hélices em contra-rotação.
Outro tipo particular de hélice é o hélice supercavitante, Fig. 3.4. É um hélice para
funcionar com elevada velocidade de rotação em que as secções das pás são concebidas para
provocar uma bolsa de cavitação que envolve toda a pá. O perigo de implosão é eliminado
porque a implosão das bolhas de cavitação ocorre longe das faces das pás. Aplicam-se em
navios de alta velocidade com rendimento, em geral, fraco.
3.1.2 Outros meios de propulsão

Jacto de água
Nestes sistemas, a força propulsiva é obtida pela descarga de um jacto de água à popa do
navio. Para transmitir a energia pretendida ao jacto podem ser utilizadas bombas axiais,
como no caso da Fig. 3.5, ou bombas centrı́fugas.
Os sistemas de jacto de água constituem actualmente um solução comprovada para a pro-
pulsão de embarcações rápidas, com divulgação crescente nas embarcações de recreio, “ferries”,
embarcações de patrulha, etc. São boas soluções quando os principais requisitos colocados
passam pela manobrabilidade do navio, bom rendimento propulsivo, bom comportamento em
águas restritas e pouca necessidade de manutenção. Actualmente, já estão disponı́veis no
mercado soluções deste tipo para potências propulsivas da ordem dos 30MW.
Figura 3.4: Hélices supercavitante.
Figura 3.5: Propulsão por jacto de água.
Propulsores azimutais
Esta configuração, ver Fig. 3.6, possibilita a geração de força propulsiva em qualquer direcção
por rotação do propulsor em torno do eixo vertical. No sistema tradicional de propulsão
azimutal, o motor era colocado no interior do casco e um sistema mecânico relativamente
complexo fazia a transmissão do movimento às pás. Actualmente, o accionamento é feito
por um motor eléctrico colocado no veio de propulsor. Estes sistemas permitem combinar a
propulsão e o governo do navio, dispensando a presença do leme.
Apresentam como principais vantagens um bom rendimento, justificado em grande parte
pela maior uniformidade do escoamento à entrada do propulsor, elevada capacidade de ma-
nobra e economia de espaço. A sua aplicação, inicialmente quase que restrita a ferries, tem-se
alargado nos tempos mais recentes a praticamente quase todos os tipos de navios.
3.1. SISTEMAS DE PROPULSÃO 39
Figura 3.6: Propulsores azimutais.
Propulsores cicloidais
Esta solução propulsiva, representada na Fig. 3.7, desenvolvida pela Voight a partir duma
ideia inicial de Ernst Schneider, permite gerar impulso de magnitude variável em qualquer
direcção. As variações daquele impulso são rápidas, contı́nuas e precisas, combinando assim
as funções de propulsão e governo do navio.
Figura 3.7: Propulsores cicloidais.
O propulsor, colocado no fundo do navio, é composto por um conjunto de lâminas paralelas

com movimento de rotação, segundo um eixo vertical, com velocidade variável. Para gerar o
impulso, cada uma daquelas lâminas tem um movimento oscilante em torno do seu próprio
eixo. O percurso das lâminas vai determinar a força impulsiva gerada, enquanto um ângulo
de fase entre 0◦ e 360◦ vai definir a direcção do impulso. Desta forma, pode ser gerada a
mesma força propulsiva em qualquer direcção. A intensidade e a direcção da força propulsiva
são controladas por um conjunto cinemático de transmissão mecânica.

Pelas suas caracterı́sticas, esta solução apresenta bom desempenho na propulsão de re-
bocadores, ferries, grandes iates, navios de apoio a plataformas petrolı́feras e outros navios
especiais.
3.2 Hélices propulsores

O projecto do hélice deverá dar resposta às seguintes questões:
- será que o hélice desenvolverá a desejada força propulsiva à velocidade rpm de projecto?
- qual vai ser a eficiência do hélice?
- qual vai ser o desempenho do hélice em condições diferentes das condições de projecto?
- será a distribuição de pressões favorável à prevenção da cavitação?
- qual será o valor das forças e momentos gerados pelo hélice sobre o veio propulsor e
chumaceiras de apoio e de impulso?
- qual a pressão induzida pelo funcionamento do hélice no casco do navio, potencialmente

responsável por vibrações e ruı́do?
Os principais métodos de cálculo disponı́veis para, de alguma forma, dar resposta àquelas
questões são:
- a teoria da quantidade de movimento;
- a teoria dos elementos de pá;
- a teoria da linha sustentadora;
- a teoria da superfı́cie de sustentação;
- o método de painel;
- as simulações RANSE.
Outro contributo importante para o projecto do hélice vem das séries sistemáticas de
hélices, para as quais são já conhecidos os principais parâmetros de funcionamento em águas
livres.
Por último, há que citar o contributo importante dos ensaios experimentais em modelos
à escala reduzida, os ensaios do hélice em águas livres e o ensaio de propulsão.
3.2.1 Geometria do hélice

Na complexa geometria do hélice, conjunto de pás distribuı́das uniformemente em torno do
cubo montado na extremidade do veio, representada esquematicamente na Fig. 3.8, distinguem-
se as seguintes áreas, linhas e pontos:
- o bordo de ataque (“leading edge”), a linha frontal das pás;
- o bordo de fuga (“trailing edge”), a aresta atrás;

3.2. HÉLICES PROPULSORES 41
Figura 3.8: Geometria do hélice.
- a extremidade da pá (“tip”) é o ponto linha ou secção de maior raio;
- o dorso (“back”) e a face da pá são, respectivamente, a superfı́cie da pá do lado do veio,
aspiração, e a superfı́cie do lado de pressão;
No cubo, com uma forma axisimétrica, unem-se as pás pela sua raiz (“ blade root”).
A geometria do hélice propulsor é caracterizada, entre outras, pelas seguintes dimensões,
também representadas naquela figura:
- diâmetro do hélice (“propeller diameter”), D;
- diâmetro do cubo (“boss (or hub) diameter”), d;
- número de pás do hélice (“propeller blade number”), Z;
- passo do hélice (“propeller pitch”), P ;
- área do disco, A0 = πD2 /4;
- área projectada, área da projecção das pás num plano normal ao eixo do hélice, AP ;
- área expandida, soma das áreas das faces das pás, AE ;
- deslocamento circunferencial (“skew”);
- abatimento axial (“rake”), iG .
3.2.2 Valores caracterı́sticos

Como parâmetros adimensionais para caracterização dos hélices propulsores podemos apontar:
- a razão entre os diâmetros do cubo e do hélice, d/D;
- a razão entre a área expandida e a área do disco, AE /A0 , frequentemente designada por
“blade area ratio” (BAR);
- e a razão entre o passo e o diâmetro do hélice, P/D.
São valores tı́picos para a razão de área expandida 0.3 < AE /A0 < 1.5. Razões superi-
ores a 1 significam que o hélice tem pás sobrepostas o que o torna dispendioso. O valor de
AE /A0 é selecionado de tal forma que a carga das pás seja suficientemente baixa para evitar
uma situação inaceitável de cavitação. Quanto mais carregada for a condição de funciona-
mento prevista para o hélice maior deverá ser a razão AE /A0 considerada na sua selecção. O
rendimento do hélice diminui com o aumento da razão AE /A0 .
O número de pás Z é um parâmetro muito importante para as vibrações induzidas pelo
hélice. Em geral, um número ı́mpar de pás Z proporciona melhores caracterı́sticas no que diz
respeito a vibrações. Maior número de pás reduz a vibração, devido aos inferiores picos de
pressão, mas aumenta os custos de fabrico.
Os hélices propulsores para navios são sempre adaptados às caracterı́sticas especı́ficas do
navio após exaustivo estudo hidrodinâmico. O número de pás está normalmente entre 4 e 7.
Os hélices propulsores para pequenas embarcações, regra geral com o número de pás entre 2
e 4, são produzidos em massa.
3.3 Teoria da quantidade de movimento

A teoria mais simples para representar o funcionamento de um hélice propulsor é a teoria da
quantidade de movimento, também designda por vezes como do disco actuante. Esta teoria
permite relacionar a força propulsiva do hélice com as velocidades induzidas. Tem como
principais hipóteses simplificativas:
- considerar o escoamento de fluido perfeito e incompressı́vel;
- o número de pás do hélice é infinito;
- o hélice propulsor exerce uma força axial T que se distribui uniformemente sobre o disco
do hélice de diâmetro D;
- o hélice não induz velocidade velocidade de rotação no fluido, ou seja, não há velocidade
circunferencia induzida.
3.3.1 Força propulsiva

Consideremos o escoamento axisimétrico através do plano do hélice, representado na Fig. 3.9,
e denotar por VA a velocidade de aproximação da água ao hélice e por p∞ a pressão em
pontos suficientemente afastados quer a vante quer a ré do hélice. Conforme representado,
sendo a água incompressı́vel, a secção do escoamento reduz-se pelo aumento de velocidade
transmitido pelo hélice ao escoamento de água. Na figura podemos ainda ver que no disco
existe uma descontinuidade de pressão ∆p. Esta descontinuidade, como resultado do referido
“disco actuante”, gera uma força propulsiva do hélice dada por
T = ∆pA0 (3.1)
Quanto à distribuição de velocidades, vamos considerar que a velocidade no disco é VA +V0

e, no infinito, a velocidade é VA + V∞ .
3.3. TEORIA DA QUANTIDADE DE MOVIMENTO 43
Figura 3.9: Distribuição espacial de velocidade e pressão para a teoria da

quantidade de movimento.
Representando por A−∞ e A∞ as áreas no infinito, a montante e a juzante, respectiva-

mente, do tubo de corrente que passa pelo disco actuante, para se verificar a conservação de
massa no escoamento será necessário que,
Va A−∞ = (Va + V0 ) A0 = (Va + V∞ ) A∞ (3.2)
Então, aquelas áreas, A−∞ e A∞ estão relacionadas com a área do disco e com a velocidade
induzida por
Va + V0
A−∞ = A0 (3.3)
Va
e
Va + V0
A∞ = A0 (3.4)
Va + V∞
Aplicando agora o princı́pio da conservação da quantidade de movimento ao escoamento
de fluido no tubo de corrente, obtemos a equação,
T = ρ (Va + V∞ )2 A∞ − ρVa2 A−∞ (3.5)
Usando a equação de conservação da massa, Eq. (3.2), podemos dizer então que a força
propulsiva T é dada por,
T = ρ (Va + V0 ) V∞ A0 (3.6)
e, que o “salto de pressão” no disco actuante vale
∆p = ρ (Va + V0 ) V∞ (3.7)
Por fim, vamos aplicar a equação de Bernoulli ao tubo de corrente. A montante do disco
temos,
1 1
p∞ + ρVa2 = p0 + ρ (Va + V0 )2 (3.8)
2 2
e, a juzante,
1 1
p∞ + ρ (Va + V∞ )2 = p0 + ∆p + ρ (Va + V0 )2 (3.9)
2 2
Fazendo agora a subtracção das equações, Eq. (3.9) − Eq. (3.8), temos uma nova equação
para avaliar o valor de ∆p

1
∆p = ρ Va + V∞ V∞ (3.10)
2
Naturalmente que o “salto de pressão” avaliado pela última equação não pode ser diferente
daquele que resulta da Eq. (3.7). Logo,

1
ρ (Va + V0 ) V∞ = ρ Va + V∞ V∞ (3.11)
2
e, então, daqui resulta que a velocidade induzida no disco é metade da velocidade induzida
na esteira no infinito,
1
V0 = V∞ (3.12)
2
A força propulsiva T obtida no disco actuante pode ser calculada, em função da velocidade
induzida no disco, por
πD2
T = ρ (Va + V0 ) 2V0 (3.13)
4
3.3.2 Coeficiente de carga

Se definirmos para um hélice propulsor como coeficiente de carga, CT ,
T
CT = π 21 2
(3.14)
4 D 2 ρVa
e considerarmos a força propulsiva resultante da teoria do disco actuante, obtém-se

V0 V0
CT = 4 1+ (3.15)
Va Va
ou, em termos de velocidade induzida no disco,
V0 1 p
= −1 + 1 + CT (3.16)
Va 2
3.4. ENSAIOS COM MODELOS REDUZIDOS DE HÉLICES 45
3.3.3 Rendimento ideal do hélice

O rendimento ideal do hélice é o rendimento máximo que pode ser obtido em fluido perfeito
com um hélice propulsor que não induza velocidade de rotação no fluido.
Num referencial em repouso no fluido, considere-se que o hélice avança com velocidade
Va , exercendo uma força propulsiva T . A potência efectiva do hélice é dada por
PE = T Va (3.17)
A perda de energia cinética axial por unidade de tempo é o fluxo de energia por unidade
de tempo através de um plano perpendicular à direcção de avanço, no infinito, a juzante.
Este fluxo de energia é calculado pelo produto do caudal mássico que se escoa pelo tubo de
corrente pela energia cinética especı́fica,
πD2 1 2
Ėp = ρ (Va + V0 ) × V∞
4 2
ou seja, considerando a relação conhecida entre a velocidade no disco e na esteira no infinito,
πD2
Ėp = ρ (Va + V0 ) V02 (3.18)
2
O rendimento ideal do hélice propulsor será então dado por
T Va
ηi = (3.19)
T Va + Ėp
ou, considerando (3.13) e (3.18), e simplificando, ficamos com

1
ηi = (3.20)
1 + VVa0
3.4 Ensaios com modelos reduzidos de hélices

Apesar de o hélice ir funcionar numa esteira não-uniforme do navio, são realizados ensaios
para avaliação do seu desempenho numa esteira uniforme, recorrendo ao ensaio em águas
livres de um modelo à escala reduzida do hélice, em condições apropriadas de semelhança.
Neste ensaio, o chamado “open water test”, um modelo do hélice é deslocado com a velocidade
da avanço Va num fluido em repouso. O escoamento de aproximação deve ser tão uniforme
quanto possı́vel. Durante o deslocamento do hélice este é posto a rodar por um pequeno motor
eléctrico à velocidade n (rps) pretendida. O ensaio realiza-se normalmente a uma velocidade
de rotação constante, ou seja, para um dado número de Reynolds.
As caracterı́sticas propulsivas em águas livres, nomeadamente a força propulsiva T e o
binário Q, são medidas em regime estacionário de funcionamento. Depois de adimensionaliza-
dos, os valores medidos da força propulsiva e do binário para vários regimes de funcionamento
constituem o “diagrama em águas livres” do hélice em questão.
A força propulsiva T e o binário Q disponibilizados por um hélice propulsor dependem de
várias variáveis:
- a velocidade de avanço Va ;
- a velocidade de rotação n;
- o diâmetro D;
- a massa especı́fica do fluido ρ;
- a viscosidade cinemática do fluido ν.
Aplicando a análise dimensional, expressando a dependência dos coeficientes de força

propulsiva e de binário dos seguintes grupos adimensionais:
Va
- coeficiente de avanço, J = ;
nD
nD2
- e número de Reynolds, aqui definido como Re = ;
ν
ou seja,
KT = KT (J, Re) e KQ = KQ (J, Re)
obtêm-se os seguintes expressões para os referidos coeficientes adimensionais:

T
- coeficiente de força propulsiva KT = ;
ρn2 D4
Q
- coeficiente de binário KQ = .
ρn2 D5
3.4.1 Diagrama em águas livres

O diagrama em águas livres do hélice integra a representação gráfica da variação dos coefici-
entes da força propulsiva, KT , e de binário, KQ , com o coeficiente de avanço, Va . Um exemplo
de diagrama em águas livres está representado na Fig. 3.10.
As curvas traçadas nestes diagramas servem principalmente para a optimização do hélice
e determinação do ponto de funcionamento. Na prática, já não são utilizadas aquelas re-
presentações gráficas no projecto de hélices, mas sim os polinómios representativos daquelas
evoluções para permitir o cálculo computacional. As tabelas têm cerca de 50 coeficientes
para os polinómios relativos à série sistemática de hélices de Wageningen. Embora o trabalho
inicial de registo destes coeficientes seja moroso e fastidioso, os processos de cálculo e optimi-
zação posteriores ficam muito facilitados e expeditos pela utilização de programas ou folhas
de cálculo. A importância da representação gráfica está actualmente restrita à verificação
da tendência de variação do desempenho do hélice com a alteração de algumas condições
operacionais.
3.4.2 Rendimento
Definindo o rendimento de um hélice propulsor como sendo a razão entre a potência efectiva
e a potência fornecida pelo veio ao hélice, o rendimento em águas livres é calculado por
PE Va T
η0 = = (3.21)
PD 2πnQ
3.5. SÉRIES SISTEMÁTICAS 47
Figura 3.10: Diagrama de águas livres.
a partir das medições observadas durante o ensaio.

Ou, se quisermos expressá-lo em termos dos coeficientes adimensionais, podemos obter,
JKT
η0 = (3.22)
2πKQ
3.4.3 Índice de qualidade

A qualidade de um propulsor não fica bem caracterizada apenas pelo seu rendimento máximo.
O ı́ndice de qualidade, que permite caracterizar melhor um hélice para uma dada aplicação
especı́fica, é dado por
η0
q= (3.23)
ηi
em que η0 é o rendimento em águas livres e ηi é o rendimento ideal.
8KT
Como CT = , substituindo em (3.23):
πJ 2
r !
KT 8
q= J + J 2 + KT (3.24)
4πKQ π
3.5 Séries sistemáticas

Uma série sistemática de hélices é um conjunto de hélices obtidos por variação sistemática de
parâmetros geométricos. Ao longo de décadas, por todo o mundo têm sido realizados ensaios
em séries sistemáticas de propulsores para navios. As principais caracterı́sticas de alguns
exemplos de séries sistemáticas de hélices propulsores simples de passo fixo estão incluı́das na
Tab. 3.1.
O principal objectivo perseguido na realização dos ensaios sistemáticos nestes conjuntos
de hélices é criar uma base de dados que permita ajudar o projectista a entender os principais
Série No Z AE /A0 P/D D(mm)

Wageningen B ≈ 120 2−7 0, 3 − 1, 05 0, 5 − 1, 4 250
Au 34 4−7 0, 4 − 0, 758 0, 5 − 1, 2 250
Gawn 37 3 0, 2 − 1, 1 0, 4 − 2, 0 508
KCA ≈ 30 3 0, 50 − 1, 25 0, 6 − 2, 0 406
Ma 32 3e5 0, 75 − 1, 20 1, 0 − 1, 45 250
Newton-Rader 12 3 0, 5 − 1, 0 1, 05 − 2, 08 254
KCD 24 3−6 0, 44 − 0, 80 0, 6 − 1, 6 406
Meridian 20 6 0, 45 − 1, 05 0, 4 − 1, 2 305
Tabela 3.1: Séries sistemáticas de propulsores.
factores que influenciam o desempenho do hélice, bem como a ocorrência de cavitação, em

várias condições de funcionamento. Um segundo objectivo é a construção de diagramas que
permitam ajudar à selecção das caracterı́sticas mais apropriadas para uma dada aplicação à
escala do navio.
3.5.1 Série sistemática de Wageningen

Uma das séries sistemáticas de hélices propulsores mais populares é a série B de Wageningen.
Esta série, em que os trabalhos iniciais datam de 1940, será talvez a mais vasta. As principais
caracterı́sticas destes hélices são:
- ter distribuição radial do passo constante;
- um pequeno deslocamento circunferencial (“skew”);
- distribuição radial do abatimento axial (“rake”) linear 15◦ ;
- contorno largo da pá junto à extremidade;
- secção das pás NSMB, indicada na Fig. 3.11.
Figura 3.11: Aspecto geométrico das pás da série B de Wageningen
Os parâmetros cuja variação sistemática foi considerada na realização desta série foram
os seguintes:
- o número de pás: 2 ≤ Z ≤ 7;
- a razão de área expandida: 0.3 ≤ AE /A0 ≤ 1.05;
- a razão passo-diâmetro: 0.5 ≤ P/D ≤ 1.4.
A nomenclatura dos hélices desta série, considerando a tı́tulo de exemplo um hélice B-4.85,
é a seguinte:
- Série B;
- Número de pás: 4;
- razão de área expandida: 0.85.
Para cada caso existe um diagrama, ou uma tabela com os já referidos coeficientes po-
linomiais, com as curvas caracterı́sticas dos diagrams de águas livres, para diferentes razões
passo-diâmetro, P/D. Na Fig. 3.12 está representado o caso dos hélices com duas pás, razão
de área expandida 0, 3 e razão passo-diâmetro compreendida entre 0, 5 e 1, 4.
3.5.2 Outras séries sistemáticas

A série sistemática de hélices propulsores Au é muito popular no Japão mas, fora dele, não
conseguiu uma divulgação semelhante à série de Wageningen podendo, no entanto, considerar-
se como uma série complementar daquela.
A série Gawn apresenta como caracterı́stica distintiva o maior diâmetro dos hélices que
a integram. Isto significa que muitos dos efeitos de escala presentes nas outras séries foram
aqui evitados ou, pelo menos, reduzidos. A série KCA, também designada por vezes como
Gawn-Burrill, é complementar da série de Gawn. São 30 hélices com 3 pás, também com
grande diâmetro, 400mm. Esta série foi ensaiada num tanque de cavitação, e não num tanque
de reboque, a diferentes números de cavitação e, consequentemente, permite verificar num
determinado projecto de aplicação os aspectos relacionados com o fenómeno da cavitação.
Os hélices da série de Lindgren, série Ma, são mais pequenos, 250mm, e as suas pás
têm passo constante. Foram testados num tanque de reboque e num tanque de cavitação e,
assim, resultou dos ensaios um extenso e integrado conjunto de dados adequado para a fase
preliminar do projecto.
A série de Newton-Rader compreende um conjunto limitado de 12 hélices com três pás
vocacionados para a propulsão de embarcações rápidas.
Para além destas séries sistemáticas de hélices simples, existem também alguns estudos
relativos a formas particulares de hélices como, por exemplo, as séries de hélices contra-
rotativos do MARIN e SSPA, ou a série de Wageningen de hélices com tubeira.
50
Figura 3.12: Diagrama em águas livres de um hélice da série sistemática

de Wageningen.
CAPÍTULO 3. PROPULSÃO
3.5.3 Diagrama de 4 quadrantes

No caso dos hélices de passo fixo, a forma convencional de operação do hélice, velocidade de
rotação positiva e velocidade de avanço nula ou positiva, corresponde ao funcionamento no
primeiro quadrante do diagrama de funcionamento.
No diagrama completo, ver Fig. 3.13, necessário por exemplo para estudar a manobrabi-
lidade do navio ou o seu desempenho em marcha a ré, estão definidos quatro quadrantes, de
acordo o ângulo de avanço,

−1 Va
β = tan (3.25)
0, 7 · π · n · D
Figura 3.13: Notação do diagrama com 4 quadrantes.
Como já referido, o primeiro quadrante corresponde a:
- velocidade de rotação do hélice correspondente à marcha a vante;
- velocidade do navio a vante;
- ou seja, ângulo de avanço 0 ≤ β ≤ 90◦ .
O segundo quadrante corresponde a:
- velocidade de rotação do hélice correspondente à marcha a ré;
- velocidade do navio a vante;
- ou seja, ângulo de avanço 90◦ < β ≤ 180◦ .
No terceiro quadrante, as condições de operação do hélice são:
- velocidade de rotação do hélice correspondente à marcha a ré;

- velocidade do navio a ré;
- ou seja, ângulo de avanço 180◦ < β ≤ 270◦ .
E, por fim, no quarto quadrante temos naturalmente:
- velocidade de rotação do hélice correspondente à marcha a vante;
- velocidade do navio a ré;
- ou seja, ângulo de avanço 270◦ < β < 360◦ .
Se existirem dados experimentais suficientes torna-se possı́vel definir uma função para
estimar o desempenho do hélice, no que diz respeito à força propulsiva e ao binário, nos
quatro quadrantes do diagrama em águas livres. Um exemplo de um diagrama deste tipo,
multi-quadrante, está representado na Fig. 3.14, relativo aos hélices da série de Wageningen
B4-70 com relação P/D entre 0, 5 e 1, 4.
Justifica-se a introdução de uma notação para obter maior flexibilidade para trabalhar
nestes diagramas multi-quadrante. De notar que para β = 90◦ ou β = 270◦ , situações em
que a velocidade de rotação do hélice é nula, o coeficiente de avanço resultaria J = ∞. De
forma semelhante, para prevenir o mesmo tipo de situações, são também definidos os seguintes
coeficientes:
- coeficiente de força propulsiva modificado,
T
CT∗ = (3.26)
1 2
ρV A0
2 R
- coeficiente de binário modificado,
∗ Q
CQ = (3.27)
1 2
ρV A0 D
2 R
em que VR é a velocidade relativa de avanço para 0, 7R, ou seja,
T
CT∗ = π h i (3.28)
ρ Va + (0, 7πnD)2 D2
2
8
e
∗ Q
CQ = π h i (3.29)
ρ Va2 + (0, 7πnD)2 D3
8
Na Fig. 3.14 pode-se ver o efeito que a razão P/D tem no coeficiente de binário CQ∗
◦
para praticamente toda a gama de β. Em particular, é nos intervalos 40 < β < 140 e ◦
230◦ < β < 340◦ que a magnitude de CQ∗ varia mais significativamente.
3.6. CAVITAÇÃO 53
Figura 3.14: Diagrama em águas livres de 4 quadrantes para os hélices

Wageningen B-4.70.
3.6 Cavitação
3.6.1 Origem da cavitação
A velocidade elevada do escoamento de água pelo hélice provoca regiões com baixa pressão.
Se a pressão cair o suficiente, formar-se-ão cavidades preenchidas com vapor. Estas cavidades
desaparecerão quando a pressão aumentar. O crescimento e o colapso destas “bolhas” é
extremamente rápido.
A cavitação envolve fenómenos fı́sicos complexos uma vez que se trata de escoamentos a
duas fases, com modelação não-linear. Nos hélices dos navios, a velocidade em torno das pás
pode ser suficiente para reduzir a localmente a pressão e desencadear a cavitação. Devido à
pressão hidrostática, a pressão total será superior nas imediações da pá que se encontre com
a máxima imersão (posição 06:00) do que naquela que se encontra na posição 12:00. Assim,
as pás dos hélices em cavitação alternadamente passarão por regiões em que tendencialmente
se formarão bolhas de cavitação e regiões onde as mesmas tenderão a colapsar.
Esta rápida sucessão de explosões e implosões nas proximidades das pás do hélice tem
várias consequências nefastas. As principais são:
- vibração;
Figura 3.15: Efeito da cavitação no valor dos parâmetros relativos a águas

livres.
- ruı́do;
- erosão da superfı́cie das pás (sobretudo se o colapso das bolhas ocorrer na proximidade);
- redução da força propulsiva.
No diagrama em águas livres da Fig. 3.15 está assinalada a redução que é tipicamente
provocada pela cavitação nos coeficientes de força propulsiva e binário.
3.6.2 Controle da cavitação

Num meio ideal, água sem impurezas ou ar dissolvido, a cavitação ocorrerá quando a pressão
total atingir localmente a pressão de vapor a essa temperatura. Na prática, a cavitação inicia-
se para valores de pressão superiores pela presença de partı́culas microscópicas e da existência
de ar dissolvido na água que facilitam e precipitam o inı́cio do processo de vaporização.
O número de cavitação σ é um parâmetro adimensional que estima a possibilidade de
aparecimento do fenómeno de cavitação num escoamento,
p0 − p
σ= (3.30)
1
ρ V02
2
em que:
- p0 é a pressão ambiente de referência;
- p é a pressão local;
- e V0 é a velocidade de referência correspondente.

Figura 3.16: Pressão de vapor da água em função da temperatura.
Para σ inferior a σv , o número de cavitação avaliado para a pressão de vapor pv , não

ocorrerá cavitação num fluido ideal. Na prática, é necessário considerar um coeficiente de
segurança, considerando uma pressão limite superior à pressão de vapor.
Para um hélice é habitual definir o número de cavitação σn como:
p0 − p
σn = (3.31)
1
ρ n2 D2
2
adoptando-se como velocidade caracterı́stica nD.
3.6.3 Consideração da cavitação na selecção do hélice

O fenómeno da cavitação é predominantemente dominado pelo campo de pressão no esco-
amento da água pelo plano do hélice. Prevenir a cavitação passa consequentemente pelo
controlo da mı́nima pressão absoluta naquele escoamento. A possibilidade de ocorrência de
cavitação é evitada pela distribuição da força propulsiva por uma área maior, aumentando o
diâmetro do hélice ou a razão da área expandida AE / A0 . A forma mais usual de estimar,
ainda que de uma forma não completamente rigorosa, o perigo de ocorrência da cavitação
passa pela utilização do diagrama de Burrill (Fig. 3.17). O diagrama indica um limite inferior
para a área projectada do hélice de um navio mercante. Nos eixos do diagrama de Burrill es-
tão o número de cavitação, em abcissas, e o coeficiente de Burrill nas ordenadas. O coeficiente
Figura 3.17: Diagrama de Burrill.
de Burrill é calculado por

T
τc = (3.32)
q0,7R Ap
em que, Ap é a área projectada do hélice, e o parâmetro q0,7R é dado por

1
q0,7R = ρ VR2
2
em que VR é o valor absoluto da velocidade local a 0, 7 do raio do hélice, ou seja,
q
VR = Va2 + (0, 7 π nD )2
com Va a velocidade de entrada do escoamento no plano do hélice.

Nos hélices da série de Wageningen, a área expandida está relacionada com a área projec-
tada por
AP
AE = (3.33)
1, 067 − 0, 229P/D
3.6.4 Ensaios experimentais

Os ensaios de cavitação, bem como frequentemente os ensaios em águas livres, realizam-se em
instalações que compreendem um canal fechado na qual é imposta a circulação da água por
um impulsor. Na Fig. 3.18 está representada esquematicamente uma instalação deste tipo.
Estes túneis são concebidos por forma a proporcionar um escoamento tão uniforme quanto
possı́vel na secção de teste. A secção de teste, o troço horizontal superior, dispõe de visores
para inspecção e vizualização do escoamento. O impulsor para a circulação da água está
Figura 3.18: Instalações de ensaio do RINA.
colocado no troço inferior horizontal para garantir que, mesmo quando a pressão no tanque
for reduzida, a coluna hidrostática vai impedir a cavitação neste propulsor.
Normalmente, a pressão é reduzida por bombas de vácuo para ajuste do número de cavi-
tação e a instalação dispõe de equipamento para reduzir o ar dissolvido na água. Podem ser
instaladas “grelhas metálicas” para induzir a turbulência desejada no escoamento.
Os hélices em teste são sujeitos a iluminação estroboscópica por forma a serem “vistos”
sempre com as pás na mesma posição. Obtém-se assim uma visualização do padrão de cavi-
tação “estacionária”.
O funcionamento do hélice tem alguns pontos caracterı́sticos que se passa a identificar. A
primeira destas situações acontece quando o motor eléctrico faz rodar o veio do hélice a uma
velocidade n mantendo-se a velocidade de avanço nula, ou seja Va = 0. Nestas condições,
verifica-se J = 0 e η = 0, e diz-se que o hélice funciona a ponto fixo. Se em seguida se
fizer avançar o hélice a uma velocidade Va , mantendo a mesma velocidade de rotação, este
desenvolverá um impulso T e absorverá um certo momento Q. Esta fase é a fase propulsora,
utilizada para a propulsão dos navios. Continuando a aumentar o coeficiente de impulso por
diminuição da velocidade de rotação n, o impulso vai diminuindo até o hélice chegar ao ponto
de impulso nulo. Inicia-se a fase de travagem, até um ponto, no qual o hélice trabalha em
concordância com o coeficiente de avanço J, com KQ = 0, hélice livre. Um hélice livre opõe
resistência ao avanço. Continuando a reduzir a velocidade de rotação do hélice e mantendo
Va , entra-se na fase motora, em que o hélice poderia fornecer energia. Quando a velocidade
do hélice for nula, o hélice diz-se bloqueado.
Figura 3.19: Imagem da cavitação num hélice.
3.7 Selecção do hélice

No cálculo do hélice procura-se a optimização das principais variáveis, número e área das
pás, diâmetro, velocidade de rotação e passo, por forma a que a propulsão se faça com bom
rendimento em todas as condições de carga do navio. É possı́vel obter uma boa estimativa
das caracterı́sticas de funcionamento do hélice utilizando uma das várias séries sistemáticas
referenciadas. As variáveis de optimização do hélice são descritas sucintamente nos parágrafos
seguintes.
3.7.1 Variáveis de optimização

Diâmetro
O rendimento do hélice aumenta o diâmetro do mesmo, estando no entanto a dimensão
deste limitada pela geometria da popa. Deve-se referir no entanto que o aumento do diâmetro
de hélice provoca vibrações mais fortes e a redução do rendimento do casco. As sociedades
classificadoras têm normas próprias para definir valores mı́nimos de folga entre o hélice e o
casco do navio.
O diâmetro máximo do hélice é normalmente considerado como uma fracção do calado
máximo do navio,
Dmax = a T (3.34)
dependente do tipo de navio, conforme indicado na Tab. 3.2.

Para compensar a não uniformidade do escoamento de aproximação ao hélice quando este
se encontra atrás da querena, o diâmetro equivalente em águas livres é considerado como:
D
D0 = (3.35)
1−b
em que b toma os valores constantes na Tab. 3.3.
3.7. SELECÇÃO DO HÉLICE 59
Tipo de Navio a
Graneleiros/Petroleiros <0,65
Porta-contentores <0,74
Tabela 3.2: Coeficiente para atribuição do diâmetro máximo do hélice pela

Eq. (3.34).
Hélice b
Simples 0.05
Duplo 0.03
Tabela 3.3: Constante para o cálculo do diâmetro equivalente em água

livres pela Eq. (3.35).
Velocidade de rotação
Em instalações propulsoras com transmissão directa, a velocidade de rotação do hélice é
estabelecida pela velocidade do motor. Neste caso, o diâmetro é ajustado para se obter um
coeficiente de avanço apropriado para a velocidade pretendida e a potência exigida. Quando
é utilizada uma caixa redutora, procura-se utilizar o maior diâmetro possı́vel, sendo depois
ajustada a velocidade de rotação do hélice ajustada de acordo com o coeficiente de avanço
pretendido. Devem evitar-se velocidades que multiplicadas pelo número de pás do hélice
sejam próximas das frequências de ressonância do casco e da instalação propulsora. Do ponto
de vista da prevenção da cavitação, são favoráveis as velocidades de rotação mais baixas.
Número de pás
O factor determinante na selecção do número de pás é a irregularidade das forças geradas
pelo hélice. Estas forças, aplicadas com a frequência correspondente à velocidade de rotação,
induzem vibrações no casco e instalação propulsora. O objectivo passa por obter um bom
compromisso entre a vibração gerada e o rendimento obtido já que este diminui com o aumento
do número de pás do hélice.
Distribuição radial da pressão

A distribuição da pressão nas pás está relacionada com a susceptibilidade de ocorrência da
cavitação. Em particular, é normalmente vantajoso reduzir a pressão no extremo radial das
pás. Esta redução é ainda vantajosa na perspectiva do esforço estrutural das pás e da pressão
irregular induzida no casco.
Geometria das pás

A fórmula de Keller permite escolher a razão de área expandida para evitar o fenómeno da
cavitação,
Ae (1, 3 + 0, 3Z) T
= +k (3.36)
A0 (p0 − pv ) D2
em que k é uma margem de segurança, que variará entre k = 0 para navios de guerra e
k = 0, 2 para navios mercantes com hélices muito carregados. Quanto maior a razão de áreas,
menor será o risco de cavitação mas, em compensação menor o rendimento do hélice devido
ao atrito. A solução será a menor área que garanta o critério de cavitação.
No entanto, a curvatura, o ângulo de ataque e a espessura das têm também uma grande
importância no controle da cavitação. A maior espessura das pás favorece a cavitação nas cos-
tas das pás enquanto que as pás pouco espessas têm maior propensão para gerarem cavitação
no bordo de ataque.
Quanto ao rendimento, ele é favorecido pela diminuição da corda das pás, ou seja da sua
área, mas por razões estruturais, esta redução tem que ser acompanhada por um aumento de
espessura que vai provocar um aumento da resistência de forma.
A utilização apropriada do desvio circunferencial das pás do hélice (“skew”) permite con-
trolar muito eficazmente a cavitação e a vibração induzida tendo apenas como contrapartida
uma redução do rendimento do hélice em marcha a ré.
3.7.2 Tipos de problema

É possı́vel obter uma boa estimativa das caracterı́sticas de funcionamento do hélice utilizando
uma das várias séries sistemáticas referenciadas. Uma vez determinado o número e a área
das pás, resta a determinar a combinação do passo e do coeficiente de avanço que permite
optimizar o rendimento do hélice. De acordo com o tipo de problema em causa, podemos
considerar várias situações. Quando a potência e a velocidade de rotação são conhecidas, da
eliminação do diâmetro resulta a seguinte equação:
KQ PD n2
= (3.37)
J5 2πρVa5
Quando a potência e o diâmetro do hélice estão determinados, a eliminação da velocidade
de rotação permite estabelecer:
KQ PD
3
= (3.38)
J 2πρD2 Va3
Sendo prescritas a força propulsiva e a velocidade de rotação, a eliminação do diâmetro
conduz à equação:
KT T n2
= (3.39)
J4 ρVa4
Por fim, quando são conhecidos o diâmetro do hélice e a força propulsiva, a eliminação da
velocidade de rotação permite estabelecer a seguinte relação:
KT T
2
= (3.40)
J ρD2 Va2
3.8 Interacção entre casco e hélice

Os ensaios de hélices à escala reduzida em águas livres, conseguindo efectuar uma avaliação
preliminar das caracterı́sticas propulsivas de um hélice, não permitem uma previsão do seu
desempenho numa dada aplicação especı́fica, porque, na realidade, o hélice não vai operar em
águas livres mas sim atrás do navio.
As caracterı́sticas de um hélice trabalhando atrás de um navio a uma dada velocidade
diferem consideravelmente das caracterı́sticas obtidas em ensaios com modelos em águas livres,
à velocidade correspondente, devido aos seguintes factores:
3.8. INTERACÇÃO ENTRE CASCO E HÉLICE 61
- a velocidade da água na esteira do navio é menor que a velocidade do navio;
- a não-uniformidade da esteira do navio afecta a distribuição das forças aplicadas nas

pás do hélice;
- a aceleração da água pelo hélice reduz a pressão sobre o casco e, consequentemente

aumentando a resistência efectiva da querena.
3.8.1 Ensaios de propulsão

Os ensaios de propulsão têm por objectivo determinar, para cada velocidade de rotação, a
potência propulsiva e a consequente velocidade do navio. Os resultados dos ensaios permitem
também a determinação dos coeficientes de dedução da força propulsiva e da velocidade da
esteira necessários para a selecção ou projecto do hélice. O modelo é equipado com um
hélice pré-seleccionado de acordo com as necessidades operacionais previstas para o navio. A
optimização a partir deste hélice-base decorrerá a partir dos resultados obtidos neste ensaio
de auto-propulsão. O accionamento deste hélice é normalmente realizado por um pequeno
motor eléctrico, conforme representado esquematicamente na Fig. 3.20.
Figura 3.20: Modelo para ensaios de propulsão.
As condições de realização do ensaio de propulsão contemplam:
- semelhança geométrica;
- semelhança cinemática;
- semelhança de Froude;
- igual número de cavitação.
Pelas razões apontadas anteriormente, não é possı́vel acumular com aquelas condicionan-
tes a igualdade do número de Reynolds. Assim, existem efeitos de escala a considerar na
extrapolação dos resultados para a escala do navio.
O primeiro efeito de escala a considerar no ensaio de propulsão é o efeito de escala na
resistência. O coeficiente de resistência total é superior no teste do modelo ao que se verificará
no navio porque o coeficiente de resistência de atrito diminui com o aumento do número
de Reynolds. Este efeito resultante da variação do número de Reynolds é resolvido pela

aplicação de uma força de compensação. A intensidade da força de compensação necessária
FD é determinada por,
1
FD = ρ · Vm2 · Sm · ((1 + k) (cF m − cF s ) − cA − cAA ) (3.41)
2
O hélice tem portanto que produzir uma força propulsiva igual à resistência total RT menos
a força de compensação FD .
Outro efeito de escala a considerar no ensaio de propulsão diz respeito à esteira. A
espessura da camada limite e esteira do modelo é relativamente maior que a correspondente
espessura no navio. Ou seja, o coeficiente de esteira do modelo é maior que o do navio. A
velocidade média de aproximação ao hélice, adimensionalizada pela velocidade do modelo, é
menor que a correspondente velocidade adimensionalizada do navio.
Por último, deverá ser considerado o efeito de escala nas caracterı́sticas propulsivas do
hélice. De facto, o número de Reynolds do hélice no modelo é menor que no hélice do navio
e os coeficientes de força propulsiva e de binário são diferentes.
Na realização dos ensaios de propulsão é normalmente mantida a velocidade do “carro” de
reboque constante e é variada a velocidade de rotação do hélice até ser obtida uma condição
de equilı́brio. São assim obtidos dados de força propulsiva e binário em função da velocidade.
Adicionalmente, podem ainda ser registados dados sobre o calado e o caimento do modelo
durante o ensaio.
O ponto de auto-propulsão do modelo é encontrado quando as forças exteriores sobre o
modelo são nulas. O ensaio é realizado com o número de Froude do navio, fazendo variar a
velocidade de rotação do hélice até que a força de reboque se anule. Nesta situação, a força
propulsiva iguala a resistência da querena, alterada pela presença de hélice. Para compensar
a diferença no coeficiente de resistência do navio e do modelo, é aplicada a força adicional de
reboque FD determinada pela Eq. (3.41). É portanto mais correcto afirmar que no ponto de
auto-propulsão do modelo, a única força exterior aplicada ao modelo é a força FD .
Para além do chamado ensaio de auto-propulsão, realizam-se os ensaios em sobrecarga.
Cada ensaio em sobrecarga realiza-se também com o hélice a operar atrás do modelo com este
a ser rebocado a velocidade constante. Faz-se variar a velocidade de rotação do hélice e, para
cada uma das velocidades ensaiadas nm regista-se a força de reboque Fm , a força propulsiva
Tm e o binário Qm . Pode-se encontrar também o ponto de auto-propulsão do modelo por
interpolação nos resultados dos ensaios em sobrecarga, mais concretamente interpolando na
curva da força de reboque em função da velocidade de rotação, para o valor requerido de FD .
3.8.2 Potência e velocidade

A potência efectiva PE , potência necessária para rebocar a querena, sem os apêndices associ-
ados à propulsão, à velocidade Vs , é obtida por
PE = RT · Vs (3.42)
em que:
- RT é a resistência total em águas livres excluindo a resistência adicional dos apêndices
associados à propulsão;
- e Vs é a velocidade do navio.
De forma análoga, a potência propulsiva PT pode ser obtida por
PT = T · V a
em que:
- T é a força propulsiva calculada a partir dos ensaios de propulsão;
- e Va é a velocidade de avanço do hélice.

A força propulsiva T é superior à resistência RT avaliada a partir do ensaio de resistência
realizado sem hélice. Isto significa, como referido antes, que a presença do hélice induz uma
resistência adicional porque:
- a presença do hélice aumenta a velocidade do escoamento na zona da popa do navio e,
em consequência a resistência de atrito;
- a presença do hélice provoca uma diminuição da pressão nos painéis da popa do navio.
O segundo destes factores é normalmente o mais significativo.
O aumento da resistência devido ao efeito da presença do hélice é usualmente representado
por uma redução da força propulsora expressa como fracção dessa força. O coeficiente de
dedução da força propulsiva t associa então a força propulsiva e a resistência,
RT
t=1− (3.43)
T
em que t é normalmente considerado igual no modelo e no navio.
Depois de realizados os ensaios de propulsão e calculados os coeficientes de força propul-
siva, KT m e KQm , o coeficiente de dedução da força propulsiva é calculado por
Tm + FD − RC
tm = (3.44)
Tm
em que RC é a resistência corrigida para a diferença de temperatura entre os dois ensaios,
resistência e propulsão. O valor de RC será,
(1 + k) cF mC + cR
RC = RT m (3.45)
(1 + k) cF m + cR
em que cF mC é o coeficiente da resistência de atrito avaliado à temperatura da água no ensaio
de propulsão.
Para corrigir o efeito da velocidade da esteira, define-se o coeficiente de dedução da esteira,
w, que permite relacionar a velocidade de avanço Va com a velocidade do navio V ,
Va
w =1− (3.46)
V
Considerando o diagrama em águas livres do hélice, com o valor de KT m avaliado com a
força propulsiva experimental do ensaio de propulsão, pode obter-se através daquele diagrama
um valor para o coeficiente de avanço J0m . O coeficiente de esteira do modelo será então dado
por
J0m Dm nm
wm = 1 − (3.47)
Vm
Ou seja, a velocidade média axial no plano do hélice atrás do navio à velocidade V , no

ensaio de resistência sem hélice, é a velocidade da esteira nominal,
Va = (1 − wn ) V (3.48)
e, com o hélice em operação atrás do navio, o escoamento devido à presença da querena é

modificado obtendo-se a velocidade da esteira efectiva,
Ve = (1 − we ) V (3.49)
A velocidade total será a soma da velocidade da esteira efectiva e da velocidade axial induzida
pelo hélice.
O rendimento rotativo relativo ηR é calculado por
KQ0m
ηR = (3.50)
KQm
em que KQ0m é obtido a partir do diagrama em águas livres do hélice e o coeficiente de binário
KQm é calculado com base nos resultados experimentais do ensaio de propulsão.
Designa-se por rendimento do casco a razão entre a potência efectiva e a potência propul-
siva, ou seja,
PE RT · Vs 1−t
ηH = = = (3.51)
PT T · Va 1−w
A determinação de w, t e ηH é feita preferencialmente através de ensaios de modelos em
ensaios de auto-propulsão utilizando um hélice de “stock ” com caracterı́sticas conhecidas, tão
aproximadas quanto possı́vel do hélice óptimo. Se não for possı́vel utilizar um modelo, aqueles
parâmetros poderão ser estimados com base em dados estatı́sticos. Para navios com um ou
dois hélices, o diagrama de Harvald permite estimar os valores de w, t e ηH em função do
coeficiente de finura total e da razão B/L, com correcções associadas ao tipo de popa, cota do
veio e diâmetro do hélice. Outros autores propuseram algumas expressões para a estimativa
daqueles parâmetros. Destas, destacam-se as de Taylor, Schoenherr e Luke, para navios com
um hélice,
w = 0, 5Cb + 0, 025 (3.52)
e,
t = 0, 5w (3.53)
com ηH = 1, 02. Para navios com dois hélices,
w = 0, 4533Cb − 0, 114 (3.54)
e,
t = 0, 7w + 0, 01 (3.55)
com ηH = 0, 985. Poderão aqui ser referidas as expressões mais complexas apresentadas por
Holtrop, com base em mais de duzentos ensaios de auto-propulsão em modelos de navios de
diversos tipos.
A potência absorvida pelo hélice pode ser expressa em termos da velocidade de rotação n
(em rps) e do binário Q por
PD = 2π · n · Q (3.56)
Devido às perdas mecânicas no veio e chumaceiras, a potência recebida pelo hélice PD é
inferior à potência efectiva do motor (’brake power’ ) PB ,
PD = ηs · PB (3.57)
em que ηs é o rendimento da linha de veios. A eficiência do propulsor atrás do navio, avalia

as perdas desde a potência recebida pelo hélice PD e a potência propulsiva PT ,
PT = η B · PD (3.58)
Esta eficiência do propulsor atrás do navio ηB é diferente da eficiência em águas livres η0

verificada experimentalmente. O rendimento rotativo relativo ηR avalia as perdas associadas
à diferença entre o escoamento em águas livres e o escoamento tridimensional não-uniforme
no plano do propulsor,
ηB = ηR · η0 (3.59)
Em resumo, verifica-se sempre a relação,
PB > PD > PT > PE
em que os valores daquelas potências são calculadas por
PE = ηH · PT = ηH · ηB · PD = ηH · η0 · ηR · PD = ηH · η0 · ηR · ηS · PB
Se o rendimento quase-propulsivo ηD espressar o conjunto de eficiências hidrodinâmicas

consideradas,
ηD = ηH · η0 · ηR (3.60)
então, a potência efectiva pode ser dada por
PE = ηD · ηS · PB
As leis de semelhança permitem a extrapolação das medições efectuadas para a escala do

navio,
√
Vs = λVm , (3.61)
√
ns = nm / λ , (3.62)
Ts = Tm · (ρs /ρm ) · λ3 (3.63)
e,
Qs = Qm · (ρs /ρm ) · λ4 (3.64)

3.8.3 Extrapolação dos resultados do ensaio de propulsão

O procedimento recomendado pela ITTC para o tratamento dos dados experimentais resul-
tantes dos ensaios de resistência e de propulsão para a previsão do desempenho do navio está
incluı́do no Apêndice A. Para além dos já referidos ensaios de reboque e propulsão, são ainda
necessários testes do hélice em águas livres. De uma forma sucinta, o referido procedimento
envolve os seguintes passos:
- prever a resistência total do navio a partir da resistência avaliada no modelo, corrigindo

de acordo com as resistências adicionais que devam ser consideradas;
- estimar as caracterı́sticas do hélice propulsor com base nos coeficientes propulsivos de-
terminados para o modelo;
- estimar a esteira do navio e as condições de funcionamento do hélice;
- estimar a velocidade de rotação do hélice e potência necessária com base em factores de

correlação entre o modelo e o navio.
Os detalhes de cada um destes passos, bem como o formulário de cálculo, devem ser
consultados no referido Apêndice A.
As várias condições consideradas nos ensaios do modelo servirão para fazer uma previsão
do desempenho do navio numa gama de velocidades para as condições de lastro e carregado,
conforme representado na Fig. 3.21.
Figura 3.21: Resultados dos ensaios de propulsão.

Capı́tulo 4
Instalações Propulsoras
4.1 Introdução
A escolha de uma máquina propulsora ou da configuração mais apropriada para a instalação
propulsora num projecto de nova construção ou reconversão não é actualmente uma decisão
simples. É imperioso que esta decisão seja precedida de uma análise rigorosa das várias opções
disponı́veis para o perfil de operação futura definido para o navio.
Uma vez determinada a potência absorvida pelo hélice, torna-se necessário identificar as
soluções que satisfazem os requisitos de potência, velocidade de rotação, consumo e dimensões.
A sua avaliação técnico-financeira será então realizada por critérios baseados nos seguintes
factores:
- o investimento inicial;
- a fiabilidade;
- os custos de manutenção previstos;
- os custos de operação previstos;
- a margem do motor, relacionada com a diferença entre a potência máxima e a potência

de serviço do motor.
Este processo de selecção terminará sempre numa solução de compromisso já que nenhum
tipo de instalação apresentará apenas vantagens comparativas.
No passado, o armador ou o projectista tinha como escolha imediata um motor diesel lento
acoplado directamente a um hélice de passo fixo, ou um motor diesel de média velocidade,
a quatro tempos, accionando através de engrenagens redutoras um hélice de passo fixo ou
controlável.
Actualmente, a propulsão dos navios que entram em serviço é obtida com o acoplamento
directo, muito esporadicamente com engrenagens redutoras, de motores a dois tempos a hélices
de passo fixo ou controlável, motores de média velocidade a quatro tempos e engrenagens
redutoras ou ainda por instalações diesel-eléctricas com recurso a motores diesel, a quatro
tempos, rápidos ou de média velocidade. Algumas variantes de instalações propulsoras estão
representadas nas Fig. 4.1 e 4.2.
67
68 CAPÍTULO 4. INSTALAÇÕES PROPULSORAS
Figura 4.1: Variantes de instalações propulsoras diesel-mecânicas lentas e

de média velocidade.
Os motores diesel lentos predominam no sector do transporte de granéis, lı́quidos e sólidos,

e contentores de longo curso. Motores de média velocidade são preferidos em navios de
carga com menor dimensão, ferries, turismo de passageiros, RoRo’s, bem como em nichos de
mercado muito especı́ficos como os quebra-gelos, navios de apoio a plataformas de exploração
petrolı́fera, etc.
No passado recente, estas tradicionais zonas de influência de cada um dos referidos tipos
de motores têm-se sobreposto. As novas gerações de motores a quatro tempos, com cilindros
de grande diâmetro e média velocidade apresentam-se como soluções competitivas para navios
a operar em viagens de longo curso. Em contrapartida, os motores lentos a dois tempos com
cilindros de pequeno diâmetro também se apresentam como soluções válidas para os mercados
costeiro e fluvial.
Um aspecto fundamental a considerar no processo de decisão na escolha da instalação
propulsora será necessariamente o custo. Não só o custo inicial, o investimento a fazer na
aquisição do motor, mas também os custos associados à operação do navio ou, de uma forma
mais geral, os custos totais do ciclo de vida do navio. Naqueles custos de operação deverão
ser tidos em conta, entre outros, os seguintes aspectos:
- o tipo de combustı́vel que a instalação vai permitir consumir;
- uma previsão dos custos de manutenção;
- os recursos humanos exigidos para a operação/condução da instalação;
- a disponibilidade e quantidade/custo dos sobressalentes.
4.2. PROPULSÃO DIESEL-MECÂNICA 69
Figura 4.2: Instalações propulsoras diesel-mecânica (em cima) e diesel-

eléctrica (em baixo).
A avaliação dos custos de operação ao fim da vida de exploração do navio pode variar de
forma muito significativa com o tipo de motor escolhido, e com a configuração da instalação
propulsora adoptada.
A dimensão da casa da máquina, a cujo aumento corresponderá uma redução do espaço
de carga disponı́vel para a exploração do navio, é essencialmente condicionada pela dimensão
da máquina principal. A própria altura da casa da máquina é importante em alguns tipos de
navios como os ferries com convés para veı́culos.
4.2 Propulsão diesel-mecânica

Conforme já referido, a propulsão por um hélice de passo fixo accionado directamente por um
motor diesel lento a dois tempos continua a ser o sistema mais frequentemente encontrado em
navios de carga de longo curso. A ligeira redução no rendimento de propulsão reconhecida é
admitida face à simplicidade da solução obtida e, a introdução de motores de longo, super-,
e ultra-longo curso veio diminuir aquelas perdas. No entanto, a velocidade de 100/110 rpm
não é necessariamente a mais adequada para a propulsão de um grande navio. Os motores
actualmente disponı́veis com maior curso desenvolvem a sua potência nominal a velocidades
tão baixas como 55 rpm até cerca de 250 rpm. Para um dado navio, é então possı́vel prescrever
uma solução de acoplamento directo motor/hélice que permita optimizar o rendimento de
propulsão.
Um outro aspecto a considerar é o número de cilindros do motor. Os motores lentos actu-
ais, com cilindros de grande diâmetro, permitem extrair a potência necessária à propulsão de
um navio de um motor com um reduzido número de cilindros. Um motor com menos cilindros
influencia naturalmente de forma favorável a dimensão da casa da máquina, o volume de tra-
balho afecto à sua manutenção e a quantidade de sobressalentes a manter no navio. Este tipo
de solução é portanto bem acolhida desde que daqui não resultem problemas de equilı́brio
do motor e vibrações. Estes motores com cilindros de grande diâmetro queimam bem com-
bustı́veis pesados de fraca qualidade e proporcionam um consumo especı́fico de combustı́vel
inferior ao obtido em motores com cilindros de menor diâmetro.

Neste tipo de instalações, a energia eléctrica necessária ao funcionamento dos equipamen-
tos auxiliares é normalmente fornecida por geradores accionados por motores diesel rápidos
ou de média velocidade. A grande parte dos fabricantes de motores diesel para acciona-
mento de alternadores está já hoje em condições de oferecer soluções capazes de consumir o
mesmo combustı́vel que a máquina principal, ou “marine diesel-oil ” ou ainda uma mistura
(blended ) de combustı́veis pesado e destilado. Actualmente, são já comuns instalações pro-
pulsoras “Unifuel ”, nas quais máquina principal e motores auxiliares consomem o mesmo tipo
de combustı́vel.
4.2.1 Accionamento de auxiliares

Os custos associados à produção da energia eléctrica necessária ao funcionamento dos equi-
pamentos auxiliares da instalação são também um factor importante na selecção da máquina
principal. O desenvolvimento das máquinas tem tido como principais objectivos nesta área:
- maximizar o aproveitamento de energia para permitir complementar a produção de

energia eléctrica durante as viagens;
- permitir o uso de alternadores accionados pela máquina principal através de engrenagens

multiplicadoras ou directamente montados na linha de veio;
- possibilitar o accionamento de equipamentos auxiliares directamente pela máquina prin-

cipal.
A principal motivação para a produção de energia eléctrica a partir da máquina principal

resulta do seu superior rendimento térmico, menor consumo especı́fico de combustı́vel e ca-
pacidade para consumir combustı́veis de inferior qualidade e custo. Outra vantagem resulta
naturalmente do menor consumo de óleo lubrificante, de menos intervenções de manutenção e
inferiores custos com sobressalentes resultantes da redução do tempo de funcionamento obtida
com a paragem dos diesel-geradores durante a viagem.
No caso de uma instalação com hélice de passo fixo, a utilização de um acoplamento por
engrenagens, que permita manter constante a velocidade de rotação do alternador (Fig. 4.3),
possibilita a utilização do gerador a plena carga numa gama de velocidades da máquina
principal que habitualmente ronda os 70 a 100% da sua velocidade nominal.
A localização do alternador é também um aspecto importante para permitir a desejável
redução de espaço ocupado pela casa da máquina. São actualmente possı́veis diversos arranjos
que vão desde a colocação lateral ao motor ou em qualquer uma das suas extremidades.
Em alternativa, quer no caso das instalações com hélice de passo fixo, quer no caso daquelas
que dispõem de passo controlável, podem ser utilizados sistemas baseados na conversão da
frequência da energia eléctrica produzida (Fig. 4.4).
Mais recentemente, as opções para a produção de energia eléctrica a bordo alargaram-
se à utilização de turbinas movimentadas pelos gases de evacuação do motor. O elevado
rendimento dos sobrealimentadores mais modernos torna excedentária uma fracção dos gases
de evacuação. O aproveitamento destes gases de evacuação em pequenas turbinas poderá
integrar-se em sistemas, que contemplando ainda grupos diesel-geradores, geradores-ao-veio e
turbo-geradoras a vapor, de forma isolada ou combinada, permitirão a optimização dos custos
de produção da energia eléctrica para os vários estados de operação do navio.
Figura 4.3: Acoplamento com relação variável de velocidades.
4.2.2 Engrenagens redutoras

Em muitas instalações propulsoras espera-se da caixa redutora:
- a determinação da velocidade e do sentido de rotação do hélice, e a capacidade de
inversão;
- que proporcione uma forma de acoplamento, permitindo estabelecer e interromper a
transmissão de potência entre o motor e o hélice;
- que seja capaz de absorver o impulso recebido do hélice.
O projecto de engrenagens, embraiagens ou outras formas de acoplamento usadas em ins-
talações navais têm de satisfazer vários, e por vezes conflituantes, requisitos quanto à sua
flexibilidade operacional, fiabilidade, ruı́do emitido e espaço ocupado. Os desenvolvimentos
nas áreas do projecto, dos materiais e dos sistemas de controlo contribuı́ram para soluções
inovadoras para instalações propulsoras versáteis com um ou mais motores, envolvendo toma-
das de extração de potência (“Power Take-Off ’s - PTO”) para accionamento de alternadores
e tomadas para recepção de potência (“Power Take-In’s - PTI ”) para aumentar a potência
de propulsão.
A forma mais comum do accionamento indirecto do hélice passa pela utilização de um
ou mais motores a quatro tempos de média velocidade, ligados através de embraiagens e
acoplamentos a uma caixa redutora, para movimentar um hélice de passo fixo ou controlável
(Fig. 4.5 e 4.6).
A utilização de hélices de passo controlável permite eliminar a necessidade da reversibili-
dade do motor. Por outro lado, a utilização da caixa redutora permite escolher a velocidade
de funcionamento do hélice mais apropriada. De uma forma geral, pode-se afirmar que as per-
das mecânicas na transmissão são compensadas por um maior rendimento propulsivo, quando
Figura 4.4: Conversão da frequência da energia eléctrica.
comparado com um caso de acoplamento directo para a mesma potência. Os custos adicio-
nais da transmissão são também, pelo menos parcialmente, compensados pelo menor custo
do motor a quatro tempos, quando comparado com um motor lento a dois tempos.
São normalmente identificadas como principais vantagens das instalações propulsoras com
mais de um motor, rápido ou de média velocidade:
- a redundância permite maior disponibilidade para a operação do navio:
- no caso de avaria num motor, o outro ou os outros mantêm a navegabilidade;

- o número de motores em serviço para a propulsão pode variar para garantir a forma
mais económica para uma viagem:
- quando o navio viaja em lastro, carga parcial ou a velocidade reduzida um
dos motores pode ser utilizado à sua potência nominal, com bom rendimento,
enquanto outro ou outros podem ser parados;
- pelo contrário, em condições operacionais semelhantes, um motor único, aco-
plado directamente ao hélice, funcionaria durante longos perı́odos a carga par-
cial com pouco rendimento;
- A possibilidade de alterar o número de motores em serviço facilita o planeamento e a

execução das tarefas de manutenção e reparação uma vez que estas poderão ser realiza-
das em viagem.
- Esta flexibilidade de operação é particularmente valorizada numa época em que se

pretende uma exploração intensiva dos navios.
- As operações de manutenção e reparação podem ainda decorrer em porto sem
preocupações particulares relativas à necessidade de mudança de cais ou partida
antecipada.
- As instalações propulsoras de uma frota de navios pode ser baseada num só modelo
de motor, ajustando o número de motores no navio e o número de cilindros por motor
para as necessidades de propulsão de cada um dos navios, com redução do custo de
Figura 4.5: Instalação propulsora com quatro motores, engrenagens redu-

toras e dois hélices.
sobressalentes e inventários, para além dos benefı́cios resultantes da familiarização das

tripulações.
Este conceito pode ainda ser alargado aos motores auxiliares (“uniform machinery instal-
lations ”), em que os motores principais e auxiliares são do mesmo modelo.
4.2.3 Configuração ”pai-e-filho”

A flexibilidade de operação é potenciada pela adopção das instalações do tipo ”pai-e-filho”.
Nestas instalações, motores a quatro tempos do mesmo modelo, ou de dois modelos muito
semelhantes, mas com diferente número de cilindros, fazem o accionamento do veio do hélice
acoplados a uma caixa redutora comum. Cada um daqueles motores pode ser ainda acoplado
a uma máquina eléctrica que pode funcionar como motor ou gerador.
Numa configuração deste tipo, a propulsão pode ser assegurada:
- conjuntamente pelos dois motores diesel;
- apenas por qualquer um dos motores diesel.
Em qualquer dos casos, podem ser ainda utilizados os, nesta situação, motores eléctricos
acoplados ao veio como motores propulsores, alimentados com energia eléctrica produzida
pelos geradores auxiliares.
Figura 4.6: Instalação com dois motores diesel diferentes, engrenagens re-
dutoras, embraiagens e geradores acoplados aos veios.
4.3 Propulsão diesel-eléctrica

4.3.1 Propulsão por motor eléctrico
A propulsão diesel-eléctrica, baseada em grupos electrogéneos de média velocidade, é uma
forma de accionamento indirecto com crescente implantação no mercado. Após um perı́odo
em que a utilização deste tipo de sistemas esteve confinada a nichos de mercado de actividades
com elevada especificidade, como por exemplo os quebra-gelos, navios de investigação etc.,
as mais recentes tecnologias para a conversão AC/DC alargaram o potencial de utilização da
propulsão eléctrica ao mercado dos navios de passageiros, “shuttle tanker’s” no Mar do Norte.
Estando já estabelecido como uma boa solução neste mercados, começam a surgir refe-
rências da aplicação deste tipo de instalações propulsoras a navios de transporte de quı́micos
(costeiro e longo curso), ferries e RoRo’s. Discute-se ainda as vantagens da sua aplicação
pelo menos a algumas classes de porta-contentores. A propulsão diesel-eléctrica, combinada
com motores “dual-fuel ”, está também bem implantada no sector do transporte de LNG.
A propulsão diesel-eléctrica exige grandes motores eléctricos para accionamento dos hé-
lices (Fig. 4.7) e grupos electrogéneos para fornecer a potência eléctrica. Pode parecer em
primeira análise algo ilógico usar geradores eléctricos, conversores e motores eléctricos para o
accionamento quando um acoplamento directo ou uma engrenagem redutora pode ser sufici-
ente para cumprir aquela missão. As principais razões que justificam a complexidade e custo
acrescidos daquele tipo de instalação são:
- maior flexibilidade na distribuição dos equipamentos na casa da máquina;
- maior diversidade de condições de fundionamento;
- funcionamento mais económico a carga partial;
- facilidade de controlo;
- menor ruı́do;
- maior segurança de operação e protecção ambiental.
Estes aspectos serão abordados nos parágrafos seguintes.

4.3. PROPULSÃO DIESEL-ELÉCTRICA 75
Figura 4.7: Motor eléctrico de propulsão.
Flexibilidade na distribuição dos equipamentos

A vantagem da transmissão eléctrica resulta de se poder escolher a localização em cada
caso mais apropriada para os grupos electrogéneos. É então possı́vel colocar os motores, bem
como os respectivos auxiliares, afastados do veio propulsor. Sempre que seja adoptado este
tipo de instalação, a referida flexibilidade permite aos arquitectos navais criar navios com a
casa da máquina muito compacta, libertando espaço para passageiros e/ou carga. O facto
de a casa da máquina ser mais compacta permite reduzir ainda a cablagem e a tubagem, em
particular a tubagem a instalar para a evacuação dos gases do motor (ver Fig. 4.8).
A opção por uma instalação diesel-eléctrica facilita também ao estaleiro de construção a
recepção de módulos de grupos electrogéneos pré-testados e prontos para serem incorporados
na instalação.
Deve aqui ser também referida a dificuldade de uma instalação diesel-eléctrica atingir o
rendimento obtido com um motor lento, a dois tempos, acoplado directamente ao veio do
hélice, quando a funcionar à sua carga ideal, tal como acontece numa viagem de longo curso
de um navio petroleiro. No entanto, alguns navios deste tipo têm um perfil de operação
que inclui também largos perı́odos a carga parcial em lastro, navegação em águas restritas
e manobras. Numa instalação diesel-eléctrica, a elevada disponibilidade para produção de
energia eléctrica pode ser aproveitada para movimentar as bombas de carga e impulsores de
proa/popa, conforme representado esquematicamente na Fig. 4.9.
Variedade de carga
Alguns tipos de navios necessitam de quantidades significativas de energia para auxiliares
quando as necessidades de propulsão são reduzidas. Uma grande instalação de produção
Figura 4.8: Instalação diesel-eléctrica.
de energia eléctrica nos navios de passageiros/cruzeiros é exigida pela carga dos serviços de
hotelaria e pelos propulsores tranversais de manobra. A potência eléctrica necessária nestes
casos ronda os 30 a 40 % da potência de propulsão instalada e ainda há que contar com
significativa redundância por motivos de segurança.
Estes factores têm promovido um novo conceito de instalação, a diesel-eléctrica ”power
station”, nas quais vários grupos electrogéneo movidos por motores diesel de média velocidade
satisfazem as necessidades de energia para a propulsão, manobra e serviços de hotelaria nos
grandes navios de passageiros.
Funcionamento económico a carga parcial

Funcionamento económico a carga parcial é facilmente alcançado numa instalação diesel-
eléctrica ”power station”. Uma instalação tı́pica inclui quatro grupos electrogéneos, podendo
ir no entanto até aos nove, e, através do funcionamento em paralelo dos grupos, é fácil ajustar
a capacidade de produção às necessidades de carga eléctrica. Por exemplo, no caso de quatro
geradores, aumentar o número de grupos em funcionamento de dois, à carga máxima, para
três a carga parcial resulta numa condição de carga a 67 % que, não sendo ideal também não
é problemática.
Os sistemas de redução instantânea da potência propulsora tornam desnecessário colocar
em funcionamento geradores a carga parcial para prevenir a ocorrência súbita de avaria num
grupo electrogéneo. O sistema de controlo monitoriza a capacidade de produção de energia
eléctrica, e a sobrecarga de um gerador provoca um ajuste imediato no consumo dos motores
de propulsão.
4.3. PROPULSÃO DIESEL-ELÉCTRICA 77
Figura 4.9: Representação esquemática de uma instalação diesel-eléctrica.
Facilidade de controlo
Os accionamentos eléctricos permitem alcançar, com larga margem, as necessidades de
controlo para um sistema de propulsão.
Baixo ruı́do
Um motor eléctrico proporciona um accionamento com vibrações reduzidas, caracterı́stica
particularmente valorizada nalguns tipos de navios como, por exemplo, os navios para cru-
zeiros, navios de investigação marinha e navios de guerra. A “transmissão eléctrica” permite
procurar a melhor localização para os motores por forma a minimizar os efeitos da vibração
transmitida à estrutura do navio. A emissão de vibrações pode ainda ser reduzida através do
recurso à montagem de amortecedores de vibração.
Protecção ambiental e segurança de operação

O controlo das emissões de óxidos de azoto pelos motores diesel dos navios favorece também
a especificação de instalações com “transmissão eléctrica”, uma vez que o funcionamento dos
motores a velocidade constante e carga optimizada permite obter menores emissões.
O aumento da segurança da navegação é também obtido nestas instalações pela redun-
dância dos seus elementos constituintes. A redundância pode ser obtida não apenas pela
existência de dois propulsores mas ainda pode ser acrescida colocando os dois, ou mais, mo-
tores de propulsão em diferentes compartimentos e ligando-os por uma engrenagem redutora.
4.3.2 Propulsores azimutais

As vantagens técnicas e económicas na concepção, construção e operação de navios com
propulsão por “azipod’s”, inicialmente restritos a navios quebra-gelos e navios de passageiros,
têm vindo a alargar o seu campo de aplicação a outro tipo de navios.
Um propulsor azimutal incorpora o motor eléctrico num alojamento submerso de formas
hidrodinâmicas optimizadas que, podendo rodar 360◦ no plano horizontal, permite extraor-
dinária capacidade de propulsão e manobra (ver Fig. 4.10). O motor eléctrico é acoplado
directamente a um hélice de passo fixo. A energia eléctrica é provida pelos vários grupos
electrogéneos do navio.
Figura 4.10: Propulsores azimutais.
Este tipo de propulsores, quando comparados com instalações diesel-eléctricas com linha(s)
de veio(s) apresentam as seguintes vantagens:
- maior liberdade para a concepção do casco e para o arranjo de máquinas no interior da
casa da máquina;
- o espaço no interior do casco destinado aos motores pode ser libertado para outras
finalidades;
- melhor capacidade de manobra quando comparado com o tradicional leme e possibidade
de eliminar propulsores transversais;
- excelente reversibilidade e capacidade de manobra com propulsão a ré;
- menor ruı́do e vibração, caracterı́sticos da propulsão eléctrica, agora potenciados pela
posição mais favorável dos hélices;
- na construção do navio, as unidades de propulsão podem ser incorporadas mais tarde
reduzindo assim os custos de investimento;
- menor custo de produção do navio.
4.4 Selecção do motor

Seleccionado o tipo de instalação pretendido para a propulsão do navio, chega-se finalmente
à escolha do motor. Como as caracterı́sticas de funcionamento das turbinas e dos motores
4.4. SELECÇÃO DO MOTOR 79
eléctricos são bastante diferentes das caracterı́sticas dos motores diesel, a abordagem terá de
ser também diferente.
Em qualquer dos casos, deverá ser tida em conta a margem de serviço M S. A margem
de serviço tem em conta a diferença entre a potência requerida para nas condições ideais da
prova de mar e a potência requerida pelas condições de serviço. É prática habitual definir-se
a margem de serviço como uma fracção da potência na prova de mar, ou seja,
PDserv − PDtrial
MS = (4.1)
PDtrial
O valor da margem de serviço está normalmente entre os 10 e os 25%, dependendo das opções
estratégicas do armador e da importância da pontualidade do serviço. Em princı́pio, a margem
de serviço atribuı́da a um navio de linha será superior à margem considerada para um navio
que vai operar no mercado do “tramping”. O valor estabelecido da margem de serviço deve em
conta uma estimativa da degradação de velocidade, para as condições de operação do navio,
bem com as condições habituais de mar e vento e a degradação do casco.
4.4.1 Turbinas e motores eléctricos

No caso da turbinas, de vapor ou gás, a potência desenvolvida depende essencialmente do
caudal de fluido em circulação, sendo portanto relativamente pouco sensı́vel à velocidade de
rotação.
As caracterı́sticas dos sistemas com transmissão eléctrica são semelhantes às das turbinas,
independentemente de os geradores serem movidos por turbinas ou motores diesel, uma vez
que a velocidade destes pode ser mantida constante.
Neste tipo de situação, em que a máquina propulsora pode trabalhar próximo da potência
máxima em qualquer condição de serviço, a potência instalada (PI ) pode ser próxima da
potência de serviço. Na prática, a turbina é ajustada para operar com o máximo rendimento
a uma potência 10% inferior à máxima potência em contı́nuo (MCR, Maximum Continuous
Rating). Assim, a potência instalada será
PDserv 1 + MS
PI (M CR) = = PDtrial (4.2)
0, 9ηs 0, 9ηs
em que PDserv e PDtrial são as potências absorvidas pelo hélice nas condições de serviço e na
prova de mar, respectivamente, para a velocidade de serviço e M S é a margem de serviço.
4.4.2 Motores diesel

Ao contrário das turbinas e dos motores eléctricos, em que a potência disponı́vel é pouco
sensı́vel à velocidade, os motores diesel caracterizam-se por ter uma curva do binário bastante
plana. Esta caracterı́stica faz com que a potência varie de forma aproximadamente linear com
a velocidade de rotação.
Para além dos principais critérios considerados na avaliação dos projectos, outros aspectos
que não devem ser descurados na escolha do motor são:
- a possibilidade de queimar combustı́vel pesado de baixa qualidade sem impacto nos

componentes do motor e consequentemente nos custos previstos para sobressalentes e
operações de manutenção;
- o volume de trabalho de manutenção, o número de cilindros, válvulas, camisas, aros

e chumaceiras a necessitar de atenção periódica em relação ao número de tripulantes
embarcados;
- a adequabilidade para operação não assistida explorando sistemas de controlo automá-

tico e sistemas de monitorização;
- a dimensão e o peso da instalação propulsora.
O valor máximo da potência desenvolvida por um motor diesel é condicionada pela carga
térmica. Este limite é normalmente expresso em termos da pressão média efectiva. Depen-
dendo das caracterı́sticas do hélice seleccionado e das condições operacionais, assim o valor
limite da pressão média efectiva será atingido, ou não, antes de o motor atingir a velocidade
de rotação correspondente às condições M CR.
Figura 4.11: Diagrama de carga de um motor diesel
Os fabricantes de motores diesel incluem diagramas de carga nos guias de selecção de

motores para auxiliar a escolha do ponto de funcionamento. Nestes diagramas, como o repre-
sentado na Fig. 4.11, estão marcados:
- o ponto L1 , que corresponde ao MCR do motor;
- a linha vertical L1 − L2 , velocidade de rotação máxima do motor, que limita a zona de

funcionamento do motor;
No Apêndice D incluiu-se documentação da ”Burmeister & Wain” que permite ilustrar a

forma de selecção do motor para uma aplicação concreta, considerando várias hipóteses: com
ou sem gerador acoplado ao veio, com hélice de passo fixo ou de passo controlável.
4.4. SELECÇÃO DO MOTOR 81
Alguns fabricantes anunciam um valor de “Normal Continuous Rating” (N CR) cerca de

10% inferior ao valor M CR e a uma velocidade inferior, ao qual corresponde um desempenho
optimizado do motor em termos de consumo e de necessidades de manutenção. Pode ainda
definir-se uma “Service Continuous Rating” (SCR) que, dependendo da polı́tica do armador,
poderá ser igual ou não do N CR indicado pelo fabricante do motor.
A diferença entre a M CR e a SCR, ou, caso não esteja definida, a N CR, dá origem à
chamada margem do motor (M M ). A margem do motor é avaliada por,
M CR − SCR
MM = (4.3)
M CR
Valores tı́picos desta margem de motor rondam os 10 a 15%. De notar que as margens de
serviço e de motor surgem frequentemente combinadas numa só, a margem de serviço, apesar
de as suas origens serem bem distintas.
Uma vez atribuı́das as margens de serviço e de motor, a potência instalada é calculada
por
1 + MS
PI (M CR) = PDtrial (4.4)
(1 − M M ) ηs
Nas provas de mar, nas condições de imersão e caimento contratuais, a potência absorvida
pelo hélice, à velocidade de rotação correspondente ao M CR, deve ser igual à potência SCR,
deduzida das perdas na linha de veios. Como objectivo das provas, deverá garantir-se que a
combinação motor e hélice permite que o anvio atinja a velocidade requerida sem ultrapassar
os limites impostos pelo diagrama de carga.
Sem prejuı́zo do exposto, o forte aumento do preço dos combustı́veis nos anos mais recen-
tes faz com que os custos operacionais dos navios sejam cada vez mais dominados por este
factor. Neste contexto, pode ser uma hipótese de trabalho interessante a opção por um motor
com a mesma potência, a potência calculada como necessária para a propulsão nas condi-
ções contratuais, mas com um cilindro extra. Esta técnica, o chamado ”derating” do motor,
exigindo maior valor de investimento inicial, pode apresentar um perı́odo de retorno atrac-
tivo. Wettstein e Brown apresentam as principais motivações para aplicação desta técnica e
discutem quatro casos de aplicação numa publicação da Wärtsillä, incluı́da no Apêndice E.
Bibliografia
[1] José P. Saraiva Cabral. Arquitectura Naval, estabilidade, cálculos, avaria e bordo livre.
Centro do Livro Brasileiro, 1979.
[2] Eric C. Tupper. Introduction to Naval Arquitecture. Elsevier, 2004.
[3] Volker Bertram. Practical Ship Hydrodynamics. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.
[4] Jorge d’Almeida. Arquitectura Naval - o dimensionamento do navio. Prime Books, 2009.
[5] Editor Doug Woodyard. Pounders Marine Diesel Engines and Gas Turbines. Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2004.
[6] H. Schneekluth and V. Bertram. Ship Design for Efficiency and Economy. Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1998.
83
Índice Remissivo
Auto-propulsão, 62 de propulsão, 61
de resistência, 26
Boca, 3 em sobrecarga, 62
Bolbo de proa, 22
Bordo livre, 3 Fórmula
de Alexander, 5
Calado, 3
de atrito da ATTC, 25
Camada limite, 24
de atrito da ITTC, 25
Cavitação, 37, 53, 60
de Keller, 59
Coeficiente
do atrito de Froude, 24
de avanço, 46
do atrito de Hugues, 30
de binário, 46
Força
de Burrill, 55
de compensação, 62
de carga do hélice, 44
de inércia, 15
de dedução da esteira, 63
de origem hidrodinâmica, 16
de dedução da força propulsiva, 63
gravı́tica, 16
de força propulsiva, 46
propulsiva, 42
de resistência, 28
de resistência total, 13
Hélice, 35
Comprimento
rendimento ideal, 45
entre perpendiculares, 3
a ponto fixo, 57
fora a fora, 3
bloqueado, 57
na linha de água, 3
com tubeira, 36
Consumo especı́fico de combustı́vel, 69
contrarotativo, 37
Custos
de passo controlável, 37, 67, 70, 71
de manutenção, 68
de passo fixo, 37, 67, 70, 71, 78
de operação, 68, 69
diâmetro do, 58
totais, 68
distribuição radial de pressão, 59
Diagrama geometria do, 40, 59
de Burrill, 55 ı́ndice de qualidade do, 47
em águas livres, 45, 46 interacção com o casco, 60
Dual-fuel, 74 número de pás do, 59
projecto do, 40
Engrenagens redutoras, 71 razão de área expandida, 41
Ensaios supercavitante, 37
de auto-propulsão, 62
de cavitação, 56 Método
de hélices em águas livres, 45 de Hughes/Prohaska, 28
84
ÍNDICE REMISSIVO 85
Geosim, 28, 31 Rendimento

Hughes-Prohaska, 29 águas livres, 46
ITTC 1957, 28 da linha de veios, 65
ITTC 1978, 28, 30 do casco, 64
Margem do hélice, 46
de serviço, 79 rotativo relativo, 64
do motor, 81 Resistência, 13
Maximum Continuous Rating, 79 adicional, 31
aerodinâmica, 19
Número de atrito, 24
de cavitação, 54 de onda, 19
de Froude, 17, 23 decomposição, 18
de Reynolds, 18, 27, 46 dos apêndices, 32
Navio viscosa de pressão, 25
coeficientes de forma, 3 Rugosidade do casco, 28, 30, 31
de passageiros, 68, 74, 76, 77
deslocamento do, 3 Série sistemática
dimensões do, 3 60, 33
linhas de bordo livre do, 3 de hélices, 47, 58
planos do, 1 de querenas, 32
quebra-gelos, 68, 77 de Taylor, 33
tipo ferry, 37, 38, 40, 68, 69, 74 de Wageningen, 48
tipo RoRo, 68, 74 Semelhança
tipo shuttle tanker, 74 cinemática, 15
Normal Continuous Rating, 81 dinâmica, 15
geométrica, 14
PC-cluster, 10 leis da, 14
Pontal, 3 Service Continuous Rating, 81
Potência Sobrealimentadores, 70
absorvida, 65
Tanque
de reboque, 13
de cavitação, 56
efectiva, 13, 62
de Froude, 7
efectiva do motor, 65
de reboque, 26
propulsiva, 63
Power Take Off/In, 71 Unifuel, 70
Profundidade restrita, 23, 32
Propulsão Velocidade
azimutal, 35, 38, 77 da querena, 22
cicloidal, 35, 39 de aproximação, 42
diesel-eléctrica, 74 de rotação do hélice, 59
diesel-mecânica, 69 económica, 22
por jacto de água, 35, 37 Vibrações, 42, 53, 58–60, 77
por motor eléctrico, 74
Provas
de mar, 34
de potência, 121, 133
de velocidade, 121, 133
86 ÍNDICE REMISSIVO
Apêndice A
Procedimento Recomendado pela
ITTC para a Previsão do
Desempenho de Navios Baseada nos
Ensaios de Propulsão em Modelos
87
88 APÊNDICE A. PREVISÃO BASEADA NOS ENSAIOS DE PROPULSÃO
ITTC – Recommended 7.5 – 02
03 – 01.4
Procedures Page 1 of 31
Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Effective Date Revision
1999 00
Method
CONTENTS
1. PURPOSE OF PROCEDURE
2. DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURE
2.1.1 Introduction for the Original 1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Method
for Single Screw Ships
2.1.2 Introduction for the 1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Method as Modified
in 1984 and 1987
2.2 Model Tests
2.3 Analysis of the Model Test Results
2.4 Full Scale Predictions
2.4.1 Total Resistance of Ship
2.4.2 Scale Effect Corrections for Propeller Characteristics.
2.4.3 Full Scale Wake and Operating Condition of Propeller
2.4.4 Model-Ship Correlation Factors
2.5 Analysis of Speed Trial Results
2.6 Input Data
2.7 Output Data
2.8 Test Example
3. PARAMETERS
3.1 Parameters to be Taken into Account
3.2 Recommendations of ITTC for Parameters
3.3 Input Data
4. VALIDATION
4.1 Uncertainty Analysis
4.2 Comparison With Full Scale Results
5. ITTC- 1978 PERFORMANCE PREDICTION METHOD (COMPUTER CODE)
COMMENTS OF PROPULSION COMMITTE OF 22nd ITTC

In its original form the ITTC 1978 Performance Prediction Method offers a valuable and rea-
sonably accurate prediction tool for reference purposes and conventional ships.
Edited by 22nd ITTC QS Group 1999 Approved
15th ITTC 1978 pp388 – 402
15th ITTC 1978, 17th ITTC 1984
17th ITTC 1984 pp326 - 333 th
and 18 ITTC 1987
18th ITTC 1987 pp266 - 273
Date Date
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Method
1. PURPOSE OF PROCEDURE more convenient use of the program. These

extensions are summarized as follows.
The method predicts rate of revolution and
delivered power of a ship from model results. (1) Inclusion of prediction of propeller revo-
lutions on the basis of power identity.
2. DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURE (2) Temporary measure for wTS > wTM
2.1.1 Introduction for the Original 1978 (3) Extension to twin screw ships
ITTC Performance Prediction Method
for Single Screw Ships (4) Addition of speed trial data
The method predicts rate of revolution and (5) Extension for the case of a stock propel-
delivered power of a ship from model results. ler in the self-propulsion test
The procedure used can be described as fol-
lows: (6) Adaptation to the input of the non-
dimensional resistance coefficient and
The viscous and the residuary resistance of the self-propulsion factors.
ship are calculated from the model resistance
tests assuming the form factor to be independ- In recent years, many member organizations
ent of scale and speed. have been asked by their customers for a gen-
eral description of the method, viz., model test
The ITTC standard predictions of rate of revo- and analysis of their results, calculation of full-
lutions and delivered power are obtained from- scale power and rate of propeller revolutions,
the full scale propeller characteristics. These and the model-ship correlation factors used.
characteristics have been determined by cor- Considering the above, it was decided to pre-
recting the model values for drag scale effects pare a user's manual of the 1978 ITTC method
according to a simple formula. Individual which includes all of the extensions and modi-
corrections then give the final predictions. fications made.
2.1.2 Introduction for the 1978 ITTC Per- 2.2 Model Tests
formance Prediction Method as
Modified in 1984 and 1987 Model tests required for a full scale com-
prise the resistance test, the self-propulsion test
The 1978 ITTC Method developed to pre- and the propeller open-water test.
dict the rate of propeller revolutions and deliv- In the resistance test the model is towed at
ered power of a single screw ship from the speeds giving the same Froude numbers as for
model test results has been extended during the the full scale ship, and the total resistance of
last two terms of the ITTC for a better and the model RTM is measured. The computer pro-
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
gram accepts either RTM in Newton, or in a non- ler and the model similar to the full-scale pro-
dimensional form of residuary resistance coef- peller should be tested in open water.
ficient CR assuming the form factor 1 + k. In
the latter case, the friction formula used can
then be either of the ITTC 1957, Hughes, 2.3 Analysis of the Model Test Results
Prandtl-Schlichting or Schönherr's formulae.
Resistance RTM measured in the resistance
The form factor 1 + k is usually determined tests is expressed in the non-dimensional form
from the resistance tests at low speed range or
by Prohaska’s plot of CFM against Fn4 R TM
C TM =
1
The ship model is not in general fitted with ρSV 2
2
bilge keels. In this case the total wetted surface
This is reduced to residual resistance coef-
area of them is recorded and their frictional
ficient CR by use of form factor k,
resistance is added in calculating the full-scale
resistance of the ship. viz.,
In the self-propulsion test the model is CR = CTM - CFM (1 + k)

towed at speeds giving the same Froude num-
bers as for the full-scale ship. Generally a tow-
ing force FD is applied to compensate for the Thrust, T, and torque Q, measured in the
difference between the model and the full-scale self-propulsion tests are expressed in the non-
resistance coefficient. dimensional forms
During the test, propeller thrust (TM), torque T Q

K TM = and K QM =
(OM) and rate of propeller rotation (nM) are ρD 4 n 2 ρD 5 n 2
measured.
With KTM as input data, JTM and KQTM are read
In many cases, stock propellers are used off from the model propeller characteristics,
which are selected in view of the similarity in and the wake fraction
diameter pitch and blade area to the full-scale
propeller. Then the diameter and the open- J TM D M
water characteristics of the stock propeller wTM = 1 −
V
have to be given as input data in the program.
In the open-water test, thrust, torque and rate of and the relative rotative efficiency
revolutions are measured, keeping the rate of K QTM
revolutions constant whilst the speed of ad- ηR =
K QM
vance is varied so that a loading range of the
propeller is examined. are calculated. V is model speed.
The thrust deduction is obtained from
In the case when a stock propeller is used in
the self-propulsion test, both the stock propel- T + FD − RC
t=
T
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
with  1

 k 3
∆C F = 105 S  − 0.6410 − 3
1   LWL  
FD = ρ M S M V M2 [C FM − (C FS + ∆C F )]  
2
where RC is the resistance corrected for differ- where the roughness kS=150.10-6 m and
ences in temperature between resistance and
self-propulsion tests: - CAA, is the air resistance
A
C AA = 0.001. T
(1 + k ).C FMC + C R S
RC = RTM
(1 + k ).C FM + C R
If the ship is fitted with bilge keels the total
resistance is as follows:
where CFMC is the frictional resistance coeffi-
cient at the temperature of the self-propulsion
S + S BK
test. C TS = [(1 + k )C FS + ∆C F ] + C R + C AA
S
2.4 Full Scale Predictions

2.4.2 Scale Effect Corrections for Propeller
2.4.1 Total Resistance of Ship Characteristics.
The total resistance coefficient of a ship The characteristics of the full scale propel-
without bilge keels is ler are calculated from the model characteris-
tics as follows
CTS =(1+k)CFS +CR+ ∆ CF +CAA
K TS = K TM − ∆K T
Where
K QS = K QM − ∆K Q
-k is the form factor determined from the where
resistance test
P c.Z
- CFS is the frictional coefficient of the ship ∆K T = − ∆C D .0.3.
according to the ITTC-1957 ship-model D D
correlation line
c.Z
∆K Q = − ∆C D .0.25.
- CR is the residual resistance calculated from D
the total and frictional coefficients of the
model in the resistance tests: The difference in drag coefficient ∆C D is
C R = C TM − (1 + k )C FM
∆C D = C DM − C DS
-. ∆C F is the roughness allowance
where
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
(1 − wTS )V S
nS = (r/s)
  J TS D
 t   0.04 5 
C DM = 2 1 + 2  −
 c   (R ) 16 (R ) 23 
 nco nco 
and - the delivered power:
−2.5 K QTS
 t  c  PDS = 2πρD 5 n S3 10 − 3 (kW)
C DS = 21 + 2 1.89 + 1.62. log  ηR
 c  kp 

- the thrust of the propeller:
In the formulae listed above c is the chord K
TS = T2 . J TS ρ .D 4 .n S2
2
length, t is the maximum thickness, P/D is the (N)
J
pitch ratio and Rnco is the local Reynolds num-
ber at x=0.75. The blade roughness kp is put
- the torque of the propeller:
kp=30.10-6 m. Rnco must not be lower than 2.105
K QTS
at the open-water test. QS = ρD 5 n S2 : (Nm)
ηR
2.4.3 Full Scale Wake and Operating Con- - the effective power:
dition of Propeller PE = C TS 1 / 2 ρ .V S3 .S .10 −3 (kW)
The full scale wake is calculated from the - the total efficiency:
model wake, wTM, and the thrust deduction, t: P
η D = DS
(1 + k )C FS + ∆C F PE
wTS = (t + 0.04 ) + (wTM − t − 0.04 )
(1 + k )C FM
- the hull efficiency:
1− t
where 0.04 is to take account of rudder effect. ηH =
The load of the full scale propeller is obtained 1 − wTS
from
KT S C TS 2.4.4 Model-Ship Correlation Factors

= .
J 2 2 D 2 (1 − t )(1 − wTS )2
Trial prediction of rate of revolutions and de-
livered power with CP - CN corrections
With this K T / J 2 as input value the full
scale advance coefficient JTS and the torque if CHOICE=0 the final trial predictions will be
coefficient KQTS are read off from the full scale calculated from
propeller characteristics and the following
quantities are calculated nT = CN.nS (r/s)
- the rate of revolutions:
for the rate of revolutions and
PDT = CP.PDS (kW)
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
2.5 Analysis of Speed Trial Results

for the delivered power.
The analysis of trials data is performed in a
Trial prediction with ∆CFC - ∆wC corrections way consistent with performance prediction but
starting PD and n backwards, i.e. from
If CHOICE=1 the final trial predictions are
calculated as follows: PD
KQ = .η RM .10³
2π . ρ .D 5 .n 3
KT S C TS + ∆C FC
= .
J 2 2 D 2 (1 − t )(1 − wTS + ∆wC )2 JS is obtained from the full-scale open-water
characteristics KQ ≈ JS then
With this KT/J² as input value, JTS and KQTS
are read off from the full scale propeller char- wT = 1 − J S .n.D / V
acteristics and
Further from KT ≈ JS characteristics
(1 − wTS + ∆wC )V S
nT = (r/s)
J TS .D T = K T . ρ .n ² D 4
K QTS T .(1 − t )
PDT = 2π . ρ .D 5 .n T3 . .10 − 3 (kW) CT =
η RM 1
. ρ .V ².S
2
Trial prediction with CNP correction Then we obtain

∆C FC = C T − C TS
If CHOICE = 2 the shaft rate of rotation is pre- ∆wC = wTS − wT
dicted on the basis of power identity as fol-
lows.
2.6 Input Data
 KQ  1000.C P .PDS
  =
 T 2π . ρ .D ²V S (1 − wTS )³
3 Input data sheets are given in ENCL.1
 J³
K Q0  KQ  2.7 Output Data

=   .η RM
J³  J T
- Output data I gives ITTC Standard Pre-
diction with CP = CN = 1.0, together with
n S = V S (1 − wTS ) / J TS .D
model and full scale propulsive coeffi-
cients (ENCL. 4).
nT = C NP n S - Output data II gives the final ship predic-
tion (ENCL. 5).
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
- Output data III gives the analysis of the propeller diameter D = 8.2m
speed trial results (ENCL. 6).
Calculations were carried out with the
ITTC Trial Prediction Test Program with:
2.8 Test Example
CP = 1.01
To illustrate the program a prediction was CN = 1.02
made for a hypothetical ship with the following
particulars: The input data were taken as shown in
length between ENCL. 1 and the printout of the input data and
perpendiculars Lpp = 251.5m results are given in ENCL. 4 - 6.
breadth B = 41.5m
draft T = 16.5m
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
3. PARAMETERS "F" format requires the data to be input with a

decimal point; the number can appear
3.1 Parameters to be Taken into Account anywhere in the field indicated.
"A" format indicates that alphanumeric char-
acters must be entered in the appropriate
Froude scaling law
card columns.
ship-model correlation line ,friction line
kinematic viscosity
mass density The card order of the data deck must fol-
low the order in which they are described
blockage
below.
form factor
propeller loading
hull roughness
Card No. 1 Identifications
see also 3.3 Input Data
Card Form CC Definition
column at Symbol
1- 8 A - Project No.
3.2 Recommendations of ITTC for Pa- 9-16 A - Ship model No
rameters Propeller model No.
see 4.9-03-03-01.1 Propulsion Test 17-24 A -
1987 p.263 In using the 1978 ITTC Method 25-32 F SCALE Scale ratio
it is recommended that the rudder(s) be fitted
in hull resistance experiments for barge type Card No. 2 Ship particulars
forms where inflow velocity is relatively
large. Card For- CC Definition
column mat Symbol
9-16 F LWL Length of waterline
17-24 F TF Draft, forward
3.3 Input Data
25-32 F TA Draft, aft
33-40 F B Breadth
All data are either non-dimensional or 41-48 F S Wetted surface, with-
given in SI-units. out bilge keels
49-56 F DISW Displacement
Every data card defines several parameters 157-64 F SBK Wetted surface of
which are required by the program; each of bilge keels
these parameters must be input according to a 65-72 F AT Transverse projected
specific format. area of ship above
waterline
"I" format means that the value is to be input 72-80 F C3 Form factor deter-
without a decimal point and packed to the mined at resistance
right of the specified field. tests
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
Card No. 3 Particulars of full scale Mean values of the trial correction figures,
Card For- CC Definition Cp and CN can be obtained from the trial test
column mat Symbol material of the individual institutions by run-
8- 8 I NOPROP Number of propellers
ning the ITTC Trial Prediction Test Program.
should be 1 since method
is valid only for single If an institution wishes to give predictions
screw ships with a certain margin the input CP-CN-values
15-16 I NPB Number of propeller must be somewhat higher than these mean
blades values.
17-24 F DP Diameter of propeller
25-32 F PD075 Pitch ratio at x=0.75
33-40 F CH075 Chord length of Propeller Cards Nos. 5-14 Result of resistance and self-
blade at x=0.75 propulsion tests and model propeller charac-
41-48 F TMO75 Maximum blade thick- teristics.
ness of propeller at
x=0.75 Card Format CC Definition
49-56 F RNCHM Reynolds number at column Symbol
open-water test based on 1- 8 F VS Ship speed in knots
chord length and local 9-16 F RTM Resistance of ship
velocity π .0.75

V = VA 1 + 


2
model
 J 
17-24 F THM Thrust of propeller
at x-0.75. 25-32 F QM Torque of propel-
Card No. 4 General ler:QM:100
Card For- CC Sym- Definition 33-40 F NM Rate of revolution
column mat bol 41-48 F FD Skin friction correc-
tion force
2.- 4 I NOJ Number of J-values in the 49-56 F ADVC Advance coefficient,.
open-water characteristics open water
(J ≤ NOJ ≤ 10) 57-64 F KT Thrust coefficient,
7- 8 I NOSP Number of speeds in the open water
self- propulsion tests 65-72 F KQ Torque coefficient,
(NOSPmax=10) open water
9-16 F RHOM Density of tank water
17-24 F RHOS Density of sea water
The J-margin in the open-water character-
25-30 F TEMM Temperature of resistance
test
istics must be large enough to cover the
31-36 F TEMP Temperature at self- model and full scale J-values with some mar-
propulsion test - gin.
36-41 F TEMS Temperature of sea water Input data sheets are given in ENCL. 1.
48-48 I CHOICE CHOICE=0 C − C
P N
trial corr.
CHOICE==1:
∆C FC − ∆wC trial corr.
49-56 F CP Trial correction for shaft
power.
57-64 F CN Trial correction for rpm
65-72 F DELT Trial correction for ∆C F
CFC
72-80 F DELTWC Trial correction for ∆w
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
(13th 1972 pp.155-180) Empirical Power

4. VALIDATION Prediction Factor ( 1+X )
4.1 Uncertainty Analysis 2) Propeller Dynamics Comparative Tests
not yet available (13th 1972 pp.445-446 )
3) Comparative Calculations with the ITTC

4.2 Comparison With Full Scale Results Trial Prediction Test Programme
(14th 1975 Vol.3 pp.548-553)
The data that led to t ITTC-78 method can
be found in the following ITTC proceedings:
4) Factors Affecting Model Ship Correlation
(17th 1984 Vol. 1, pp274-291)
1) Proposed Performance Prediction Factors
for Single Screw Ocean Going Ships
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
5. ITTC- 1978 PERFORMANCE PREDICTION METHOD (COMPUTER CODE)
C
C ****************************************************************************************************
C * *
C * 1978 ITTC PERFORMANCE PREDICTION METHOD FOR SINGLE SCREW *
C * SHIPS *
C * (REVISED 1983 TO INCLUDE TRIAL ANALYSIS AND TWIN SCREW SHIPS* *
C * *
C ****************************************************************************************************
C
C DECLARATIONS
C
COMMON /A/ FILE(2),MODELS(2), MODELP(2), LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S,
* SCALE,RNCHM,DISW,NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,CH075.
* TM075,C3,SBK,AT,CP,CN,DELCF,DELWC,KSI,KPI,
* RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,VS(10),RTM(10),THM(10),
* QM(10),NM(10),ADVC(10),KT(10),KQ(10),THD(10),
* FD(10),IC,NOJ,NOSP,PI
C
COMMON /B/ ETARM(10),ETAO(10),ETAH(10),ETAD(10),AWTM(10),
* AWTS(10),ACFM(10),ACTM(10),AVS(10),AVM(10),
* ATS(10),AQS(10),APDS(10),APE(10),APDT(10),
* ANS(10),ANT(10),BPDT(10),BNT(10),KTSJ2(10),
* KQS(10),KTS(10),ACTS(10)
DIMENSION FILE1(2),MODLS1(2),MODLP1(2)
C
REAL LPP, LWL, KS1, KS, KP1, KP, NM1, NM, KT, KQ, KTM, KQ0, JTM,
* KTSJ2, JTS, NS, KQTS, KTS, KQS, KQM
DATA TRIAL /‘TRIA‘/
500 FORMAT(6A4,F8.0)
501 FORMAT(10F8.0)
502 FORMAT(2I4,9F8.0)
503 FORMAT(2I4,2F8.0,3F6.0,I6,4F8.0)
504 FORMAT(9F8.0)
600 FORMAT(/5X,’NUMBER OF ADV,KT AND KQ POINTS =’,15/
* 5X,’NUMBER OF SPEEDS =’,15/
* 5X,’NUMBER OF SPEEDS OR ADVC POINTS >10’/)
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C CONSTANTS
C
G=9.81
PI=3.14159
KP1=30.0
KS1=150.0
KS=1.5E-4
KP=0.3E-4
C
C READ INPUT DATA
C
1000 CONTINUE
READ(5,500,END=999) FILE,MODELS,MODELP,SCALE
READ(5,501) LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S,DISW,SBK,AT,C3
READ(5,502) NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,CH075,TM075,RNCHM
READ(5,503) NOJ,NOSP,RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS
* IC,CP,CN,DELCF,DELWC
NMAX=MAX0(NOJ,NOSP)
IF(FILE(1).EQ.TRIAL) GOTO 100
READ(5,504)(VS(I),RTM(I),THM(I),QM(I),NM(I),FD(I),
* ADVC(I),KT(I),KQ(I);I=1,NMAX)
C
C WRITE INPUT DATA
C
CALL OUTPUT(1)
C
C CHECK
C
IF(NOJ.LE.10.AND.NOSP.LE.10) GOTO 2
WRITE(6,600) NOJ.NOSP
GOTO 1000
2 CONTINUE
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C RECALCULATION OF INPUT DATA
C
DO 3 I=1,NOJ
KT(I)=KT(I)*0.1
KQ(I)=KQ(I)*0.01
....3 CONTINUE
DELCF=DELCF*0.001
RNCHM=RNCHM*100000.
VISCP=((0.585E-3*(TEMP-12.0)-0.03361)*(TEMP-12.0)+
* 1.2350)*1.0E-6
VISCM=((0.585E-3*(TEMM-12.0)-0.0361)*(TEMM-12.0)+
* 1.2350)*1.0E-6
VISCS=((0.659E-3*(TEMS-1.0)-0.05076)*(TEMS-1.0)+
* 1.7688)*1.0E-6
C
C CORRECTION OF PROPELLER CHARACTERISTICS
C
CDM=2.0*(1.0+2.0*TM075/CH075)*(0.044/RNCHM**0.16667-
* 5.0/RNCHM**0.66667)
CDS=2.0*(1.0+2.0*TM075/CH075)/(1.89+1.62*ALOG10(CH075
* /KP))**2.5
DCD=CDM-CDS
DKT=-0.3*DCD*PD075*CH075*NPB/DP
DKQ=0.25*DCD*CH075*NPB/DP
DO 4 I=1,NOJ
KTS(I)=KT(I)-DKT
KQS(I)=KQ(I)-DKQ
KTSJ2(I)=KTS(I)/ADVC(I)**2
4 CONTINUE
DO 5 I=1,NOSP
VS1=VS(I)*0.15444
VM1=VS1/SQRT(SCALE)
NM1=NM(I)
C
C
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
C CALCULATE ROUGHNESS ALLOWANCE AND SHIP TOTAL RESISTANCE

C
RNLP=LWL*VM1/(VISCP*SCALE)
RNLM=LWL*VM1/(VISCM*SCALE)
RNLS=LWL*VS1/VISCS
CFMC=0.075/(ALOG10(RNLP)-2)**2
CFM=0.075/(ALOG10(RNLM)-2)**2
CFS=0.075/(ALOG10(RNLS)-2)**2
CTM=RTM(I)*SCALE**3/(0.5*RHOM*VS1**2*S)
CR=CTM-(1.0+C3)*CFM
RTMC=RTM(I)*(1.0+C3)*CFMC+CR)/((1.0+C3)*CFM+CR)
THD(I)=(THM(I)+FD(I)-RTMC)/THM(I)
DELCF=(105.0*(KS/LWL)**0.33333-0.64)*0.001
CAA=0.001*AT/S
CTS=((1.0+C3)*CFS*DELCF)*(S+SBK)/S+CR+CAA
C
C MODEL PROPULSIVE COEFFICIENTS
C
FNOP=NPROP
KTM=(THM(I)/FNOP)/(RHOM*(DP/SCALE)**4*NM1*NM1)
KQM=(QM(I)*0.01/FNOP)/(RHOM*(DP/SCALE)**5*NM1*NM1)
JTM=APOL(0,KT,ADVC,NOJ,KTM,IX)
KQ0=APOL(0,ADVC,KQ,NOJ,JTM,IX)
WTM=1.0-JTM*DP*NM1/(VM1*SCALE)
C
C FULL SCALE WAKE
C
IF(JRUDER) 6,5,6
5 WTS=(THD(I)+0.04)+(WTM-THD(I)-0.04)*((1.0+C3)*CFS+DELCF)/
* ((1.0+C3)*CFM)
GOTO 7
6 WTS=(THD(I) )+(WTM-THD(I) )*((1.0+C3)*CFS+DELCF)/
* ((1.0+C3)*CFM)
GOTO 7
7 IF(WTS.GT.WTM) WTS=WTM
ETARM(I)=KQ0/KQM
C
C SAVE AREAS
C
ACTM(I)=CTM
ACFM(I)=CFM
AWTM(I)=WTM
AWTS(I)=WTS
ACTS(I)=CTS
AVS(I)=VS1
AVM(I)=VM1
8 CONTINUE
C
C ITTC STANDARD PREDICTION
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
CALL IP
C
C RETURN FOR NEW INPUT
C
DO 20 I=1,2
FILE1(I)=FILE(I)
MODLS1(I)=MODELS(I)
20 MODELP1(I)=MODELP(I)
SCALE1=SCALE
GOTO 1000
C
100 CONTINUE
DO 110 I=1,2
FILE(I)=FILE1(I)
MODELS(I)=MODLS1(I)
110 MODELP(I)=MODLP1(I)
SCALE=SCALE1
C
CALL ANLSYS
C
C RETURN FOR NEW INPUT
C
C
GOTO 1000
999 STOP
END
C
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C
*****************************************************************************************************
***
C
C OUTPUT IS USED FOR PRINTING INPUT DATA AND RESULTS
C
C IOUT= 1 INPUT DATA IS PRINTED
C 2 RESULT PAGE 1
C 3 RESULT PAGE 2
C
C
*****************************************************************************************************
***
C
SUBROUTINE OUTPUT(IOUT)
COMMON /A/ FILE(2),MODELS(2),MODELP(2),LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S

* SCALE,RNCHM,DISW,NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,CH075,
* TM075,C3,SBK,AT,CP,CN,DELCFC,DELWC,KSI,KPI,
* RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,VS(10),RTM(10);THM(10),
C
COMMON /B/ ETARM(10),ETA0(10),ETAH(10),ETAD(10),AWTM(10),
* KQS(10),KTS(10),ACTS(10)
C
REAL LPP,LWL,KS1,KS,KP1,KP,NM1,NM,KT,KQ,KTM,KQ0,JTM,
KTSJ2,JTS,NS,KQTS,KTS,KQS
DIMENSION TEXT (16)
DATA TEXT /’INPU’,’T DA’,’TA ‘,’ ‘,
* ‘OUTP’,’UT D’,’ATA ‘,’1 ‘,
* ‘OUTP’,’UT D’,’ATA..’,’2 ‘;
* `TRIA`,`L AN`,ÀLYS`,ÌS `/
600 FORMAT(‘1’,19X,’1978 ITTC PERFORMANCE PREDICTION’,10X,
* ‘ENCL:’/
C?? * 20X,’METHOD ‘,8X,
* ‘REPORT:’/20X,4A4/)
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
601 FORMAT(5X,’IDENTIFICATION :’,18X,’SHIP:’//

* 5X,‘PROJECT :’,2A4,
* 10X,’LENGTH PP :’,F8.2,’ (M)’/
* 5X,’SHIP MODEL’ :’,2A4,
* 10X,’LENGTH WL :’,F8.2,’ (M)’/
* 5X,’PROPELLER MODEL :’,2A4,
* 10X,’DRAFT FWD :’,F8.2,’ (M)’/
* 5X,’SCALE FACTOR :’,F8.2,
* 10X,’DRAFT AFT :’,F8.2,’ (M)’/
* 43X,’BREADTH :’,F8.2,’ (M)’/
* 5X,’PROPELLER:’,
* 28X,’WETTED SURFACE :’,F8.0,’ (M**2)’/
* 43X,’DISPLACEMENT :’,F8.0,’ (M**3)’)
602 FORMAT(5X,’NUMBER OF PROPELLERS:’,I8/
* 5X,’NUMBER OF BLADES :’,I8,
* 6X,’FRICTION COEFFICIENT CF’/
* 5X,’DIAMETER :’,F8.3,’ (M)’,
* 2X,’CALCULATED ACCORDING TO ITTC-57’/
* 5X,’PITCH RATIO 0.75R :’,F8.4,
* 6X,’FORM FACTOR :’,F6.3,’ (BASED ON ITTC-57)’/)
603 FORMAT(5X,’HULL ROUGHN.*10**6 :’,F6.1,’ (M)’,
* 2x,’BILGE KEEL AREA :’,F6.1,’ (M**2)’,
* 5X,’PROPELLER BLADE ROUGHN.*10**6:’,F6.1,’ (M)’,
* 2X,’PROJ.AREA ABOVE WL. :’,F6.1,’ (M**2)’/)
604 FORMAT(5X,’CHORD LENGTH OF PROP.BLADE AT X=0.75:’,
* F7.4,’ (M)’/
* 5X,’THICKNESS OF PROP.BLADE AT X=0.75:’,
* F7.4’ (M)’/)
605 FORMAT(5X,’DENSITY OF WATER (TANK ) :’F7.1,
* ‘ (KG/M**3)’/
* ’DENSITY OF WATER (SEA ) :’F7.1,
* ‘ (KG/M**3)’/
* 5X,’TEMP. OF WATER (RESISTANCE TEST) :’F7.2,
* ‘ (CENTIGRADES)’/
* 5X,’TEMP. OF WATER (SELF PROP. TEST) :’F7.2,
* ‘ (CENTIGRADES)’/
* 5X,’TEMP. OF WATER (SEA ) :’F7.2,
* ‘ (CENTIGRADES)’//
* 5X,’MODEL TEST RESULTS:’,
* 30X,’OPEN WATER CHARACT.;’/
* 54X,’RNC :’’F5.2,’*10**5’/)
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
606 FORMAT(5X,’SHIP RESIS- FRICT. THRUST TORQUE RATE OF ‘,

* 2X,’ADVANCE THRUST TORQUE’/
* 20X,’REVS. RATIO COEFF. COEFF.’/
* 5X,’KNOTS N N N NM RPS ’,
* 7X,’J 10*KT 100*KQ’/)
607 FORMAT(1X)
608 FORMAT(‘+’,3X,F5.1,1X,F7.1,1X,F7.2,2X,2F7.1,F9.2)
609 FORMAT(‘+’,49X,F10.3,F7.3,F8.3)
610 FORMAT(5X,’SHIP MODEL:’//
* 8X,’SPEED RES. COEFF. FRICT. COEFF. THRUST DED.’,
* 2X,’MEAN REL.ROT.’/
* 6X,’VS VM TOTAL’,32X, ‘WAKE EFFIC.’/
* 5X,’KNOTS M/S CTM*1000 CFM*1000’,8X,’TM’,
* 7X,’WTM ETARM’/)
611 FORMAT(4X,F5.1,F7.3,F8.3,6X,F7.3,7X,F7.3,3X,F7.3,F8.3)
612 FORMAT(/5x,’ITTC STANDARD PREDICTION CP=CN=1.0 :’//
* 5X,’SPEED EFF. POWER DELIV. POWER RSATE OF REVS’,
* 2X,’ THRUST TORQUE’/
* 6X,’VS’,7X,’PE’,10X,’PD’,12X,’N’,10X,’T’,8X,’Q’/
* 5X,’KNOTS’,5X,’KW’,10X,’KW’,11X,’RPS’,9X,’KN’,
* 6X,’KNM’/)
613 FORMAT(4X,F5.1,F10.0,3X,F9.0,4X,F9.3,3X,F9.0,F8.0)
614 (FORMAT(/5X,’SPEED TOT. EFF. PROP.EFF. HULL EFF. SHIP WAKE’,
* 3X,’OPEN WATER CHAR. FULL SCALE:’/
* 5X,’KNOTS ETAD ETA0 ETAH’,/X,’WTS’,
* 9X,’J 10*KT 100*KQ’/)
615 FORMAT(‘+’,3X,F5.1,F8.3,3(3X,F7.3))
616 FORMAT(‘+’,50X,3F7.3)
617 FORMAT(/5X,’SHIP DELIVERED POWER RATE OF REVS.’/
* 5X, ‘SPEED --------------------------- ---------------------‘/
* 5X,’KNOTS KW HP RPS RPM’/)
618 FORMAT(4X,F5.1,2X,2F8.0,3X,F7.3,F8.2)
619 FORMAT(/5X,’SHIP TRIALS PREDICTION CP=’,F7.3,’ CN=,F7.3)
620 FORMAT(/5X,’SHIP TRIALS PREDICTION DELCFC*1000=’,
* F6.3,’ DELCW=’,F6.3)
ITEX=ICUT*4-4
WRITE(6,600) (TEXT(ITEX+1),I=1,4)
WRITE(6,601) FILE,LPP,MODELS,LWL,MODELP,TF,SCALE,TA,B,S,DISW
WRITE(6,602) NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,C3
C
GOTO(10,20,30,40) , IOUT
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C INPUT DATA IS LISTED
C
10 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,603) KS1,SBK,KP1,AT
WRITE(6,604) CH075,TM075
WRITE(6,605) RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,RNCHM
WRITE(6,606)
NMAX=MAX0(NOJ,NOSP)
DO 1 I=1,NMAX
WRITE(6,607)
IF(I. LE. NOSP) WRITE(6,608) VS(I);RTM(I);FD(I),THM(I),
QM(I),NM(I)
IF(I. LE.NOJ) WRITE(6,609) ADVC(I),KT(I),KQ(I)
1 CONTINUE
RETURN
C
C RESULTS PAGE 1
C
20 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,610)
DO 21 I=1,NOSP
CFM=ACFM(I)*1000.0
CTM=ACTM(I)*1000.0
WRITE(6,611) VS(I),AVM(I),CTM,CFM,THD(I),AWTM(I),ETARM(I)
21 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,612)
DO 22 i=1,NOSP
WRITE(6,613) VS(I),APE(I),APDS(I),ANS(I),ATS(I),AQS(I)
22 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,614)
DO 23 i=1,NMAX
WRITE(6,607)
IF(I.LE.NOSP) WRITE(6,615) VS(I),ETAD(I),ETA0(I),ETAH(I);
AWTS(I)
XKTS=KTS(I)*10.0
XKQS=KQS(I)*100.0
IF(I.LE.NOSP) WRITE(6,616) ADVC(I),XKTS,XKQS
23 CONTINUE
RETURN
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C RESULTS PAGE 3
C
30 CONTINUE
DCFC=DELCFC*1000.0
IF(IC.EQ.1) WRITE(6,620)DCFC,DELWC
IF(IC.NE.1) WRITE (6,619) CP,CN
WRITE(6,617)
DO 31 I=1,NOSP
WRITE(6,618)VS(I),APDT(I),BPDT(I),ANT(I),BNT(I)
31 CONTINUE
....40 RETURN
END
C
C
*****************************************************************************************************
***
C
C IRAT= 0 INTERPOLATION WITH A 2:ND DEGREE POLYNOMIAL
C =1 INTERPOLATION WITH A RATIONAL FUNCTION OF 2:ND DEGREE
C X = ARGUMENT ARRAY
C Y = VALUE ARRAY
C N = NUMBER OF ARGUMENTS
C EX = ARGUMENT
C IFEL = ERROR RETURN CODE
C
C
*****************************************************************************************************
***
C
REAL FUNCTION APOL(IRAT,X,Y,N,EX,IFEL)
DIMENSION X(1),Y(1)
C
C CHECK NUMBER OF POINTS > 2
C
IFEL=0
IF(X(1).GT.X(N)) GOTO 2
IF(X(1).GT.EX.OR.X(N).LT.EX) GOTO 7
DO 1 I=1,N
L=1
IF(EX-X(I)) 4,4,1
1 CONTINUE
GOTO 4
2 CONTINUE
IF(X(1).LT.EX.OR.X(N).GT.EX) GOTO 7
DO 3 I=1,N
L=I
IF(EX-X(I)) 3,4,4
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
3 CONTINUE
4 CONTINUE
M=2
IF(L.EQ.1) M=1
IF(L.EQ.3) M=3
LM=L-M
X1=X(LM+1)
X2=X(LM+2)
X3=X(LM+3)
Y1=Y(LM+1)
Y2=Y(LM+2)
Y3=Y(LM+3)
C
C INTERPOL. 2:ND DEGREE POLYNOMIAL
C
X21=X2-X1
X31=X3-X1
X32=X3-X2
IF(IRAT.EQ.1) GOTO 6
C1=Y1
C2=(Y2-C1)/X21
C3=(Y3-C1-C2*X31)/(X31*X32)
APOL=C1+(EX-X1)*(C2+C3*(EX-X2))
RETURN
6 CONTINUE
C
C INTERPOL. RAT. FUNCTION
C
Y21=Y2*X2*X2-Y1*X1*X1
Y32=Y3*X3*X3-Y2*X2*X2
A0=(Y32-X32*Y21/X21)/(X32*X31)
B0=(Y21/X21-A0*(X1+X2)
C0=((Y1-A0)*X1-B0)*X1
APOL=(C0/EX+B0)/EX+A0
RETURN
7 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,8)
8 FORMAT(/5X,’INCREASE THE J-RANGE’)
STOP
END
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C ********************************************************************
C
C ITTC PREDICTIONS
C
C ********************************************************************
C
SUBROUTINE IP
COMMON /A/ FILE(2),MODELS(2),MODELP(2),LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S,

* TM075,C3,SBK,AT,CP,CN,DELCFC,DELWC,KSI,KPI,
* RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,VS(10),RTM(10),THM(10),
C
COMMON /B/ ETARM(10),ETA0(10),ETAR(10),ETAD(10),AWTM(10),
* KQS(10),KTS(10),ACTS(10)
C
REAL LPP,LWL,KS1,KS,KPI,KP,NM1,NM,KT,KQ,KTM,KQD,JTM,
* KTSJ2,JTS,NS,KQTS,KTJT2,KQOS,KQS,KTS
DO 3 I=1,NOSP
VS1=AVS(I)
CTS=ACTS(I)
WTS=AWTS(I)
C
C CALCULATE THE FULL SCALE LOAD ADVANCE COEFF: AND
C TORQUE COEFF.
C
FNOP=NOPROP
KTJT2=S*CTS*0.5/((DP*(1.0-WTS))**2*(1.0-THD(I))) /FNOP
JTS=APOL(1,KTSJ2,ADVC,NOJ,KT,KTJT2,IX)
KQOS=APOL(0,ADVC,KQS,NOJ,JTS,IX)
C
C THE RATE OF REV. AND THE DELIVERED POWER
C
NS=(1.0-WTS)*VS1/(JTS*DP)
APDS(I)=2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**5*NS**3*KQOS/ETARM(I)*0.001
ANS(I)=NS
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C THE THRUST AND TORQUE OF THE PROPELLER
C
ATS(I)=KTJT2*JTS**2*RHOS*DP**4*NS*NS*0.001
AQS(I)=KQOS*RHOS*DP**5*NS*NS/ETARM(I)*0.001
C
C THE EFFECTIVE POWER, TOTAL AND HULL EFFICIENCY
C
APE(I)=CTS*0.5*RHOS*VS1**3*S*0.001
ETAD(I)=APE(I)/APDS(I)
ETAH(I)=(1.0-THD(I))/(1.0-WTS)
IF(IC.EQ.1) GOTO 1
C
IC1=IC-1
IF(IC1)10,11,12
C
C TRIAL PREDICTION WITH CP-CN CORRECTIONS (ITTC1978 ORIGINAL)
C
10 ANT(I)=CN*NS
BNT(I)=ANT(I)*60.0
APDT(I)=CP*APDS(I)
BPDT(I)=1.36*APDT(I)
GOTO 100
C
C TRIAL PREDICTION WITH CP-CN CORRECTIONS
C CN BASED ON POWER IDENTITY
C
12 APDT(I)=CP*APDS(I)
KQJ3T=1000.0*APDT(I)/(2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**2) /FNOP
KQJ3T=KQJ3T/(VS1**3*(1.0-WTS)**3)
KQ0J3=KQJ3T*ETARM(I)
JTS=APOL(1,KQSJ3,ADVC,NOJ,KQ0J3,IX)
NS=(1.0-WTS)*VS1/(JTS*DP)
ANT(I)=CN*NS
BNT(I)=ANT(I)*60.0
GOTO 100
11 CONTINUE
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C TRIAL PREDICTION WITH DELCF-DELWC CORRECTIONS
C
KTJT2=S*(CTS+DELCFC)/(2.0*(1.0-THD(I))*(DP*
* (1.0-(WTS-DELWC)))**2)
JTS=APOL(1,KTSJ2,ADVC,NOJ,KTJT2,IX)
KQOS=APOL(0,ADVC,KQS,NOJ,JTS,IX)
ANT(I)=(1.0-WTS+DELWC)*VS1/(JTS*DP)
BNT(I)=ANT(I)*60.0
APDT(I)=2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**5*ANT(I)**3*KQOS/ETARM(I)*0.001
2 CONTINUE
ETAD(I)=KTJT2*JTS**3/(2.0*PI*KQOS)
3 CONTINUE
C
C WRITE OUTPUT
C
CALL OUTPUT(2)
CALL OUTPUT(3)
RETURN
SUBROUTINE ANLSYS
C
C***********************************************************************************************************
****
C * *
C * ANALYSIS ACCORD1NG TO 1978 ITTC PREDICTION METHOD *
C * *
C***********************************************************************************************************
****
C
C
DIMENSION VST(10),XNT(10),XPD(10),
* THDT(10),WTMT(10),WTST(10),ETART(10),CRWT(10),
* YNT(10),YPD(10),CPT(10),CNT(10),CNPT(10),ZNT(10)
* DCFT(10),WTSS(10),DWT(10),DCFM(10),DWM(I0),
* KQJ3(10)
C
COMMON /A/ FILE(2),MODELS(2),MODELP(2),LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S,
* TM075,C3,SBK,AT,CP,CN,DELCFC,DELWC,KS1,KP1,
* RHOM, RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,VS(10),RTM(10),THM(10),
* RA(10),IC,NOJ,NOSP,PI
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
COMMON /B/ ETARM(10), ETA0(10),ETAH(10),ETAD(10),AWTM(10),
* KQS(10),KTS(10),ACTS(10)
C
REAL LPP,LWL,KS1,KS,KP1,KP,NM1,NM,KT,KQ,KTM,KQ0,JTM,
* KTSJ2,JTS,NS,KQTS,KTJT2,KQOS,KTS,KQS,KQM,
* KQJ3,KQJ3T
C
C
DO 5 I = 1,NOJ
5 KQJ3(I) = KQS(I) /ADVC(I)**3
C
NOST=10
READ(5,510) (VST(I), I=1,NOST)

READ(5,510) (XNT(I), I=1,NOST)
READ(5,510) (XPD(I), .I=1,NOST)
510 FORMAT (10F8.0)

C
C COUNT NO. OF TRIAL RUNS
NOST = 0
DO 8 I = 1, 10
IF (VST(I).GT.0. ) NOST=NOST+1
8 CONTINUE
IF(XNT(1).GT.20.) GOTO 20
DO 10 I=1, NOST
XNT(I) = XNT(I)*60.0
10 XPD(I) = XPD(I)*1.36
20 CONTINUE
DO 50 I=1, NOST
VST1=VST(I)*1852.0/3600.0
CTST = APOL(0,AVS, ACTS, NOSP,VST1, IX)
THDT(I)= APOL(0,AVS, THD, NOSP,VST1, IX)
WTMT(I)= APOL(0,AVS, AWTM, NOSP,VST1, IX)
WTST(I)= APOL(0,AVS, AWTS, NOSP,VST1, IX)
ETART(I)= APOL(0,AVS, ETARM,NOSP,VST1, IX)
CF =APOL(0,AVS, ACFM, NOSP,VST1, IX)
CT =APOL(0,AVS, ACTM, NOSP,VST1, X)
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
CRWT(I)= CT - (1.0+C3)*CF
FNOP =NOPROP
KTJT2 =S*(CTST/FNOP )*0.5 / ((DP*(1.0-WTST(I)))**2*(1.0-THDT(I)))
JTS =APOL(1, KTSJ2, ADVC, NOJ, KTJT2, IX)
KQOS=APOL (0, ADVC, KQS, NOJ, JTS, IX)
NS=(1.0-WTST(I))*VST1/(JTS*DP)
PDS = 2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**5*NS**3*KQ0S/ETART(I)*0.001*FNOP
YNT(I)= NS*60.0
YPD(I) = PDS*1.36
CPT(I)= XPD(I)/YPD(I)
CNT(l)=XNT(I)/YNT(I)
PDT1 = XPD(I) /1.36
XNT1 = XNT(I) / 60.0
FKQ = PDT1*START(I)*1000.0 / (2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**5*XNT1**3) / FNOP
FJT = APOL(0,KQS,ADVC,NOJ,FKQ,IX)
FKT = APOL(0,ADVC, KTS,NOJ,FJT,IX)
KQJ3T=FKQ * (DP*XNT1)**3 / ((1-WTST(I))*VST1)**3
FJQ= APOL( 1,KQJ3,ADVC,NOJ,KQJ3T,IX)
ZNT(I)=(1.0 -WTST(I)) * VST1 / (FJQ*DP) * 60.0
CNPT(I)=XNT(I) / ZNT(I)
THS= FKT * RHOS * DP**4*XNT1**2
CTS=THS*(1.0 - THDT(I)) / (0.5*RHOS*VST1**2*S) * FNOP
DCFT(I)=(CTS - CTST)*1000.0
WTSS(I)= 1.0 - FJT*DP*XNT1/VST1
DWT(I) = WTST(I) - WTSS(I)
DWM(I) = WTMT(I) - WTSS(I)
C
C CALCULATION OF FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE ~COEFF. OF SHIP
C
T = TEMS
FNU = ((0.659E-3*(T-l.0)-0.05076)*(T-1)+1.7688)*1.0E-6
RNLS= ALOG10(LWL*VST1/FNU)
CFS = 0.075 / (RNLS-2.0)**2
C
DCFM(I) = CTS - (l.0+C3)*CFS - ( CRWT(I)+0.001*AT / S )*S / (S+SBK)
DCFM(I) = DCFM(I) * 1000.0
CRWT(I) = CRWT(I) * 1000.0
50 CONTINUE
C
CALL OUTPUT(4)
WRITE(6,600)
03 – 01.4
1999 00
Method
600 FORMAT(' ',19X,'TRIAL ANALYSIS ACCORDING TO ITTC 1978 METHOD',///)

WRITE(6,610) ( VST(I), I=1, NOST)
610 FORMAT(5X.. ' SHIP SPEED - TRTAL',7(F10.2, 2X) /)
WRITE(6,620) ( XNT(I), I=1, NOST)
620 FORMAT(5X, ‘ PROP, RPM –TRTAL ',7(F10.2, 2X) /)
WRITE(6,630) ( XPD(I), I=1, NOST)
630 FORMAT(4X, 'DELIV.POWER-TRIAL ',7(F11.0,1X) //)
WRITE(6,640) ( YNT(I), I=1, NOST)
640 FORMAT(/5X, ‘ PROP. RPM -CN=1 ',7(F10.2,2X) /)
WRITE~(6,650) ( ~YPD(I), I=1,NOST)
650 FORMAT(4X, ' DELIV. POWER -CP =1',7(F11.0,1X) /)
WRITE(6,660) ( ZNT(I), I=1, NOST)
660 FORMAT(5X, ‘ PROP. RPM -CNP=1 ',7(F10.2,2X), //)
WRITE(6,670) ( CPT(I), I=1, NOST)
670 FORMAT(/5X, ‘ CP ‘,7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,680) (CNT(I), I=1, NOST)
680 FORMAT(5X, ‘CN ‘,7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,690) (CNPT(I), I=1,NOST)
690 FORMAT(5X, ‘CNP ',7(F10.3,2X) //)
WRITE(6,700) (DCFT(I), I=1,NOST)
700 FORMAT(/5X, ‘DCFC*1000 -CP=CN=1’,7(F10.3,2x) /)
WRITE(6,710) ( DWT(I), I=1, NOST)
710 FORMAT(5X, ' DWC CP=CN=1’,7(F10.3,2X) //)
WRITE(6,715) ( DCFM(I), I=1, NOST)
715 FORMAT(/5X, 'DCF *1000 ITTC-57’,7(F10.3,2x) /)
WRITE(6,717) ( DWM(I), I=1,NOST)
717 FORMAT(5X, ‘DW = WM-WTRIAL ',7(F10.3,2X) //)
WRITE(6,720) ( CRWT(I) ,I=1, NOST)
720 FORMAT(/5X, ‘ CR*1000 ‘,7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE (6,730) ( THDT(I), I=1, NOST)
730 FORMAT(5X, ‘ THDM ',7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,740) ( WTMT(I), I=1, NOST)
740 FORMAT(5X, ’ WTM ',7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,750) ( WTST(I), I=1, NOST)
750 FORMAT(5X, ‘ WTS CP=CN=1 ’,7(F10.3,2x) /)
WRITE(6,760) ( WTSS(I), I=1, NOST)
760 FORMAT(5X, ’ WTS TRIAL ’,7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,770) ( ETART(I), I=1, NOST)
770 FORMAT(5X, ‘ ETARM ‘ ,7(F10.3,2X) /)
RETURN
END
120 APÊNDICE A. PREVISÃO BASEADA NOS ENSAIOS DE PROPULSÃO
Apêndice B
Procedimentos Recomendados pela
ITTC para a Preparação e
Realização das Provas de Velocidade
e Potência
121
122 APÊNDICE B. PROVAS DE VELOCIDADE E POTÊNCIA
ITTC – Recommended 7.5-04
-01-01.1
Procedures and Guidelines Page 1 of 10
Full Scale Measurements
Speed and Power Trials Effective Date Revision
2005 03
Preparation and Conduct of
Speed/Power Trials
Table of Contents
1. PURPOSE ..............................................2
4.3 Hull- and Propulsor Survey..............5
2. DEFINITIONS.......................................2
4.4 Instrumentation Installation and
3. RESPONSIBILITIES............................3 Calibration .........................................5
3.1 Shipbuilders Responsibilities............3 4.4.1 Instrumentation Installation.............5
4.4.2 Instrumentation Calibration Check .6
3.2 The Trial Team ..................................4
4. PROCEDURES......................................4 4.5 Trial Conditions.................................6
4.5.1 Wind: ...............................................8
4.1 Trial Preparation...............................4
4.5.2 Sea State: .........................................8
4.1.1 Shipbuilder’s Support Requirement:4
4.5.3 Current:............................................8
4.1.2 Space Requirements ........................4
4.6 Trial Conduct: ...................................8
4.2 Ship Inspection...................................5
4.2.1 Preparation for the trials ..................5 5. REFERENCES ....................................10
4.2.2 Ship Inspection ................................5
4.2.3 Reporting of Results and
Distribution of Information .............5
Updated / Edited by Approved

Specialist Committee on Powering Perform-
24th ITTC 2005
ance of 24th ITTC
Date 2005 Date 2005
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
Preparation and Conduct of Speed/Power Trials
recommended to allow an evaluation of

the trial results for scientific purposes),
1. PURPOSE
• to install and calibrate trial instrumenta-
The general purpose of this procedure is to tion for full scale Speed/Power trials,
define basic requirements for the preparation • to define acceptable limits for trial con-
and conduct of speed trials. ditions needed to validate hydrody-
namic design and/or satisfy contractual
The primary purpose of speed trials is to
requirements,
determine ship performance in terms of speed,
power and propeller revolutions under pre- for acceptable conduct of each speed trial.
scribed ship conditions, and thereby verify the
satisfactory attainment of the contractually
stipulated ship speed. 2. DEFINITIONS
The applicability of this procedure is lim-
ited to commercial ships of the displacement • Ship Speed is that realized under the con-
type. tractually stipulated conditions. Ideal condi-
tions to which the speed would be corrected
The procedure is would be
• to provide guidelines to document the • no wind (or maximum wind speed ac-
trial preparation prior to the conduct of cording to Beaufort 2)
a full scale Speed/Power trial, • no waves (or waves with maximum
• to define the responsibility sharing wave heights and wave periods accord-
among the parties who take part in the ing to Beaufort 1)
sea trial for the smooth preparation and • no current
execution of the speed trial
• deep water
• to establish a guideline for conducting
inspections for the purpose of installing • smooth hull and propeller surfaces
instrumentation prior to the conduct of • Docking Report: Report that documents
a full scale Speed/Power trial, the condition of the ship hull and propul-
• to establish a baseline of the ship hull sors (available from the most recent dry -
and propulsor condition prior to the docking).
conduct of a full-scale Speed/Power • Trial Agenda: Document outlining the
trial;(hull and propulsor surveys are scope of a particular Speed/Power trial.
This document contains the procedures on
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
how to conduct the trial and table(s) por- • The Shipbuilder has to provide all permits
traying the runs to be conducted. and certificates needed to go to sea.
• Trial Log: For each run, the log contains • The Shipbuilder is responsible to ensure
the run number, type of maneuver, ap- that all qualified personnel, needed for op-
proach speed by log, approach shaft speed, erating the ship and all engines, systems
times when the maneuvers start and stop, and equipment during the trials have been
and any comments about the run. ordered.
• Propeller Pitch: the design pitch also for • The Shipbuilder is responsible to ensure
controllable pitch propellers. that all regulatory bodies, Classification
Society, Ship Owner, ship agents, suppliers,
• Running Pitch: the operating pitch of a
subcontractors, harbor facilities, delivering
CPP
departments of provisions, fuel, water, tow-
• Brake Power: Power delivered by the out- ing, etc., needed for conducting the sea tri-
put coupling of the propulsion machinery als, have been informed and are available
before passing through any speed reducing and on board, if required.
and transmission devices and with all con-
tinuously operating engine auxiliaries in • It is the Shipbuilder’s responsibility that all
use. safety measures have been checked and all
fixed, portable and individual material (for
• Shaft Power: Net power supplied by the crew, trial personnel and guests) is on
propulsion machinery to the propulsion board and operative.
shafting after passing through all speed-
reducing and other transmission devices • It is the Shipbuilder’s responsibility that
dock trials of all systems have been exe-
and after power for all attached auxiliaries
cuted as well as all alarms, warning and
has been taken off.
safety systems.
• It is the Shipbuilder’s responsibility that an
3. RESPONSIBILITIES inclining test has been performed and/or at
least a preliminary stability booklet has
3.1 Shipbuilders Responsibilities
been approved, covering the sea trial condi-
tion, in accordance with the 1974 SOLAS
• The Shipbuilder has the responsibility for Convention.
planning, conducting and evaluating the tri-
• The Shipbuilder is responsible for the over-
als.
all trial coordination between the ship's
• Speed – Power - Trials may be conducted crew, trial personnel, and the owner repre-
by institutions acknowledged as competent sentative. A pre-trial meeting between the
to perform those trials, as agreed between trial team, owner and the ship’s crew will
the Shipbuilder and the Ship owner be held to discuss the various trial events
and to resolve any outstanding issues.
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
• The Shipbuilder has, if necessary, to ar- 4. PROCEDURES

range for divers to inspect the ship’s hull
and propellers. 4.1 Trial Preparation
• The Trial Leader is the duly authorized 4.1.1 Shipbuilder’s Support Requirement:
(shipbuilder’s representative) person re-
sponsible for the execution of all phases of
the Speed/Power trials including the pre- Prior to the trials the required instrumenta-
trial preparation. tion has to be installed. The assistance of the
ship’s or shipbuilder’s crew will be required
3.2 The Trial Team when making electrical connections to the
ship's systems and circuits such as heading,
The trial team is responsible for correct wind speed, wind direction, and rudder angle
measurements and analysis of the measured synchronous repeaters. The following support
data according to the state of the art. is requested from the Shipbuilder to properly
prepare for the trials:
The trial team is responsible for the follow-
ing: a. Provide access to the ship for trial in-
strumentation.
a. Conduct ship inspection, if possible or
necessary. b. Assistance is required for the following
electrical connections:
b. Provide, install and operate all required
• Gyrocompass
trial instrumentation and temporary ca-
bling. • Wind meter
• Rudder angle indicator
c. If previously arranged, provide the ship • Log Speed
master and owner’s representative with • Propeller Pitch
a preliminary data package before de-
barking. The contents of the data pack- c. Vary the output level of each of the
age will be determined in consultation above measurement sources to ensure
with the owner’s representative at the the proper operation and alignment of
initial pre-trial briefing. the test instrumentation
d. Provide a final report after completion 4.1.2 Space Requirements

of the trials in accordance with any
agreement between the shipbuilder and Spaces and an electric supply adequate for
the ship owner. the trial equipment will be required for the trial
instrumentation and computers.
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
4.2 Ship Inspection along the blades, and existing physical

damage.
There are three stages of a ship inspection:
d) For a clean hull; documentation indi-
in-house preparation, the actual inspection, and
cating manufacturer and kind of paint
the reporting of results and distribution of in-
formation to the various parties involved in the used, paint layer thickness and, if avail-
able, roughness measurements (average,
trial.
standard deviation, and distribution
4.2.1 Preparation for the trials along the hull) should be provided. The
majority of this information may be
• Review shafting dimensions, propulsion contained in the docking report.
plant specifications, etc.
e) For a dirty hull, documentation indi-
• Review trials agenda, if available. cating visual observations of any foul-
ing and date of last dry-docking should
be provided.
4.2.2 Ship Inspection
• Inspect hull- and propeller surface con- 4.3 Hull- and Propulsor Survey
dition, if possible.
A roughness survey is recommended to
• Inspect ship’s instrumentation for ac- document the conditions of the ship hull, ap-
cessibility. pendages, and propulsor(s) prior to the start of
the full-scale speed/ power trial. Cleaning may
• Determine routes for cable runs/data
be required if fouling is found to be such that it
transfer conduits between trial room
would bias the trial data.
and bridge or control area.
• Contact the Engineer on duty to discuss Ideally, roughness surveys should be con-
trial instrumentation requirements. In- ducted prior to the trials. The average hull
spect machinery spaces as applicable. roughness should not exceed 250 µm (µ =
1x10-6 m) (6.35 mils) and the average propul-
sor roughness level should not be greater than
4.2.3 Reporting of Results and Distribution 150 µm (3.81 mils).
of Information
4.4 Instrumentation Installation and Cali-
Document all pertinent information related bration
to the ship inspection
4.4.1 Instrumentation Installation
a) Last date of cleaning.
b) Means of cleaning. The installation of instrumentation should
be scheduled at a time of minimal conflict with
c) Propeller roughness measurement, if
ship operations.
available, which should include aver-
age, standard deviation, distribution
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
The bias limits of the instrumentation used measurement of the rates of revolutions must
for the measurements should be known and as- be checked before the trial runs start and after
sessed. they have been finished.
The instrumentation used for the on-board- As part of the pre-trial calibration, the tor-
measurements must be calibrated before appli- sion meters zero torque readings must be de-
cation on board. If this is not possible, for some termined since there is a residual torque in the
reason, the consequences of this should be shaft, which is resting on the line shaft bearings.
highlighted in the final trial report. Electrical This might be done in different ways; one pos-
calibration is recommended for the torque sible way is to use the jacking motors. The
measurement device and, in case of use during shaft is jacked both ahead and astern and the
the sea trials, for the thrust measurement device. average of the readings noted. The zeroes are
Further a calibration should be done for the set at the midpoint of the torque required to
pick ups and the respective amplifiers used for jack each shaft ahead and the torque required to
the measurement of the rate of revolutions. A jack each shaft astern. An allowance is nor-
“calibration” of a (differential) GPS-System is mally made for frictional losses in the stern
not possible without excessive measures, but at tube bearings.
least the function of the device should be
checked before use on board. As part of the pre-trial calibration for a ship
equipped with controllable pitch propellers,
If portable radar tracking or (differential) maximum ahead pitch, the design pitch and the
GPS is utilized, a Receiver/Transmitter (R/T) maximum astern pitch should be determined
unit or GPS antenna is to be installed. In case and then the ship indicators should be adjusted
the soft ware program used for the evaluation to reflect the measurement.
of the data received does not allow for varying
positions on the uppermost deck of the ship the 4.5 Trial Conditions
antenna should be placed in a location along
the ship’s centerline as close to the ship’s CG Speed/Power trials require accurate position
as possible. This location will ideally be lo- data. The use of (D) GPS provides great lati-
cated on a mast or site that is clear of obstruc- tude in choosing a trial site. Regardless of the
tions, such as the ship’s superstructure. instrumentation utilized for obtaining posi-
tional data, the operational area should be free
4.4.2 Instrumentation Calibration Check from substantial small boat traffic.
All shipboard signals to be recorded during The tracking range should be agreed be-
the trials must be adjusted to zero or should tween the Trial Director and the ship’s master.
have their zero value checked (e.g. for a (D)
GPS-device) after the instrumentation installa- Draft, trim and displacement of the ship on
tion is completed and prior to the trials. The trials should be obtained by averaging the ship
zero values of the torsiometers, the thrust draft mark readings. The ship should be
measurement devices and the devices for the brought into a condition that is as close as pos-
sible to the contract condition and/or the condi-
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
tion on which model tests have been carried out. greater than 5, corrections to the trials
This will allow for the correction of the dis- data can be applied but are not consid-
placement and trim with respect to the trials ered reliable from a scientific stand-
that were conducted and will be applicable to point.
the suggestions outlined in the ITTC Procedure
• The local seawater temperature and spe-
for the Analysis of Speed/Power Trial Data.
cific gravity at the trial site are recorded
Draft, trim and displacement should be ob- to enable the calculation of ship's dis-
tained at the beginning and at the end of the placement.
trial. This may be accomplished using a load- • An acceptable minimum water depth
ing computer or by taking a second draft read- for the trials where the data do not need
ing. The accuracy of the draft readings and the to be corrected for shallow water can be
method used to establish draft and displace- calculated using:
ment underway will be compared in port by di- h > 6.0(Am)0.5 and h > 0.5 V2 (1)
rect draft readings both port and starboard in with
conjunction with a liquid load calculation. Am= midship section area, [m2]
V= ship speed, [m/s]
Displacement should be derived from the The larger of the 2 values obtained
hydrostatic curves by utilizing the draft data from the two equations should be used.
and the density of the water.
• Current speed and direction should be
Environmental factors may significantly in- determined in the test area by prognos-
fluence the data obtained during sea trials; con- tic analysis. When current speed and di-
sequently, these factors should be monitored rection is unknown, the ship’s global
and documented to the greatest extent possible: drift (also including wind effect) in
some cases might be determined by a
• High wind and sea states can force the 360° turning test conducted at low
use of excessive rudder to maintain ahead speed to magnify any environ-
heading, and thus cause excessive fluc- mental effect.
tuations in shaft torque, shaft speed and
ship speed. • The runs should be conducted into and
against the waves; i.e., head and follow-
• Sea states of 3 or less and a true wind ing seas, respectively. To ensure that
speed below Beaufort 6 (20 Kn) are the tests are performed in comparable con-
desired conditions for sea trials. When ditions, the data between reciprocal
working under the time constraints of a runs should be reviewed for consistency
contract, corrections to the trials data and/or anomalies. Individual speed runs
can be made in accordance with the rec- conducted in the same conditions
ommendations provided in the ITTC should be averaged with their reciprocal
Procedure for the Analysis of runs to take into account global drift.
Speed/Power Trial Data for sea states
less than or equal to 5. For sea states
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
In accordance with ISO 15016 the follow- During the trial runs the total wave height
ing, general recommendations can be given: (double amplitude), which allows for the wave
heights of seas and swell (see ISO 15016),
4.5.1 Wind: should not exceed
Wind speed and direction shall be measured • 3m for ships of 100m length and more
as relative wind; continuous recording of rela- and
tive wind during each run is recommended. • 1,5m for ships with lengths smaller than
Care has to be taken whether the data derived 100m
from the wind indicator are reliable; checks,
such as parallel measurements with a portable 4.5.3 Current:
instrument, comparison of the data received
from the wind indicator with wind speeds and Current speed and direction shall be ob-
directions received from local weather stations tained either as part of the evaluation of run
sufficiently close to the actual position of the and counter-run of each double run, by direct
ship or, if possible, calibration of the wind in- measurement with a current gauge buoy or by
dicator (taking into consideration the effects of use of nautical charts of the respective trial area.
boundary layers of the superstructure on the It is recommended to compare measured data
measured values) in a wind tunnel are recom- with those included on the nautical charts.
mended.
4.6 Trial Conduct:
It is suggested that wind force during the
trial runs under no conditions should be higher All speed trials shall be carried out using
than double runs, i.e. each run is followed by a re-
turn run in the opposite direction, performed
• Beaufort 6 for ships with lengths equal with the same engine settings.
or exceeding 100m and
• Beaufort 5 for ships shorter than 100m. The number of such double runs should not
be less than three. This three runs should be at
different engine settings.
4.5.2 Sea State:
The time necessary for a speed run depends
If possible, instruments such as buoys or in- on the ship’s speed, size and power. Steady
struments onboard ships (e.g. seaway analysis state conditions should be achieved before the
radar) should be used to determine the wave speed runs start. It is recommended that the
height, wave period and direction of seas and time of one run should be as long as possible
swell. Considering usual practice the wave but should at least be 10 min.
heights may be determined from observations
by multiple, experienced observers, including The ideal path of a ship in a typical
the nautical staff on board. speed/power maneuver is shown in Figure 1:
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
Min. 10 min
Steady Approach
Steady Approach
Min 10 min
Figure 1
Prior to the trial, the data specified below The following data should be monitored
shall be recorded, based on measurements and recorded on each run:
where relevant:
• Date Clock time at commencement
• Trial area • Time elapsed over the measured dis-
• Weather conditions tance
• Air temperature • Ship heading
• Mean water depth in the trial area • Ship’s speed over ground
• Water temperature and density
• Propeller rate of revolutions
• Draughts
• Corresponding displacement • Propeller shaft torque and/or brake
• Propeller pitch in the case of a CPP power
• Water depth
It is recommended to retain a record of the • Relative wind velocity and direction
following factors, which should prove useful
for verifying the condition of the ship at the • Air temperature
time of the speed trial: • Observed wave height (or: wave height
corresponding to observed and/or
• Time elapsed since last hull and propel-
agreed wind conditions)
ler cleaning
• Rudder angle
• Surface condition of hull and propeller.
• Ship position and track
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
Data such as ship’s speed, rate of revolu- 5. REFERENCES

tions of the propeller, torque, rudder angle and
drift angle to be used for the analyses shall be (1) ISO 15016, Ships and marine technology –
the average values derived on the measured Guidelines for the assessment of speed and
distance. power performance by analysis of speed
trial data
(2) ITTC Procedure for the Analysis of

Speed/Power Trial Data
(3) ISO 19019

Apêndice C
Condições de Realização das Provas
de Velocidade e Potência
Recomendadas pela ITTC
133
134 APÊNDICE C. CONDIÇÕES DAS PROVAS DE VELOCIDADE E POTÊNCIA
ITTC –Recommended 7.5 – 0.4
01 – 01.5
Effective Date Revision
Speed and Power Trials 2002 01
Trial Conditions
CONTENTS
1. PURPOSE
2. SCOPE
3. RESPONSIBILITIES
4. DEFINITIONS
5. PROCEDURE
6. REFERENCES
7. RECORDS
8. ATTACHMENTS
Updated by Approved
Specialist Committee of 23rd ITTC on
23rd ITTC 2002
Speed and Powering
Date Date 2002
01 – 01.5
Trial Conditions
Trial Conditions
b. Collect and record seawater tempera-
1. PURPOSE ture and specific gravity during trial,
daily.
The purpose of this procedure is to estab-
lish guidelines for the definition of acceptable
limits for trial conditions needed to validate 4. DEFINITIONS
hydrodynamic design and/or satisfy contractual
requirements. None
2. SCOPE 5. PROCEDURE
This procedure applies to the documenta- 1. Speed/Power trials require accurate posi-
tion of trial conditions (environmental and tion data and therefore will ideally be con-
ship) in which the full-scale Speed/Power trial ducted at an instrumented tracking range
are performed. located in a sheltered body of water. Lack-
ing availability of an instrumented tracking
range, the use of DGPS provides great lati-
3. RESPONSIBILITIES tude in choosing a trial site. Regardless of
the instrumentation utilized for obtaining
• The Trial Director is the duly authorized positional data, the operational area should
shipbuilder’s representative responsible for be free from substantial small boat traffic.
the execution of all phases of the 2. If an instrumented tracking range is util-
Speed/Power trials. When unforeseen prob- ized, the ship’s master will receive a formal
lems, such as weather or technical difficul- briefing on tracking range procedures by
ties require that the trial schedule or trial the Trial Director prior to the conduct of
logistics be modified, the Trial Director the trials. During the briefing, specific trial
shall make the final decision, subject to the runs will be reviewed. The trial team will
concurrence of the ship’s master and the provide an on-shore observer to monitor
owner’s representative. data collection by the tracking range facil-
• The shipbuilder is responsible for the over- ity. If DGPS is utilized, the Trial Director
all trial coordination between the ship's will brief the ship’s master on specific trial
crew, trial personnel, and the owner repre- runs and procedures.
sentative. A pre-trial meeting between the 3. Ship characteristics and environmental fac-
trial team, owner and the ship’s crew will tors are carefully monitored and docu-
be held to discuss the various trial events mented throughout the trials (see Table 1).
and to resolve any outstanding issues. Accurate quantification of these conditions
• The trial team is responsible for the follow- is necessary because a ship's speed and
ing: powering characteristics are extremely sen-
a. Operate and maintain all required trial sitive to conditions such as ship and propel-
instrumentation and temporary cabling. ler condition, ship displacement, shallow
water effects, sea state and wind velocity.
01 – 01.5
Trial Conditions
4. Speed/Power Trials are normally scheduled b. Displacement must be derived from the
within 30 days of undocking to minimize hydrostatic curves by utilizing the draft
the adverse effects of hull and propulsor data and the density of the water. When
fouling and provide a more "standard" con- dealing with Froude numbers higher
dition for testing. In situations where the than 0.5 (e.g. a Fast Ferry with 100 m
ship has become fouled after undocking, a length and speed over 30 kn) intermedi-
hull cleaning, propeller polishing and hull ate ship loading conditions must be
and propeller roughness survey should be documented. This is better accom-
performed within 30 days of the plished through tank soundings.
Speed/Power trial date. Guidance may be 6. Environmental factors can significantly in-
found in Hull and Propulsor Survey Proce- fluence the data obtained during sea trials.
dure 7.5-04-01-01.3. At a minimum, the Consequently, these factors must be moni-
ship’s latest docking report and diver in- tored and documented to the greatest extent
spection should be provided to fulfill this possible.
requirement. Guidance may be found in a. High wind and sea states can force the
Speed/Power Trial Ship Inspection Proce- use of excessive rudder to maintain
dure 7.5-04-01-01.2. heading, and thus cause excessive fluc-
5. Draft, trim and displacement of the trials tuations in shaft torque, shaft speed and
must be obtained by averaging the ship ship speed.
draft mark readings. The ship should be b. Sea states of 3 or less and a true wind
brought into a condition that is as close as speed below Beaufort 6 (20 kn) are the
possible to the contract condition and/or the desired conditions for sea trials. When
condition by which model tests have been working under the time constraints of a
carried out. This will allow for the correc- contract, corrections to the trials data
tion of the displacement and trim with re- can be made in accordance with the rec-
spect to the trials that were conducted and ommendations provided in the 23rd
will be applicable to the suggestions out- ITTC Speed and Powering Trials Spe-
lined in the 23rd ITTC Speed and Powering cialist Committee final report for sea
Trials Specialist Committee final report. states less than or equal to 5. For sea
a. Draft, trim and displacement must be states greater than 5, corrections to the
obtained at the beginning and at the end trials data can be applied but are not
of the trial. This may be accomplished considered reliable from a scientific
using a loading computer or by taking a standpoint.
second draft reading. The accuracy of c. The local seawater temperature and spe-
the ship's draft marks and the method cific gravity at the trial site are recorded
used to calculate draft and displacement to enable the calculation of ship's dis-
underway will be compared in port by placement.
direct draft readings both port and star- d. Air temperature and atmospheric pres-
board in conjunction with a liquid load sure should be measured at the trial lo-
calculation. The trial team will verify cation using a calibrated thermometer
and document the results prior to the and barometer.
Speed/Power trials. e. An acceptable minimum water depth for the
trials where the data do not need to be cor-
01 – 01.5
Trial Conditions
rected for shallow water can be calculated 3. 22nd ITTC Trials & Monitoring
using: Specialist Committee/12th ITTC
based on ship section and Froude
h > 6.0(Am)0.5 and h > 0.5 V2 (1) Number.
Use the larger of the 2 values obtained from h > 3.0(BT)0.5 and h > 2.75 V2/g
the two equations. (5)
Use the larger of the 2 values ob-
Other accepted formulae are: tained from the two equations.
1. SNAME 1973/21st ITTC Powering h = depth in appropriate length

Performance Committee units
B = beam in appropriate length
d ≥ 10TV/(L)0.5 (2) units
T = draft in appropriate length
d = water depth, ft units
T =´trial draft, ft V = speed in system of units con-
V = speed, kn sistent with the above dimension
L = length between perpendicu- g = acceleration due to gravity in
lars, ft units consistent with the above di-
mension
2. SNAME 1989 from Det Norske
Veritas 4. ISO/FDIS 15016:(E) based on Lack-
Nautical Safety- Additional Classes enby’s Formula
NAUT-A, NAUT-B AND NAUT-
0.5
C, July 1986 ∆V A  gh
= 0.1242 2m − 0.05 + 1 − tanh( 2 )
V  h   V 
h > 5.0(Am)0.5 and h > 0.4 V2 (3)
for h ≤ (Am/0.05)0.5 (6)
Use the larger of the 2 values ob- ∆V
tained from the two equations. ≤ 0.02
V
h = water depth, m h = water depth, m
Am = midship section area, m2 Am = midship section area under
V = ship speed, m/s water, m2
V = ship speed, m/s
or ∆V = speed loss due to shallow wa-
ter effect, m/s
h > 5 (T) (4) g = acceleration due to gravity,
m/s2
T = Mean draft, m
01 – 01.5
Trial Conditions
f. Current speed and direction should be 2. 22nd ITTC Trials & Monitoring Specialist
determined in the test area by prognos- Committee Final Report
tic analysis. When current speed is sus- 3. Ships and marine technology – Guidelines
pected to be varying and direction is for the assessment of speed and power per-
unknown, the ship’s global drift (also formance analysis of speed trial data, Final
including wind effect) should be deter- Draft International Standard ISO/FDIS
mined by a 360° turning test conducted 15016: (E), ISO/TC 8/SC 9/WG 2 of 2001
at low ahead speed to magnify any en- 4. 23rd ITTC Speed and Powering Trials Spe-
vironmental effect. Test runs should be cialist Committee Final Report
conducted against and with global drift. 5. Speed/Power Trial Ship Inspection Proce-
It should be noted that this method of dure 7.5-04-01-01.2
determining the direction of the trial 6. Hull and Propulsor Survey Procedure 7.5-
runs is extremely important in the case 04-01-01.3
of small ships whose performance is
strongly effected by environmental con-
ditions. For large ships, such as ULCCs, 7. RECORDS
performance is not impacted as greatly
by environmental conditions. If time is 1. Ship conditions – displacement, draft, pro-
a critical factor, then the runs can be pulsor and hull roughness
conducted into and against the waves; 2. Environmental conditions – water depth,
i.e., head and following seas, re- water temperature, wind direction and
spectively. To ensure that tests are per- speed, sea state, specific gravity, air tem-
formed in comparable conditions, the perature, atmospheric pressure, current
data between reciprocal runs should be speed and direction
reviewed for consistency and/or anoma-
lies. Individual speed runs conducted in
8. ATTACHMENTS
the same conditions should be averaged
with their reciprocal runs to take into 1. Table 1. Documented Ship and Trial Con-
account global drift. ditions Reported
6. REFERENCES
1. SNAME 1973/21st ITTC Powering Per-

formance Committee Final Report
01 – 01.5
Trial Conditions
Table 1. Documented Ship and Trial Conditions Reported
Description
Ship Hull
Draft
Trim
Displacement and Load
Hull Condition
Roughness of shell and bottom paint
Height of welding beads
Waviness of hull
Size, number and position of zinc anodes
Size, number and position of openings of sea water inlets and outlets
Paint system
Hull Appendages and Rudder

Geometry, deviations, roughness
Type
Rate of movement
Propeller(s)
Geometry, deviations, roughness
Pitch
Direction of rotation
Number of blades
Propeller Shaft(s)
Geometry
Material
Trial Site
Water depth
Water temperature
Air temperature
Sea State
Specific gravity of water
Environmental Conditions
Wind
Waves
Current
Atmospheric pressure
Apêndice D
Utilização dos Diagramas na
Selecção de Motores Propulsores
141
142 APÊNDICE D. SELECÇÃO DE MOTORES PROPULSORES
Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion
Contents: Page
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Scope of this Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 1
Ship Definitions and Hull Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
• Ship types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
• A ship’s load lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
• Indication of a ship’s size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
• Description of hull forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
• Ship’s resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter 2
Propeller Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
• Propeller types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
• Flow conditions around the propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
• Efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · 11
• Propeller dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · · · · 13
• Operating conditions of a propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Chapter 3
Engine Layout and Load Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
• Power functions and logarithmic scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
• Propulsion and engine running points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
• Engine layout diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
• Load diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
• Use of layout and load diagrams – examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
• Influence on engine running of different types
of ship resistance – plant with FPpropeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
• Influence of ship resistance
on combinator curves – plant with CPpropeller . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Closing Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion
Introduction Scope of this Paper followed up by the relative heavy/light

running conditions which apply when
For the purpose of this paper, the term This paper is divided into three chapters the ship is sailing and subject to different
“ship” is used to denote a vehicle em which, in principle, may be considered as types of extra resistance, like fouling,
ployed to transport goods and persons three separate papers but which also, heavy sea against, etc.
from one point to another over water. with advantage, may be read in close
Ship propulsion normally occurs with connection to each other. Therefore, Chapter 3, elucidates the importance
the help of a propeller, which is the some important information mentioned in of choosing the correct specified MCR
term most widely used in English, al one chapter may well appear in another and optimising point of the main engine,
though the word “screw” is sometimes chapter, too. and thereby the engine’s load diagram
seen, inter alia in combinations such as in consideration to the propeller’s design
a “twinscrew” propulsion plant. Chapter 1, describes the most elemen point. The construction of the relevant
tary terms used to define ship sizes load diagram lines is described in detail
Today, the primary source of propeller and hull forms such as, for example, by means of several examples. Fig. 24
power is the diesel engine, and the power the ship’s displacement, deadweight, shows, for a ship with fixed pitch pro
requirement and rate of revolution very design draught, length between per peller, by means of a load diagram, the
much depend on the ship’s hull form pendiculars, block coefficient, etc. important influence of different types of
and the propeller design. Therefore, in Other ship terms described include the ship resistance on the engine’s contin
order to arrive at a solution that is as effective towing resistance, consisting uous service rating.
optimal as possible, some general of frictional, residual and air resistance,
knowledge is essential as to the princi and the influence of these resistances
pal ship and diesel engine parameters in service.
that influence the propulsion system.
Chapter 2, deals with ship propulsion
This paper will, in particular, attempt to and the flow conditions around the pro
explain some of the most elementary peller(s). In this connection, the wake
terms used regarding ship types, fraction coefficient and thrust deduc
ship’s dimensions and hull forms and tion coefficient, etc. are mentioned.
clarify some of the parameters pertain
ing to hull resistance, propeller condi The total power needed for the propel
tions and the diesel engine’s load ler is found based on the above effec
diagram. tive towing resistance and various
propeller and hull dependent efficien
On the other hand, it is considered be cies which are also described. A sum
yond the scope of this publication to mary of the propulsion theory is shown
give an explanation of how propulsion in Fig. 6.
calculations as such are carried out, as
the calculation procedure is extremely The operating conditions of a propeller
complex. The reader is referred to the according to the propeller law valid for
specialised literature on this subject, for a propeller with fixed pitch are described
example as stated in “References”. for free sailing in calm weather, and
3
Category Class Type
Oil tanker Crude (oil) Carrier CC
Ship Definitions and Hull Tanker
Resistance Very Large Crude Carrier VLCC
Ultra Large Crude Carrier ULCC
Product Tanker
Ship types
Gas tanker Liquefied Natural Gas carrier LNG
Depending on the nature of their cargo,
and sometimes also the way the cargo Chemical tanker Liquefied Petroleum Gas carrier LPG
is loaded/unloaded, ships can be divided
into different categories, classes, and OBO Oil/Bulk/Ore carrier OBO
types, some of which are mentioned in
Table 1. Bulk carrier Bulk carrier
Container carrier
Container ship Container ship
The three largest categories of ships Roll OnRoll Off RoRo
are container ships, bulk carriers (for General cargo
bulk goods such as grain, coal, ores, General cargo ship
etc.) and tankers, which again can be Coaster
divided into more precisely defined Reefer Reefer Refrigerated cargo vessel
classes and types. Thus, tankers can
Ferry
be divided into oil tankers, gas tankers Passenger ship
Cruise vessel
and chemical tankers, but there are
also combinations, e.g. oil/chemical
tankers. Table 1: Examples of ship types
Table 1 provides only a rough outline.

In reality there are many other combi the risk of bad weather whereas, on the tropical seas is somewhat higher than
nations, such as “Multipurpose bulk other hand, the freeboard draught for the summer freeboard draught.
container carriers”, to mention just one
example.
A ship’s load lines
Painted halfway along the ship’s side

is the “Plimsoll Mark”, see Fig. 1. The
lines and letters of the Plimsoll Mark,
which conform to the freeboard rules D
laid down by the IMO (International
Maritime Organisation) and local au
thorities, indicate the depth to which
the vessel may be safely loaded (the
depth varies according to the season Freeboard deck
D: Freeboard draught
and the salinity of the water).
There are, e.g. load lines for sailing in

freshwater and seawater, respectively, TF
with further divisions for tropical condi
tions and summer and winter sailing. F T Tropical
D L
According to the international freeboard S Summer
rules, the summer freeboard draught W Winter
for seawater is equal to the “Scantling WNA Winter - the North Atlantic
draught”, which is the term applied to Danish load mark
the ship’s draught when dimensioning
Freshwater Seawater
the hull.
The winter freeboard draught is less

than that valid for summer because of Fig. 1: Load lines – freeboard draught
4
Indication of a ship’s size
Displacement and deadweight

When a ship in loaded condition floats at
an arbitrary water line, its displacement is
equal to the relevant mass of water dis AM
placed by the ship. Displacement is thus D
equal to the total weight, all told, of the
relevant loaded ship, normally in seawa
ter with a mass density of 1.025 t/m3. BWL
Displacement comprises the ship’s

light weight and its deadweight, where
the deadweight is equal to the ship’s
loaded capacity, including bunkers and
other supplies necessary for the ship’s
propulsion. The deadweight at any time DF
DA
thus represents the difference between
the actual displacement and the ship’s
light weight, all given in tons: LPP
LWL
deadweight = displacement – light weight.
LOA
Incidentally, the word “ton” does not
always express the same amount of Length between perpendiculars: LPP
weight. Besides the metric ton (1,000 Length on waterline: LWL
kg), there is the English ton (1,016 kg), Length overall: LOA
which is also called the “long ton”. A Breadth on waterline: BWL
“short ton” is approx. 907 kg. Draught: D = 1/2 (DF +DA)
Midship section area: Am
The light weight of a ship is not normally
used to indicate the size of a ship,
whereas the deadweight tonnage Fig. 2: Hull dimensions
(dwt), based on the ship’s loading ca
pacity, including fuel and lube oils etc.
for operation of the ship, measured in
tons at scantling draught, often is. dwt/light Displ./dwt is the part of the ship’s hull which is
Ship type under the water line. The dimensions
weight ratio ratio
Sometimes, the deadweight tonnage below describing the hull form refer
may also refer to the design draught of Tanker and to the design draught, which is less
6 1.17
the ship but, if so, this will be mentioned. Bulk carrier than, or equal to, the scantling
Table 2 indicates the ruleofthumb rela Container ship
draught. The choice of the design
2.53.0 1.331.4
tionship between the ship’s displacement, draught depends on the degree of
deadweight tonnage (summer freeboard/ load, i.e. whether, in service, the ship
scantling draught) and light weight. Table 2: Examples of relationship between dis will be lightly or heavily loaded. Gen
placement, deadweight tonnage and light weight erally, the most frequently occurring
A ship’s displacement can also be ex draught between the fullyloaded and
pressed as the volume of displaced These measurements express the size the ballast draught is used.
water ∇, i.e. in m3. of the internal volume of the ship in ac
cordance with the given rules for such Ship’s lengths LOA, LWL, and LPP
Gross register tons measurements, and are extensively The overall length of the ship LOA is
Without going into detail, it should be used for calculating harbour and canal normally of no consequence when
mentioned that there are also such dues/charges. calculating the hull’s water resistance.
measurements as Gross Register Tons The factors used are the length of the
(GRT), and Net Register Tons (NRT) Description of hull forms waterline LWL and the socalled length
where 1 register ton = 100 English cubic between perpendiculars LPP. The di
feet, or 2.83 m3. It is evident that the part of the ship mensions referred to are shown in
which is of significance for its propulsion Fig. 2.
5
The length between perpendiculars is
the length between the foremost per
pendicular, i.e. usually a vertical line
through the stem’s intersection with
the waterline, and the aftmost perpen Waterline plane AM D
dicular which, normally, coincides with
AWL
the rudder axis. Generally, this length is
slightly less than the waterline length,
and is often expressed as: L PP
L WL
LPP = 0.97 × LWL BW
L
Draught D
The ship’s draught D (often T is used in :
Volume of displacement
literature) is defined as the vertical dis
tance from the waterline to that point of Waterline area : A WL
the hull which is deepest in the water,
see Figs. 2 and 3. The foremost draught Block coefficient, LWL based : CB =
DF and aftmost draught DA are normally LWL x BWL x D
the same when the ship is in the loaded Midship section coefficient : CM = AM
condition. BWL x D
Longitudinal prismatic coefficient : CP =
Breadth on waterline BWL AM x LWL
Another important factor is the hull’s Waterplane area coefficient AWL
: CWL = LWL x BWL
largest breadth on the waterline BWL,
see Figs. 2 and 3.
Block coefficient CB Fig. 3: Hull coefficients of a ship

Various form coefficients are used to
express the shape of the hull. The most
important of these coefficients is the AWL
block coefficient CB, which is defined service speeds, on different types of CWL =
as the ratio between the displacement ships. It shows that large block coeffi LWL × BWL
volume ∇ and the volume of a box with cients correspond to low speeds and
dimensions LWL × BWL × D, see Fig. 3, i.e.: vice versa. Generally, the waterplane area coeffi
cient is some 0.10 higher than the block
∇ Approxi coefficient, i.e.:
CB = Block
LWL × BWL × D Ship type coefficient
mate ship
CWL ≅ CB + 0.10.
speed V
CB
in knots
In the case cited above, the block co This difference will be slightly larger on
efficient refers to the length on water Lighter 0.90 5 – 10 fast vessels with small block coefficients
line LWL. However, shipbuilders often use Bulk carrier where the stern is also partly immersed
0.80 – 0.85 12 – 17
block coefficient CB, PP based on the in the water and thus becomes part of
length between perpendiculars, LPP, in Tanker 0.80 – 0.85 12 –16 the ”waterplane” area.
which case the block coefficient will, as a
General cargo 0.55 – 0.75 13 – 22
rule, be slightly larger because, as previ Midship section coefficient CM
ously mentioned, LPP is normally slightly Container ship 0.50 – 0.70 14 – 26 A further description of the hull form is
less than LWL. provided by the midship section coeffi
Ferry boat 0.50 – 0.70 15 – 26
∇ cient CM, which expresses the ratio be
C B ,PP = tween the immersed midship section
LPP × BWL × D Table 3: Examples of block coefficients area AM (midway between the foremost
and the aftmost perpendiculars) and the
A small block coefficient means less re Water plane area coefficient CWL product of the ship’s breadth BWL and
sistance and, consequently, the possibil The water plane area coefficient CWL draught D, see Fig. 3, i.e.:
ity of attaining higher speeds. expresses the ratio between the ves
sel’s waterline area AWL and the product AM
Table 3 shows some examples of block of the length LWL and the breadth BWL of CM =
coefficient sizes, and the pertaining BWL × D
the ship on the waterline, see Fig. 3, i.e.:
6
For bulkers and tankers, this coefficient in the selection of the correct propeller and resistance coefficients C and, thus, the
is in the order of 0.980.99, and for in the subsequent choice of main engine. pertaining sourceresistances R. In
container ships in the order of 0.970.98. practice, the calculation of a particular
General ship’s resistance can be verified by
Longitudinal prismatic coefficient CP A ship’s resistance is particularly influ testing a model of the relevant ship in
The longitudinal prismatic coefficient enced by its speed, displacement, and a towing tank.
CP expresses the ratio between dis hull form. The total resistance RT, con
placement volume ∇ and the product sists of many sourceresistances R Frictional resistance RF
of the midship frame section area AM which can be divided into three main The frictional resistance RF of the hull
and the length of the waterline LWL, groups, viz.: depends on the size of the hull’s wet
see also Fig. 3, i.e.: ted area AS, and on the specific fric
1) Frictional resistance tional resistance coefficient CF. The
∇ ∇ CB 2) Residual resistance friction increases with fouling of the
Cp = = = 3) Air resistance hull, i.e. by the growth of, i.a. algae,
AM × LWL C M × BWL × D × LWL CM sea grass and barnacles.
The influence of frictional and residual
As can be seen, CP is not an independ resistances depends on how much of An attempt to avoid fouling is made by
ent form coefficient, but is entirely de the hull is below the waterline, while the the use of antifouling hull paints to
pendent on the block coefficient CB influence of air resistance depends on prevent the hull from becoming
and the midship section coefficient CM. how much of the ship is above the wa “longhaired”, i.e. these paints reduce
terline. In view of this, air resistance will the possibility of the hull becoming
Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy LCB have a certain effect on container ships fouled by living organisms. The paints
The Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy which carry a large number of contain containing TBT (tributyl tin) as their
(LCB) expresses the position of the ers on the deck. principal biocide, which is very toxic,
centre of buoyancy and is defined as have dominated the market for decades,
the distance between the centre of Water with a speed of V and a density but the IMO ban of TBT for new appli
buoyancy and the midpoint between of r has a dynamic pressure of: cations from 1 January, 2003, and a
the ship’s foremost and aftmost perpen full ban from 1 January, 2008, may in
diculars. The distance is normally stated ½ × r × V 2 (Bernoulli’s law) volve the use of new (and maybe not
as a percentage of the length between as effective) alternatives, probably cop
the perpendiculars, and is positive if Thus, if water is being completely perbased antifouling paints.
the centre of buoyancy is located to stopped by a body, the water will react
the fore of the midpoint between the on the surface of the body with the dy When the ship is propelled through the
perpendiculars, and negative if located namic pressure, resulting in a dynamic water, the frictional resistance increases
to the aft of the midpoint. For a ship force on the body. at a rate that is virtually equal to the
designed for high speeds, e.g. container square of the vessel’s speed.
ships, the LCB will, normally, be nega This relationship is used as a basis
tive, whereas for slowspeed ships, when calculating or measuring the Frictional resistance represents a con
such as tankers and bulk carriers, it will sourceresistances R of a ship’s hull, siderable part of the ship’s resistance,
normally be positive. The LCB is gener by means of dimensionless resistance often some 7090% of the ship’s total
ally between 3% and +3%. coefficients C. Thus, C is related to the resistance for lowspeed ships (bulk
reference force K, defined as the force carriers and tankers), and sometimes
Fineness ratio CLD which the dynamic pressure of water less than 40% for highspeed ships
The length/displacement ratio or fine with the ship’s speed V exerts on a (cruise liners and passenger ships) [1]. The
ness ratio, CLD, is defined as the ratio surface which is equal to the hull’s wet frictional resistance is found as follows:
between the ship’s waterline length LWL, ted area AS. The rudder’s surface is
and the length of a cube with a volume also included in the wetted area. The R F = CF × K
equal to the displacement volume, i.e.: general data for resistance calculations
is thus: Residual resistance RR
LWL Residual resistance RR comprises wave
C LD = Reference force: K = ½ × r × V 2 × AS resistance and eddy resistance. Wave
3
∇
and source resistances: R = C × K resistance refers to the energy loss
caused by waves created by the vessel
Ship’s resistance On the basis of many experimental during its propulsion through the water,
tank tests, and with the help of pertain while eddy resistance refers to the loss
To move a ship, it is first necessary to ing dimensionless hull parameters, caused by flow separation which cre
overcome resistance, i.e. the force work some of which have already been dis ates eddies, particularly at the aft end
ing against its propulsion. The calculation cussed, methods have been estab of the ship.
of this resistance R plays a significant role lished for calculating all the necessary
7
Wave resistance at low speeds is pro through the water, i.e. to tow the ship The right column is valid for lowspeed
portional to the square of the speed, at the speed V, is then: ships like bulk carriers and tankers, and
but increases much faster at higher the left column is valid for very highspeed
speeds. In principle, this means that a P E = V × RT ships like cruise liners and ferries. Con
speed barrier is imposed, so that a fur tainer ships may be placed in between
ther increase of the ship’s propulsion The power delivered to the propeller, the two columns.
power will not result in a higher speed PD, in order to move the ship at speed
as all the power will be converted into V is, however, somewhat larger. This is The main reason for the difference
wave energy. The residual resistance due, in particular, to the flow conditions between the two columns is, as earlier
normally represents 825% of the total around the propeller and the propeller mentioned, the wave resistance. Thus,
resistance for lowspeed ships, and up efficiency itself, the influences of which in general all the resistances are pro
to 4060% for highspeed ships [1]. are discussed in the next chapter portional to the square of the speed,
which deals with Propeller Propulsion. but for higher speeds the wave resis
Incidentally, shallow waters can also tance increases much faster, involving
have great influence on the residual Total ship resistance in general a higher part of the total resistance.
resistance, as the displaced water un When dividing the residual resistance
der the ship will have greater difficulty into wave and eddy resistance, as earlier This tendency is also shown in Fig. 5
in moving aftwards. described, the distribution of the total ship for a 600 teu container ship, originally
towing resistance RT could also, as a designed for the ship speed of 15 knots.
The procedure for calculating the spe guideline, be stated as shown in Fig. 4. Without any change to the hull design,
cific residual resistance coefficient CR is
described in specialised literature [2]
and the residual resistance is found as
follows:
Type of resistance % of RT
R R = CR × K High Low
speed speed
Air resistance RA ship ship
In calm weather, air resistance is, in prin
ciple, proportional to the square of the RF = Friction 45 90
ship’s speed, and proportional to the RW = Wave 40 5
crosssectional area of the ship above the RE = Eddy 5 3
waterline. Air resistance normally repre RA = Air 10 2
sents about 2% of the total resistance.
RA
For container ships in head wind, the
air resistance can be as much as 10%.
The air resistance can, similar to the V
foregoing resistances, be expressed as
RA = CA × K, but is sometimes based
on 90% of the dynamic pressure of air
with a speed of V, i.e.:
RA = 0.90 × ½ × rair × V 2 × Aair Ship speed V RW

where rair is the density of the air, and
Aair is the crosssectional area of the
vessel above the water [1].
Towing resistance RT
and effective (towing) power PE RE
V
The ship’s total towing resistance RT is
thus found as: RF
RT = RF + R R + RA
The corresponding effective (towing)

power, PE, necessary to move the ship
Fig. 4: Total ship towing resistance RT = RF + RW + RE + RA
8
kW Propulsion power Estimates of average increase in
"Wave wall"
resistance for ships navigating the
8,000
main routes:
North Atlantic route,

navigation westward 2535%
6,000 New service point
North Atlantic route,
navigation eastward 2025%
4,000 EuropeAustralia 2025%

EuropeEast Asia 2025%
Normal service point
The Pacific routes 2030%
2,000
Table 4: Main routes of ships
0 On the North Atlantic routes, the first

15 20 knots
percentage corresponds to summer
10
navigation and the second percentage
Ship speed to winter navigation.
Power and speed relationship for a 600 TEU container ship
However, analysis of trading conditions
for a typical 140,000 dwt bulk carrier
shows that on some routes, especially
Fig. 5: The “wave wall” ship speed barrier JapanCanada when loaded, the in
creased resistance (sea margin) can
reach extreme values up to 220%, with
an average of about 100%.
the ship speed for a sister ship was re which means that the frictional resist
quested to be increased to about 17.6 ance will be greater. It must also be
knots. However, this would lead to a considered that the propeller surface Unfortunately, no data have been pub
relatively high wave resistance, requir can become rough and fouled. The to lished on increased resistance as a fun
ing a doubling of the necessary propul tal resistance, caused by fouling, may ction of type and size of vessel. The
sion power. increase by 2550% throughout the larger the ship, the less the relative in
lifetime of a ship. crease of resistance due to the sea.
On the other hand, the frictional resis
A further increase of the propulsion
tance of the large, fullbodied ships will
power may only result in a minor ship Experience [4] shows that hull fouling
very easily be changed in the course of
speed increase, as most of the extra with barnacles and tube worms may
time because of fouling.
power will be converted into wave en cause an increase in drag (ship resis
ergy, i.e. a ship speed barrier valid for tance) of up to 40%, with a drastical
the given hull design is imposed by reduction of the ship speed as the con In practice, the increase of resistance
what we could call a “wave wall”, see sequence. caused by heavy weather depends on
Fig. 5. A modification of the hull lines, the current, the wind, as well as the
suiting the higher ship speed, is neces wave size, where the latter factor may
Furthermore, in general [4] for every 25
sary. have great influence. Thus, if the wave
µm (25/1000 mm) increase of the aver
size is relatively high, the ship speed
age hull roughness, the result will be a
will be somewhat reduced even when
Increase of ship resistance in service, power increase of 23%, or a ship
sailing in fair seas.
Ref. [3], page 244 speed reduction of about 1%.
During the operation of the ship, the
paint film on the hull will break down. In principle, the increased resistance
Resistance will also increase because
Erosion will start, and marine plants caused by heavy weather could be
of sea, wind and current, as shown in
and barnacles, etc. will grow on the related to:
Table 4 for different main routes of
surface of the hull. Bad weather, per ships. The resistance when navigating
haps in connection with an inappropri in headon sea could, in general, in a) wind and current against, and
ate distribution of the cargo, can be a crease by as much as 50100% of the b) heavy waves,
reason for buckled bottom plates. The total ship resistance in calm weather.
hull has been fouled and will no longer but in practice it will be difficult to dis
have a “technically smooth” surface, tinguish between these factors.
9
Chapter 2
Velocities Power
Propeller Propulsion Ship’s speed : V Effective (Towing) power : PE = R T x V
Arriving water velocity to propeller : VA Thrust power delivered
The traditional agent employed to (Speed of advance of propeller)
by the propeller to water : PT = PE / H
move a ship is a propeller, sometimes Effective wake velocity : VW = V _ V A

Power delivered to propeller : PD = P T / B
two and, in very rare cases, more than V _ VA

Wake fraction coefficient : w= Brake power of main engine : PB = PD / S
two. The necessary propeller thrust T V
required to move the ship at speed V
Forces Efficiencies
is normally greater than the pertaining
towing resistance RT, and the flowrelated Towing resistance : RT 1_t
Hull efficiency : H =
reasons are, amongst other reasons, Thrust force : T 1_w
explained in this chapter. See also Fig. 6, Thrust deduction fraction : F = T _ RT Relative rotative efficiency : R
where all relevant velocity, force, power _ Propeller efficiency open water :
: t = T RT
0
Thrust deduction coefficient
and efficiency parameters are shown. T Propeller efficiency behind hull : B = 0 x R
Propulsive efficiency : D = H x B
Shaft efficiency : S
Propeller types V W VA Total efficiency : T
V PE PE PT PD
Propellers may be divided into the follow T = = x x = H x Bx S = H x 0 x R x S
PB PT PD P B
ing two main groups, see also Fig. 7:
• Fixed pitch propeller (FPpropeller)

V
• Controllable pitch propeller
(CPpropeller) F RT
T
Propellers of the FPtype are cast in
one block and normally made of a copper
alloy. The position of the blades, and
thereby the propeller pitch, is once and
for all fixed, with a given pitch that can PT PD PB PE
not be changed in operation. This
means that when operating in, for ex
ample, heavy weather conditions, the Fig. 6: The propulsion of a ship – theory
propeller performance curves, i.e. the
combination of power and speed
(r/min) points, will change according to
the physical laws, and the actual pro
peller curve cannot be changed by the
crew. Most ships which do not need a
particularly good manoeuvrability are
Fixed pitch propeller (FPPropeller) Controllable pitch propeller (CPPropeller)
equipped with an FPpropeller.
Propellers of the CPtype have a rela

tively larger hub compared with the
FPpropellers because the hub has to
have space for a hydraulically activated
mechanism for control of the pitch (an
gle) of the blades. The CPpropeller is
relatively expensive, maybe up to 34 Monobloc with fixed
times as expensive as a corresponding propeller blades Hub with a mechanism
FPpropeller. Furthermore, because of (copper alloy) for control of the pitch
the relatively larger hub, the propeller of the blades
efficiency is slightly lower. (hydraulically activated)
CPpropellers are mostly used for

RoRo ships, shuttle tankers and simi
lar ships that require a high degree of Fig. 7: Propeller types
10
manoeuvrability. For ordinary ships like Thrust deduction coefficient t
container ships, bulk carriers and crude VW V − V A The rotation of the propeller causes the
w= =
oil tankers sailing for a long time in nor V V water in front of it to be “sucked” back
mal sea service at a given ship speed, VA towards the propeller. This results in an
( you get =1 − w )
it will, in general, be a waste of money V extra resistance on the hull normally
to install an expensive CPpropeller in called “augment of resistance” or, if re
stead of an FPpropeller. Furthermore, a The value of the wake fraction coefficient lated to the total required thrust force T
CPpropeller is more complicated, invol depends largely on the shape of the on the propeller, “thrust deduction frac
ving a higher risk of problems in service. hull, but also on the propeller’s location tion” F, see Fig. 6. This means that the
and size, and has great influence on thrust force T on the propeller has to
the propeller’s efficiency. overcome both the ship’s resistance RT
Flow conditions around the propeller and this “loss of thrust” F.
The propeller diameter or, even better,
Wake fraction coefficient w the ratio between the propeller diameter The thrust deduction fraction F may be
When the ship is moving, the friction of d and the ship’s length LWL has some expressed in dimensionless form by
the hull will create a socalled friction influence on the wake fraction coeffi means of the thrust deduction coeffi
belt or boundary layer of water around cient, as d/LWL gives a rough indication cient t, which is defined as:
the hull. In this friction belt the velocity of the degree to which the propeller
of the water on the surface of the hull is works in the hull’s wake field. Thus, the F T − RT
equal to that of the ship, but is reduced larger the ratio d/LWL, the lower w will t= =
with its distance from the surface of the be. The wake fraction coefficient w in T T
RT
hull. At a certain distance from the hull creases when the hull is fouled. ( you get =1 − t )
and, per definition, equal to the outer T
“surface” of the friction belt, the water For ships with one propeller, the wake
velocity is equal to zero. fraction coefficient w is normally in the The thrust deduction coefficient t can
region of 0.20 to 0.45, corresponding be calculated by using calculation
The thickness of the friction belt increases to a flow velocity to the propeller VA of models set up on the basis of research
with its distance from the fore end of 0.80 to 0.55 of the ship’s speed V. The carried out on different models.
the hull. The friction belt is therefore larger the block coefficient, the larger is
thickest at the aft end of the hull and the wake fraction coefficient. On ships In general, the size of the thrust deduc
this thickness is nearly proportional to with two propellers and a conventional tion coefficient t increases when the
the length of the ship, Ref. [5]. This aftbody form of the hull, the propellers wake fraction coefficient w increases.
means that there will be a certain wake will normally be positioned outside the The shape of the hull may have a sig
velocity caused by the friction along the friction belt, for which reason the wake nificant influence, e.g. a bulbous stem
sides of the hull. Additionally, the ship’s fraction coefficient w will, in this case, can, under certain circumstances (low
displacement of water will also cause be a great deal lower. However, for a ship speeds), reduce t.
wake waves both fore and aft. All this twinskeg ship with two propellers, the
involves that the propeller behind the coefficient w will be almost unchanged The size of the thrust deduction coeffi
hull will be working in a wake field. (or maybe slightly lower) compared cient t for a ship with one propeller is,
with the singlepropeller case. normally, in the range of 0.12 to 0.30,
Therefore, and mainly originating from as a ship with a large block coefficient
the friction wake, the water at the pro Incidentally, a large wake fraction co has a large thrust deduction coefficient.
peller will have an effective wake veloc efficient increases the risk of propeller For ships with two propellers and a
ity Vw which has the same direction as cavitation, as the distribution of the conventional aftbody form of the hull,
the ship’s speed V, see Fig. 6. This water velocity around the propeller is the thrust deduction coefficient t will be
means that the velocity of arriving water generally very inhomogeneous under much less as the propellers’ “sucking”
VA at the propeller, (equal to the speed such conditions. occurs further away from the hull.
of advance of the propeller) given as However, for a twinskeg ship with two
the average velocity over the propeller’s A more homogeneous wake field for propellers, the coefficient t will be almost
disk area is Vw lower than the ship’s the propeller, also involving a higher unchanged (or maybe slightly lower)
speed V. speed of advance VA of the propeller, compared with the singlepropeller case.
may sometimes be needed and can be
The effective wake velocity at the pro obtained in several ways, e.g. by hav
peller is therefore equal to Vw = V – VA ing the propellers arranged in nozzles, Efficiencies
and may be expressed in dimensionless below shields, etc. Obviously, the best
form by means of the wake fraction method is to ensure, already at the de Hull efficiency hH
coefficient w. The normally used wake sign stage, that the aft end of the hull is The hull efficiency hH is defined as the
fraction coefficient w given by Taylor is shaped in such a way that the opti ratio between the effective (towing)
defined as: mum wake field is obtained. power PE = RT × V, and the thrust power
11
which the propeller delivers to the water
PT = T × VA, i.e.: Propeller Large tankers Small tankers Reefers
efficiency >150,000 DWT 20,000 DWT Container ships
PE RT × V RT / T 1− t
hH = = = = o
PT T × V A V A / V 1− w 0.7
For a ship with one propeller, the hull

efficiency ηH is usually in the range of 0.6
1.1 to 1.4, with the high value for ships
with high block coefficients. For ships n ( revs./s )
with two propellers and a conventional 0.5 1.66
aftbody form of the hull, the hull effi
ciency ηH is approx. 0.95 to 1.05, again 2.00
with the high value for a high block co 0.4
efficient. However, for a twinskeg ship
with two propellers, the hull coefficient
ηH will be almost unchanged compared 0.3
with the singlepropeller case.
Open water propeller efficiency ηO 0.2

Propeller efficiency ηO is related to
working in open water, i.e. the propel
ler works in a homogeneous wake field 0.1
with no hull in front of it.
The propeller efficiency depends, es 0

pecially, on the speed of advance VA, 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
thrust force T, rate of revolution n, di VA
Advance number J =
ameter d and, moreover, i.a. on the de nxd
sign of the propeller, i.e. the number of
blades, disk area ratio, and pitch/diam
eter ratio – which will be discussed Fig. 8: Obtainable propeller efficiency – open water, Ref. [3], page 213
later in this chapter. The propeller effi
ciency ηO can vary between approx.
0.35 and 0.75, with the high value be
ing valid for propellers with a high
speed of advance VA, Ref. [3]. affected by the ηR factor – called the ter, and the power PD, which is deliv
propeller’s relative rotative efficiency. ered to the propeller, i.e. the propeller
Fig. 8 shows the obtainable propeller efficiency ηB for a propeller working
efficiency ηO shown as a function of the On ships with a single propeller the behind the ship, is defined as:
speed of advance VA, which is given in rotative efficiency ηR is, normally, around
dimensionless form as: 1.0 to 1.07, in other words, the rotation PT
of the water has a beneficial effect. The hB = = ho × hR
PD
VA rotative efficiency ηR on a ship with a
J= conventional hull shape and with two
n× d
propellers will normally be less, approx. Propulsive efficiency ηD
0.98, whereas for a twinskeg ship with The propulsive efficiency ηD, which
where J is the advance number of the two propellers, the rotative efficiency ηR must not be confused with the open
propeller. will be almost unchanged. water propeller efficiency ηO, is equal to
the ratio between the effective (towing)
Relative rotative efficiency ηR In combination with w and t, ηR is prob power PE and the necessary power
The actual velocity of the water flowing ably often being used to adjust the re delivered to the propeller PD, i.e.:
to the propeller behind the hull is nei sults of model tank tests to the theory.
ther constant nor at right angles to the PE PE PT
propeller’s disk area, but has a kind of Propeller efficiency ηB working behind hD = = ×
PD PT PD
rotational flow. Therefore, compared the ship
with when the propeller is working in The ratio between the thrust power PT, = η H × ηB = ηH × η O × η R
open water, the propeller’s efficiency is which the propeller delivers to the wa
12
As can be seen, the propulsive efficiency Propeller dimensions Twobladed propellers are used on
ηD is equal to the product of the hull small ships, and 4, 5 and 6bladed
efficiency ηH, the open water propeller Propeller diameter d propellers are used on large ships.
efficiency ηO, and the relative rotative With a view to obtaining the highest Ships using the MAN B&W twostroke
efficiency ηR, although the latter has possible propulsive efficiency ηD, the engines are normally largetype vessels
less significance. largest possible propeller diameter d which use 4bladed propellers. Ships
will, normally, be preferred. There are, with a relatively large power requirement
In this connection, one can be led to however, special conditions to be con and heavily loaded propellers, e.g. con
believe that a hull form giving a high sidered. For one thing, the aftbody form tainer ships, may need 5 or 6bladed
wake fraction coefficient w, and hence of the hull can vary greatly depending on propellers. For vibrational reasons, pro
a high hull efficiency ηH, will also provide type of ship and ship design, for another, pellers with certain numbers of blades
the best propulsive efficiency ηD. the necessary clearance between the may be avoided in individual cases in
tip of the propeller and the hull will de order not to give rise to the excitation
However, as the open water propeller pend on the type of propeller. of natural frequencies in the ship’s hull
efficiency ηO is also greatly dependent or superstructure, Ref. [5].
on the speed of advance VA, cf. Fig. 8, For bulkers and tankers, which are often
that is decreasing with increased w, sailing in ballast condition, there are Disk area coefficient
the propulsive efficiency ηD will not, frequent demands that the propeller The disk area coefficient – referred to in
generally, improve with increasing w, shall be fully immersed also in this con older literature as expanded blade area
quite often the opposite effect is obtained. dition, giving some limitation to the pro ratio – defines the developed surface
peller size. This propeller size limitation area of the propeller in relation to its
Generally, the best propulsive efficiency is not particularly valid for container disk area. A factor of 0.55 is considered
is achieved when the propeller works in ships as they rarely sail in ballast condi as being good. The disk area coefficient
a homogeneous wake field. tion. All the above factors mean that an of traditional 4bladed propellers is of
exact propeller diameter/design draught little significance, as a higher value will
Shaft efficiency ηS ratio d/D cannot be given here but, as only lead to extra resistance on the
The shaft efficiency ηS depends, i.a. on a ruleofthumb, the below mentioned propeller itself and, thus, have little ef
the alignment and lubrication of the approximations of the diameter/design fect on the final result.
shaft bearings, and on the reduction draught ratio d/D can be presented,
gear, if installed. and a large diameter d will, normally, For ships with particularly heavyloaded
result in a low rate of revolution n. propellers, often 5 and 6bladed pro
Shaft efficiency is equal to the ratio be pellers, the coefficient may have a
tween the power PD delivered to the Bulk carrier and tanker: higher value. On warships it can be as
propeller and the brake power PB deliv high as 1.2.
ered by the main engine, i.e. d/D < approximately 0.65
Pitch diameter ratio p/d
PD Container ship: The pitch diameter ratio p/d, expresses
hS = the ratio between the propeller’s pitch
PB p and its diameter d, see Fig. 10. The
d/D < approximately 0.74
pitch p is the distance the propeller
The shaft efficiency is normally around For strength and production reasons, “screws” itself forward through the wa
0.985, but can vary between 0.96 and the propeller diameter will generally not ter per revolution, providing that there
0.995. exceed 10.0 metres and a power out is no slip – see also the next section
put of about 90,000 kW. The largest and Fig. 10. As the pitch can vary
Total efficiency ηT diameter propeller manufactured so far along the blade’s radius, the ratio is
The total efficiency ηT, which is equal to is of 11.0 metres and has four propeller normally related to the pitch at 0.7 × r,
the ratio between the effective (towing) blades. where r = d/2 is the propeller’s radius.
power PE, and the necessary brake
power PB delivered by the main engine, Number of propeller blades To achieve the best propulsive efficiency
can be expressed thus: Propellers can be manufactured with 2, for a given propeller diameter, an optimum
3, 4, 5 or 6 blades. The fewer the num pitch/diameter ratio is to be found,
PE PE PD ber of blades, the higher the propeller which again corresponds to a particu
hT = = × efficiency will be. However, for reasons lar design rate of revolution. If, for
PB PD PB of strength, propellers which are to be instance, a lower design rate of revolution
= ηD × η S = η H × η O × η R × η S subjected to heavy loads cannot be is desired, the pitch/diameter ratio has
manufactured with only two or three to be increased, and vice versa, at the
blades. cost of efficiency. On the other hand, if
a lower design rate of revolution is de
sired, and the ship’s draught permits,
the choice of a larger propeller diame
13
ter may permit such a lower design rate ISO 484/1 – 1981 (CE) The price of the propeller, of course,
of revolution and even, at the same time, depends on the selected accuracy
increase the propulsive efficiency. Mean pitch class, with the lowest price for class III.
Manufacturing
Class for propel However, it is not recommended to
accuracy
Propeller coefficients J, KT and KQ ler use class III, as this class has a too
Propeller theory is based on models, S Very high accuracy +/– 0.5 % high tolerance. This again means that
but to facilitate the general use of this I High accuracy +/– 0.75 % the mean pitch tolerance should nor
theory, certain dimensionless propeller mally be less than +/– 1.0 %.
coefficients have been introduced in re II Medium accuracy +/– 1.00 %
lation to the diameter d, the rate of rev III Wide tolerances +/– 3.00 % The manufacturing accuracy tolerance
olution n, and the water’s mass density corresponds to a propeller speed toler
r. The three most important of these ance of max. +/– 1.0 %. When also in
Table 5: Manufacturing accuracy classes
coefficients are mentioned below. of a propeller
corporating the influence of the tolerance
on the wake field of the hull, the total
The advance number of the propeller J propeller tolerance on the rate of revo
is, as earlier mentioned, a dimensionless Manufacturing accuracy of the propeller lution can be up to +/– 2.0 %. This tol
expression of the propeller’s speed of Before the manufacturing of the propeller, erance has also to be borne in mind
advance VA. the desired accuracy class standard of when considering the operating condi
the propeller must be chosen by the tions of the propeller in heavy weather.
VA customer. Such a standard is, for ex
J= ample, ISO 484/1 – 1981 (CE), which Influence of propeller diameter and
n× d pitch/diameter ratio on propulsive
has four different “Accuracy classes”,
see Table 5. efficiency D.
The thrust force T, is expressed As already mentioned, the highest pos
dimensionless, with the help of the Each of the classes, among other de sible propulsive efficiency required to
thrust coefficient KT, as tails, specifies the maximum allowable provide a given ship speed is obtained
tolerance on the mean design pitch of with the largest possible propeller dia
T the manufactured propeller, and meter d, in combination with the corre
KT = thereby the tolerance on the correspond
r× n × d4
2 sponding, optimum pitch/diameter ra
ing propeller speed (rate of revolution). tio p/d.
and the propeller torque
PD
Q= Shaft power 80,000 dwt crude oil tanker
2p × n
kW Design draught = 12.2 m
9,500 Ship speed = 14.5 kn
is expressed dimensionless with the
help of the torque coefficient KQ, as 9,400 p/d
d = Propeller diameter
d 0.50
p/d = Pitch/diameter ratio p/d
9,300 p/d 6.6 m
Q
KQ = 1.00
0.67
r × n2 × d 5 9,200
6.8 m
9,100 0.95 0.68
0.55
The propeller efficiency hO can be cal 0.90
culated with the help of the abovemen 9,000 7.0 m
0.69 Power and speed curve
tioned coefficients, because, as previously 8,900
0.85 0.60 for the given propeller
mentioned, the propeller efficiency hO is 0.80 7.2 m diameter d = 7.2 m with
defined as: 8,800 0.75 0.65 different p/d
0.70
PT T × VA KT J 8,700 7.4 m
0.71 Power and speed curve
hO = = = × for various propeller
PD Q × 2 p × n K Q 2 p 8,600 d
p/d diameters d with
8,500 optimum p/d
Propeller speed
With the help of special and very com
plicated propeller diagrams, which 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 r/min
contain, i.a. J, KT and KQ curves, it is
possible to find/calculate the propeller’s
dimensions, efficiency, thrust, power, etc. Fig. 9: Propeller design – influence of diameter and pitch
14
As an example for an 80,000 dwt crude Pitch p
oil tanker, with a service ship speed of
14.5 knots and a maximum possible Slip
propeller diameter of 7.2 m, this influence
is shown in Fig. 9.
According to the blue curve, the maxi

mum possible propeller diameter of 7.2 0.7 x r
m may have the optimum pitch/diame d
ter ratio of 0.70, and the lowest possi
ble shaft power of 8,820 kW at 100
r/min. If the pitch for this diameter is r n
changed, the propulsive efficiency will
be reduced, i.e. the necessary shaft
power will increase, see the red curve.
The blue curve shows that if a bigger V or VA Sxpxn

propeller diameter of 7.4 m is possible,
the necessary shaft power will be re pxn
duced to 8,690 kW at 94 r/min, i.e. the
bigger the propeller, the lower the opti pxn_V V
The apparent slip ratio : SA = =1_
mum propeller speed. pxn pxn
p x n _ VA VA
The real slip ratio : SR = =1_
The red curve also shows that propul pxn pxn
sionwise it will always be an advan
tage to choose the largest possible
propeller diameter, even though the Fig. 10: Movement of a ship´s propeller, with pitch p and slip ratio S
optimum pitch/diameter ratio would
involve a too low propeller speed (in rela The apparent slip ratio SA, which is
tion to the required main engine speed). The apparent slip ratio SA, which is cal
dimensionless, is defined as: culated by the crew, provides useful
Thus, when using a somewhat lower
pitch/diameter ratio, compared with the knowledge as it gives an impression of
p × n−V V the loads applied to the propeller under
optimum ratio, the propeller/ engine SA = =1−
speed may be increased and will only p× n p× n different operating conditions. The ap
cause a minor extra power increase. parent slip ratio increases when the
Operating conditions of a propeller

Pitch p
Velocity of corkscrew: V = p x n
Slip ratio S
If the propeller had no slip, i.e. if the
water which the propeller “screws”
itself through did not yield (i.e. if the
water did not accelerate aft), the pro
peller would move forward at a speed
of V = p × n, where n is the propeller’s
rate of revolution, see Fig. 10. V
The similar situation is shown in Fig. 11 n

for a cork screw, and because the cork
is a solid material, the slip is zero and,
therefore, the cork screw always moves
forward at a speed of V = p × n. How
ever, as the water is a fluid and does
yield (i.e. accelerate aft), the propeller’s Corkscrew Cork Wine bottle
apparent speed forward decreases
with its slip and becomes equal to the
ship’s speed V, and its apparent slip
can thus be expressed as p × n – V. Fig. 11: Movement of a corkscrew, without slip
15
vessel sails against the wind or waves, sonable relationship to be used for esti and heavy weather). These diagrams us
in shallow waters, when the hull is mations in the normal ship speed range ing logarithmic scales and straight lines
fouled, and when the ship accelerates. could be as follows: are described in detail in Chapter 3.
Under increased resistance, this in
volves that the propeller speed (rate of • For large highspeed ships like con Propeller performance in general at
revolution) has to be increased in order tainer vessels: P = c × V 4.5 increased ship resistance
to maintain the required ship speed. The difference between the abovemen
• For mediumsized, mediumspeed tioned light and heavy running propeller
The real slip ratio will be greater than ships like feeder container ships, curves may be explained by an exam
the apparent slip ratio because the real reefers, RoRo ships, etc.: P = c × V 4.0 ple, see Fig. 12, for a ship using, as ref
speed of advance VA of the propeller is, erence, 15 knots and 100% propulsion
as previously mentioned, less than the • For lowspeed ships like tankers and power when running with a clean hull in
ship’s speed V. bulk carriers, and small feeder con calm weather conditions. With 15% more
tainer ships, etc.: P = c × V 3.5 power, the corresponding ship speed
The real slip ratio SR, which gives a truer may increase from 15.0 to 15.6 knots.
picture of the propeller’s function, is: Propeller law for heavy running propeller
The propeller law, of course, can only As described in Chapter 3, and com
VA V × (1 − w ) be applied to identical ship running pared with the calm weather conditions,
SR =1− =1− conditions. When, for example, the it is normal to incorporate an extra
p× n p× n
ship’s hull after some time in service power margin, the socalled sea mar
has become fouled and thus become gin, which is often chosen to be 15%.
At quay trials where the ship’s speed is more rough, the wake field will be different This power margin corresponds to ex
V = 0, both slip ratios are 1.0. Incidentally, from that of the smooth ship (clean hull) tra resistance on the ship caused by
slip ratios are often given in percentages. valid at trial trip conditions. the weather conditions. However, for
very rough weather conditions the influ
Propeller law in general A ship with a fouled hull will, conse ence may be much greater, as de
As discussed in Chapter 1, the resis quently, be subject to extra resistance scribed in Chapter 1.
tance R for lower ship speeds is pro which will give rise to a “heavy propeller
portional to the square of the ship’s condition”, i.e. at the same propeller In Fig. 12a, the propulsion power is
speed V, i.e.: power, the rate of revolution will be lower. shown as a function of the ship speed.
When the resistance increases to a
R = c × V2 The propeller law now applies to an level which requires 15% extra power
other and “heavier” propeller curve to maintain a ship speed of 15 knots,
where c is a constant. The necessary than that applying to the clean hull, the operating point A will move towards
power requirement P is thus propor propeller curve, Ref. [3], page 243. point B.
tional to the speed V to the power of
three, thus: The same relative considerations apply In Fig. 12b the propulsion power is
when the ship is sailing in a heavy sea now shown as a function of the propeller
P = R × V = c × V3 against the current, a strong wind, and speed. As a first guess it will often be as
heavy waves, where also the heavy sumed that point A will move towards B’
For a ship equipped with a fixed pitch waves in tail wind may give rise to a because an unchanged propeller speed
propeller, i.e. a propeller with unchange heavier propeller running than when implies that, with unchanged pitch, the
able pitch, the ship speed V will be pro running in calm weather. On the other propeller will move through the water
portional to the rate of revolution n, thus: hand, if the ship is sailing in ballast at an unchanged speed.
condition, i.e. with a lower displace
P = c × n3 ment, the propeller law now applies to If the propeller was a corkscrew moving
a “lighter” propeller curve, i.e. at the through cork, this assumption would
which precisely expresses the propeller same propeller power, the propeller be correct. However, water is not solid
law, which states that “the necessary rate of revolution will be higher. as cork but will yield, and the propeller
power delivered to the propeller is pro will have a slip that will increase with in
portional to the rate of revolution to the As mentioned previously, for ships with creased thrust caused by increased
power of three”. a fixed pitch propeller, the propeller law hull resistance. Therefore, point A will
is extensively used at part load running. move towards B which, in fact, is very
Actual measurements show that the It is therefore also used in MAN B&W close to the propeller curve through A.
power and engine speed relationship Diesel’s engine layout and load diagrams Point B will now be positioned on a
for a given weather condition is fairly to specify the engine’s operational propeller curve which is slightly heavy
reasonable, whereas the power and curves for light running conditions (i.e. running compared with the clean hull
ship speed relationship is often seen clean hull and calm weather) and heavy and calm weather propeller curve.
with a higher power than three. A rea running conditions (i.e. for fouled hull
16
Power 12.3 knots 15.0 knots
15.0 knots 15.0 knots Power
100% power 100% power
115% power 115% power
Slip B Slip
B´ D´ D A Power
B
15.6 knots
115% power 15.6 knots Propeller
15% 15% 115% power curve for
Sea Sea fouled hull
margin margin and heavy
seas
Propeller curve
for clean hull and
calm weather
Propeller curve for clean 10.0 knots
Propeller curve for clean 50% power
hull and calm weather hull and calm weather
12.3 knots
15.0 knots 50% power
15.0 knots 100% power C
100% power HR HR = Heavy running
A A LR LR = Light running
Ship speed Propeller speed Propeller speed
(Logarithmic scales) (Logarithmic scales) (Logarithmic scales)
Fig. 12a: Ship speed performance at 15% Fig. 12b: Propeller speed performance at Fig. 12c: Propeller speed performance at
sea margin 15% sea margin large extra ship resistance
Sometimes, for instance when the hull a ducted propeller, the opposite effect can be up to 78% heavier running
is fouled and the ship is sailing in heavy is obtained. than in calm weather, i.e. at the same
seas in a head wind, the increase in propeller power, the rate of revolution
resistance may be much greater, cor Heavy waves and sea and wind against may be 78% lower. An example valid
responding to an extra power demand When sailing in heavy sea against, with for a smaller container ship is shown in
of the magnitude of 100% or even higher. heavy wave resistance, the propeller Fig. 13. The service data is measured
An example is shown in Fig. 12c.
In this example, where 100% power

BHP Shaft power
will give a ship speed of 15.0 knots, 21,000
point A, a ship speed of, for instance, Heavy Ap
12.3 knots at clean hull and in calm running 10% pare
weather conditions, point C, will require C 6% nt s
Extremely bad weather 6% 2% lip
about 50% propulsion power but, at B 18,000 2%
Average weather 3%
the abovementioned heavy running A
conditions, it might only be possible to Extremely good weather 0%
obtain the 12.3 knots by 100% propulsion 15,000
power, i.e. for 100% power going from
point A to D. Running point D may now
be placed relatively far to the left of point
A, i.e. very heavy running. Such a situ 12,000
ation must be considered when laying
out the main engine in relation to the C
layout of the propeller, as described in 9,000 13 B
Clean hull and draught D 16 A
Chapter 3. DMEAN = 6.50 m Sh
ip
s 19
DF = 5.25 m kn pee
A scewed propeller (with bent blade DA = 7.75 m ots d
6,000 22
tips) is more sensitive to heavy running 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 r/min
than a normal propeller, because the Source: Lloyd's Register Propeller speed
propeller is able to absorb a higher
torque in heavy running conditions. For
Fig. 13: Service data over a period of a year returned from a single screw container ship
17
Shallow waters
Shaft power SMCR: 13,000 kW x 105 r/min When sailing in shallow waters, the re
% SMCR Wind velocity : 2.5 m/s Head wind
sidual resistance of the ship may be in
105 Wave height : 4 m creased and, in the same way as when
the ship accelerates, the propeller will
Tail wind
be subjected to a larger load than dur
SMCR *22.0 ing free sailing, and the propeller will be
100 7 heavy running.
5 22.3 *
1 Influence of displacement
95 4 ve
" When the ship is sailing in the loaded
c ur Propeller design condition, the ship’s displacement vol
r
le light running Heavy ume may, for example, be 10% higher
el
op running or lower than for the displacement valid
90 " pr 20.5
e 21.8 for the average loaded condition. This,
g in * * 20.5 *
En
of course, has an influence on the ship’s
21.5 resistance, and the required propeller
21.1 * power, but only a minor influence on
85 20.8*
* 3 the propeller curve.
ve
ur
rc *21.2 On the other hand, when the ship is
e lle 21.1 *
sailing in the ballast condition, the dis
op ve
80 Pr ur placement volume, compared to the
c
ll er loaded condition, can be much lower,
e and the corresponding propeller curve
op
Pr may apply to, for example, a 2% “lighter”
propeller curve, i.e. for the same power
96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 % SMCR to the propeller, the rate of revolution
will be 2% higher.
(Logarithmic scales) Propeller/engine speed
Parameters causing heavy running
propeller
Together with the previously described
operating parameters which cause a
Fig. 14: Measured relationship between power, propeller and ship speed during seatrial of heavy running propeller, the parame
a reefer ship ters summarised below may give an in
dication of the risk/sensitivity of getting
a heavy running propeller when sailing
in heavy weather and rough seas:
over a period of one year and only measurements indicate approx. 1.5%
includes the influence of weather con heavy running when sailing in head 1 Relatively small ships (<70,000 dwt)
ditions! The measuring points have wind out, compared with when sailing such as reefers and small container
been reduced to three average weather in tail wind on return. ships are sensitive whereas large ships,
conditions and show, for extremely bad such as large tankers and container
weather conditions, an average heavy Ship acceleration ships, are less sensitive because the
running of 6%, and therefore, in prac When the ship accelerates, the propel waves are relatively small compared
tice, the heavy running has proved to ler will be subjected to an even larger to the ship size.
be even greater. load than during free sailing. The power
required for the propeller, therefore, will 2 Small ships (Lpp < 135 m ≈ 20,000 dwt)
In order to avoid slamming of the ship, be relatively higher than for free sailing, have low directional stability and,
and thereby damage to the stem and and the engine’s operating point will be therefore, require frequent rudder
racing of the propeller, the ship speed heavy running, as it takes some time corrections, which increase the ship
will normally be reduced by the navigat before the propeller speed has reached resistance (a selfcontrolled rudder
ing officer on watch. its new and higher level. An example will reduce such resistance).
with two different accelerations, for an
Another measured example is shown engine without electronic governor and 3 Highspeed ships
in Fig. 14, and is valid for a reefer ship scavenge air pressure limiter, is shown are more sensitive than lowspeed
during its sea trial. Even though the in Fig. 15. The load diagram and scav ships because the waves will act on
wind velocity is relatively low, only 2.5 enge air pressure limiter are is described the fastgoing ship with a relatively
m/s, and the wave height is 4 m, the in Chapter 3.
18
Engine shaft power, % A power will be needed but, of course,
this will be higher for running in heavy
A 100% reference point weather with increased resistance on
110 M Specified engine MCR the ship.
O Optimising point A=M
100
Direction of propeller rotation (side thrust)
O When a ship is sailing, the propeller
90 blades bite more in their lowermost po
sition than in their uppermost position.
The resulting sidethrust effect is larger
80
the more shallow the water is as, for
mep example, during harbour manoeuvres.
70 110%
Therefore, a clockwise (looking from aft
100% to fore) rotating propeller will tend to
push the ship’s stern in the starboard
60 90% direction, i.e. pushing the ship’s stem
to port, during normal ahead running.
80% This has to be counteracted by the
rudder.
50 70%
When reversing the propeller to astern
running as, for example, when berthing
60% alongside the quay, the sidethrust ef
fect is also reversed and becomes fur
40 ther pronounced as the ship’s speed
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 decreases. Awareness of this behav
iour is very important in critical situa
(Logarithmic scales) Engine speed, % A
tions and during harbour manoeuvres.
According to Ref. [5], page 153, the

Fig. 15: Load diagram – acceleration
real reason for the appearance of the
side thrust during reversing of the pro
peller is that the upper part of the pro
peller’s slip stream, which is rotative,
strikes the aftbody of the ship.
larger force than on the slowgoing 7 Sailing in shallow waters
ship. increases the hull resistance and re
Thus, also the pilot has to know pre
duces the ship’s directional stability.
cisely how the ship reacts in a given
4 Ships with a “flat” stem situation. It is therefore an unwritten
may be slowed down faster by waves 8 Ships with scewed propeller law that on a ship fitted with a fixed
than a ship with a “sharp” stem. are able to absorb a higher torque pitch propeller, the propeller is always
Thus an axeshaped upper bow may under heavy running conditions. designed for clockwise rotation when
better cut the waves and thereby sailing ahead. A direct coupled main
reduce the heavy running tendency. Manoeuvring speed engine, of course, will have the same
Below a certain ship speed, called the rotation.
5 Fouling of the hull and propeller manoeuvring speed, the manoeuvra
will increase both hull resistance and bility of the rudder is insufficient be In order to obtain the same sidethrust
propeller torque. Polishing the pro cause of a too low velocity of the water
effect, when reversing to astern, on
peller (especially the tips) as often as arriving at the rudder. It is rather difficult
to give an exact figure for an adequate ships fitted with a controllable pitch
possible (also when in water) has a
manoeuvring speed of the ship as the propeller, CPpropellers are designed
positive effect. The use of effective
antifouling paints will prevent fouling velocity of the water arriving at the rud for anticlockwise rotation when sailing
caused by living organisms. der depends on the propeller’s slip ahead.
stream.
6 Ship acceleration
will increase the propeller torque, Often a manoeuvring speed of the
and thus give a temporarily heavy magnitude of 3.54.5 knots is men
running propeller. tioned. According to the propeller law,
a correspondingly low propulsion
19
Propulsion and engine running
points see Fig. 17. On the other hand, some
Engine Layout and shipyards and/or propeller manufactur
Load Diagrams Propeller design point PD ers sometimes use a propeller design
Normally, estimations of the necessary point PD´ that incorporates all or part of
propeller power and speed are based the socalled sea margin described be
Power functions and logarithmic on theoretical calculations for loaded low.
scales ship, and often experimental tank tests,
both assuming optimum operating Fouled hull
As is wellknown, the effective brake conditions, i.e. a clean hull and good When the ship has been sailing for
power PB of a diesel engine is propor weather. The combination of speed some time, the hull and propeller be
tional to the mean effective pressure and power obtained may be called the come fouled and the hull’s resistance
(mep) pe and engine speed (rate of rev ship’s propeller design point PD placed will increase. Consequently, the ship
olution) n. When using c as a constant, on the light running propeller curve 6, speed will be reduced unless the engine
PB may then be expressed as follows: delivers more power to the propeller, i.e.
the propeller will be further loaded and
PB = c × pe × n will become heavy running HR.
y
y = ax + b Furthermore, newer highefficiency ship
or, in other words, for constant mep
the power is proportional to the speed: 2 types have a relatively high ship speed,
and a very smooth hull and propeller
surface (at sea trial) when the ship is
PB = c × n1 (for constant mep)
a delivered. This means that the inevitable
1 buildup of the surface roughness on
As already mentioned – when running the hull and propeller during sea service
with a fixed pitch propeller – the power after seatrial may result in a relatively
may, according to the propeller law, be b
heavier running propeller, compared
expressed as: with older ships born with a more rough
0 X hull surface.
P B = c × n3 (propeller law) 0 1 2
A. Straight lines in linear scales Heavy weather and sea margin used
Thus, for the above examples, the brake for layout of engine
power PB may be expressed as a func If, at the same time, the weather is
tion of the speed n to the power of i, i.e. y = log (PB)
y = log (PB) = log (c x ni ) bad, with head winds, the ship’s resis
tance may increase much more, and
PB = c × n i=0
i
lead to even heavier running.
Fig. 16 shows the relationship between When determining the necessary en
the linear functions, y = ax + b, see (A), i=1 gine power, it is normal practice to add
using linear scales and the power func an extra power margin, the socalled
tions PB = c × n , see (B), using logarith
i
sea margin, which is traditionally about
mic scales. 15% of the propeller design PD power.
i=2
However, for large container ships,
The power functions will be linear when 2030% may sometimes be used.
using logarithmic scales, as:
i=3 x = log (n)
When determining the necessary en
log (PB) = i × log (n) + log (c) gine speed, for layout of the engine, it
PB = engine brake power
is recommended – compared with the
which is equivalent to: y = ax + b c = constant
clean hull and calm weather propeller
n = engine speed
curve 6 – to choose the heavier propel
Thus, propeller curves will be parallel to log(PB) = i x log(n) + log(c) ler curve 2, see Fig. 17, corresponding
PB = c x ni
lines having the inclination i = 3, and y = ax + b to curve 6 having a 37% higher rate of
lines with constant mep will be parallel revolution than curve 2, and in general
to lines with the inclination i = 1. B. Power function curves
in logarithmic scales with 5% as a good choice.
Therefore, in the layout and load diagrams Note that the chosen sea power mar
for diesel engines, as described in the gin does not equalise the chosen
following, logarithmic scales are used, Fig. 16: Relationship between linear functions heavy engine propeller curve.
making simple diagrams with straight using linear scales and power functions
lines. using logarithmic scales
20
the engine operating curve in service,
curve 2, whereas the light propeller
curve for clean hull and calm weather,
Power curve 6, may be valid for running con
ditions with new ships, and equal to
the layout/design curve of the propel
ler. Therefore, the light propeller curve
for clean hull and calm weather is said
to represent a “light running” LR pro
MP peller and will be related to the heavy
propeller curve for fouled hull and
Engine margin heavy weather condition by means of a
(10% of MP) light running factor fLR, which, for the
SP same power to the propeller, is defined
PD´ as the percentage increase of the rate
Sea margin of revolution n, compared to the rate of
(15% of PD) revolution for heavy running, i.e.
PD
nlight − nheavy
fLR = ×100%
nheavy
Engine margin
Besides the sea margin, a socalled
LR(5%) “engine margin” of some 1015% is
2 6 frequently added as an operational
HR
Engine speed margin for the engine. The correspond
ing point is called the “specified MCR
for propulsion” MP, see Fig. 17, and
refers to the fact that the power for
2 Heavy propeller curve _ fouled hull and heavy weather point SP is 1015% lower than for
6 Light propeller curve _ clean hull and calm weather point MP, i.e. equal to 9085% of MP.
MP: Specified propulsion point
Specified MCR M
SP: Service propulsion point The engine’s specified MCR point M is
PD: Propeller design point the maximum rating required by the
yard or owner for continuous operation
Pd´: Alternative propeller design point of the engine. Point M is identical to the
LR: Light running factor specified propulsion MCR point MP un
HR: Heavy running less a main engine driven shaft genera
tor is installed. In such a case, the extra
power demand of the shaft generator
must also be considered.
Fig. 17: Ship propulsion running points and engine layout
Note:
Light/heavy running, fouling and sea
margin are overlapping terms.
Continuous service propulsion point SP Continuous service rating S Light/heavy running of the propeller re
The resulting speed and power combi The continuous service rating is the fers to hull and propeller deterioration,
nation – when including heavy propeller power at which the engine, including and bad weather, and sea margin, i.e.
running and sea margin – is called the the sea margin, is assumed to operate, extra power to the propeller, refers to
“continuous service rating for propulsion” and point S is identical to the service the influence of the wind and the sea.
SP for fouled hull and heavy weather. propulsion point SP unless a main en
The heavy propeller curve, curve 2, for gine driven shaft generator is installed. Based on feedback from service, it
fouled hull and heavy weather will nor seems reasonable to design the pro
mally be used as the basis for the en Light running factor fLR peller for 37% light running. The de
gine operating curve in service, and the The heavy propeller curve for a fouled gree of light running must be decided
propeller curve for clean hull and calm hull and heavy weather, and if no shaft upon, based on experience from the
weather, curve 6, is said to represent a generator is installed may, as mentioned actual trade and hull design, but 5%
“light running” LR propeller. above, be used as the design basis for is often a good choice.
21
gine may be drawnin. The specified
MCR point M must be inside the limita
Engine shaft power, % A tion lines of the layout diagram; if it is
110
not, the propeller speed will have to be
A 100% reference point
changed or another main engine type
M Specified engine MCR A=M
100 must be chosen. Yet, in special cases,
O Optimising point 5
7
point M may be located to the right of
line L1L2, see “Optimising/Matching
90 O
Point” below.
80 Optimising point O
10 The “Optimising (MC)/Matching (ME)
mep
110% point” O – or, better, the layout point of
70 the engine – is the rating at which the
8 4 1 6
100% engine (timing and) compression ratio
are adjusted, with consideration to the
60 90% 2 scavenge air pressure of the turbocharger.
80% As mentioned below, under “Load dia
3 gram”, the optimising point O (later on
50 70% in this paper also used in general
9 where matching point for ME engines
60%
was the correct one) is placed on line 1
(layout curve of engine) of the load dia
40 gram, and the optimised power can be
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 from 85 to 100% of point M‘s power.
Overload running will still be possible
Engine speed, % A (110% of M‘s power), as long as consid
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O) _ layout curve for engine eration to the scavenge air pressure has
Line 2: Heavy propeller curve _ fouled hull and heavy seas been taken.
Line 3: Speed limit
The optimising point O is to be placed
Line 4: Torque/speed limit inside the layout diagram. In fact, the
Line 5: Mean effective pressure limit specified MCR point M can be placed
Line 6: Light propeller curve _ clean hull and calm weather _ layout curve for propeller outside the layout diagram, but only by
Line 7: Power limit for continuous running
exceeding line L1L2, and, of course,
only provided that the optimising point
Line 8: Overload limit O is located inside the layout diagram.
Line 9: Sea trial speed limit
Line 10: Constant mean effective pressure (mep) lines It should be noted that MC/MCC en
gines without VIT (variable injection tim
ing) fuel pumps cannot be optimised at
partload. Therefore, these engines are
Fig. 18: Engine load diagram always optimised in point A, i.e. having
point M‘s power.
Load diagram
Engine layout diagram which is optimum for the ship and the
operating profile. Please note that the Definitions
An engine’s layout diagram is limited by lowest specific fuel oil consumption for The load diagram (Fig. 18) defines the
two constant mean effective pressure a given optimising point O will be ob power and speed limits for continuous
(mep) lines L1L3 and L2L4, and by two tained at 70% and 80% of point O’s as well as overload operation of an in
constant engine speed lines L1L2 and power, for electronically (ME) and me stalled engine which has an optimising
L3L4, see Fig. 17. The L1 point refers to chanically (MC) controlled engines, point O and a specified MCR point M
the engine’s nominal maximum contin respectively. that conforms to the ship’s specification.
uous rating. Within the layout area
there is full freedom to select the en Based on the propulsion and engine Point A is a 100% speed and power
gines specified MCR point M and rele running points, as previously found, the reference point of the load diagram,
vant optimising point O, see below, layout diagram of a relevant main en and is defined as the point on the pro
22
peller curve (line 1) – the layout curve of 105% of A, however, maximum 105% Line 5:
the engine – through the optimising point of L1. During sea trial conditions the Represents the maximum mean effec
O, having the specified MCR power. maximum speed may be extended to tive pressure level (mep) which can be
107% of A, see line 9. accepted for continuous operation.
Normally, point M is equal to point A,
but in special cases, for example if a The above limits may, in general, be Line 7:
shaft generator is installed, point M extended to 105% and, during sea trial Represents the maximum power for
may be placed to the right of point A conditions, to 107% of the nominal L1 continuous operation.
on line 7. The service points of the in speed of the engine, provided the tor
stalled engine incorporate the engine sional vibration conditions permit. Line 10:
power required for ship propulsion and Represents the mean effective pressure
for the shaft generator, if installed. The overspeed setpoint is 109% of (mep) lines. Line 5 is equal to the 100%
the speed in A, however, it may be mepline. The meplines are also an
During shoptest running, the engine will moved to 109% of the nominal speed expression of the corresponding fuel
always operate along curve 1, with in L1, provided that torsional vibration index of the engine.
point A as 100% MCR. If CPpropeller conditions permit.
and constant speed operation is re Limits for overload operation
quired, the delivery test may be fin Running at low load above 100% of The overload service range is limited as
ished with a constant speed test. the nominal L1 speed of the engine is, follows, see Fig. 18:
however, to be avoided for extended
Limits to continuous operation periods. Line 8:
The continuous service range is limited Represents the overload operation limi
by the four lines 4, 5, 7 and 3 (9), see Line 4: tations.
Fig. 18: Represents the limit at which an ample
air supply is available for combustion and The area between lines 4, 5, 7 and the
Line 3 and line 9 imposes a limitation on the maximum dashed line 8 in Fig. 18 is available for
Line 3 represents the maximum accept combination of torque and speed. overload running for limited periods
able speed for continuous operation, i.e. only (1 hour per 12 hours).
M: Specified MCR of engine M: Specified MCR of engine

S: Continuous service rating of engine S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram A: Reference point of load diagram
Power
7
3.3% A 5% A
A=M=MP 5
7
O 4
S=SP Power 1 2 6
2 6 A=M
7
1 5
O 5% L1
S
Propulsion and
engine service curve 4 1 6
for heavy running 2
3
Engine speed
Point A of load diagram
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O)
Propulsion and engine service
Line 7: Constant power line through specified MCR (M)
curve for heavy running
Engine speed
Point A: Intersection between lines 1 and 7
Fig. 19a: Example 1 with FPP – engine layout without SG (normal case) Fig. 19b: Example 1 with FPP – load diagram without SG (normal case)
23
Electronic governor with load limitation pressure limiter is to ensure that the ship and clean hull, the propeller/engine
In order to safeguard the diesel engine engine is not being overfuelled during may run along or close to the propeller
against thermal and mechanical overload, acceleration, as for example during design curve 6.
the approved electronic governors include manoeuvring.
the following two limiter functions: After some time in operation, the ship’s
The scavenge air pressure limiter hull and propeller will become fouled,
• Torque limiter algorithm compares the calculated resulting in heavier running of the pro
The purpose of the torque limiter is fuel pump index and measured peller, i.e. the propeller curve will move
to ensure that the limitation lines of scavenge air pressure with a refer to the left from line 6 towards line 2, and
the load diagram are always observed. ence limiter curve giving the maxi extra power will be required for propulsion
The torque limiter algorithm compares mum allowable fuel pump index at a in order to maintain the ship speed.
the calculated fuel pump index (fuel given scavenge air pressure. If the
amount) and the actually measured calculated fuel pump index is above At calm weather conditions the extent
engine speed with a reference limiter this curve, the resulting fuel pump of heavy running of the propeller will
curve giving the maximum allowable index will be reduced correspondingly. indicate the need for cleaning the hull
fuel pump index at a given engine and, possibly, polishing the propeller.
speed. If the calculated fuel pump The reference limiter curve is to be
index is above this curve, the result adjusted to ensure that sufficient air The area between lines 4 and 1 is avail
ing fuel pump index will be reduced will always be available for a good able for operation in shallow water,
correspondingly. combustion process. heavy weather and during acceleration,
i.e. for nonsteady operation without
The reference limiter curve is to be Recommendation any actual time limitation.
adjusted so that it corresponds to the Continuous operation without a time
limitation lines of the load diagram. limitation is allowed only within the area
limited by lines 4, 5, 7 and 3 of the
• Scavenge air pressure limiter load diagram. For fixed pitch propeller
The purpose of the scavenge air operation in calm weather with loaded

7
5 3.3% A 5% A
Power
4
A 1 2 6
7 Power
O M=MP
S=SP
A 7
5 M
1 2 6 O 5% L1
S
Propulsion and
4 1 2 6
engine service curve
for heavy running 3
Engine speed
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O) Propulsion and engine service
curve for heavy running
Point A: Intersection between lines 1 and 7 Engine speed
Fig. 20a: Example 2 with FPP – engine layout without SG (special case) Fig. 20b: Example 2 with FPP – load diagram without SG (special case)
24
The recommended use of a relatively In this respect the choice of the optimi Example 2:
high light running factor for design of sing point O has a significant influence. Special running conditions, without
the propeller will involve that a relatively shaft generator
higher propeller speed will be used for Examples with fixed pitch propeller
layout design of the propeller. This, in When the ship accelerates, the propel
turn, may involve a minor reduction of Example 1: ler will be subjected to an even larger
the propeller efficiency, and may possi Normal running conditions, without load than during free sailing. The same
bly cause the propeller manufacturer to shaft generator applies when the ship is subjected to
abstain from using a large light running an extra resistance as, for example,
margin. However, this reduction of the Normally, the optimising point O, and when sailing against heavy wind and
propeller efficiency caused by the large thereby the engine layout curve 1, will sea with large wave resistance.
light running factor is actually relatively be selected on the engine service
insignificant compared with the improved curve 2 (for heavy running), as shown In both cases, the engine’s operating
engine performance obtained when in Fig. 19a. point will be to the left of the normal
sailing in heavy weather and/or with operating curve, as the propeller will
fouled hull and propeller. Point A is then found at the intersection run heavily.
between propeller curve 1 (2) and the
Use of layout and load constant power curve through M, line In order to avoid exceeding the
diagrams examples 7. In this case, point A will be equal to lefthand limitation line 4 of the load
point M. diagram, it may, in certain cases, be
In the following, four different examples necessary to limit the acceleration
based on fixed pitch propeller (FPP) Once point A has been found in the and/or the propulsion power.
and one example based on controllable layout diagram, the load diagram can
pitch propeller (CPP) are given in order be drawn, as shown in Fig. 19b, and If the expected trade pattern of the
to illustrate the flexibility of the layout hence the actual load limitation lines ship is to be in an area with frequently
and load diagrams. of the diesel engine may be found. appearing heavy wind and sea and

Power A=M 7 7
O SG 5
S 3.3% A 5% A
4
SG MP
Power 1 2 6
A=M
SP 7
5
o r
O 5% L1
at
er
S
en
1 2 6 MP
tg
af
Sh
SP
or
at
er
4 1 2 6
en
Propulsion curve
tg
for heavy running

af
3
Sh
Engine service curve

for heavy running
Engine speed
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O) Propulsion curve
Engine service curve for heavy running
for heavy running Engine speed
Point A: Intersection between lines 1 and 7
Fig. 21a: Example 3 with FPP – engine layout with SG (normal case) Fig. 21b: Example 3 with FPP – load diagram with SG (normal case)
25
large wave resistance, it can, therefore, for the shaft generator’s electrical One solution could be to choose a
be an advantage to design/move the power production. diesel engine with an extra cylinder,
load diagram more towards the left. but another and cheaper solution is to
In Fig. 21a, the engine service curve reduce the electrical power production
The latter can be done by moving the shown for heavy running incorporates of the shaft generator when running in
engine’s optimising point O – and thus this extra power. the upper propulsion power range.
the propeller curve 1 through the opti
mising point – towards the left. How The optimising point O, and thereby the If choosing the latter solution, the re
ever, this will be at the expense of a engine layout curve 1, will normally be quired specified MCR power of the en
slightly increased specific fuel oil con chosen on the propeller curve (~ en gine can be reduced from point M’ to
sumption. gine service curve) through point M. point M as shown in Fig. 22a. Therefore,
when running in the upper propulsion
An example is shown in Figs. 20a and Point A is then found in the same way power range, a diesel generator has to
20b. As will be seen in Fig. 20b, and as in example 1, and the load diagram take over all or part of the electrical
compared with the normal case shown can be drawn as shown in Fig. 21b. power production.
in Example 1 (Fig. 19b), the lefthand
limitation line 4 is moved to the left, giv Example 4: However, such a situation will seldom
ing a wider margin between lines 2 and Special case, with shaft generator occur, as ships rather infrequently op
4, i.e. a larger light running factor has erate in the upper propulsion power
been used in this example. Also in this special case, a shaft gener range. In the example, the optimising
ator is installed but, unlike in Example point O has been chosen equal to
Example 3: 3, now the specified MCR for propul point S, and line 1 may be found.
Normal case, with shaft generator sion MP is placed at the top of the lay
out diagram, see Fig. 22a. This involves Point A, having the highest possible
In this example a shaft generator (SG) that the intended specified MCR of the power, is then found at the intersection
is installed, and therefore the service engine (Point M’) will be placed outside of line L1L3 with line 1, see Fig. 22a,
power of the engine also has to incor the top of the layout diagram. and the corresponding load diagram is
porate the extra shaft power required

S: Continuous service rating of engine M´ S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine A O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram 7 A: Reference point of load diagram
M
O=S
Power 3.3% A 5% A
SG MP
7
SP M´
5
A 7
4 5 M
O=S
o r
Power 1 2 6
at
er
1 2 6 SG MP
en
5% L1
tg
SP
af
Sh
3
or
at
er
4 1 2 6
en
tg
Propulsion curve for heavy running

af
Sh
Engine service curve

for heavy running Engine speed
Point A and M of load diagram Propulsion curve

Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O) for heavy running
Point A: Intersection between line 1 and line L1 L3
Point M: Located on constant power line 7 through point A Engine service curve
and at MP’s speed for heavy running Engine speed
Fig. 22a: Example 4 with FPP – engine layout with SG (special case) Fig. 22b: Example 4 with FPP – load diagram with SG (special case)
26
drawn in Fig. 22b. Point M is found on Therefore, it is recommended to use a applied for engines with CPP running
line 7 at MP’s speed. light running combinator curve (the dotted on a combinator curve.
curve), as shown in Fig. 23, to obtain an
Example with controllable pitch propeller increased operating margin for the diesel The optimising point O for engines with
engine in heavy weather to the load limits VIT can be chosen on the propeller curve
Example 5: indicated by curves 4 and 5. 1 through point A = M with an optimised
With or without shaft generator power from 85 to 100% of the specified
Layout diagram – with shaft generator MCR as mentioned before in the section
Layout diagram – without shaft generator The hatched area in Fig. 23 shows the dealing with optimising point O.
If a controllable pitch propeller (CPP) recommended speed range between
is applied, the combinator curve (of 100% and 96.7% of the specified MCR Load diagram
the propeller with optimum propeller speed for an engine with shaft generator Therefore, when the engine’s specified
efficiency) will normally be selected for running at constant speed. MCR point M has been chosen including
loaded ship including sea margin. engine margin, sea margin and the
The service point S can be located at power for a shaft generator, if installed,
For a given propeller speed, the com any point within the hatched area. point M can be used as point A of the
binator curve may have a given propeller load diagram, which can then be drawn.
pitch, and this means that, like for a fixed The procedure shown in Examples 3
pitch propeller, the propeller may be and 4 for engines with FPP can also be The position of the combinator curve
heavy running in heavy weather. ensures the maximum load range
within the permitted speed range for
engine operation, and it still leaves a
reasonable margin to the load limits
indicated by curves 4 and 5.
M: Specified MCR of engine
S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine Influence on engine running of
A: Reference point of load diagram different types of ship resistance
– plant with FPpropeller
Power
3.3%A 5%A
7 In order to give a brief summary regard
ing the influence on the fixed pitch
5 propeller running and main engine opera
4 tion of different types of ship resistance,
an arbitrary example has been chosen,
1 see the load diagram in Fig. 24.
A=M
5
7 The influence of the different types of
resistance is illustrated by means of
O 5%L 1
S corresponding service points for propul
sion having the same propulsion power,
4 1 using as basis the propeller design
point PD, plus 15% extra power.
3 Propeller design point PD

The propeller will, as previously described,
Recommended range normally be designed according to a
for shaft generator specified ship speed V valid for loaded
operation with ship with clean hull and calm weather
constant speed conditions. The corresponding engine
speed and power combination is
Min Max shown as point PD on propeller curve
Combinator curve speed speed 6 in the load diagram, Fig. 24.
for loaded ship
and incl. sea margin Engine speed Increased ship speed, point S0
If the engine power is increased by, for
example, 15%, and the loaded ship is
still operating with a clean hull and in
Fig. 23: Example 5 with CPP – with or without shaft generator calm weather, point S0, the ship speed
27
V and engine speed n will increase in Point S0 will be placed on the same resistance from heavy seas, an extra
accordance with the propeller law (more propeller curve as point PD. power of, for example, 15% is needed
or less valid for the normal speed range): in order to maintain the ship speed V
Sea running with clean hull and 15% (15% sea margin).
V S 0 = V × 3 .5 115
. = 1041
. ×V sea margin, point S2
Conversely, if still operating with loaded As the ship speed VS2 = V, and if the
nS 0 = n × 3 .0 115
. = 1048
. ×n
ship and clean hull, but now with extra propeller had no slip, it would be expected
that the engine (propeller) speed would
also be constant. However, as the water
does yield, i.e. the propeller has a slip,
the engine speed will increase and the
PD: Propeller design point, clean hull and calm weather running point S2 will be placed on a
Continuous service rating for propulsion with propeller curve 6.2 very close to S0, on
a power equal to 90% specified MCR, based on: propeller curve 6. Propeller curve 6.2
will possibly represent an approximate
S0: Clean hull and calm weather, loaded ship 0.5% heavier running propeller than
S1: Clean hull and calm weather, ballast (trial) curve 6.
S2: Clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship Depending on the ship type and size,
SP: Fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship the heavy running factor of 0.5% may
be slightly higher or lower.
S3: Very heavy sea and wave resistance
For a resistance corresponding to
Engine shaft power % of A about 30% extra power (30% sea mar
gin), the corresponding relative heavy
100% ref. point (A)
110 running factor will be about 1%.
Specified MCR (M)
105 Sea running with fouled hull, and
A=M heavy weather, point SP
100 7
5 When, after some time in service, the
95 ship’s hull has been fouled, and thus
S0 becomes more rough, the wake field
S1 will be different from that of a smooth
90
S2 ship (clean hull).
SP
85
S3 A ship with a fouled hull will, conse
8 4 1 6
80
quently, be subject to an extra resis
2 PD tance which, due to the changed
3 9 wake field, will give rise to a heavier
75 running propeller than experienced
6.3 6.2 6.1 during bad weather conditions alone.
70 When also incorporating some aver
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 age influence of heavy weather, the
propeller curve for loaded ship will
Engine speed, % of A move to the left, see propeller curve
2 in the load diagram in Fig. 24. This
Line 1: Propeller curve through point A=M, layout curve for engine propeller curve, denoted fouled hull
Line 2: Heavy propeller curve, fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship and heavy weather for a loaded ship,
is about 5% heavy running compared
Line 6: Light propeller curve, clean hull and calm weather, to the clean hull and calm weather
loaded ship, layout curve for propeller propeller curve 6.
Line 6.1: Propeller curve, clean hull and calm weather, ballast (trial)
In order to maintain an ample air
Line 6.2: Propeller curve, clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship
supply for the diesel engine’s com
Line 6.3: Propeller curve, very heavy sea and wave resistance bustion, which imposes a limitation
on the maximum combination of
torque and speed, see curve 4 of the
load diagram, it is normal practice to
Fig. 24: Influence of different types of ship resistance on the continuous service rating match the diesel engine and turbo
28
charger etc. according to a propeller seldom loaded during sea trials and Influence of ship resistance on
curve 1 of the load diagram, equal to more often is sailing in ballast, the ac combinator curves – plant with
the heavy propeller curve 2. tual propeller curve 6.1 will be more CPpropeller
light running than curve 6.
Instead of point S2, therefore, point SP This case is rather similar with the FP
will normally be used for the engine lay For a power to the propeller equal to propeller case described above, and
out by referring this service propulsion 90% specified MCR, point S1 on the therefore only briefly described here.
rating to, for example, 90% of the engine’s load diagram, in Fig. 24, indicates an
specified MCR, which corresponds to example of such a running condition. In The CPpropeller will normally operate
choosing a 10% engine margin. order to be able to demonstrate opera on a given combinator curve, i.e. for a
tion at 100% power, if required, during given propeller speed the propeller
In other words, in the example the pro sea trial conditions, it may in some pitch is given (not valid for constant
peller’s design curve is about 5% light cases be necessary to exceed the pro propeller speed). This means that
running compared with the propeller peller speed restriction, line 3, which heavy running operation on a given
curve used for layout of the main engine. during trial conditions may be allowed propeller speed will result in a higher
to be extended to 107%, i.e. to line 9 power operation, as shown in the ex
Running in very heavy seas with of the load diagram. ample in Fig. 25.
heavy waves, point S3
When sailing in very heavy sea against,
with heavy waves, the propeller can be S=PD Propeller design point incl. sea margins, and continuous service rating of engine
78% heavier running (and even more)
than in calm weather, i.e. at the same Line 1 Propeller curve for layout of engine
propeller power, the rate of revolution Line 1 Combinator curve for propeller design, clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship
may be 78% lower.
Line 6.1 Light combinator curve, fouled hull and calm weather, loaded ship
For a propeller power equal to 90% of Line 2 Heavy combinator curve, fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship
specified MCR, point S3 in the load
diagram in Fig. 24 shows an example Line 2.1 Very heavy combinator curve, very heavy sea and wave resistance
of such a running condition.
Engine shaft power % of A
In some cases in practice with strong
wind against, the heavy running has 110 100% ref. point (A)
proved to be even greater and even to Specified MCR (M)
be found to the left of the limitation line 105
A=M
4 of the load diagram. 100 7
5
95
In such situations, to avoid slamming of S=PD
the ship and thus damage to the stem 90
and racing of the propeller, the ship 85
speed will normally be reduced by the
navigating officers on watch. 80
8 4 1 6 3
75
Ship acceleration and operation in
shallow waters 70
When the ship accelerates and the
propeller is being subjected to a larger 65
load than during free sailing, the effect
on the propeller may be similar to that 60
illustrated by means of point S3 in the 2 6.1
load diagram, Fig. 24. In some cases in 2.1
practice, the influence of acceleration 55
on the heavy running has proved to be
even greater. The same conditions are 50
valid for running in shallow waters.
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Sea running at trial conditions, point S1 Engine speed, % of A
Normally, the clean hull propeller curve
6 will be referred to as the trial trip pro
peller curve. However, as the ship is
Fig. 25: Influence of ship resistance on combinator curves for CPpropeller
29
Closing Remarks References
In practice, the ship’s resistance will [1] Technical discussion with
frequently be checked against the results Keld Kofoed Nielsen,
obtained by testing a model of the ship Burmeister & Wain Shipyard,
in a towing tank. The experimental tank Copenhagen
test measurements are also used for
optimising the propeller and hull design. [2] Ship Resistance
H.E. Guldhammer and
When the ship’s necessary power re Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1974
quirement, including margins, and the
propeller’s speed (rate of revolution) [3] Resistance and Propulsion of Ships,
have been determined, the correct Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1983
main engine can then be selected, e.g.
with the help of MAN B&W Diesel’s [4] Paint supplier “International
computerbased engine selection Coatings Ltd.”, 2003
programme.
[5] Fartygspropellrar och Fartygs Framdrift,
In this connection the interaction between Jan Tornblad, KaMeWa Publication,
ship and main engine is extremely im 1985
portant, and the placing of the engine’s
load diagram, i.e. the choice of engine Furthermore, we recommend:
layout in relation to the engine’s (ship’s)
operational curve, must be made care [6] Prediction of Power of Ships
fully in order to achieve the optimum Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1977 and 1986
propulsion plant. In order to avoid over
loading of the main engine for excessive [7] Propulsion of SingleScrew Ships
running conditions, the installation of an Sv. Aa. Harvald & J.M. Hee, 1981
electronic governor with load control may
be useful.
If a main engine driven shaft generator –

producing electricity for the ship – is in
stalled, the interaction between ship and
main engine will be even more complex.
However, thanks to the flexibility of the
layout and load diagrams for the MAN
B&W engines, a suitable solution will
nearly always be readily at hand.
1
1
174 APÊNDICE D. SELECÇÃO DE MOTORES PROPULSORES
Apêndice E
Derating para Reduzir Consumo de
Combustı́vel
175
176 APÊNDICE E. DERATING
Derating: a solution for
high fuel savings and lower emissions
Rudolf Wettstein1 & David Brown2

Wärtsilä Switzerland Ltd, Winterthur
Summary
This paper sets out ways to achieve worthwhile reductions in the fuel consumption of Wärtsilä low-speed engines
when designing newbuildings. The key approach is to use the flexibility offered by the full power/speed layout field to
select a better layout point at a derated power with a lower BSFC and also possibly a higher propeller efficiency.
Introduction
Engine power, %R1
Fuel efficiency and environmental friendliness are
high on the list of requirements for ship propulsion Higher propulsive R1
100 0
engines from today’s shipping- and shipbuilding efficiency
-1 ∆BSFC
e
-2 g/kWh
lin
industries. Thus Wärtsilä is committed to creating -3
e
qu
better technology in these areas that will benefit both 90 or
tt -4
Rx
an
the customers and the environment. -5

st
on
C
Yet it is often forgotten by many ship designers -6

R3
and those specifying low-speed main engines that 80
-7
advantage can be taken of the power/speed layout Lower
specific
field of Wärtsilä low-speed engines to select an engine fuel
rating point with a still lower fuel consumption. 70
R4 R2
consumption
The concept of the power/speed layout field for

low-speed marine diesel engines originated in the
1970s. The layout options were step-by-step widened
60
until, in 1984, our low-speed engines began to be 70 80 90 100
offered with a broad power/speed layout field. An Engine speed, %R1
engine’s contracted maximum continuous rating
(CMCR) can be selected at any point in the power/ Fig. 1: Typical layout field for RTA and RT-flex engines. The
speed field defined by the four corner points: R1, contracted maximum continuous rating (CMCR) can be
R2, R3 and R4 (Fig. 1). The rating point R1 is the selected at any point, such as Rx, within the layout field. The
maximum continuous rating (MCR) of the engine. ∆BSFC is the reduction in full-load BSFC for any rating
Most recently, the layout fields for certain point Rx relative to that at the R1 rating.
engines, the RT-flex82C, RTA82C, RT-flex82T and [08#044]
RTA82T, are extended to increased speeds for the
R1+ and R2+ points (Fig. 2). The extended fields namely the propeller, shafting, etc.
offer widened flexibility to select the most efficient One basic principle of the engine layout field is
propeller speed for lowest daily fuel consumption, that the same maximum cylinder pressure (Pmax)
and the most economic propulsion equipment, is employed at all CMCR points within the layout
field. Thus the reduced brake mean effective pressure
1
Rudolf Wettstein is Director, Marketing & (BMEP) obtained at the reduced power outputs in
Application Development, Ship Power, Wärtsilä the field results in an increased ratio of Pmax/BMEP
Switzerland Ltd. and thus lower brake specific fuel consumption
2
David Brown is Manager, Marketing Support, (BSFC).
Wärtsilä Switzerland Ltd. The other principle behind the layout field is
—1— © Wärtsilä Corporation, June 2008
Engine power, %R1
Engine power, %R1
R1
100
R1 R1+
100
90 Rating line
Rx2
slope = α
Rx1
R3
90 R3
80
70
80 R4 R2
R4 R2 R2+
80 90 100 60
Engine speed, %R1 70 80 90 100
Engine speed, %R1
Fig. 2: For the RT-flex82C, RTA82C, RT-flex82T and Fig. 3: For a given ship, a rating line (slope α) can be applied
RTA82T engines the layout fields are extended to the ratings to the layout field so that all rating points on that line would
R1+ and R2+ at the same powers as R1 and R2 respectively give the same ship speed with a suitably optimized propeller.
but with increased shaft speed. Rating points at lower speeds on the rating line require
[08#049] a larger propeller diameter and give a greater propulsive
efficiency.
that the lower CMCR speeds allow flexibility in line (Fig. 3). This is the line through a CMCR rating
selection of the optimum propeller with consequent point such that any point on the line represents
benefits in propulsion efficiency and thus lower fuel a new power/speed combination that will give
consumption in terms of tonnes per day. the same ship speed in knots. The points on the
One feature to be borne in mind when selecting rating line all require the same propeller type but
the rating point for the derated engine is the rating with different adaptations to suit the power/speed
combination. In general, lower speeds of rotation
Fig. 4: Since the 1980s engine ratings have been selected over require larger propeller diameters and thereby
a steadily smaller area of the layout field.
increase the total propulsive efficiency. Usually the
[08#051]
selected propeller speed depends on the maximum
permissible propeller diameter. The maximum
Engine power, %R1
diameter is often determined by operational
R1 requirements, such as design draught and ballast
100 Area of recent
CMCR selection draught limitations, as well as class recommendations
concerning propeller–hull clearance (pressure
90 impulse induced by the propeller on the hull).
The slope of the rating line (α) depends broadly
Area of CMCR upon the ship type. It can range from 0.15 for
selection in
80
R3
the 1980s
tankers, bulk carriers and general cargo ships up to
about 10,000 tdw to 0.22 for container ships larger
than 3000 TEU and 0.25 for tankers and bulk
carriers larger than 30,000 tdw.
70
R4 R2
Changing engine selection strategies
When the broad layout field was introduced in
RTA engines in 1984 it was widely welcomed by
60
70 80 90 100 shipowners and shipbuilders. Afterwards RTA
Engine speed, %R1 engines were frequently selected at ratings in the
lower part of the layout field to gain the benefits of
Bunker price, US$/tonne
380cSt HFO
500
400
300
200
100
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Fig. 5: Bunker prices have considerably increased in recent times. The chart shows the average price of 380 cSt heavy fuel oil (HFO)
from various ports around the world from 2004 to 2008. The green bars indicate the mean price for each year.
[08#045]
lower fuel consumption. scheme is imposed on shipping it would give further

However, under the pressure of first costs and economic advantage to reducing fuel consumption
softening bunker prices the strategy was changed and and further help to pay for any necessary extra
the selected power/speed combination has, during investment costs.
the past 15 years or so, been selected to be closer to In addition it is important to bear in mind that
the R1 rating (Fig. 4). the fuel savings measures discussed here will also
Yet, more recently, bunker prices have steadily result in lower NOX emissions in absolute terms.
climbed, rising by some 85 per cent in the course of
2007 from US$ 270 to US$ 500 per tonne (Fig. 5).
The result is that bunkers are now the dominant part Derating engines for greater fuel savings
of ship operating costs. In the following pages are some case studies for ship
Such drastic increases in bunker prices give a installations for which an engine is selected with an
strong impetus to reduce fuel costs. They can also extra cylinder without increasing the engine’s power.
justify additional investment cost such as selecting These cases demonstrate that such engine derating
an engine with an extra cylinder. The consequent can be an advantageous solution with remarkable
fuel saving may make for an acceptable payback time saving potential. Depending on bunker costs, such a
on the additional investment cost. It would justify strategy can have a very attractive pay-back time.
any efforts to increase the overall efficiency of the The four case studies are for a Suezmax tanker,
complete propulsion system. a Capesize bulk carrier, a Panamax container ship
Further impetus to implementing such changes and a Post-Panamax container ship. They include
in engine selection strategy will come from a future estimations of the respective pay-back times for the
need to cut CO2 emissions. If a carbon trading additional engine costs.

Case 1: Suezmax tanker & Capesize bulk carrier
In this case, a typical Suezmax tanker might be costing US$ 500 per tonne.
specified with a six-cylinder Wärtsilä RT-flex68-D The resulting payback time for the extra cost
main engine. However, if a seven-cylinder engine is associated with the additional engine cylinder is
employed instead, the daily fuel consumption can be estimated to be between 3.5 and six years depending
reduced by some 3.4 per cent. on the bunker price of US$ 600–400 per tonne
In the engine/propeller layout for this ship as respectively (Fig. 7). The calculations of the payback
shown in figure 6, the CMCR points for the two are based on an interest rate of eight per cent.
alternative engines are on the same rating line A similar case may be made for a Capesize bulk
(α = 0.3) through a common design point for the carrier as it would be similar in size and speed to a
same ship service speed (knots). Suezmax tanker and would thus require a similar
The calculation of annual fuel costs given in table engine.
2 is based on 6000 hours running with heavy fuel oil
Table 1: Typical ship parameters for a Suezmax tanker
Length overall: about 274 m

Beam: 46–50 m
Design draught: 16 m
Scantling draught: 17 m
Sea margin: 15 %
Engine service load: 90 %
Table 2: Main engine options
Alternative engines: 6RT-flex68-D 7RT-flex68-D

Cylinder bore, mm: 680 680
Piston stroke, mm: 2720 2720
Stroke/bore ratio: 4:1 4:1
MCR, kW / rpm: 18,780/95 21,910/95
CMCR, kW / rpm: 18,780/95 18,460/89.7
BMEP at CMCR, bar: 20.0 17.9
CSR at 90% CMCR, kW/rpm: 16,902/91.7 16,614/86.6
BSFC at CMCR, g/kWh:
– 100% load: 169.0 164.8
– 90% load: 165.6 162.6
Daily fuel consumption, tonnes/day:
– ISO fuel, LCV 42.7 MJ/kg: 67.2 64.8
– LCV 40.5 MJ/kg: 70.8 68.4
– As percentage, %: 100 96.6 –3.4%
Annual fuel costs, US$: 8,853,000 8,544,000
Fuel saving, US$: 0 – 309,000
Engine length, mm: 8690 9870

Engine mass, tonnes: 472 533

Case 1: Suezmax tanker & Capesize bulk carrier
Engine power, kW
22,000
7RT-flex68-D
20,000 Design point

Constant ship speed CMCR = R1
CMCR
α = 0.3 18,780 kW, 95 rpm
18,460 kW
89.7 rpm
6RT-flex68-D
Fig. 6: Engine/propeller layouts for 18,000
a typical Suezmax tanker with a
derated seven-cylinder RT-flex68-D
engine compared with a six-cylinder CSR
engine at the full MCR power and CSR 16,902 kW
16,000 16,614 kW 91.7 rpm
speed. 86.6 rpm
[08#052]
75 80 85 90 95 100
Engine speed, rpm
Millions US$
Bunker price, HFO:

3.0 $600/tonne
$500/tonne
$400/tonne
2.0
Fig. 7: Variation of payback times
from fuel savings according to Investment approx. ($)
bunker costs for the derated engine 1.0
with an extra cylinder for a typical
Suezmax tanker.
[08#144] 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Years

Case 2: Panamax container ship
In this case, a typical Panamax container ship with The calculation of annual fuel costs given in table
a container capacity of up to 5000 TEU might be 4 is based on 6000 hours running with heavy fuel oil
specified with an eight-cylinder Wärtsilä RT-flex82C costing US$ 500 per tonne.
main engine. However, if a nine-cylinder engine is The resulting payback time for the extra cost
employed instead, the daily fuel consumption can be associated with the additional engine cylinder
reduced by some two per cent. is estimated to be between four and seven years
In the engine/propeller layout for this ship as depending on the bunker price of US$ 600–400 per
shown in figure 8, the CMCR points for the two tonne respectively (Fig. 9). The calculations of the
alternative engines are on the same rating line payback are based on an interest rate of eight per
(α = 0.2) through a common design point for the cent.
same ship service speed (knots).
Table 3: Typical ship parameters for a Panamax

container ship

Beam: 32.2 m
Scantling draught: 13.5 m
Sea margin: 15 %
Alternative engines: 8RT-flex82C 9RT-flex82C

Stroke/bore ratio: 3.2:1 3.2:1
MCR, kW / rpm: 36,160/102 40,680/102
CMCR, kW / rpm: 36,160/102 35,480/97.5
CSR at 90% CMCR, kW / rpm: 32,544/98.5 32,250/94.3
– 100% load: 169.0 166.6
– 90% load: 166.5 164.6
– ISO fuel, LCV 42.7 MJ/kg: 130.0 127.4
– LCV 40.5 MJ/kg: 137.1 134.3
– As percentage, %: 100 98 – 2.0%
Engine length, mm: 14,055 16,500


Case 2: Panamax container ship
Engine power, kW
42,000
40,000
9RT-flex82C
38,000
CMCR Design point
35,850 kW CMCR = R1+
Fig. 8: Engine/propeller layouts for a Constant ship speed 97.5 rpm 36,160 kW, 102 rpm
α = 0.2
typical Panamax container ship with 36,000
a derated nine-cylinder RT-flex82C
engine compared with an eight-
cylinder engine at the full MCR 8RT-flex82C
power and speed. 34,000
CSR CSR
[08#062] 32,250 kW 32,544 kW
94.3 rpm 98.5 rpm
32,000
85 90 95 100 105
Engine speed, rpm
Millions US$
4.0
Bunker price, HFO:
$600/tonne
$500/tonne
3.0
$400/tonne
Fig. 9: Variation of payback times 2.0

from fuel savings according to
bunker costs for the derated engine Investment approx. ($)
1.0
with an extra cylinder for a typical
Panamax container ship.
[08#145] 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Years

Case 3: Post-Panamax container ship
In this case, a typical Post-Panamax container The calculation of annual fuel costs given in table
ship with a container capacity of around 7000 6 is based on 6000 hours running with heavy fuel oil
TEU might be specified with an eleven-cylinder costing US$ 500 per tonne.
Wärtsilä RT-flex96C main engine. However, if a The resulting payback time for the extra cost
12-cylinder engine is employed instead, the daily fuel associated with the additional engine cylinder is
consumption can be reduced by some 2.4 per cent. estimated to be between two-and-a-half and four
In the engine/propeller layout for this ship as years depending on the bunker price of US$ 600–
shown in figure 10, the CMCR points for the two 400 per tonne respectively (Fig. 11). The calculations
alternative engines are on the same rating line of the payback are based on an interest rate of eight
(α = 0.2) through a common design point for the per cent.
same ship service speed (knots).
Table 5: Typical ship parameters for a Post-Panamax

container ship

Beam: 42.8 m
Scantling draught: 14.5 m
Sea margin: 15 %
Alternative engines: 11RT-flex96C 12RT-flex96C

Stroke/bore ratio: 2.6:1 2.6:1
MCR, kW / rpm: 66,330/102 72,360/102
CMCR, kW / rpm: 66,330/102 65,919/98.9
CSR at 90% CMCR, kW / rpm: 59,697/98.5 59,327/95.5
– 100% load: 171.0 168.0
– 90% load: 166.8 163.8
– ISO fuel, LCV 42.7 MJ/kg: 239 233.2
– LCV 40.5 MJ/kg: 252 245.9
– As percentage, %: 100 97.6 – 2.4%
Engine length, mm: 21,550 23,230


Case 3: Post-Panamax container ship
Engine power, kW
72,000
12RT-flex96C
70,000
68,000 Design point

CMCR CMCR = R1
Constant ship speed
α = 0.2 65,919 kW 66,330 kW, 102 rpm
98.9 rpm
66,000
Fig. 10: Engine/propeller layouts for 11RT-flex96C
a typical Post-Panamax container
64,000
ship with a derated 12-cylinder RT-
flex96C engine compared with an
11-cylinder engine at the full MCR 62,000
power and speed.
[08#127]
60,000 CSR
59,327 kW CSR
95.5 rpm 59,697 kW
98.5 rpm
58,000
90 95 100 105
Engine speed, rpm
Millions US$
8.0 Bunker price, HFO:

$600/tonne
$500/tonne
6.0
$400/tonne
Fig. 11: Variation of payback times 4.0

from fuel savings according to
bunker costs for the derated engine Investment approx. ($)
with an extra cylinder for the typical 2.0
Post-Panamax container ship.
[08#146] 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Years

Case 4: Derating without adding an a modest increase in cost of the D version for the
higher-efficiency turbochargers used, but the extra
engine cylinder
cost would soon be repaid by the fuel cost savings.
It is also feasible to apply a derated engine to obtain
fuel savings in such a way that an additional engine
cylinder is not required. Derating with flexibility to full rating
An example of this can be seen with the Wärtsilä Although derating offers attractive economics, it
RT-flex50 engine. In October 2007, the D version can be frustrating to buy more ‘engine’ than seems
of this engine was announced, in which the engine necessary. Yet there is an interesting option to retain
power was increased by 5.1 per cent and the BSFC an ability to utilise the full available installed engine
at full-load was reduced by 2 g/kWh compared with power, even up to the full R1 rating for future use to
the B version. obtain higher ship service speeds.
Thus if a ‘-D’ engine is derated to the same The concept would be to set up the engine for
cylinder power output as the original version of the the derated output at the chosen reduced service
RT-flex50, then the BSFC at full load is reduced speed. Then for a later date, the engine could be
by 4.5 g/kWh, or 2.7 per cent (see Table 7). For a re-adapted to the higher output. However, this needs
typical bulk carrier with a six-cylinder RT-flex50 corresponding provisions in the selection and design
engine this can translate into annual savings of of the propeller, shafting and ancillary equipment to
US$ 124,000 when operating for 6000 running meet the requirements of the envisaged higher power.
hours a year with heavy fuel oil costing US$ 500 Furthermore the engine would need to be tested
per tonne. Even greater savings are possible if the and approved by the Classification Society for both
engine is derated to a lower running speed (rpm) ratings with all the necessary emissions certification.
at the derated power to gain the benefits of a better
propulsion efficiency. RT-flex technology as an important
There are already a number of standard ship
designs delivered and on order with RT-flex50-B or contribution to fuel saving
even the original RT-flex50 engine. So it would be Wärtsilä RT-flex technology plays an important role
perfectly feasible to install a derated RT-flex50-D in fuel saving. Wärtsilä RT-flex low-speed engines
in further newbuildings to the same ship designs incorporate the latest electronically-controlled
and obtain the benefit of the substantial savings in common-rail technology for fuel injection and valve
operating costs. The overall dimensions of the D actuation. The result is great flexibility in engine
version are identical to those of the B and original setting, bringing benefits in lower fuel consumption,
versions of the RT-flex50. There would, however, be lower minimum running speeds, smokeless operation
Table 7: Options for the Wärtsilä RT-flex50 engine type
Alternative engines: 6RT-flex50 6RT-flex50-D

S/B ratio: 4.1:1 4.1:1
MCR, kW / rpm: 9720/124 10,470/124
CMCR, kW / rpm: 9720/124 9720/124
CSR at 90% CMCR, kW / rpm: 8748/119.7 8748/119.7
– 100% load: 171 165.7
– 90% load: 167.6 163.0
– ISO fuel, LCV 42.7 MJ/kg: 35.2 34.2
– LCV 40.5 MJ/kg: 37.1 36.2
– As percentage, %: 100 97.3 – 2.7%
— 10 — © Wärtsilä Corporation, June 2008

at all running speeds, and better control of other also possibly a higher propeller efficiency.
exhaust emissions. It must also not be forgotten that any fuel savings
Not only do RT-flex engines have a lower part- achieved at the ship design stage will have benefits in
load fuel consumption than RTA engines but they also reducing exhaust emissions.
can be adapted through Delta Tuning so that their If you have a project for which you wish to
part-load fuel consumtion is even lower. [1] explore the fuel-saving possibilities through derating
Owing to the interaction between fuel economy as set out in this paper, then please contact your
and NOX emissions, there is always the possibility nearest Wärtsilä office. Our experts will be delighted
that fuel saving measures will have an impact on to calculate various alternatives for your evaluation.
NOX emissions. As with all new marine engines
nowadays, Wärtsilä RTA and RT-flex engines are all References
fully compliant with the NOX emission regulation of
1. German Weisser, ‘Fuel saving with RT-flex’,
Annexe VI of the MARPOL 1973/78 convention.
Wärtsilä Switzerland Ltd, July 2004.
Moreover, the engines in the Wärtsilä portfolio will
be adapted to meet the coming IMO NOX reduction
level Tier II.
Conclusion
The paper shows that there are techniques to achieve
worthwhile reductions in the fuel consumption
of Wärtsilä low-speed engines when designing
newbuildings. The key approach is to use the
flexibility offered by the full power/speed layout field
to select a better layout point with a lower BSFC and
Published June 2008 by:

Wärtsilä Switzerland Ltd
PO Box 414
CH-8401 Winterthur
Tel: +41 52 262 49 22
Fax: +41 52 262 07 18
www.wartsila.com
— 11 — © Wärtsilä Corporation, June 2008

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Hidrodinâmica e Propulsão

Engenharia de Máquinas Marı́timas

3.3.2 Coeficiente de carga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

A Previsão Baseada nos Ensaios de Propulsão 87

B Provas de velocidade e Potência 121

C Condições das Provas de Velocidade e Potência 133

D Selecção de Motores Propulsores 141

1.1 Plano de flutuação, longitudinal e transversal de um navio. . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.1 Decomposição da resistência. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.1 Hélice com tubeira. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.8 Geometria do hélice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.1 Variantes de instalações propulsoras diesel-mecânicas lentas e de média veloci-

1.1 Valores de K na fórmula de Alexander. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.1 Valores do coeficiente de correcção cA em função do comprimento do navio. . . 29

3.1 Séries sistemáticas de propulsores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

- deformação de um navio de referência;

- modelo matemático para definição de forma em função de parâmetros do navio;

- utilização das séries sistemáticas.

1.1.1 Principais dimensões dos navios

- o plano de flutuação de projecto;

Figura 1.1: Plano de flutuação, longitudinal e transversal de um navio.

O plano longitudinal, único plano de simetria do navio, é o plano de referência. A forma

Figura 1.2: Plano geométrico de um navio.

1.1.2 Coeficientes de forma do navio

Figura 1.3: Principais dimensões dos navios.

- o coeficiente de finura total (“block coeficient”):

- o coeficiente de finura da flutuação:

- Awp é a área do plano de flutuação;

Figura 1.4: Marcação no costado das linhas de carga do navio.

- Lwp o comprimento na linha de flutuação;

Tabela 1.1: Valores de K na fórmula de Alexander.

1.2 Comportamento hidrodinâmico do navio

- o comportamento do navio no mar;

O cálculo do escoamento e o projecto de hélices pode ser considerado como um sub-tópico do

- experimentais em modelos à escala reduzida, ou à escala real;

- numéricas, através de soluções analı́ticas ou com recurso à mecânica de fluidos compu-

Os princı́pios fundamentais destas metodologias são sumariamente descritos nas secções

1.3 Métodos empı́ricos

Figura 1.5: Tanque de provas utilizado

1.4 Métodos experimentais

- as técnicas experimentais não-intrusivas, como a Laser-Doppler Velocimetry, que per-

Figura 1.9: Escoamento num hélice.

1.5 Simulações numéricas

- Equação de conservação da quantidade de movimento,

- Equação de conservação da energia (forma simplificada),

em que xi é a coordenada na direcção i, ui é a componente da velocidade na direcção i, ρ

Figura 1.10: Malha colocada à esquerda e desfasada à direita.

algumas vantagens e desvantagens. As mais importantes estão relacionadas com:

- o tratamento das fronteiras do problema;

- a solução para o acoplamento pressão-velocidade (formato xadrez na solução da pressão).

Figura 1.12: Um “PC-cluster”

- SIMPLE / método de projecção;

- volume finito / diferenças finitas;

- aproximação dos termos convectivos/difusivos das equações;

- o método de integração para a evolução temporal;

- 2 a 8 GB RAM por nó;

- comunicação em rede com velocidade superior a 1 Gbps;

- elevada capacidade para armazenamento de dados;

- sistema operativo estável.

Para a solução de um problema de mecânica de fluidos num “PC-cluster” é necessário pro-

Figura 1.13: Decomposição 1D, 2D ou 3D do domı́nio espacial de um pro-

Figura 1.14: Troca de valores nas fronteiras dos sub-domı́nios.

em que V é a velocidade do navio e RT a sua resistência total.