Lingua INglesa Estrutura Sintatica PDF

LÍNGUA INGLESA –
ESTRUTURA
SINTÁTICA I
autor
HENRIQUE ROMANIELLO PASSOS
1ª edição
SESES
rio de janeiro 2016
Conselho editorial luis claudio dallier saldanha; roberto paes; gladis linhares;
karen bortoloti; marilda franco de moura
Autor do original henrique ramaniello passos
Projeto editorial roberto paes
Coordenação de produção gladis linhares
Coordenação de produção EaD karen fernanda bortoloti
Projeto gráfico paulo vitor bastos
Diagramação bfs media
Revisão linguística amanda carla duarte aguiar
Imagem de capa kosobu | dreamstime.com
Todos os direitos reservados. Nenhuma parte desta obra pode ser reproduzida ou transmitida
por quaisquer meios (eletrônico ou mecânico, incluindo fotocópia e gravação) ou arquivada em
qualquer sistema ou banco de dados sem permissão escrita da Editora. Copyright seses, 2016.
Dados Internacionais de Catalogação na Publicação (cip)
P289l Passos, Henrique Ramaniello

Língua inglesa : estrutura sintática I / Henrique Ramaniello Passos
Rio de Janeiro : SESES, 2016.
120 p. : il.
isbn: 978-85-5548-196-3
1. Syntax. 2. Phrases. 3. Figures of speech. 4. Wordclass/part of speech.

5. Structures I. SESES. II. Estácio.
cdd 420
Diretoria de Ensino — Fábrica de Conhecimento

Rua do Bispo, 83, bloco F, Campus João Uchôa
Rio Comprido — Rio de Janeiro — rj — cep 20261-063
Sumário
Prefácio 7
1. Word Classes and the World of Prepositions 9

1.1 A quick revise of word classes 11
1.2 The world of prepositions 13
1.2.1 Simple and complex prepositions 13
1.2.1.1 Complex prepositions 15
1.3 Prepositions and their meanings 18
1.3.1 Prepositions of direction and place 19
1.4 Prepositional phrase 24
2. Adjectives 31
2.1 Adjectives 33
2.1.1 Pospositive adjectives 34
2.1.2 Nominal Adjectives 36
2.1.3 Nouns as adjectives 37
2.1.4 Participial adjective 39
2.1.5 Adjectives From a Verb 40
2.1.6 Comparative and superlative adjectives 42
2.1.7 Qualitative and classifying adjectives 43
2.1.8 Adjective phrase 43
2.1.9 Predicative Adjective 45
2.2 Apositives 46
2.3 Adjective clause 48
3. Active and Passive Voice 53
3.1 Active Voice 55

3.2 Passive Voice 55
3.2.1 When to use passive voice 56
3.2.2 Active voice 57
3.2.2.1 Passive voice 58
3.2.3 Reported Questions 62
3.2.4 Reported Requests 63
3.2.5 Reported Orders 64
3.3 Subject + passive reporting verb +
to-infinitive (simple or continuous) 68
3.3.1 Subject + passive reporting verb +
to-infinitive (perfect or perfect continuous) 69
4. Idioms
4.1 Lexical aspects 75

4.1.1 Are idioms arbitrary? 75
4.1.2 Why idioms mean what they mean 75
4.1.2.0.1 Idioms derived from sailing: 76
4.1.3 Idioms and culture 77
4.1.4 Using idioms effectively 78
4.2 Semantic aspects 79
4.2.1 Idioms and Metaphors 79
4.2.2 Idioms and Clichés 80
4.2.3 Idioms and Proverbs 80
4.2.4 Idioms and Fixed Expressions 81
4.2.5 Transparent Idioms 84
4.2.6 Semi - Transparent Idioms 84
4.2.7 Semi-Opaque Idioms 84
4.2.8 Opaque Idioms 84
4.2.9 Informal Idioms 85
4.2.10 Formal Idioms 85
4.2.11 Verbal Idioms 85
5. Linguistic Variation and Figures of Speech 95

5.1 Linguistic variation 97
Preface
Dear Students,
The discipline Syntactic Structures I aims at approaching key features

related to conceptual and organizing traits of English language syntax.
Despite the intimacy students may have with some of the topics approached
in this volume, supported as they may be by a somewhat established linguistic
intuition developed over the years, there is nonetheless some basic knowledge
slipping away from the apprentice, i.e., all of us. But this is the necessary step
to come after being exposed the target language for a relatively long period: the
crouches of the mother language are left behind by virtue of students’ desire of
getting to grips with such a metalinguistic procedure: now it is time to get to
know the second language through the second language itself (although Lord
Byron has stated that you only know your language when you study another).
Enjoy it!
7
1
Word Classes
and the World of
Prepositions
This initial chapter is going to present an overview about word classes and a
more comprehensive study of prepositions. By telling the former from the
latter, students will be able to recognise the function and the importance
of those linking words in their role of connecting smaller syntactic bits of
communication (nouns, pronouns and other classes) to give way to coherence
and cohesion of the discourse.
OBJECTIVES
• Distinguishing the elements belonging to the parts of the speech;
• Getting to know simple and complex prepositions as much as prepositional phrases by
employing them in the construction of textual meaning through coherence and cohesion.
10 • capítulo 1
1.1 A quick revise of word classes
According to the role words play in a sentence, they belong to categories called
word classes. The main word classes in English are: noun, verb, adjective,
adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, determiner and exclamation.
Noun
A noun is able to identify a person (man, girl, engineer, friend), a thing

(horse, wall, flower, country), an idea, quality, or state (anger, courage, life,
luckiness)
Verb
A verb describes events and actions performed by a person or a thing. Verbs

present actions(jump, stop, explore), events (snow, happen),situations (be,
seem, have) and changes (evolve, shrink, widen).
Adjective
An adjective gives extra information about a noun to which it is closely

connected. For example:
an exciting adventure
a green apple
a tidy room
Adverb
An adverb conveys information about a verb, adjective, or other adverb,

which can be made stronger or weaker, and often appears between the subject
and its verb
She nearly lost everything.
capítulo 1 • 11
Pronoun
Pronouns are used to substitute a noun that is already known or has already
been presented. Their usage preventsnouns from being repeated. For example:
Laura left early because she was tired.
Anthony brought the avocados with him.
That is the only option left.
Something will have to change.
Personal pronouns are used in place of nouns referring to specific people

or things, for example I, me, mine, you, yours,his, her, hers, we, they, or them.
They can be divided into various different categories according to their role in
a sentence, as follows:
• subjective pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they
• objective pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them
• possessive pronouns: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their
• reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves.
Preposition
Words such as after, in, to, on, and with are known as prepositions.
Prepositions are usually used in front of nouns or pronouns to bridge a
relationship between the noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence. They
describe, for example, the position of something, the time when something
happens, or the way in which something is done.
Conjunction
A conjunction (or a connective) is a word such as and, because, but, for,

if, or, and when. Conjunctions are used to connect phrases, clauses, and
sentences.The two main kinds are known as coordinating conjunctions and
subordinating conjunctions.
12 • capítulo 1
Determiner
A determiner is a word coming together with a noun, such as a/an, the, every,
this, those, or many (as in a dog, the dog, this dog, those dogs, every dog, many
dogs). The determiner the is sometimes known as the definite article and the
determiner a (or an) as the indefinite article.
Exclamation
An exclamation (also called an interjection) is a word or phrase that shows

strong emotion, such as surprise, pleasure, or anger. Exclamations usually
appear by themselves, and in writing they are usually followed by an exclamation
mark rather than a full stop.
1.2 The world of prepositions

A preposition is a linking element placed between two words or two clauses, a
connector that introduces a prepositional phrase. It usually connects a noun
or noun phrase to the part of the sentence modified by the whole prepositional
phrase, and it shows the relation between both elements.
Prepositions can be quite troublesome for non-native English students, i.e.
students whose first language is not the English language. Take a look at those
examples: We say we are at the hospital to visit a friend who is in the hospital.
We lie in bed but on the couch. We watch a film at the theater but on television.
1.2.1 Simple and complex prepositions
Simple prepositions consist of a single word (in, at, on, for, with, behind, etc),
while complex prepositions consist of a group of words taken as one unit. Some
examples of complex prepositions in English are:
in spite of, with respect to, except for, by dint of (because of), next to
Simple prepositions describe, for example:
• the position ofsomething:

Her bag was under the chair.
capítulo 1 • 13
The dog crawled between us and lay down at our feet.
His flat was over the shop.
• the time when something happens:

They arrived on Sunday.
The class starts at 9 a.m.
Shortly after their marriage they moved to Colorado.
• the way in which something is done:

We went by train.
They stared at each other without speaking.
Some prepositions may be made up of more than one word:

They moved here because of the baby.
We sat next to each other.
The hotel is perched on top of a cliff.
Common Prepositions
about behind except outside
above below for over
across beneath from past
after beside in through
against between inside to
along beyond into under
among by near until
around despite of up
at down off with
before during on without
Prepositions of place
Prepositions “in”, “on” or “at” are used for different circumstances

of localization.
14 • capítulo 1
“In” is usually used for places which are somehow surrounded by a physical
or virtual limit, for example walls.
“On” is used for surface.
“At” is used for specific place.
• We were at the theater (watching a play)

It was dark in the theater (inside the theater)
• We stopped at a village near Coventry (point)
There were two shops in the village (inside the village)
• The trains stops at Balham (a point on the railway line)
The Perrings live in Balham (surrounded by houses)
• We were at the corner of the street (a point), but in the corner of the room
(a place surrounded on all sides)
IN BED – under the sheets X ON BED – on the sheets.
AT THE LIBRARY – in the front of it X IN THE LIBRARY – inside the building
Prepositions and means of transportation
The expressions get on and get off are used respectively for entering and
leaving a bus, plane, ship or train, taken as public transportation.No object or
object pronoun can come between get on or get off. For example get on the
bus, get off the bus, get on the plane, get off the plane. Enclosed means of
transportation otherwise employ verbs like get in and get out of mainly because
they are private. For example, get in a van, get out of a car, get in the taxi. Open-
air vehicles acceptget on and off: get on a motorcycle, get off a bike.
1.2.1.1 Complex prepositions
A word group (such as "along with" or "on account of") that functions like an
ordinary one-word preposition.
Complex prepositions can be divided into two groups:
• two-word units (a word + a simple preposition), such as apart from (also
known as compound prepositions)
• three-word units (a simple preposition + a noun + a simple preposition),
such as by means of (also known as phrasal prepositions)
capítulo 1 • 15
Examples of complex prepositions in English:
according to, ahead of, along with, apart from, as for, as well as, aside
from, away from, because of, but for, by means of, by virtue of, by way of, close
to contrary to, due to, except for, far from, for lack of, in accordance with, in
addition to, in back of, in between, in (the) case of, in charge of, in exchange
for in front of, in light of, in line with, in place of, in (the) process of, in regard
to inside of, in spite of, instead of, in view of, near to, next to, on account of, on
behalf of, on top of, out of, outside of, owing to, prior to, subsequent to, such as
thanks to, together with, up against, up to, up until, with respect to
Examples of complex prepositions in sentences:
• "Up until Pearl Harbor, half of the 48 states had laws making it illegal to
employ a married woman."
(Bill Bryson, The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid.
Broadway Books, 2006)
• "Thank God men cannot as yet fly and lay waste the sky as well as the earth!"
(Henry David Thoreau, Journals, January 3, 1861)
• "But our deeds are like children that are born to us; they live and act apart
from our own will. Nay, children may be strangled, but deeds never: they have
an indestructible life both in and out of our consciousness."
(George Eliot, Romola, 1862-1863)
• "To ensure that it was not for lack of appetite that the spider had rejected
the moth, I offered the spider an edible scarab beetle, which it promptly took."
(Thomas Eisner, For Love ofInsects. Harvard University Press, 2003)
• "Thanks to the Interstate Highway System, it is now possible to travel from

coast to coast without seeing anything."
(Charles Kuralt, Onthe Road With Charles Kuralt. Putnam, 1985)
• "To see what is in front of one's nose needs a constant struggle."

(George Orwell, "In Front ofYourNose." Tribune, March 22, 1946)
16 • capítulo 1
• "In addition to my other numerous acquaintances, I have one more
intimate confidant. My depression is the most faithful mistress I have known.
No wonder, then, that I return the love."
(Soren Kierkegaard, Either/Or, 1843; translated 1987)
• "Her name is Miss Mey. She owns all the land for miles around, as well as
the house in which we live."
(Alice Walker, “Beauty: When the Other Dancer Is the Self”, 1983)
• ""Man, unlike any other thing organic or inorganic in the universe,

grows beyond his work, walks up the stairs of his concepts, emerges ahead of
his accomplishments."
(John Steinbeck, The GrapesofWrath. Viking, 1939)
As opposed to simple prepositions, compound prepositions are two or three words

in length. . . .
• Juan's car is parked in front of the store.
Notice how the compound preposition in front of describes the relationship between
Juan's car and the store.
• John sat next to Miriam at the pep rally.
In the above sentence, the compound preposition next to describes where John sat in
relation to Miriam.
• We were late because of the heavy traffic.
In this last example, the compound preposition because of shows the relationship
between the lateness and the heavy traffic."
(Jeffrey Strausser and Jose Paniza, Painless English For Speakers of Other Lan-
guages. Barron's, 2007)
• "'Phrasal preposition' or 'complex preposition' (Quirk et al. 1985: 670)

denotes the structure 'Preposition1 + Noun + Preposition2.' A variety of
prepositions may occupy the first position, e.g. in (in relation to), with (with
regard to), by (by means of), for (for the sake of), on (on account of), at (at
variance with), as well as the second position, e.g., of (in view of), for (in return
capítulo 1 • 17
for), to (in addition to), with (in conformity with). While the noun most often
has a zero determiner, the definite article (e.g. with the exception of) is not
infrequent; the indefinite article (e.g., as a result of) is rare."
(Laurel J. Brinton and Minoji Akimoto, Collocational and Idiomatic Aspects

of Composite Predicates in the History of English. John Benjamins, 1999)
1.3 Prepositions and their meanings

→ Prepositions of time
At the beginning - The initial part of something (street, book, film, etc.); the
starting point in a process or of a period of time.
• Let’s read out loud the examples given at the beginning of chapter 3.
• The camel fell right at the beginning of the journey.
• I’m traveling to Mexico at the beginning of February.
In the beginning - At first

• In the beginning I didn’t like living in , but now I love it!
• Learning Portuguese was really difficult for me in the beginning.
• I was in the beginning of my studies when I had to quit college to help out
my ailing mother.
At the end – The final part of something (street, book, film, etc.); the
finishing point in a process or of a period of time.
• My flat is at the end of the street on the left.
• The contractors were at the end of constructing the new subway line when
the earthquake hit.
• Sarah and John will be moving back to Canada at the end of the year.
In the end – Finally.

We looked at four different churches for our wedding. In the end we decided
to get married in the back yard of our house.
• Tony complained so much about the hotel room that, in the end, they gave
him an extra day for free.
• I watched so many films over the weekend. In the end I couldn’t even
remember which ones I liked!
18 • capítulo 1
1.3.1 Prepositions of direction and place
ACROSS AND THROUGH

Through, unlike across, is used for a moving in a space of three dimensions,
with things on all sides, providing the interlocutor/reader with the impression
of being inside an enclosed place surrounded by virtual or real barriers, or the
notion of inserting oneself in a recipient-like area.
Compare:
We ran across the field. (We were on a field.)
I walked through the wood. (I was in the wood.)
Other examples:
At that moment I was walking across the road.
She swam across the Thames.
You were running through the crowd
The dog was tiptoeing across the empty street.
The skier climbed across the glacier.
BEFORE refers to
• Being previous to someone or something in an order or series: The
number 24 comes before 25.
• Being in a higher position or rank than someone or something else: She
came before him in the test scores.
• Being positioned ahead of someone or something, with your face or body
either facing or able to be seen by that someone or something:
The priest kneeled before the cross. (with his face turned toward the cross)
She stood on stage before the crowd. (she stood on the stage so that the
crowd could see her).
IN FRONT OF is limited to physical position only, in both the literal way and
in the extended sense
• I stood in front of the store.
• She was humiliated in front of hundreds of audience members.
capítulo 1 • 19
OPPOSITE is used to say the person or object being referred to is located at
the other end, side, or corner of something else
• He sat opposite me at the table. (he sat on the other side of the table
from me)
• She was opposite the newsagent when the explosion happened (she was
on the other side of the street from the deli when the crash happened).
ACROSS FROM is the same as opposite

• He sat opposite me at the table = He sat across from me at the table. (he
sat on the other side of the table from me).
IN, INTO, ON, ONTO

IN (= INSIDE) - You shouldn't stay inside the castle.
ON – the cat is on the table.
INTO (entering something, moving into) - You shouldn't go into the castle.
ONTO - (moving to a place) - The cat jumped onto the roof.
Realize the difference

• The cat jumped ONTO the roof – The cat was on the ground and now it is
on the roof.
• The cat jumped ON the roof – The cat was already on the roof and jumped on it.
• I jumped INTO the classroom – I was outside the classroom and I jumped
into it.
• I jumped IN the classroom – I was already in the classroom and jumped in it.
ON AND ABOVE, UNDER AND BELOW

On and under, under and below are related to the concepts of up and down
and are used to refer to things, animals or people in contact or not in contact
with surfaces.
• The picture hangs above my bed.(not touching the surface)
• The cat is under the table. (the table covering it)
• Death Valley is 86 meters below sea level. (not touching it)
• I could see the park below us. (not touching it)
• There was a table under an old sheet (touching it)
• The book is on the table. (touching it)
• There are clouds above London. (not touching it)
20 • capítulo 1
BETWEEN X AMONG
It is believed that “between” should be used for choices involving two items
and “among” for choices that involve more than two items. That may be true for
most of the time, but not always; it is not that simple. It is not strictly correct
that between is used for two things and among for more than two.
When it is case of having two entities items, groups, or people being
specified, between is always to be used:
• This contract was assumed between the seller and the purchaser.
• Choose between Pink Floyd and Genesis.
• Let's keep this between you and me.
However, when more than two entities are involved between should be used
where the relationship is distinctly one-to-one:
• The agreement was entered into between the Seller, the Purchaser and
the Guarantor.
• The negotiations between the cheerleaders, the dance squad, and the flag
team were going well despite the confetti incident.
• The differences between English, Chinese, and Arabic are significant.
On the other hand, you use “among” when talking about things that aren't
distinct items or individuals; where the entities are considered as a group, mass
or collectivity:
• She chose among the immense number of cities.
• The scandal caused a division among the fans.
• Pink Floyd and Genesis are among the most famous progressive
rock bands.
BY, NEXT TO AND BESIDE

They all mean ‘very close to’. Compare:
• The flat was by the Thames (very close to the river)
• The flat was near the Thames (close to – further away than by)
• The flat was beside the Thames (next to)
ALL AND ALL OF

Before a noun with a determiner (e.g. the, this, my), all and all of are both
possible in British English. American English usually has all of.
capítulo 1 • 21
• She has eaten all (of) the cake. (GB)
• She has eaten all of the cake. (US)
• All (of) my friends like riding. (GB)
• All of my friends like riding. (US)
→ Informal use of like

In an informal style, like is often used instead of as if/though, especially in
American English. This is not considered correct in a formal style.
• It seems like it is going to rain.
• He sat there smiling like it was his birthday.
→ On
In American English, it is common not to use on before the days of the week.
• I am seeing her Sunday morning. (US)
British people say at the weekend; Americans say on the weekend.

• What did you do at the weekend? (GB)
• What did you do on the weekend? (US)
→ In and for
In American English, in can be used, like for, to talk about periods up to the
present (British English uses only for).
• I haven’t seen her in years. (US)
• I haven’t seen her for years. (GB)
CURIOSITY
The sentence “the quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog’ uses every letter of the alphabet.
A question: is jump over a phrasal verb or a prepositional phrase?
SOURCE OR CAUSE Because of, by reason of.
DURATION For, while, during, since,till, by, between, throughout
22 • capítulo 1
MEASURE By
REFERENCE Concerning, respecting, regarding
By bus/train/car/boar, with a stone/

MEANS OR INSTRUMENT confidence/flying colors, through the
(DEVICE OR MACHINE) wormhole/manhole
COMPARISON As, like
AGENT By, with
By, because of heavy rain, on account of her

CAUSE OR PURPOSE experience, for drunk driving, from exposure
and lack of food, out of duty
CONTENT (MATERIAL, Of, with

SUBJECT MATTER)
CONCESSION In spite of, despite
READING
Units 88, 89 and 90 from Advanced Grammar in Use (HEWINGS, Martin. Advanced grammar
in use. 2 ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.) for another detailed application
and explanation of prepositions. Read Prepositional Phrase Equals Coolness by googling this
sentence. You will see how prepositional phrases can be suggestive and important to boost
a movie!
capítulo 1 • 23
1.4 Prepositional phrase
A prepositional phrase is a cluster of words containing a preposition, a noun or
pronoun functioning as the object of the preposition, and any modifiers of the
object. A preposition sits in front of (is “pre-positioned” before) its object. The
bolded phrases are examples of prepositional phrases in English:
• She is on the computer.
• He could hear her across the room.
• Sarah walked down the ramp.
• They walked to their school.
• Garrett ate in the kitchen
After several minutes, we located the key for the door.

after several minutes = prepositional phrase
after = preposition
several minutes = object of preposition
The flock of tiny swallows flew over the trees near the lake
a) of tiny swallows = prepositional phrase
of = preposition
tiny swallows = object of preposition
b) over the trees = prepositional phrase
over = preposition
the trees = object of preposition
c) near the lake = prepositional phrase
near = preposition
the lake = object of preposition
• Four armed men held up the bank. (Held up is a verb meaning “to rob.”)
Therefore, up is not a preposition, and bank is not the object of a preposition.
Instead, bank is the direct object of the verb held up. Up, in this case, is not an
accidental preposition placed to produce a particular meaning on its own
Other examples:
• He came by the office in a hurry (by = preposition –
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE)
24 • capítulo 1
• He came by his fortune honestly (by = particle – NOT A
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE)
• She turned up that street (up = preposition – PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE)
• She turned up her nose (up = particle)
• Tom lived down the street (down = preposition – PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE)
We finally lived down that accident (down = particle)

• This shirt is made of cotton – The cotton in the shirt is still cotton
• This house is made of bricks – They're still bricks
• The keyboard I use on my computer is made of plastic. – The plastic in
my computer keyboard is still plastic.
On the other hand, the trees in the example where we say:

• The paper is made from trees. - These trees are not trees anymore – they
stopped being trees when they became paper.
• Wine is made from grapes. - The grapes are no longer grapes – they've
been changed into a different type of stuff – a different type of substance - in
this case, wine.
• This cake is made from all natural ingredients. - And the flour and the
eggs and the sugar in the example about the cake; these have all changed their
forms as well when they became cake.
So this is the rule:

If something keeps its form, we use 'made of'. But if the form is changed
during the process of making, then we use 'made from'. If there is a list of
ingredients, we use ‘made with’.
• The table is made of wood. (It is still recognizably wood)
• Wine is made from grapes (We cannot see the grapes in the wine)
• The cake was made with flour, butter, eggs, sugar and fruit. (a number of
different ingredients)
It’s also OK to end a sentence with a preposition sometimes even when

you aren’t using a phrasal verb. For example, although you could rewrite the
following sentences to avoid ending them with a preposition, you don’t need to.
• She displayed the good humor she’s known for. (Could be rewritten as
“She displayed the good humor for which she’s known.”)
capítulo 1 • 25
• I want to know where he came from. (Could be rewritten as “I want to
know from where he came.”)
When Can't You End a Sentence with a Preposition?

But, you can't always end sentences with prepositions. When you could
leave off the preposition and it wouldn't change the meaning, you should leave
it off. Here is a cell phone commercial:
Where are you at?
The problem is that “Where are you at?” doesn't need the preposition at
the end. If you say “Where are you?” it means the same thing. So the "at" is
unnecessary. You should leave it off.
CONNECTION
For revising prepositional phrases, take a look at https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=RS3bKw_cyow
REFLECTION
In this chapter, we learned all about the preposition, whose primary role in life is to stick nouns
on sentences. We met two basic kinds: simple and complex (or compound). We learned that
skilled writers don’t use too many compound prepositions like with respect to, in regard to,
prior to, and pursuant to.
We learned that the preposition, when it sticks a noun on a sentence, forms a structure
called the prepositional phrase. The noun stuck on the sentence is the object of the preposition.
And if you stick a personal pronoun on a sentence with a preposition, that pronoun must
appear in the objective case.
The noun sticking to a preposition might be a true noun, a noun phrase, or a noun clause.
And we learned that a preposition is often a good word to end a sentence with.
Finally, we learned that words serving as prepositions can often serve as other parts of
speech as well. They can act as adverbs and subordinating conjunctions. And they can join
with a verb to form a complement verb, also called a phrasal verb.
Because of their meaningful value and variety of use, some prepositions are expected to
occupy positions in two distinct categories, which is, for example, the case of ON. Examples:
The poster is on the wall (place), she is going to present a speech on Aristotle (about).
26 • capítulo 1
ACTIVITIES
Each of the following movie quotations contains at least one prepositional phrase. Identify the
prepositional phrase(s) in each sentence.
01. "Toto, I've got a feeling we're not in Kansas anymore."

(The Wizard of Oz, 1939)
02. "May these horses bear you to better fortune than their former masters."
(The LordoftheRings: The TwoTowers, 2002)
03. "Louis, I think this is the beginning of a beautiful friendship."

(Casablanca, 1942)
04. "It does not do to dwell on dreams, Harry, and forget to live."
(Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, 2001)
05. "You know, I always thought that I rescued you from the Dragon's Keep."
(Shrek ForeverAfter, 2010)
06. "In this town, the fewer people who know something, the safer the operation."
(The Dark Knight, 2008)
07. "Son, you got a panty on your head."

(Raising Arizona, 1987)
08. "Joey, do you like movies about gladiators?"

(Airplane! 1980)
capítulo 1 • 27
09. "What we do in life echoes in eternity."
(Gladiator, 2000)
10. "Luca Brasi sleeps with the fishes."

(The Godfather, 1972)
11. "Tonight most people will be welcomed home by jumping dogs and squealing kids."
(Up in the Air, 2009)
12. "Mama always said life was like a box of chocolates."

(ForrestGump, 1994)
13. "I love the smell of napalm in the morning!"

(ApocalypseNow, 1979)
14. "In the matter of Harry Potter, the law clearly states that magic may be used before
Muggles in life-threatening situations."
(Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, 2007)
15. "For sixty years the ring lay quiet in Bilbo's keeping, prolonging his life, delaying old age."
(The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, 2001)
16. "Today, I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the earth."
(The PrideoftheYankees, 1942)
17. "On the night Lord Voldemort went to Godric's Hollow to kill Harry, and Lily Potter cast
herself between them, the curse rebounded."
(Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Part 2, 2011)
28 • capítulo 1
18. "Winter must be cold for those with no warm memories."
(An AffairtoRemember, 1957)
19. "The man who can wield the power of this sword can summon to him an army more
deadly than any that walks this earth."
(The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, 2003)
20. "And though every single human in the stands or in the commentary boxes was at a
complete loss for words, the man who in his life had uttered fewer words than any of them
knew exactly what to say."
(Babe, 1995)
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
FERREIRA, Michely. Língua inglesa - Estrutura Sintática I (material produzido para Estácio EAD)
Disponível em <http://estaciodocente.webaula.com.br> Acesso em 29 de julho de 2015.
HEWINGS, Martin. Advanced grammar in use. 2 ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005.
MURPHY, Raymond. Grammar in use: intermediate. 3 ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2012.
capítulo 1 • 29
30 • capítulo 1
2
Adjectives
This chapter intends to go beyond the notion of adjective as a kind of a garment
for the noun, “dressing” that body with some predicates. After leaving the
concept of the traditional prepositioning of the adjective as the only possibility,
it will be possible to view this embellishing item as a function to be played by
different word classes.
OBJECTIVES
• Exploring the traditional viewing of adjectives, in their role of characterizing nouns by being
placed before the latter or connected to a nearby structure supported by a linking verb.
• Presenting the complexity of prepositional phrases and its capability of conveying more
complex meanings and its difference form phrasal verbs.
32 • capítulo 2
2.1 Adjectives
An adjective is a word that describes a noun, giving extra information about it.
For example:
• a sweet taste
• a red apple
• a technical problem
• an Italian woman
Most adjectives can be used in two positions: attributive adjectives occur

before the noun they describe, while predicative adjectives are used after
certain verbs like be, grow, look, seem:
A BLACK CAT The cat was black.
A GLOOMY OUTLOOK The future looks gloomy.
A SLOW JOURNEY The journey seemed slow.
A LARGE SUITCASE They were growing tired.
There are some adjectives that can only be used in one position or the other.
For example, these two sentences are grammatically correct:
 She was alone that evening. (‘alone’ = predicative)
 It was a mere scratch. (‘mere’ = attributive)
These sentences, on the other hand, are not correct:

x I saw an alone woman.(‘alone’ cannot be used in the attributive position)
x The scratch was mere. (‘mere’ cannot be used in the predicative position)
Absolute Adjectives belong to a larger larger adjective phrase, and typically

modify either the subject of a sentence or whatever noun or pronoun they are closest to:
• The boy, happy with his lollipop, did not look where he was going.
capítulo 2 • 33
Substantive adjective is an adjective used alone in the absence of the noun
that it modifies
Unlike most adjectives, which modify nouns, a substantive adjective is
used to replace a noun. The word "substantive" is of Latin origin and means
"standing in place of."
A substantive adjective does not modify a noun in a sentence, it replaces the
noun. Therefore, a substantive adjective can only be successfully used when the
noun in question is understood without being explicitly stated.
The noun being replaced is normally understood to be plural and to mean
"people" or "things," depending on the overall context of the sentence.
For example, in the sentence "Qut with the old and poor, in with the young
and rich”, “old”, "rich", “young” and "poor" are substantive adjectives. Here,
they refer to people rather than things. The reader determines the correct
nouns simply through context clues and a general understanding that people
rather than objects are usually considered rich or poor.
2.1.1 Pospositive adjectives
Sometimes an adjective occurs immediately after a noun, especially in certain

institutionalised expressions:
the Governor General
the Princess Royal
times past
We refer to these as POSTPOSITIVE adjectives. Postposition is obligatory

when the adjective modifies a pronoun:
something useful
everyone present
those responsible
Postpositive adjectives are commonly found together with superlative,

attributive adjectives:
the shortest route possible
the worst conditions imaginable
the best hotel available
34 • capítulo 2
In general, postpositive adjectives sound unnatural in English, but there are
a few set phrases that conventionally comprise modifiers following nouns—
for example:
• accountspayable
• attorney general
• bodypolitic
• courtmartial
• Godalmighty
• heirapparent
• notarypublic
• poetlaureate
• postmaster general
• timeimmemorial
• wordsunspoken
Aplenty and galore (in plentiful supply; abundant and in great numbers;
in abundance, respectively) and the informal extraordinaire are examples
of adjectives that are primarily used postpositively in modern English. Name
suffixes, such as Junior and Senior, also function as postpositive adjectives
modifying proper names.
Other postpositive adjectives are listed below:
AFORETHOUGHT, premeditated, planned beforehand

PREPENSE
revived, restored (from Latin for ‘bring back’ or ‘lead back’.

REDUX The dux is cognate with a “duke”, meaning “leader”).
Elsewhere, postpositive adjectives are used to provide emphasis or to lend a

poetic flourish to a line of text. There are a few English nouns that tend to take
postpositive adjectives more often than usual. Things and matters are probably
the biggest ones—for example, matters unknown, things innumerable.
capítulo 2 • 35
To pluralize phrases that conventionally use postpositive adjectives, we
usually make the noun plural—for example, poets laureate, attorneys general,
courts martial—but some writers treat such phrases as compound nouns and
put the s at the end.
2.1.2 Nominal Adjectives
Certain adjectives are used to denote a class by describing one of the attributes
of the class. For example, the poor denotes a class of people who share a similar
financial status. Other nominal adjectives are:
the old
the sick
the wealthy
the blind
the innocent
A major subclass of nominal adjectives refers to nationalities:

the French
the British
the Japanese
However, not all nationalities have corresponding nominal adjectives. Many

of them are denoted by plural, proper nouns:
the Germans
the Russians
the Americans
the Poles
Nominal adjectives do not refer exclusively to classes of people. Indeed

some of them do not denote classes at all:
the opposite
the contrary
the good
Comparative and superlative forms can also be nominal adjectives:

the best is yet to come
36 • capítulo 2
the elder of the two
the greatest of these
the most important among them
We refer to all of these types as nominal adjectives because they share some of
the characteristics of nouns (hence `nominal') and some of the characteristics
of adjectives. They have the following nominal characteristics:
• they are preceded by a determiner (usually the definite article the)
• they can be modified by adjectives (the gallant French, the unfortunate poor)
They have the following adjectival features:

• they are gradable (the very old, the extremely wealthy)
• many can take comparative and superlative forms (the poorer, the poorest)
2.1.3 Nouns as adjectives
Sometimes we use a noun to describe another noun. In that case, the first noun
"acts as" an adjective
• History teacher
• Ticket office
• Race horse
The "noun as adjective" always comes first. If you remember this, it will help
you to understand what is being talked about:
• a race horse is a horse that runs in races
• a horse race is a race for horses
• a boat race is a race for boats
• a love story is a story about love
• a war story is a story about war
• a tennis ball is a ball for playing tennis
• tennis shoes are shoes for playing tennis
• a computer exhibition is an exhibition of computers
• a bicycle shop is a shop that sells bicycles
The "noun as adjective" is singular. Just like a real adjective, the "noun as
adjective" is invariable. It is usually in the singular form.
capítulo 2 • 37
A few nouns look plural but we usually treat them as singular (for example
news, billiards, athletics). When we use these nouns "as adjectives" they
are unchanged:
a news reporter, three news reporters
one billiards table, four billiards tables
an athletics trainer, fifty athletics trainers
Exceptions: When we use certain nouns "as adjectives" (clothes, sports,

customs, accounts, arms), we use them in the plural form:
clothes shop, clothes shops
sports club, sports clubs
customs duty, customs duties
accounts department, accounts departments
arms production
We write the "noun as adjective" and the real noun in several different ways:
two separate words (car door)
two hyphenated words (book-case)
one word (bathroom)
There are no easy rules for this. We even write some combinations in two or
all three different ways: (head master, head-master, headmaster)
It’s time to practice!
• In each of the following sentences, indicate whether the highlighted word

is an adjective or a noun.
1. Life insurance is not cheap. ( ) adjective ( ) noun
2. The Prime Minister is a close friend of mine. ( ) adjective ( ) noun
3. The Chinese Embassy is just down the road. ( ) adjective ( ) noun
4. Friday is a busy day for me. ( ) adjective ( ) noun
5. Our patient records are confidential. ( ) adjective ( ) noun
38 • capítulo 2
• Make an adjective from the word in brackets to fill the gap.
1. The .......... state many people experience before exams often means
that they get lower marks than they deserve. (ANXIETY)
2. Ecuador has many different climates in one country. The .......... area
has a tropical climate for example. (COAST)
3. These days the expensive restaurants are empty whereas those with
good offers are .......... with hungry customers. (CROWD)
4. Cycling in a city without a safety helmet is extremely .......... and also
pretty stupid. (DANGER)
5. 'In the Night Garden...' is a TV show babies can understand. It is
absolutely .......... . (DELIGHT)
2.1.4 Participial adjective
Students who wonder, what is a participial adjective, might be confused by

the way that they have been explained in their grammar lessons or might not
be sure how they function in a sentence. These participial adjectives are hard
to distinguish because often, they look like verbs, past participles, and other
adjectives. This is because they often end in –er or –ing. Sometimes, they
look like comparative adjectives, too – but they are not always serving this
function grammatically.
Identifying a Participial Adjective
The participial adjectives are a major subclass of adjectives. They can be

distinguished by their endings, either –er or –ing. Some exceptions to the rules
include misunderstood and unknown, which also function like these special
adjectives even though they do not end in –ed. They are called participial
adjectives because they have the same endings as verb participles.
Function in a sentence
These adjectives are really meant to function like any other adjective: they
help to describe a noun. They might come from a verb form, or they might
merely imitate the structure, but they always function as a descriptive adjective.
capítulo 2 • 39
Let’s look at some examples of participial adjectives in sentences below. After
each example, the adjective is placed in parentheses. Some example sentences
have more than one adjective.
The tempting cookie platter made my mouth salivate. (tempting)
The fascinating book was a thrilling read. (fascinating, thrilling)
The interesting story made a compelling point. (interesting, compelling)
Sally was bored by the conversation. (bored)
I am tired today, and my work is really tiring. (tired, tiring)
My frustrating experience at the restaurant made me angry. (frustrating)
I have been agitated long enough. (agitated)
These adjectives form a very large portion of all of the adjectives in the
English language and help us be more accurate in our description of people,
places, things, and experiences when we speak and write.
2.1.5 Adjectives From a Verb
You might be wondering, what is the origin of all of these adjectives? Why do
we have so many of these strange words that look like certain verb forms? Some
of the participial adjectives that end in –ed have a corresponding verb form,
whereas some participial adjectives do not.
In other words, some adjectives only look like they come from verbs – and
we still call them participial adjectives. In this way, “excite” becomes “excited”
and “determine” becomes “determined”. However, there is no “to talent”
that forms the participial adjective “talented.” It is more common that the
participial adjectives that end in –ing have a corresponding verb form. These
include annoying, exasperating, worrying, thrilling, misleading, gratifying, and
time-consuming.
Words to Modify Participial Adjectives
These adjectives do not just come in one form. You can modify participial
adjectives to increase or decrease their intensity and use them to compare
different nouns. This can be accomplished by using the words very, extremely,
less, or by forming comparative and superlative forms. Look at the examples
below, using the adjective “annoying:”
40 • capítulo 2
Annoying
Very annoying
Extremely annoying
Less annoying
More annoying
Most annoying
In all of these forms, annoying serves as the participial adjective but it

is treated differently in each case. Look at a few ways we can use the above
treatments of “annoying:”
She was so annoying.
He is extremely annoying.
It was more annoying to me that he did not show up for the party.
The most annoying thing was that she did not speak up.
Inventing a Participial Adjective
Some participial adjectives have no corresponding verb form since they

are made by putting a noun with a participle, such as “drug-induced coma” or
“energy-saving technology.” In the former example, “drug” is the noun put with
“induced,” the participle. In the latter example, “energy” is the noun put with
“saving,” the participle..
In each of the following sentences, indicate whether the highlighted word is
a participial adjective or a verb.
1. He told me a moving story about his childhood.
( ) Participle adjective ( ) Verb
2. Our piano was tuned by a Mr Beethoven.
3. I spent four hours calculating your tax returns.
4. His new novel is open-ended.
5. The whole affair became terribly complicated
capítulo 2 • 41
2.1.6 Comparative and superlative adjectives
Most adjectives have three forms: the positive (e.g. sad); the comparative (e.g.
sadder); and the superlative (e.g. saddest). The formation of comparative and
superlative adjectives (and adverbs) is known as comparison.
Adjective order
In English, it is common to use more than one adjective before a noun —

for example, “He's a silly young fool,” or “She's a smart energetic woman.”
When you use more than one adjective, you have to put them in the right order,
according to type. This page will explain the different types of adjectives and the
correct order for them.
When we group adjectives together there is a general (sometimes flexible)
rule for the position of each type of adjective, these are:-
POSITION 1ST* 2ND* 3RD 4TH 5TH 6TH 7TH 8TH
Opinion Size Age Shape Colour Material Origin Purpose
Nice Small Old Square Black Plastic British Racing
Ugly Big New Circular Blue Cotton American Running
You might swap adjectives that express an opinion and an adjective based
on fact depending on what you wish to emphasise:
For example:
• "She had a long, ugly nose." emphasising the length of her nose.
• "He was a silly, little man." emphasising that the man was silly.
This is just for fun as you wouldn't normally see so many adjectives in
one description.
For example:
• "She had a big, ugly, old, baggy, blue, stripey, cotton, British, knitting bag."
42 • capítulo 2
Titles of books, films, etc. commonly feature nouns with postpositive adjectives. These
are often present or past participles, but other types of adjectives sometimes occur.
Examples: Apocalypse Now Redux, Body Electric, Brideshead Revisited, Chronicle
of a Death Foretold, A Dream Deferred, Hannibal Rising, Hercules Unchained, The
Life Aquatic, A Love Supreme, The Matrix Reloaded, Monsters Unleashed, Orpheus
Descending, Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, Prometheus Unbound, "The Road Not
Taken", Sonic Unleashed, Tarzan Triumphant, The World Unseen.
Gradable and non-gradable adjectives
Most adjectives are gradable. This means that you can modify (strengthen,
weaken, or otherwise change) their meanings by placing one or more adverbs in
front of them (e.g. a very expensive car).
Non-gradable adjectives are those with meanings which cannot be
modified by adverbs (e.g.western, electric).
2.1.7 Qualitative and classifying adjectives
Adjectives can also be divided into two other types:
adjectives describe the qualities of someone or

QUALITATIVE something (e.g. tall, long, hot)
adjectives are used to put people or things into

CLASSIFYING categories or classes (e.g.weekly, northern, external)
2.1.8 Adjective phrase
An adjective phrase (or adjectival phrase) is a phrase that tells us something

about the noun it is modifying. The head (principal) word in an adjective phrase
will be an adjective. In the examples below, the adjective phrase is shaded and
the head word (i.e., the adjective) is in bold:
capítulo 2 • 43
• The nearby motel offers cheap but comfortable rooms.
(In this example, the head adjective starts the adjective phrase.)
• These are unbelievably expensive shoes.
(In this example, the head adjective ends the adjective phrase.)
• Sarah was fairly bored with you.
(In this example, the head adjective is in the middle of the adjective phrase.)
Like a normal adjective, an adjective phrase can be used before the noun it is
modifying (like in the first two examples above) or after the noun it is modifying
(like in the last example).
More examples of adjective phrases
Here are some more examples of adjective phrases (with the head adjectives
in bold):
• The extremely tired lioness is losing patience with her overly
enthusiastic cub.
• My mother was fairly unhappy with the service.
• Her baking always smells very tempting.
• The consequences of agreeing were far too serious.
• The dog covered in mud looked pleased with himself.
CONNECTION
Take a look at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CGDaaTXR_Ng for a funny explanation
about adjective phrase.
Adjective Phrases Can Be Used Attributively or Predicatively
An adjective phrase can be an attributive adjective or a predicative adjective.

Attributive Adjective
An attributive adjective is one that sits inside the noun phrase of the noun it
modifies. Look at these two examples:
44 • capítulo 2
• The beautifully carved frames are worth more than the painting.
(This is an attributive adjective phrase. It sits inside the noun phrase The
beautifully carved frames.)
• The frames beautifully carved by monks are worth more than the painting.
(This is also an attributive adjective phrase. It sits inside the noun phrase
The frames beautifully carved by monks.)
When an adjective appears before its noun, it is very likely to be an

attributive adjective. However, an adjective that appears after its noun can also
be attributive.
2.1.9 Predicative Adjective
A predicative adjective sits outside the noun phrase of the noun it modifies.
Typically, a predicative adjective is linked to the noun it modifies with a linking
verb. For example:
• The curtains look far too long.
(This is a predicative adjective phrase. The linking verb is look.)
• The frames were beautifully carved by monks.
(This is a predicative adjective phrase. The linking verb is were.)
Examples of adjective phrases used attributively and predicatively
Let's look at the earlier examples:

• The extremely tired lioness is losing patience with heroverly enthusiastic
cub.(Both adjective phrases are used attributively. They appear inside the noun
phrases The extremely tired lioness and her overly enthusiastic cub.)
• My mother was fairly unhappy with the service.(The adjective phrase is
used predicatively. It appears outside the noun phrase My mother. The linking
verb is was.)
• Her baking always smells very tempting.(The adjective phrase is used
predicatively. It appears outside the noun phrase Her baking. The linking verb
is smells.)
• The consequences of agreeing were far too serious.(The adjective phrase
is used predicatively. It appears outside the noun phrase The consequences of
agreeing. The linking verb is were.)
capítulo 2 • 45
• The dog covered in mud looked pleased with himself. (In this example,
the first adjective phrase is used attributively. It appears inside the noun phrase
The dog covered in mud. The second is used predicatively. It appears outside
the same noun phrase. The linking verb is looked.)
Exercise
• In each of the following sentences replace the adjective in bold letters by

an adjective phrase of the same meaning.
1. The King wore a golden crown.
2. It is a white elephant.
3. He lived in a stone house.
4. There was an earthen pot on the table.
5. She wore a diamond necklace.
6. Much has been said about the Swiss scenery.
7. The Spanish flag flew at the top of the mast.
8. That was a brave act.
9. It was a horrible night.
10. Heroic deeds are worthy of admiration.
11. They went by Siberian railway.
12. I have passed several sleepless nights.
2.2 Apositives
An appositive is a word, phrase, or clause that supports another word, phrase,
or clause by describing or modifying the other word, phrase, or clause.
• Your friend Bill is in trouble.
• My brother's car, a sporty red convertible with bucket seats, is the envy
of my friends.
• The chief surgeon, an expert in organ-transplant procedures, took her
nephew on a hospital tour.
An appositive phrase usually follows the word it explains or identifies, but it

may also precede it.
• A bold innovator, Wassily Kandinsky is known for his colorful
abstract paintings.
46 • capítulo 2
• The first state to ratify the U. S. Constitution, Delaware is rich in history.
• A beautiful collie, Skip was my favorite dog.
Punctuation of appositives
In some cases, the noun being explained is too general without the
appositive; the information is essential to the meaning of the sentence. When
this is the case, do not place commas around the appositive; just leave it alone.
If the sentence would be clear and complete without the appositive, then
commas are necessary; place one before and one after the appositive.
Here are some examples.
The popular US president John Kennedy was known for his eloquent and
inspirational speeches.
Here we do not put commas around the appositive because it is essential
information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be, "The popular US
president was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches." We wouldn't
know who the president is without the appositive.
John Kennedy, the popular US president, was known for his eloquent and
inspirational speeches.
Here we put commas around the appositive because it is not essential
information. Without the appositive, the sentence would be, "John Kennedy
was known for his eloquent and inspirational speeches." We still know who the
subject of the sentence is without the appositive.
John Kennedy the popular US president was quite different from John
Kennedy the unfaithful husband.
Here we do not put commas around either appositive because they are both
essential to understanding the sentence. Without the appositives, the sentence
would just be John Kennedy was quite different from John Kennedy. We
wouldn't know what qualities of John Kennedy were being referred to without
the appositive.
READING
Take a look at http://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/funny-misplaced-
modifiers and see the funny effect of placing modifiers in the wrong position
capítulo 2 • 47
Exercise : Appositive Exercise
• Highlight (Bold) and punctuate the appositives in the following sentences.

Not all require punctuation.
1. My son, the policeman, will be visiting us next week.
2. The captain ordered the ship's carpenters to assemble the shallop, a
large rowboat.
3. Walter, the playboy and writer, is very attached to his mother, Mrs.
Hammon.
4. Paul Newman the famous American actor directed five motion pictures.
5. Elizabeth Teague, a sweet and lovable girl, grew up to be a mentally
troubled woman.
6. Sweetbriar a company known throughout the South is considering a
nationwide advertising campaign.
7. An above-average student and talented musician John made his
family proud.
8. The extremely popular American film Titanic was widely criticized for
its mediocre script.
9. Citizen Kane the greatest America film ever made won only one Academy
Award.
10. 60 Minutes the TV news magazine program featured a story on the
popular singer Whitney Houston.
2.3 Adjective clause

When we think of an adjective, we usually think about a single word used before
a noun to modify its meanings (e.g., tall building, smelly cat, argumentative
assistant). However, an adjective can also come in the form of an adjective clause.
An adjective clause usually comes after the noun it modifies and is made up
ofseveral words which, like all clauses, will include a subject and a verb.
Examples of Adjective Clauses
Here are some examples of adjective clauses:

• The carpets which you bought last year have gone moldy.
48 • capítulo 2
• The film which you recommended scared the kids half to death.
• The follies which a man regrets most in his life are those which he didn't
commit when he had the opportunity. (Helen Rowland, 1876-1950)
• Bore: a person who talks when you wish him to listen.
The Components of an Adjective Clause
An adjective clause (which can also be called an adjectival clause or a

relativeclause) will have the following three traits:
• It will start with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, that, or which) or
a relative adverb (when, where, or why).
(This links it to the noun it is modifying.)(Note: Quite often, the relative
pronoun can be omitted. However, with an adjective clause, it is always possible
to put one in. There is more on this below.)
• It will have a subject and a verb.
(These are what make it a clause.)
• It will tell us something about the noun.
(This is why it is a kind of adjective.)
Look at the three traits in this example:
The relative
pronoun
(that)
The rat that John saw yesterday was in the kitchen earlier.
the information The subject and
about the noun the verb (John/saw)
being modified (rat)
Quite often, the relative pronoun is the subject of the clause. Look at the
threetraits in this example:
The relative
pronoun
(who)
The tramp who claimed to have a limp sprinted after the bus
the information The subject and
about the noun the verb (who/claimed)
being modified (tramp)
capítulo 2 • 49
The Relative Pronoun Can Be Omitted
It is common for the relative pronoun to be omitted. Look attheseexamples:

• The carpets which you bought last year have gone moldy.
• The film which you recommended scared the kids half to death.
• The follies which a man regrets most in his life are those which he didn't
commit when he had the opportunity. (Helen Rowland, 1876-1950)
This is not always possible though:

• Bore: a person who talks when you wish him to listen.
Commas or No Commas around an Adjective Clause?
The big question with an adjective clause is whether to offset it with commas
ornot. The ruleisthis:
• Don't use commas if your clause is essential; i.e., it is required to identify
its noun. (Thisiscalled a restrictiveclause.)
• Do use commas if your clause is just additional information. (This is
called a non-restrictive clause.)
This is a good test: If you would happily put brackets around it or delete it,
then use commas. Here is an example of a non-restrictive clause:
Here is na example of a non-restrictive clause:
My brother, who claimed to have a limp, sprinted after the bus.

This is just additional information. It is not
required to indetify the noun being modified (brother).
If it’s a non-restrictive clause (i.e., just extra information), offset it with commas.
• My brother, who claimed to have a limp, sprinted after the bus.

(This clause is not required to identify My brother. It is just
additional information.)
• My brother (who claimed to have a limp) sprinted after the bus.
(As it's just additional information, you can put it in brackets.)
• My brother sprinted after the bus.
(As it's just additional information, you can even delete it.)
50 • capítulo 2
Compare this to a restrictive clause:
The tramp who claimed to have a limp sprinted after the bus.
the information about the noun being modified (tramp)
No commas with a restrictive clause (also known as an essential clause).
• The tramp who claimed to have a limp sprinted after the bus.
(This clause is required to identify The tramp. Without it, we don't know
which tramp we're talking about.)
• The tramp (who claimed to have a limp) sprinted after the bus.
(This sentence is only appropriate if we know which tramp we're
talking about.)
• The tramp sprinted after the bus.
(This sentence is only appropriate if we know which tramp we're
talking about.)
In this section, we introduced ourselves to the adjective, which comes in a

one-word form that either precedes or follows the noun it modifies. When the
adjective precedes the noun, it’s in the attributive position. When it follows the
noun, it’s in the predicative position.
REFLECTION
Most one-word adjectives have positive, comparative, and superlative forms. As a rule, we add
‑er or ‑est to the positive form of adjectives of one or two syllables to form their comparative
(‑er) or superlative (‑est) forms. For adjectives with three or more syllables, we ordinarily use
more for the comparative and most for the superlative. These rules, like all rules in grammar,
have their exceptions, so that we would not use the two-syllable adjective careful and say, He
was carefuller. Instead, we’d say, He was more careful.
We also took a brief look at other words acting as adjectives: demonstrative pronouns
(this, that, these, those), possessive pronouns (my, his, her, their, etc.), quantifying words like
many, much, and some, and nouns that act as adjectives.
We introduced ourselves to expressions called compound (or phrasal) adjectives.
These multiword forms enable us to invent terms like the how’d-ya-like-to-hyphenate-this-
adjective exercise.
capítulo 2 • 51
Other multiword adjectives include the adjectival phrase, which savvy writers use all
the time.
Finally, we took a quick look at the adjectival role played by five phrases (prepositional,
present participial, past participial, infinitive, and adjectival) and by two basic kinds of clauses
(restrictive and nonrestrictive). The point is this: A chunk of words must always be serving
some function in a sentence. If that chunk is not acting as a verb, a noun, or an adverb, then
chances are good it’s acting as an adjective.
ACTIVITIES
• Combine the two sentences to make one, using an adjective clause. For example, "I met
Mary in the hall. She is a tour guide." becomes "I met Mary, who is a tour guide, in the hall."
01. The man was sick. He looked very pale.
02. He was sitting in the emergency room. It was very crowded.
03. A nurse was nearby. He called to her.
04. The nurse called a doctor. He came quickly.
05. The doctor asked him to lie down. She looked very worried.
06. She gave the man an injection. It made him go to sleep.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
Site Grammar.com. Disponível em http://www.grammar.com Acesso em 03 de julho de 2015.
2012.
52 • capítulo 2
3
Active and Passive
Voice
This chapter presents the interesting debate about the uses of active and passive
voice and how the choice for one or another means a choice of a focus: who
needs to be identified in the discourse? Who doesn’t? What are the political
applications of the passive voice?
OBJECTIVES
• Getting to know the structure of the active and passive voice;
• Being aware of uses and implications of choosing either the active or the passive voice in
social life.
54 • capítulo 3
3.1 Active Voice
In an active sentence, the subject is doing the action. A straightforward example
is the sentence "Steve loves Amy." Steve is the subject, and he is doing the
action: he loves Amy, the object of the sentence. Another example is the title of
the Marvin Gaye song “I Heard It through the Grapevine.” "I" is the subject, the
one who is doing the action. "I" is hearing "it," the object of the sentence.
3.2 Passive Voice

In passive voice, the target of the action gets promoted to the subject position.
Instead of saying, "Steve loves Amy," I would say, "Amy is loved by Steve." The
subject of the sentence becomes Amy, but she isn't doing anything. Rather, she
is just the recipient of Steve's love. The focus of the sentence has changed from
Steve to Amy. If you wanted to make the title of the Marvin Gaye song passive,
you would say “It was heard by me through the grapevine,” not such a catchy
title anymore.
Take a look at some transformations:
Active: The candidate believes that Congress must place a ceiling on
the budget.
Passive: It is believed by the candidate that a ceiling must be placed on the
budget by Congress.
Active: Researchers earlier showed that high stress can cause heart attacks.
Passive: It was earlier demonstrated that heart attacks can be caused by
high stress.
Active: The dog bit the man.

Passive: The man was bitten by the dog.
Converting sentences to active voice
Here are some tips and strategies for converting sentences from the passive
to the active voice.
capítulo 3 • 55
• Look for a "by" phrase (e.g., "by the dog" in the last example above). If you
find one, the sentence may be in the passive voice. Rewrite the sentence so that
the subject buried in the "by" clause is closer to the beginning of the sentence.
• If the subject of the sentence is somewhat anonymous, see if you can use
a general term, such as "researchers," or "the study," or "experts in this field."
3.2.1 When to use passive voice
There are sometimes good reasons to use the passive voice.
To emphasize the action rather than the actor
After long debate, the proposal was endorsed by the long-range planning committee.
To keep the subject and focus consistent throughout a passage
The data processing department recently presented what proved to be a controversial

proposal to expand its staff. After long debate, the proposal was endorsed by . . .
To be tactful by not naming the actor
The procedures were somehow misinterpreted.
To describe a condition in which the actor is unknown or unimportant
Every year, thousands of people are diagnosed as having cancer.
To create an authoritative tone
Visitors are not allowed after 9:00 p.m.
56 • capítulo 3
Only transitive verbs (those that take objects) can be transformed into
passive constructions. An intransitive verb expresses an action that happens by
itself. The verb is not used with an object; therefore, no passive form can be
used. See the example below:
An earthquake happened on March 11, 2011 in Japan.
The sentence “The earthquake was happened on March 11, 2011 in Japan”
is impossible.
'Magnificent indians live in the rain forests’ cannot be changed to passive
voice because the sentence does not have an object. (the verb is intransitive)
‘She is happy’ cannot be changed to passive voice because the sentence does
not have an object. (the verb is a linking one).
These are the verbs that cannot be transformed into the passive voice:
agree, appear, arrive, become, belong, collapse, consist of, cost, depend, die,
disappear, emerge, exist, fall, go, happen, have, inquire, knock, laugh, lie
(recline or tell untruth), live, look, last (endure), occur, remain, respond, rise,
sit, sleep, stand, stay, swim, vanish, wake, wait.
3.2.2 Active voice
When a verb is in the active voice, the subject of the sentence is also the doer
of the action. The thing doing the action is the subject of the sentence and the
thing receiving the action is the object.
(Thing doing action) + (verb) + (thing receiving action)
• The professor (subject doing action) teaches (active verb) the students
(object receiving action).
• John (subject doing action) washes (active verb) the dishes (object receiving
action). The sentence 'John picked up the bag' is in the active voice because the
subject, John, is also the thing or person doing the action of 'picking up.
The sentence 'The bag was picked up by John' is in the passive voice because
the subject of the sentence, bag, is the passive receiver of the action.
Try to use the active voice. But realize that there are times when you will need to
use the passive. If the object of the action is the important thing, then you will want to
emphasize it by mentioning it first. When that's the case, you will use the passive voice.
capítulo 3 • 57
Three steps to determine active voice
Use the following three steps to write in the active voice:

1. Locate the action (verb) of the sentence.
2. Locate who or what is doing the action. This is the doer (subject) of the
sentence. If the doer is implied and not written in or is being acted on by the
action, the sentence is weak or passive. If the doer is written but not located just
in front of theaction, the sentence is weak.
3. Put the doer immediately in front of the action.
"Examples:
The officer wrote the citation. (active voice)
The dispatcher repeated the address. (active voice)
A suspect was arrested. (passive voice)"
(Barbara Frazee and Joseph N. Davis, Painless Police Report Writing, 2nd
ed. Pearson, 2004)
3.2.2.1 Passive voice
The passive voice allows for this transition (and even regarded as mandatory)
in scientific or technical writing or lab reports, where the actor is not really
important but the process or principle being described is of ultimate
importance. Instead of writing "I poured 20 cc of acid into the beaker," we
would write "Twenty cc of acid is/was poured into the beaker." The passive voice
is also useful when describing, say, a mechanical process in which the details
of process are much more important than anyone's taking responsibility for
the action: "The first coat of primer paint is applied immediately after the
acid rinse."
We use the passive voice to good effect in a paragraph in which we wish to
shift emphasis from what was the object in a first sentence to what becomes the
subject in subsequent sentences.
The executive committee approved an entirely new policy for dealing
with academic suspension and withdrawal. The policy had been written by a
subcommittee on student behavior. If students withdraw from course work
before suspension can take effect, the policy states, a mark of "IW" . . . .
The paragraph is clearly about this new policy so it is appropriate that policy
move from being the object in the first sentence to being the subject of the
second sentence. The passive voice allows for this transition.†
58 • capítulo 3
Passive Verb Formation
The passive forms of a verb are created by combining a form of the "to be verb"
with the past participle of the main verb. Other helping verbs are also sometimes
present: "The measure could have been killed in committee." The passive can be
used, also, in various tenses. Let's take a look at the passive forms of "design."
Passive Verb Formation
The passive forms of a verb are created by combining a form of the "to be
verb" with the past participle of the main verb. Other helping verbs are also
sometimes present: "The measure could have been killed in committee." The
passive can be used, also, in various tenses. Let's take a look at the passive
forms of "design."
AUXILIARY
TENSE SUBJECT PAST PARTICIPLE
SINGULAR PLURAL
Present The car/cars is are designed.
Presentperfect The car/cars has been have been designed.
Past The car/cars was were designed.
Past perfect The car/cars had been had been designed.
Future The car/cars will be will be designed.
Future “going to” The car/cars is going to be are going to be designed
Future perfect The car/cars will have been will have been designed.
Present progressive The car/cars is being are being designed.
Past progressive The car/cars was being were being designed.
A sentence cast in the passive voice will not always include an agent of the
action. For instance if a gorilla crushes a tin can, we could say "The tin can was
crushed by the gorilla." But a perfectly good sentence would leave out the gorilla:
"The tin can was crushed." Also, when an active sentence with an indirect object
is recast in the passive, the indirect object can take on the role of subject in the
passive sentence:
capítulo 3 • 59
ACTIVE Professor Villa gave Jorge an A.
PASSIVE An A was given to Jorge by Professor Villa.
PASSIVE Jorge was given an A.
Direct and indirect speech
We use a 'reporting verb' like 'say' or 'tell'. If this verb is in the present tense,
it's easy. We just put 'she says' and then the sentence:
• Direct speech: “I like ice cream”.
• Reported speech: She says (that) she likes ice cream.
We don't need to change the tense, though probably we do need to change

the 'person' from 'I' to 'she', for example. We also may need to change words
like 'my' and 'your'.
(As I'm sure you know, often, we can choose if we want to use 'that' or not
inEnglish. I've put it in brackets ( ) to show that it's optional. It's exactly the
same if you use 'that' or if you don't use 'that'.)
But, if the reporting verb is in the past tense, then usually we change the
tenses in the reported speech:
• Direct speech: “I like ice cream”.
• Reported speech: She said (that) she liked ice cream.
TENSE DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
She said (that) she liked ice

present simple “I like ice cream”
cream.
She said (that) she was living in

present continuous “I am living in London”
London.
60 • capítulo 3
TENSE DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
She said (that) she had bought

past simple “I bought a car” a car OR She said (that) she
bought a car.
She said (that) she had been

past continuous “I was walking along the street”
walking along the street.
She said (that) she hadn't seen

present perfect “I haven't seen Julie”
Julie.
“I had taken English lessons She said (that) she had taken
past perfect*
before” English lessons before.
She said (that) she would see

will “I'll see you later”
me later.
She said (that) she would help

would* “I would help, but..”
but...
She said (that) she could speak

can “I can speak perfect English”
perfect English.
She said (that) she could swim

could* “I could swim when I was four”
when she was four.
She said (that) she would come

shall “I shall come later”
later.
She said (that) she should call

should* “I should call my mother”
her mother
might* "I mightbe late" She said (that) she might be late
She said (that) she must study

must "I must study at the weekend" at the weekend OR She said
she had to study at the weekend
* doesn't change.
Occasionally, we don't need to change the present tense into the past if the
information in direct speech is still true (but this is only for things which are
general facts, and even then usually we like to change the tense):
• Direct speech: “The sky is blue”.
• Reported speech: She said (that) the sky is/was blue.
capítulo 3 • 61
3.2.3 Reported Questions
So now you have no problem with making reported speech from positive and
negative sentences. But how about questions?
• Direct speech: "Where do you live?"
How can we make the reported speech here?

In fact, it's not so different from reported statements. The tense changes are
the same, and we keep the question word. The very important thing though is
that, once we tell the question to someone else, it isn't a question any more. So
we need to change the grammar to a normal positive sentence. A bitconfusing?
Maybethisexamplewill help:
• Direct speech: "Where do you live?"
• Reported speech: She asked me where I lived.
Do you see how I made it? The direct question is in the present simple tense.
We make a present simple question with 'do' or 'does' so I need to take that
away. Then I need to change the verb to the past simple.
Another example:
• Direct speech: "where is Julie?"
• Reported speech: She asked me where Julie was.
The direct question is the present simple of 'be'. We make the question
form of the present simple of be by inverting (changing the position of)the
subject and verb. So, we need to change them back before putting the verb into
the past simple.
Here are some more examples:
DIRECT QUESTION REPORTED QUESTION
She asked me where the Post Office

“Where is the Post Office, please?”
was.
62 • capítulo 3
“What are you doing?” She asked me what I was doing.
She asked me who that fantastic man

“Who was that fantastic man?”
had been.
So much for 'wh' questions. But, what if you need to report a 'yes / no'
question? We don't have any question words to help us. Instead, we use 'if':
• Direct speech: "Do you like chocolate?"
• Reported speech: She asked me if I liked chocolate.
No problem? Here are a few more examples:
“Do you love me?” He asked me if I loved him.
She asked me if I had ever been to

“Have you ever been to Mexico?”
Mexico.
“Are you living here?” She asked me if I was living here.
3.2.4 Reported Requests
There's more! What if someone asks you to do something (in a polite way)?
For example:
• Direct speech: "Close the window, please"
• Or: "Could you close the window please?"
• Or: "Would you mind closing the window please?"
capítulo 3 • 63
All of these requests mean the same thing, so we don't need to report every
word when we tell another person about it. We simply use 'ask me + to + infinitive':
• Reported speech: She asked me to close the window.
Here are a few more examples:
DIRECT REQUEST REPORTED REQUEST
“Please help me”. She asked me to help her.
“Please don'tsmoke”. She asked me not to smoke.
She asked me to bring her book that

“Could you bring my book tonight?”
night.
“Could you pass the milk, please?” She asked me to pass the milk.
“Would you mind coming early She asked me to come early the next
tomorrow?” day.
To report a negative request, use 'not':

• Direct speech: "Please don't be late."
• Reported speech: She asked us not to be late.
3.2.5 Reported Orders
And finally, how about if someone doesn't ask so politely? We can call this
an 'order' in English, when someone tells you very directly to do something.
For example:
• Direct speech: "Sit down!"
In fact, we make this into reported speech in the same way as a request. We
just use 'tell' instead of 'ask':
64 • capítulo 3
• Reported speech: She told me to sit down.
DIRECT ORDER REPORTED ORDER
“Go to bed!” He told the child to go to bed.
“Don't worry!” He told her not to worry.
“Be on time!” He told me to be on time.
“Don't smoke!” He told us not to smoke.
Time Expressions with Reported Speech
Sometimes when we change direct speech into reported speech we have to

change time expressions too. We don't always have to do this, however. It depends
on when we heard the direct speech and when we say the reported speech.
For example:
It's Monday. Julie says "I'm leaving today".
If I tell someone on Monday, I say "Julie said she was leaving today".
If I tell someone on Tuesday, I say "Julie said she was leaving yesterday".
If I tell someone on Wednesday, I say "Julie said she was leaving on Monday".
If I tell someone a month later, I say "Julie said she was leaving that day".
So, there's no easy conversion. You really have to think about when the
direct speech was said.
Here's a table of some possible conversions:
capítulo 3 • 65
NOW then / at that time
TODAY yesterday / that day / Tuesday / the 27th of June
the day before yesterday / the day before /

YESTERDAY Wednesday / the 5th of December
LASTNIGHT the night before, Thursday night
LASTWEEK the week before / the previous week
TOMORROW today / the next day / the following day / Friday
• Change the direct speech into reported speech. Use “she said” at the
beginning of each answer. It’s the same day, so you don’t need to change the
time expressions.
1. “I live in New York”
2. “He works in a bank”
3. “Julie doesn’t like going out much”
4. “I don’t have a computer”
5. “They never arrive on time”
6. “We often meet friends in London at the weekend”
• Say and Tell Exercise 1

Put in 'said' or 'told':
1) Julie ___________ that she would join us after work.
2) She _____________me that she was going running this evening.
3) John ____________us that he couldn't come to the party.
4) John _____________that he had been to the cinema at the weekend.
5) She _____________them she wanted to quit.
66 • capítulo 3
• Change the direct speech into reported speech. Use “she said” at the
beginning of each answer. It’s the same day, so you don’t need to change the
time expressions.
1. "We went out last night"
2. "I'm coming!"
3. "I was waiting for the bus when he arrived"
4. "I'd never been there before"
5. "I didn't go to the party"
6. "Lucy will come later"
7. "He hasn't eaten breakfast"
8. "Where is he?"
9. "What are you doing?"
10. "Why did you go out last night?"
11. "Who was that beautiful woman?"
12. "How is your mother?"
13. "What are you going to do at the weekend?"
14. "Where will you live after graduation?"
15. "What were you doing when I saw you?"
16. "How was the journey?"
READING
For further reading, take a look at units 22, 23, 24 and 25 in Advanced Grammar in Use
(HEWINGS, Martin. Advanced grammar in use. 2 ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2005)
If we want to avoid mentioning the generalised agents we, they,

people, everybody, one etc. with reporting verbs, we can use the following
passive patterns:
1. it + passive reporting verb + that-clause
In this pattern, the generalised agent + active reporting verb is replaced with
it + passive reporting verb:
• Everybody knows that my grandfather likes red wine.
• It is known that my grandfather likes red wine.
capítulo 3 • 67
2. subject + passive reporting verb + to-infinitive
In this pattern we start with the subject of the reported clause, which is
followed by the passive reporting verb and the to-infinitive form of the verb in
the reported clause:
• Everybody knows that my grandfather likes red wine.
• My grandfather is known to like red wine.
The reporting verb (is known) is in the same tense as it was in the active
sentence (knows). The type of to-infinitive we use (to like) corresponds to the
temporal relationship between the action of reporting and the reported event.
This temporal relationship can be of two basic types:
• The reporting and the reported event happen simultaneously (as in the
example above).
• The reported event happens before the reporting.
The following table shows examples of reporting verbs which can be used
with the patterns above:
Examples of reporting verbs used in the passive voice
allege discover know say
assume estimate observe see
believe expect presume show
claim feel prove suppose
consider find report think
declare intend reveal understand
3.3 Subject + passive reporting verb + to-

infinitive (simple or continuous)
If the reporting and the reported event happen simultaneously, i.e. in the same
time frame, we use simple or continuous infinitives, depending on whether the
verb in the reported clause was simple or continuous.
68 • capítulo 3
If the time frame is the present:
• My son's football coach is said to be very strict. (They say my son's football
coach is very strict.)
• J. K. Rowling is rumoured to be writing a new book. (Rumour has it that J.
K. Rowling is writing a new book.)
If the time frame is the past:

• Paul was thought to be in the house. (Everybody thought Paul was in
the house.)
• Vincent was reported to be staying in Paris at that time. (They reported
Vincent was stayingin Paris at that time.
In the following examples, the verb in the reported clause of the original
sentence was passive, so we use passive infinitives in the new sentence.
If the time frame is the present:
• The manuscript is believed to be owned by Mr Wilkins. (They believe
the manuscript is ownedby Mr Wilkins. / They believe Mr Wilkins owns
the manuscript.)
• The painting is said to be being restored. (rarely used) (They say
the painting is being restored. / They say that some experts are restoring
the painting.)
If the time frame is the past:

• The manuscript is believed to be owned by Mr Wilkins. (They believe
the manuscript is owned by Mr Wilkins. / They believe Mr Wilkins owns the
manuscript.)
• The spy's phone was believed to be being tapped. (rarely used) (The
CIA believed that the spy's phone was being tapped. / The CIA believed that
someone was tapping the spy's phone.)
3.3.1 Subject + passive reporting verb + to-infinitive (perfect or

perfect continuous)
If the reported event happens before the reporting, we use perfect or perfect
continuous infinitives, depending on whether the verb in the reported clause
was simple or continuous.
If the reporting happens in the present and the reported event in the past:
capítulo 3 • 69
• He is believed never to have smiled at anyone. (They believe he never
smiled / has never smiled at anyone.)
• She is known to have been writing songs for years. (They know she was
writing / has been writing songs for years.)
If the reporting happens in the past and the reported event in an earlier past:
Lucy was assumed to have left the day before. (They assumed Lucy had left
the day before.)
The organisers were thought to have been preparing for days. (Everybody
thought the organisers had been preparing for days.)
In the following examples, the verb in the reported clause of the original
sentence was passive, so we use passive infinitives in the new sentence.
If the reporting happens in the present and the reported event in the past:
• The picture is known to have been painted by Caspar David Friedrich.
(They know that the picture was painted / has been painted by Caspar David
Friedrich. / They know that Caspar David Friedrich painted / has painted
the picture.)
• The picture is believed to have been being painted for years. (rarely used)
(They believe that the picture was being painted / has been being painted for
years. / They believe that the artist was painting / has been painting the picture
for years.)
If the reporting happens in the past and the reported event in an earlier past:
• The documents were claimed to have been signed by the CEO. (They
claimed that the documents had been signed by the CEO. / They claimed that
the CEO had signed the documents.)
• The tree was reported to have been being chopped when the accident
happened. (rarely used) (The investigators reported that the tree had been
being chopped when the accident happened. / The investigators reported that
the woodcutters had been chopping the tree when the accident happened.)
READING
For more passive voice, look below:
http://www.englishpage.com/verbpage/activepassive.html
70 • capítulo 3
http://www.amypadgett.com/2008/04/passive-voice.html
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/to_be.htm
http://www.be-a-better-writer.com/passive-verbs.html
http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPassiveVoice.htm
http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/passivevoice.html
http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/passive
http://grammar.quickanddirtytips.com/active-voice-versus-passive-voice.aspx
REFLECTION
For vigorous, clear writing, opt for the active voice unless you have good reasons for choosing
the passive voice. Choose the passive voice when the performer is unknown or when you
want to focus on the action or the recipient of the action. Writing from the first-person point
of view (I, we), when necessary and natural, is accepted and encouraged by many journals. If
you are not sure about a specific journal, however, study its guidelines and recent issues to
get a feel for the journal's perspective on the passive voice and first-person pronouns.
ACTIVITIES
• Make reported questions. Use 'she asked me' at the beginning of each answer. It's the
same day, so you don't need to change the time expressions. Rewrite each sentence so that
the meaning stays the same.
01. People think that neither side wanted war.

Neither side is ...................................................................................................
02. People say that fewer than 1,000 blue whales survive in the southern hemisphere.
Fewer ................................................................................................................
03. Everyone knows that eating fruit is good for you.

Eating fruit ........................................................................................................
04. People consider that one in three bathing beaches is unfit for swimming.
One in three bathing beaches ............................................................................
capítulo 3 • 71
05. At least 130,000 dolphins are reported to be caught in the nets of tuna fishers every year.
It is ....................................................................................................................
06. It is estimated that in the past 15 years about 10 million dolphins have been killed.
About 10 million dolphins ...............................................................................
07. In ancient Greece people thought dolphins were men who had abandoned life on land.
In ancient Greece it ..........................................................................................
08. In ancient Rome it was believed that dolphins carried souls to heaven.
In ancient Rome dolphins ................................................................................
09. People say that the company invested fifty million pounds last week.
The company ....................................................................................................
10. People say Mr Clark was difficult to work with when he was younger.
MrClark ...........................................................................................................
REFERÊNCIAS BIBLIOGRÁFICAS
FRAZEE, B. and Davis, J.N. Painless police report Writing, 2nd ed. Pearson, 2004
Site Grammar.com. Disponível em http://www.grammar.com Acesso em 03 de julho de 2015.
2012.
PROVOST, Gary. 100 ways to improve your writing. Mentor, 1985
Site disponível em <http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/reported-speech.html> Acesso em 27
de julho de 2015.
72 • capítulo 3
4
Idioms
Idioms represent the Angle-Saxon colours of English Language apart from
Latin roots. The closer we are to idioms the more we are peeping into cultural
life scenarios and mentality of English-speaking peoples. Therefore, equivalent
meanings cannot be expected from an attempt of matching English and
Portuguese list of expressions, although some surprising coincidences may
arise and some resemblance is to be found, mainly because some expressions
we use are translated from those idioms. By converting them to our mother
tongue we will not be approaching the array of feelings and social setting
allowing them to come to life, the heat and spontaneity that provoke them.
But provided that closeness is now inevitable and desirable, the best thing we
can do is plunging ourselves into this jar of culture and native hues to get us
immersed and fully painted by the language that gave us Shakespeare and most
of the music we listen to nowadays.
OBJECTIVES
• Approaching cultural settings behind idioms;
• Exploring idioms as pieces of language to be assessed and understood in lexical and
semantic realms.
74 • capítulo 4
4.1 Lexical aspects
Idioms are crystallized expressions that are typically used figuratively. For
example, in the sentence “Exams are part of a carrot and stick method”, no
real carrots and sticks are present as a matter of fact. The image is that of a
donkey being encouraged to move forward by dangling a carrot in front of it
or by hitting it with a stick”. This idiom can be used in the description of any
event related to more abstract rewards (the carrot) and threats (the stick).
Idioms are all over languages, and native speakers employ them out of the
thrill of the moment without regarding them any figurative meaning. Idioms
are hard to understand, complain language learners, and this is expected. For
example, language learners sometimes do not know what image inspires that
particular idiom. If a native speaker proposes to show you the ropes and you are
not familiar with this expression, you might not immediately understand that
she/he is proposing to teach you how to do a certain job. It would be a lot easier
to know that this idiom is originally based on the world of sailing, where an
experienced sailor shows a new one how to deal with the ropes on a boat.
4.1.1 Are idioms arbitrary?
Idioms were believed by linguists to be completely arbitrary: i.e, their meaning

would be impossible to be guessed from their compounding elements. For
teachers, then, learning them by heart became the only way to get them under some
control. Fortunately, we now know that systematization is a reachable target just as
idiom can be explained. By being presented as non-arbitrary features of language,
idioms end up more approachable to students, easier to handle and memorise.
4.1.2 Why idioms mean what they mean
Many idioms stem from physical experiences. For example, the expressions hot
under the collar, breathe fire, and let off steam all refer to being angry, and that
happens because of their potentiality of portraying anger as something hot inside us.
This is clear to us, because we get red as result of the increase of blood flow to our face
when we are angry. A similar phenomenon takes place when we use the figurative
expressions lend someone a hand, try your hand at something, and have your hands
tied: hands are very important for us as elements involved in performing tasks.
capítulo 4 • 75
Other idioms come from more specific domains, such as sport, war, or
cooking. Some of these expressions may be quite away from our everyday
experience, but learning their original context helps us understand the image
they derive from. Take a look at the following list of idioms clustered according
to the domain they belong to.
4.1.2.0.1 Idioms derived from sailing:

clear the decks: to first finish a job completely
a leading light: a good example to follow
be on an even keel: to make calm, steady progress
Idioms derived from war:
stick to your guns: to refuse to change your opinion

fight a losing battle: to be unlikely to succeed
be in the front line: to have an important role
Idioms derived from entertainment (the theatre, the circus etc):
behind the scenes: in secret

waiting in the wings: ready to act when needed
a balancing act: a difficult compromise
Which of the three domains shown above would you associate the following
idioms with?
• take something on board
• close ranks
• steer clear of someone
• be centre stage
• a last-ditch effort
• the curtain comes down
If it is possible to get to know how an idiom was originated, its significance

will come to you more naturally. For instance, the idiom put something on the
back burner derives from the realm of cooking, and take a back seat comes
from the domain of driving. By recognising these connections, sentences like
the ones below get easier to understand:
76 • capítulo 4
• We put the project on the back burner.
• The students were working well together, so I decided to take a back seat.
4.1.3 Idioms and culture
In general, it is not difficult to find similarities across cultures when dealing,

for example, with idioms based on our physical experiences, such as those
that associate anger with heat. Consequently, they tend to be much more
recognizable. This is so because these physical experiences are universal,
shared by all humans. It is not that these idioms can be matched to another
language in a simple procedure of a word-to-word translation: they will still hold
their syntactic and morphological peculiarity if compared to other languages,
although their overall imagery remains the same.
On the other hand, when it comes down to idioms pertaining to more specific
domains, things get a little bit different, and those matchings disappear, even if
close cultures are paired side by side. This has to do with the relative importance
of those domains across cultural scenarios. English language, for example,
is definitively associated to the sailing vocabulary because of the historical
overseas conquests of the British Empire. Another area where cultures differ is
in the popularity of certain games and sports. English has a lot of idioms that
are derived from the following domains:
Horse racing:
• neck and neck: it is hard to say who will win

• win hands down: to win easily
• go off the rails: to go wrong, out of control
Gambling:
• raise the ante: to increase the risk

• hedge your bets: to not take any risks
• pay over the odds: to pay too much
capítulo 4 • 77
Card games:
• come up trumps: to perform unexpectedly well

• follow suit: to do the same as others
• not miss a trick: to not fail a single time
Running contests:
• jump the gun: to do something too soon

• have the inside track: to have an advantage
• quick off the mark: reaching quickly
Hunting:
• don’t beat about the bush: be direct, get to the point

• it’s open season on someone: it’s a period to criticize someone
• it’s in the bag: success is certain
4.1.4 Using idioms effectively
Informal discourse is more likely to be the favourite setting for the occurrence
of a ‘playful’ domain like games or sports than is a more serious domain,
such as warfare. For example, score an own goal is likely to occur more often in
informal discourse than break ranks.
An idiom typically builds a scene out of a larger scenario. For example, a
debate between two politicians can be described as if it were a boxing match,
and – because English has many idioms derived from boxing – you can choose
particular phrases to highlight a specific stage or aspect of the contest. So,
before the actual debate starts, the two politicians may flex their muscles to
frighten the opponent; during the debate one of them may carelessly lower his
guard or bravely stick his neck out and perhaps take it on the chin; if the debate
gets more intense the opponents will not pull their punches; if it seems that
they really want to hurt each other, you can say that the gloves are off; and after
a while one of them may be on the ropes (=close to defeat) and may finally admit
defeat and throw in the towel.
78 • capítulo 4
4.2 Semantic aspects
According to Leah ,
[l]anguage is considered to be a system of communication, used by a particular

community of speakers, which has literal and figurative meanings. While the literal
meaning is the direct reference of words or sentences to objects, the figurative sense
is used for giving an imaginative description or a special effect.
This means that the group of words finds no significance in terms of the
individual meanings of each element as it has as a group. That is the way like
metaphors, similes, proverbs and idioms work. Among these, idioms have a
great extent use in everyday language, and they are considered as one of the
most frequently used means of non-literal language.
4.2.1 Idioms and Metaphors
Metaphors are the most effective rhetorical figures in everyday language. They
can be defined as rhetorical devices that compare two seemingly different
objects. For example, ‘the words are clear as crystal’ is an idiom that expresses
the similarity between the words and the crystal in the degree of clarity while
examples such as: New ideas blossomed in her mind / His temper boiled over. /
Inner peace is a stairway to heaven / His advice is a valuable guiding light. / The
wind in the trees is the voice of the spirits are metaphors. King (2000:216) says
that the beauty of metaphors relies on their capability of “explain a complex
vague expression making it more understandable and clear”. Researchers
emphasize that a common feature between idioms and metaphors is their
opacity if taken literally. Idioms and metaphors can be identified as culture-
specific aspects of a particular language, i.e., the non-existence of a direct one
to one correspondence between a target language and a source language is the
result of culture-specific metaphors and states. Native language idioms can
entwine specific concepts pertaining to the world view of its speakers, to their
national character, as well as their traditional social relations, thus becoming a
capítulo 4 • 79
materialized interwoven cloth of national dispositions and spiritual values. And
because those complex conditions of giving birth to metaphors cannot be found
elsewhere likewise, then it is easy to conclude that culture-specific metaphors
produce idioms that have no corresponding counterparts in another language.
4.2.2 Idioms and Clichés
A very interesting aspect is given by the prefabricated speech which is often used in
performed language. Idioms, which may also be defined as ‘complex bits of frozen
syntax, whose meanings are more than simply the sum of their individual parts’
(Nattinger and De Carrico, 1992:32), are considered as one feature of this type of
speech. However, they are not the only kind of prefabricated speech; there are many
other kinds of formulaic fixed phrases, among which the clichés. Clichés resemble
idioms because they also include patterns which are relatively frozen, but they differ
from these, in the sense that these patterns are usually made up of extended stretches
of language. In clichés like there is no doubt about it, a good time was had by all and
have a nice day the distinction from idioms is obvious, being easily understandable
from the meaning of their individual constituents. In contrast, idioms are often
learnt as a single unit without taking into account the meaning of their parts.
4.2.3 Idioms and Proverbs
Just like idioms, proverbs ‘are special, fixed, unchanged phrases which have
special, fixed, unchanged meanings’ (Ghazala 1995:142). Unlike idioms, they
display shared cultural wisdom. Therefore, proverbs are easily understandable
and, sometimes, the first part of the proverb might be enough to express the
whole meaning. For instance, ‘do not count your chickens’ is used instead of
‘do not count your chickens before they have hatched’. Although proverbs are
specifically culture-oriented, “echoes” of the same world view can be found in
different languages. See a small list below:
English Proverbs
• Too many words are the poverty of mankind.
• All is well that ends well.
• A friend in need is a friend indeed.
• There's no smoke without fire.
• Knowledge is power.
80 • capítulo 4
Idioms and proverbs are not always transparent, and their meanings are
sometimes ambiguous. Yet learners are fascinated by them since they are
always intrigued with expressive colorful language. Idioms and proverbs are
also a part of figurative language that produces cultural information, and their
use shows that the person is a part of that social group that uses them.
4.2.4 Idioms and Fixed Expressions
If we take expressions like “having said that”, “as a matter of fact”, “not at
all”, “ladies and gentlemen”, “all the best”, we would not find it difficult to
realise them as allowing a little or no variation in form, just as idioms do. Fixed
expressions, however, differ from idioms in that they have almost transparent
meanings. That is to say that the meaning of as a matter of fact for example,
can be elicited from the meaning of its constituents, in contrast to idioms
like pull a fast one or fill the bill where the meaning of the whole expression
is different from the meaning of its parts. Despite its clarity, the meaning of
a fixed expression, as that of an idiom, is not just the sum meanings of its
components. Fixed expressions may bring up in the mind of the reader all
the aspects of experience associated with the different contexts in which the
expression is used. This characteristic seems to be the cause of the widespread
use of fixed and semi-fixed expressions in any language (Baker 1992: 63).
Although they have many features in common with other forms of non-
literal language, idioms have their own characteristics. Generally speaking, an
idiom is a kind of lexical unit in which the whole meaning of the expression is
not apparent from the meanings of its components. There are certain essential
features which help in the recognition of idioms. Some of these features are:
Alteration of Grammatical Rules
The idiomatic expression is not always grammatical, but it is established,

accepted and used by native speakers of the language with a fixed structure
and meaning.
• It’s ages since we met (singular with a plural noun)
capítulo 4 • 81
Conventional Phrases
Idioms are special expressions which are almost known and agreed by all
the members of a particular community.
• How are you doing? (Expression used to ask someone about his health).
• Once in a blue moon (rarely, infrequently).
Alteration of Word Order
English Idiomatic expressions are usually disrespectful to the English

word order.
• It may be well ahead of time (normal word order).
• It may well be ahead of time (probably): idiomatic expression.
Figurativeness
Idiomatic expressions provide us with metaphor-oriented use. Therefore,

the surface structure has a little role to play in understanding the meaning of
the whole expression. For example, in ‘to bury the hatchet’, meaning to become
friendly again after a disagreement, the meanings of the words ‘to bury’ and.
‘the hatchet’ are different from the meaning of the whole expression.
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs are the most common type of idioms in English. Many of them
carry idiomatic meanings that cannot be guessed from the form, unless the
phrase is already known.
• After war began, the two countries broke off diplomatic relations
(discontinue).
• Most automobile companies bring out new models each year (to show
or introduce).
But pay attention: the stability of an idiom can be threatened if there are
interferences like these ones below:
82 • capítulo 4
Addition
Adding any word to an idiomatic expression may alter its meaning, or

remove its idiomatic sense. For instance, adding the adverb very to the adjective
“red” in “red herring” (*very red herring) changes of its meaning completely.
Deletion
Deleting the adjective “sweet” and the article “the” from the expressions
have a sweet tooth and spill the beans would change totally their meanings.
Hence, (*have a tooth) and (*spill beans) have no idiomatic sense.
Substitution
Idioms accept no replacement of words even if those words are synonyms.

For example, “the long and short of it” means the basic facts of a situation. The
adjective long cannot be substituted by another adjective, like tall, despite they
have nearly the same meaning.
Modification
Any change in the grammatical structure of an idiom leads to the destruction

of the idiom meaning. For instance, the expression (*stock and barrel lock) is
no more idiomatic because of the altered order of the items in the expression
lock, stock and barrel completely.
Comparative
The expression “be in hot water” does not convey the same meaning when
–er is added to “hot”, leaving the meaning “be in trouble” behind.
Passive
The passive form “some beans were spilled” has a different meaning from
its active one. These limits impose a subtle boundary to those items considered
idioms and those other which are not: it is a restriction that plays with their
capítulo 4 • 83
degree of idiomacity. These characteristics cause the idioms to be taken as rigid
structures, almost impossible to be decrypted. However, through a cautious
approach, thorough explanations, continuous interest, idioms may become
vital elements in the acquisition of proficiency in a foreign language.
Different criteria have come into play to categorise idioms. The main
feature that differentiates between the different kinds of idioms is the degree of
idiomacity that an idiom carries. Idioms are categorized in a continuum from
transparent to opaque called the spectrum of idiomacity. Therefore, idioms can
be divided into Transparent-Opaque Idioms which include:
4.2.5 Transparent Idioms
As it is stated, the understanding of these idioms is immediate since their

meaning and that of a literal one overlap. Comprehension comes easily from,
say, the sum of the parts, although the combination acquires figurative sense.
• to see the light = to understand
4.2.6 Semi - Transparent Idioms
The metaphorical sense cannot be totally inferred from the meaning of parts,
which has nearly no role in conveying meaning.
• break the ice = relieve the tension
4.2.7 Semi-Opaque Idioms
These idioms consist of two parts, so that the metaphorical one is usually the
second one.
• to know the ropes = to know how a particular job should be done
• to pass the buck = to pass responsibility
4.2.8 Opaque Idioms
Opaque idioms are the most difficult type of idioms, because the meaning of
the idiom is never that of the sum of the literal meanings of its parts. So, it would
be impossible to infer the actual meaning of the idiom from the meanings of
its components, because of the presence of items having cultural references.
84 • capítulo 4
These culture-specific items have a great influence on the comprehensibility of
idiomatic expressions.
• to burn one’s boat = to make retreat impossible.
• kick the bucket = to die
• spill the beans = reveal a secret
Idioms may be otherwise classified into:
4.2.9 Informal Idioms
Such as: a mug's game | alive and kicking | at sixes and sevens | by the book |
catch it |come/turn up trumps | cook someone's goose | daylight robbery | do a
bunk | every nook and cranny | face the music | fly off the handle | for my money
| forty winks | go places | go through the roof | go to the dogs | have a soft spot
for | hit the bottle | in spades | like a shot | live it up | make noises | mum's the
word | mutton dressed (up) as lamb | no end | not to mention | on cloud nine |
on the mend | on top of the world | over the hill | play cat and mouse | rock the
boat | send someone packing | sleep like a log | under the weathere and kicking
| at sixes and sevens|
4.2.10 Formal Idioms
Such as: as regards | in the first instance | on either/every hand | on production

of | root and branch/ catch it | come/turn up trumps | cook someone's goose |
daylight robbery | do a bunk | eook an
4.2.11 Verbal Idioms
Such as: break even | burn the midnight oil | call a halt | catch it | catch sight
of | come/turn up trumps | cook someone's goose | do a bunk | err on the side
of something | excel oneself | face the music | fetch and carry | find fault | fit
(someone) like a glove | fly off the handle | go from bad to worse | go places |
go through the roof | go to the dogs | groan inwardly | have a soft spot for | hear
a pin drop | hit the bottle | hold the line | jog someone's memory | keep a straight
face | know better | let the cat out of the bag | live from hand to mouth | live it up |
look a gift horse in the mouth | make fun of | make noises | oil the wheels | pick and
capítulo 4 • 85
choose | play cat and mouse | play second fiddle | pull the strings | raise eyebrows |
rest on one's laurels | rise to the occasion | rock the boat | send someone packing |
sleep like a log | stand on ceremony | stop the rot | take the bull by the horns | throw
the baby out with the bath water | vote with one's feet | work to rule
Idiomatic Pairs
Pairs of adjectives
born and bred | bright and early | safe and sound | black and blue | high and
dry| fair and square;
Pairs of nouns
aches and pains | bits and pieces | body and soul | hustle and bustle | ifs
and buts| life and limb | man to man | odds and ends | peace and parcel | ups
and downs
Pairs of adverbs
far and wide | first and foremost | here, there and everywhere/on and off
Pairs of verbs
do and die | fetch and carry | pick and choose | wait and see | wine and dine
| sink and swim
Identical pairs
again and again | all in all | Bit by bit | little by little | Step by step | round
and round
Idioms Used in Special Fields:
Banking
Open/close a bank account | take out a loan | take out a mortgage | pay in
cash/by cheque | on credit charge something to a credit card
Business
• A business runs at a profit or runs at a loss;

• If a business makes neither a profit nor a loss it breaks even;
• You open (up)/ set up a business or you go into business;
• You close down a business/ go out of business;
• A single person who runs a business is a sole trader;
86 • capítulo 4
• A sleeping partner is a person who provides a percentage of the capital of
a business but who does not play a part in its management;
• If a person cannot pay his debts he is said to go bankrupt or go bust
(informal)
Buying and selling
• Shop around =compare prices at different shops

• Go window-shopping = you only look at the goods in the shop window;
• Buy in bulk = you buy in large quantities at a cheaper price;
• You may take goods on approval = buy goods that you can return soon
after the purchase date if you are not satisfied;
• You may buy something on high purchase = pay in weekly or
monthly installments;
• You may run up an account bill (with a shop/ firm) = buy goods on credit;
• A shopkeeper may put prices up and sometimes bring prices down;
• A shop-lifter is a person who steals from shops while pretending to be
a customer;
• A small business may be run on a ‘shoe –string’ = with very low
maintenance costs;
• To bring something under the hammer is to sell it by auction;
Politics and Law
Be in power/ hold office/ be defeated/ rejected/ thrown out/win/lose a,

his seat
Telephoning
Give someone a ring/make a business call/ get through/ hold the line
Travel
Go on holiday/ vacation/ set off on a journey/ make an overnight stop/ travel

first class/ go through customs/ charter flight
capítulo 4 • 87
Health, Illness, Death
Catch a cold/ pass away/ catch a disease/ to feel under the weather
Idioms related to special themes
Anger Speed
• Fly off the handle/ go through the roof; like a shot
Deterioration Success
• Go from bad to worse/ over the hill; go places
Happiness Surprise
• On cloud nine/ on top of the world; raise eyebrows
Wealth
• in the lap of luxury/ live it up
Idioms containing special keywords
Animals
a dog's life | (as) blind as a bat | cook someone's goose | crocodile tears | go
to the dogs | let the cat out of the bag | look a gift horse in the mouth | mutton
dressed (up) as lamb | play cat and mouse | take the bull by the horns | the
lion's share
Parts of the body
cap in hand | keep a straight face | live from hand to mouth | neck and neck
| on either/every hand | raise eyebrows | vote with one's feet | (with) (one's)
tongue in (one's) cheek | with open arms
Colours
In black and white/ go off into the blue/ a blue-collar worker/ once in a blue
moon/ green with envy/ have green fingers/ as red as beetroot/as white as a
sheet/ a white lie;
The idiom “green with envy” is probably as old as The Merchant of Venice and Othello,
by William Shakespeare. Green is a colour associated with sickness, possibly because
people's skin sometimes takes on a slightly yellow/green tinge when they are
seriously ill. Green is also the colour of many unripe foods that cause stomach pains.
The phrase “green-eyed jealousy” was used by, and possibly coined by, Shakespeare
to denote jealousy, in The Merchant of Venice, 1596:
88 • capítulo 4
Portia:
How all the other passions fleet to air,
As doubtful thoughts, and rash-embraced despair,
And shuddering fear, and green-eyed jealousy! O love,
Be moderate; allay thy ecstasy,
In measure rein thy joy; scant this excess.
I feel too much thy blessing: make it less,
For fear I surfeit.
In Othello, 1604, Shakespeare also alludes to cats as green-eyed monsters in the way
that they play with mice before killing them.
Iago:
O, beware, my lord, of jealousy;
It is the green-eyed monster which doth mock
The meat it feeds on; that cuckold lives in bliss
Who, certain of his fate, loves not his wronger;
But, O, what damned minutes tells he o'er
Who dotes, yet doubts, suspects, yet strongly loves!
Clothes
Fit someone like a glove/ cap in hand;
Time
Day by day/ an off day/ name the day/ on the spur of the moment/ a night
cap/ a night owl/ be on time/ be pressed for time/ kill time / behind the times/
keep up with the times;
Idioms with Comparisons
Comparisons with as…….as

as blind as a bat/ as brown as a berry/ as cold as ice/ as dry as a bone/ as
different as chalk and cheese/ as fit as a fiddle/ as light as a feather/ as quick as
lightning/ as tough as leather;
Comparisons with like
drink like a fish/ eat like a horse/ go like the wind/ smoke like a chimney
Idioms can be divided into three sub-classes: pure idioms, semi-idioms and
literal idioms.
capítulo 4 • 89
• Pure idioms
A pure idiom is not to be understood by summing the meaning of the
parts compounding the phrase, given its conventionalized and non-literal
multiwording nature. For example the expression “spill the beans” is a pure
idiom, because its real meaning has nothing to do with beans.
• Semi-idioms
A semi-pure, on the other hand, has at least one literal element and one with
a non-literal meaning. For example “foot the bill” (i.e. pay) is one example of a
semi-idiom, in which foot is the non-literal element, whereas the word bill is
used literally.
• Literal idioms
Literal idioms, such as “on foot” or “on the contrary” are semantically less
complex than the other two, and therefore easier to understand even if one
is not familiar with these expressions. These expressions may be considered
idioms because they are either completely invariant or allow only restricted
variation. There is a difficulty of drawing a clear boundary between these three
idiom types. Taking into consideration the function of the phrase, idioms can
be clustered into ideational, interpersonal and relational idioms.
• Ideational idioms
Ideational idioms either signify message content, experiential phenomena
including the sensory, the affective, and the evaluative, or they characterize the
nature of the message. These expressions may describe:
– actions (tear down, spill the beans),
– events (turning point),
– situations (be in a pickle),
– people and things (a red herring),
– attributes (cut-and-dried), evaluations (a watched pot never boils)
– emotions (green with envy).
• Interpersonal idioms
Interpersonal idioms, on the other hand, are used to initiate or keep up
an interaction between people and maintain politeness (Fernando 1996:73).
These expressions include:
– greetings and farewells (good morning),
– directives (let’s face it),
90 • capítulo 4
– agreements (say no more),
– "feelers" which elicit opinions (what do you think?)
– rejections (come off it).
• Relational idioms
Relational idioms are able to ensure that the discourse is cohesive and
coherent. Examples of relational idioms are “on the contrary”, “in addition to”
and “on the other hand”.
Makkai (1972:117) identifies two major types of idioms: those of encoding
and those of decoding. Makkai (1972:117) classifies idioms of decoding into
lexemic and sememic idioms.
Idioms of Encoding (Identifiable)
This type of idioms could be best recognized through making a comparison

between different languages by the use of proper prepositions. Therefore, ‘at’
is used instead of “with in the English expression ‘drive at 70 mph’ (not “drive
with” as in French).
Idioms of Decoding (Non-Identifiable)
Idioms of decoding refer to those non-identifiable and misleading lexical

expressions whose interpretation could not be figured out by using only
independently learned linguistic conventions. They include expressions like
“beat around the bush” and “fly off the handle”. This type of idioms could be
classified into lexemic and sememic.
Lexemic idioms include:
a) Phrasal verbs: e.g., to come up with, to turn off, to take part in.
b) Phrasal compounds: e.g. black ice, black board.
c) Incorporating verbs: e.g. man-handle.
d) Pseudo-Idioms: e.g. spick and span, kit and kin.
capítulo 4 • 91
Sememic Idioms, on the other hand, usually, convey pragmatic meanings
related to aparticular culture. They include:
a) Proverbs: e.g. Chew of something over, A bird in hand is worth two in
the bush.
b) Familiar Quotations: e.g. Not a mouse stirring.
Did you know that “Not a mouse stirring” is a line from Shakespeare’s Hamlet?
Another classification to the English idioms types focusing on their possible

combinations can be viewed like this:
Verb + object/complement (and /or adverbial)
Kill two birds with one stone (=produce two useful results by just doing
one action.)
Prepositional phrase
In the blink of an eye (= in an extremely short time.)
Compound
A bone of contention (= something which people argue and disagree over.)
Simile (as + adjective + as or like + a noun).

As dry as a bone (= very dry indeed)
Binominal (word + and + word)

Rough and ready (= crude and lacking sophistication)
Trinomial (word + word + and+ word)

Cool, calm and collected (= relaxed, in control, not nervous)
Whole clause or sentence
To cut a long story short (= to tell the main points, but not all the fine details)
92 • capítulo 4
REFLECTION
Although a distinguished form of non-literal language, idioms may also be regarded from the
figurativeness point of view. The structure and the possible restrictions in the form and use
give idioms an aspect of grammaticality well defined.
ACTIVITIES
01. Choose the appropriate idiomatic expressions:
a) The teacher asked us to talk about the (piece of cake/odds and ends/pros and cons/
ups and downs) of industrial development.
b) The police found nothing special in the house of the criminal as he had taken all the im-
portant documents with him, leaving just (piece of cake/odds and ends/pros and cons/
ups and downs).
c) Don’t worry about the problems you have in your business. You know there are always
(piece of cake/odds and ends/pros and cons/ups and downs) in business.
d) If you think that doing this maths problem is (piece of cake/odds and ends/pros and
cons/ups and downs) just try it.
02. Choose the appropriate word to complete the meaning of the idiom:
a) All these promises these politicians make are just (use/ocean/music/rags/shoulder/
pie) in the sky.
b) The small amount of money donated is just a drop in the (use/ocean/music/rags/
shoulder/pie) compared to the large sum of money needed.
c) I had to face the (use/ocean/music/rags/shoulder/pie) all by myself although I was not
the only responsible for the problem.
d) They had had a dispute yesterday. That's why she gave him the cold (use/ocean/mu-
sic/rags/shoulder/pie).
e) He has been successful in his life. He went from (use/ocean/music/rags/shoulder/pie)
to riches.
f) He spends his time drinking and watching TV. He's no (use/ocean/music/rags/shoul-
der/pie) to man or beast.
capítulo 4 • 93
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
BAKER, M. In other words: a course book on translation. London: Routledge, 1992
GHAZALA, H. Translation as Problems and Solutions. Malta: ELGA publication, 1995.
LEAH, Claudia. Idioms: grammaticality and figurativeness. Disponível em <http://www.theroundtable.
ro/Current/Language/Claudia_Leah_Idioms_Grammaticality_and_Figurativeness.pdf.> Acesso em 25
de julho de 2015
MAKKAI, A. Idiom structure in English. The Hague: Mouton & Co. N.V. 1972
2012.
NATTINGER, J.R. & De CARRICO, J.S. Lexical Phrases and Language Teaching. Oxford: OUP,
1992/2009.
94 • capítulo 4
5
Linguistic
Variation and
Figures of Speech
Native speakers of all languages do recognize the natural changes to be per-
formed across the various layers of society when they need to adapt their ut-
terances to social contexts, gender, space, age and so on. Linguistic variation
is a spontaneous phenomenon which all social actors attend compulsorily no
matter who or where they are.
This final chapter is about the different levels of customization of language,
from macro to micro contexts. Meeting the figures of speech is part of this pro-
cess of multiple stylization of a language to its speakers, the two-way road which
absorbs and delivers ongoing mutations in people’s oral productions to fit the
targets of communication.
OBJECTIVES
• Studying linguistic variation to scan the ways a language can differentiate through time,
space, gender, age, etc.
• Studying figures of speech and realizing its rhetorical strength in everyday life.
96 • capítulo 5
5.1 Linguistic variation
Unexpectedly we are going to quote three different authors in order to allow
them to speak freely in their own words without the interference of our perso-
nal edition of the texts. Although such a procedure might seem a little bit impo-
lite or rude, we are convinced that their explanation at the outset of this chapter
will prevent us from further considerations:
Linguistic variation is central to the study of language use. In fact it is impossible to stu-
dy the language forms used in natural texts without being confronted with the issue of
linguistic variability. Variability is inherent in human language: a single speaker will use
different linguistic forms on different occasions, and different speakers of a language
will express the same meanings using different forms. Most of this variation is highly
systematic: speakers of a language make choices in pronunciation, morphology, word
choice, and grammar depending on a number of non-linguistic factors. These factors
include the speaker's purpose in communication, the relationship between speaker and
hearer, the production circumstances, and various demographic affiliations that a spea-
ker can have. (Randi Reppen et al., Using Corpora to Explore Linguistic Variation. John
Benjamins, 2002)
Donald Ellis is presenting us some thoughts about the nature of dialects:
A dialect is variation in grammar and vocabulary in addition to sound variations. For example,
if one person utters the sentence 'John is a farmer' and another says the same thing except
pronounces the word farmer as 'fahmuh,' then the difference is one of accent. But if one
person says something like 'You should not do that' and another says 'Ya hadn't oughta do
that,' then this is a dialect difference because the variation is greater. The extent of dialect
differences is a continuum. Some dialects are extremely different and others less so. (Do-
nald G. Ellis, From Language to Communication.Routledge, 1999)
Types of Variation
Millward and Hayes identify the occurrence of dialects regionally:
capítulo 5 • 97
"[R]egional variation is only one of many possible types of differences among spea-
kers of the same language. For example, there are occupational dialects (the word
bugs means something quite different to a computer programmer and an extermina-
tor), sexual dialects (women are far more likely than men to call a new house adora-
ble), and educational dialects (the more education people have, the less likely they
are to use double negatives). There are dialects of age (teenagers have their own
slang, and even the phonology of older speakers is likely to differ from that of young
speakers in the same geographical region) and dialects of social context (we do not
talk the same way to our intimate
DIMENSION EXPLANATION EXAMPLES
In different communicative
Diaphasic or stylis- settings, different levels of
Youth language, hunters'
tic variation (across style/register are used and in
language
situation) different social groups (accor-
ding to age, sex, profession ...)
Diastratic(across Variants in user’s variation. It Educated and lower edu-

level) depends on social factors. cated people
In different places and re-

Diatopic (across gions of the linguistic area,
Cockney English
place) different dialects and accents
are spoken.
Variants and even historical Extinct, obsolete, ol-

Diachronic (across
stages follow each other on d-fashioned, current,
time)
the diachronic axis. fashionable expressions
98 • capítulo 5
DIMENSION EXPLANATION EXAMPLES
Diamesic (across
Variants in written and oral
medium of Oral vs. written language
situations.
communication)
There are two main things that distinguish an accent from a dialect. First,
an accent refers to the Phonology and Phonetics of speech, that is, the sounds
and sound patterns, whereas a dialect refers to the entire linguistic system. For
example, the Southern accent might refer to the pronunciation of the vowels
(e.g. monophthongization of words like fire to 'fahr') or stress shift (e.g., 'po.lice
versus po.'lice) whereas the discussion of the Southern dialect would include
the accent, but also things like double modals (e.g., I might could go to the store
later) or anything else about the language.
Second, a dialect also involves some notion of a speech community. For
example, if someone from India were to move to Dubuque and start speaking
English, we'd refer to her speech as foreign accented speech. That is not, alone,
a dialect of English. However, as an entire speech community develops, this fo-
reign-accentedness can be a full-fledged dialect. Singapore-English, for exam-
ple, is a dialect of English that obviously developed from a bunch of foreigners
learning and speaking English. This idea of a speech community also encom-
passes many specific aspects of a dialect, including native-speakers and social
signaling (many people are bi-dialectal and signal certain social concepts in the
dialect they chose to use).
In different places and regions of the linguistic area, different dialects and
accents are spoken.
Spelling
For spelling issues, the safest option is to consult a dictionary. Use the
Oxford Dictionary for British English and the Merriam Webster Dictionary for
American English. Both are available online. A few common differences are lis-
ted below.
capítulo 5 • 99
• American English "or" vs. British English "our": Examples include color/
colour and favorite/favourite.
• American English "ze" vs. British English "se": Examples include analyze/
analyse and criticize/criticise.
• American English "ll" vs. British English "l": Examples include enroll-
ment/enrolment and skillful/skillful.
• American English "er" vs. British English "re": Examples include center/
centre and meter/metre.American English "e" vs. British English "oe" or "ae":
Examples include encyclopedia/encyclopaedia and maneuver/manoeuvre.
Punctuation
The most important difference involves the use of quotation marks. Double
quotation marks are used as primary quotes in American English, whereas sin-
gle quotation marks are used in British English.
For quotes within quotes, single quotation marks are used in American
English, and double quotations marks are used in British English.
To add to the confusion, periods and commas are generally placed inside
closing quotes in American English and placed outside closing quotes in British
English. In both styles, question marks and exclamation points are placed insi-
de the quotation marks if they belong to the quotation and outside otherwise.
The following sentences highlight the key differences.
• My father always said, "Be careful what you wish for." (American English)
• My father always said, 'Be careful what you wish for'. (British English)
Another difference appears in letter writing. In American English, a comma

follows the salutation in an informal letter (Dear John,), and a colon follows the
salutation in a business letter (Dear John:). In British English, a comma follows
the salutation in all letters.
Writers should also be careful when using the term "i.e." as the punctuation
that follows also differs. In American English, a comma follows "i.e." or "e.g."
No comma is used in British English.
Abbreviations may also be expressed differently. In American English, a pe-
riod is typically used with abbreviations (Ph.D and Mr.), but in British English,
no period is used (PhD and Mr).
100 • capítulo 5
Finally, it is also worthwhile to note that "( )" marks are referred to as brac-
kets in British English. In American English, "( )" marks are referred to as paren-
theses (singular parenthesis), whereas "[ ]" are called brackets.
Grammar
Will/Shall
n British English, it is fairly common to use “shall” with the first person to
talk about the future. Americans rarely use shall.
• I shall/will never forget this favour. (British English)
• I will never forget this favour. (American English)
Collective Nouns
Collective nouns like jury, team, family, and government can take both sin-
gular and plural verbs in British English. In American English, they normally
take a singular verb.
• The committee meets/meet tomorrow. (British English)
• The committee meets tomorrow. (American English)
Vocabulary
The greatest difference between the two forms may be in vocabulary. Some
differences in usage and/or meaning can cause confusion or embarrassment.
For example, the word fanny is a slang word for vulva in British English, but
means buttocks in American English. In American English, the word fag is a
highly offensive term for a gay male, but in British English, it is a normal and
well-used term for a cigarette. In American English, the word pissed means
being annoyed, whereas in British English, it means being drunk. Here are a
few more common examples (American English vs. British English).
BRITISH AMERICAN
Trousers Pants
Crisps Chips
Hot chips French fries
capítulo 5 • 101
BRITISH AMERICAN
Fizzy drink Soda
Lift Elevator
Film Movie
Pavement Sidewalk
There are also a few differences in preposition use, including the following:
• American English "on the weekend"  vs. British English "at the weekend" 
• American English "on a team" vs.  British English "in a team"
Idioms
There are a number of English idioms that have essentially the same mea-
ning but show lexical differences between the American and British version,
for instance:
• Knock on wood vs. Touch wood
• A drop in the bucket vs. A drop in the ocean
• Beating a dead horse vs. Flogging a dead horse
• Lay of the land vs. Lie of the land
Dates and Numbers
In American English, the date is expressed as April 17, 1978. Conversely, in

British English, the date is expressed as 17 April 1978.
The time may also be expressed differently in British English since the 24-
hour clock (18:00 or 1800) is routinely used in the UK and Europe in applica-
tions including air, rail, and bus timetables; however, it is largely unused in the
US outside of military, police, and medical applications.
Denotation and Connotation
Denotation is a word's literal meaning. For example, were Juliet (from

Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet) to look up the word 'rose' in the dictionary, she
would find something like, 'a bush or shrub that produces flowers, usually red, pink,
white or yellow in color.' Similarly, street names, like Sistrunk Boulevard or Northeast
Sixth Street, tell people where they are and help them get to where they want to go.
102 • capítulo 5
On the other hand, connotation is a word's underlying meanings; it is all
the stuff we associate with a word. So, while a rose is indeed a type of flower,
we also associate roses with romantic love, beauty and even special days, like
Valentine's Day or anniversaries. Connotations go beyond the literal to what we
think and feel when we hear or see a word.
Please consider these examples:
• skinny, thin, and slender. These three words all mean being underweight.
But the connotations differ since the suggested meanings of skinny and thin
are more negative than slender, with skinny even more negative than thin.
• childlike and childish both mean characteristic of a child; however, chil-
dlike suggests innocence, meekness and wide-eyed wonder, while chidish
suggests immaturity, pettiness, and willfulness.
• horses and coursers both denotes equinines, but coursers has the sugges-
tion of agile and dainty equinines.
• new denotes of recent origin, but the connotation can suggest better,
improved
• cheap and inexpensive both denote not costly, but the connotation of
cheap suggests something is of poor quality whereas inexpensive does not.
• Often connotation is a result of the context of a word. For instance, if one
says that the dog barked, the connotation is neutral, but if one says that the ma-
nager barked orders at his staff, the connotation is clearly negative.
Homonyms, Homographs, Homophones and Polysemy
Okay, let’s get to the very basics. The word Homonym comes from the
Greek óμώνυμος (homonumos), which boils down to having the same name.
Technically in linguistics, homonyms are words that share the same spelling
and are pronounced the same, but have a different meaning. For example, bark
(the sound a dog makes) and bark (part of a tree).
Homographs are words that are spelled the same, no matter the pronun-
ciation but have a different meaning as in hound (a dog breed) or hound (to
pester). Homophones are words that share the same pronunciation, no matter
how they’re spelled, but also have a different meaning, for example: fair (a pu-
blic gathering) and fare (a fee for public transportation). If they’re spelled the
same they’re both homographs and homonyms. For example, rose (the flower)
capítulo 5 • 103
and rose (past tense of to rise). Now let’s add another word to the mix: hetero-
graphs. These are words that are spelled differently, but sound the same. We
know them as to, too, two, and there, their, and they’re.
But wait, there’s more. Heteronyms are a subset of homographs (and let’s
not forget homonyms) that have different pronunciations and meanings. In
other words, they are homographs, but not homophones. These include row (as
in an argument) and row (at to row a boat or a row of seats).
Moving away from the “homos and heteros” we get into polysemes that have
the same spelling, but related and distinct meanings. In other words, mouth
(the orifice on your face) and mouth (the opening for a body of water or a cave)
are polysemous.
And finally there are capitonyms. These are words that share the same spel-
ling, but have different meanings when they’re upper case. As in Polish (from
Poland), polish (to make shiny), march (rhythmic walking) and March (the third
month of the year).
Below is a chart for clarification*:
TERM MEANING SPELLING PRONUNCIATION
Homonym Different Same Same
Homograph Different Same Sameordifferent
Homophone Different Sameordifferent Same
Heteronym Different Same Different
Heterograph Different Different Same
Polyseme Different but related Same Sameordifferent
Differentwhen Sameex-
Capitonym Sameordifferent
capitalized ceptforcapitalization
*Source: Wikipedia.
CONNECTION
For a cartoon-like exposition of figures of speech, just take a look at https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=O9RQcFaBabM
104 • capítulo 5
Figures of speech
1. Anaphora
It is the repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive
clauses or verses.
• Good food. Good cheer. Good times.
• I want her to live. I want her to breathe. I want her to aerobicize
2. Antithesis
An antithesis is a figure of speech where two very opposing lines of thought
or ideas are placed in a somewhat balanced sentenced.
• "Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing." (Goethe)
• "We must learn to live together as brothers or perish together as
fools."(Martin Luther King, Jr., speech at St. Louis, 1964)
3. Apostrophe
A figure of speech in which some absent or nonexistent person or thing is
addressed as if present and capable of understanding.
"Oh! Stars and clouds and winds, ye are all about to mock me; if ye really pity
me, crush sensation and memory; let me become as nought; but if not, depart,
depart, and leave me in darkness.”(Mary Shelley, Frankenstein, 1818)
4. Asyndeton
It is a figure of speech in which one or several conjunctions are omitted
from a series of related clauses.
• Veni, vidi, vici and its English translation "I came, I saw, I conquered".
• They dove, splashed, floated, splashed, swam, snorted.
5. Polysyndeton
Polysyndeton refers to that figure of speech which makes good use of con-
junctions and in close succession.
• He ran and jumped and laughed for joy.
• We lived and laughed and loved and left.
6. Alliteration
Alliteration is the duplication of a specific consonant sound at the start
of each word and in quick succession. Although alliterations are all about
capítulo 5 • 105
consonant sounds, exceptions can be made, when vowels sounds are also re-
peated. This figure of speech is commonly seen in poems.
• "Good men are gruff and grumpy, cranky, crabbed, and cross." (Clement
Freud) (sounds of ‘g’ and ‘k’)
• She sells seashells by the seashore. (sounds of ‘s’ and ‘sh’)
7. Assonance
The repetition of similar vowel sounds in neighboring words like:
• It beats . . . as it sweeps . . . as it cleans! (advertising slogan for Hoover va-
cuum cleaners, 1950s)
• "The spider skins lie on their sides, translucent and ragged, their legs
drying in knots."(Annie Dillard, Holy the Firm, 1977)
8. Ellipsis
In grammar and rhetoric, the omission of one or more words, which must
be supplied by the listener or reader.
"Wise men talk because they have something to say; fools, (talk) because
they have to say something." (Plato)
"Some people go to priests; others (go) to poetry; I (go) to my friends."(Vir-
ginia Woolf)
9. Euphemism
A euphemism is a polite word or expression that people use when they are
talking about something which they or other people may find unpleasant,
upsetting or embarrassing. When we use euphemisms we are protecting our-
selves from the reality of what is said. There are many euphemisms that refer to
sex, bodily functions, war, death, etc.
• He passed away (i.e. died) after a long illness (i.e. cancer).
• We keep the adult (i.e. pornographic) magazines on the top shelf and the
adult videos under the counter.
• You know that we're in the middle of a rightsizing exercise (i.e. compulsory
redundancy programme). We have no alternative but to let you go (i.e. sack you).
10. Hyperbole
An exaggeration that is so dramatic that no one would believe the statement
is true.
106 • capítulo 5
• They ran like greased lightning.
• Her brain is the size of a pea.
• I'm so hungry I could eat a horse.
• I have told you a million times not to lie!
11. Irony
Irony is used to stress on the opposite meaning of a word. When people are
looking to be sarcastic, they employ irony.
• He was so intelligent, that he failed all his tests.
• "Gentlemen, you can't fight in here! This is the War Room."(Peter Sellers
as President MerkinMuffley in Dr. Strangelove, 1964)
12. Metaphor
A metaphor is a figure of speech that says that one thing is another different
thing. This allows us to use fewer words and forces the reader or listener to find
the similarities. The word metaphor comes from the
• Her home was a prison.
• George is a sheep.
13. Metonomy
A metonymy is a figure of speech where one word or phrase is used in place
of another. With metonymies, a name of a particular thing is substituted with
the name of a thing that is closely related to it.
• Tools/Instruments: Often a tool is used to signify the job it does or the
person who does the job, as in the phrase "the press" (referring to the printing
press), or as in the idiom.
• The pen is mightier than the sword.
• The material that a thing is (actually, historically, or supposedly) made of
referring to that thing
• "steel" for a sword
• "plastic" for a credit card (asking a merchant) Do you take plastic?
14. Onomatopeia
Onomatopoeia is the use of words that sound like their meaning, or mi-
mic sounds. It is used to replicate sounds created by objects, actions, animals
and people.
capítulo 5 • 107
"Chug, chug, chug.Puff, puff, puff.Ding-dong, ding-dong. The little train
rumbled over the tracks.”("Watty Piper" [Arnold Munk], The Little Engine
That Could)
15. Personification
Personification gives human characteristics to inanimate objects, animals,
or ideas. This can really affect the way the reader imagines things. This is used
in children’s books, poetry, and fictional literature.
• The picture in that magazine shouted for attention.
• The radio stopped singing and stared at me.
Figures of speech can be also found in music. Dietrich Bartel wrote a book called
Musica Poetica: musical-rhetorical figures in German Baroque music, which is a detai-
led analysis of German Baroque musical-rhetorical figures, combined with his careful
translations of interpretations of those figures from a wide range of sources.
16. Pun
A pun is a form of word play which suggests two or more meanings, by ex-
ploiting multiple meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an in-
tended humorous or rhetorical effect. Puns are used to create humor and some-
times require a large vocabulary to understand.
• Grave men, near death, who see with blinding sight"(Dylan Thomas, "Do
not go gentle into that good night")
• "Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana."(Groucho Marx)
17. Oxymoron
An oxymoron is a figure of speech that deliberately uses two contradictory
ideas. This contradiction creates a paradoxical image in the reader or listener's
mind that generates a new concept or meaning for the whole.
• a living death
• a deafening silence
• "The best cure for insomnia is to get a lot of sleep."(attributed to W.C.
Fields)
• "A yawn may be defined as a silent yell."
108 • capítulo 5
Here are some common examples of oxymoronic expressions: act naturally,
random order, original copy, conspicuous absence, found missing, alone together,
criminal justice, old news, peace force, even odds, awful good, student teacher,
deafening silence, definite possibility, definite maybe, open secret, exact estimate.
18. Pleonasm
It is the use of superfluous or redundant words. There are two kinds of pleo-
nasm: syntactic pleonasm and semantic pleonasm.
Syntactic pleonasm - Syntactic pleonasm occurs when the grammar of a lan-
guage makes certain function words optional. For example, consider the follo-
wing English sentences:
• "I know you are coming."
• "I know that you are coming."
In this construction, the conjunction that is optional when joining a senten-

ce to a verb phrase with know. Both sentences are grammatically correct, but
the word that is pleonastic in this case.
19. Simile
A simile is a figure of speech that says that one thing is like another different
thing. We can use similes to make descriptions more emphatic or vivid. We of-
ten use the words as...as and like with similes. Common patterns for similes,
with example sentences, are:
– something [is] AS adjective AS something (stative verb: be, feel, smell,
taste etc.)
• His skin was as cold as ice.
• It felt as hard as rock.
• She looked as gentle as a lamb.
REFLECTION
It is interesting to realise that figures of speech are listed under the domain of rhetoric – a set
of techniques taken as an effort of searching for all the ways to create persuasion. Therefore,
it’s language seen through a political (meaning a realm of power) perspective, set in a way to
affect people’s emotions rather than their intellect (just because rhetoric is not interested in
truth (episteme) but in opinion (doxa)).
capítulo 5 • 109
ACTIVITIES
• Identify the figure of speech used in the following sentences.
01. he camel is the ship of the desert.

a) Metaphor
b) Simile
c) Oxymoron
d) Epigram
02. Death lays its icy hands on Kings.

a) Epigram
b) Antithesis
c) Metaphor
d) Personification
03. O Hamlet! Thou has cleft my heart in twain.

a) Metaphor
b) Hyperbole
c) Oxymoron
d) Apostrophe
04. O death! Where is thy sting? O grave! Where is thy victory?

a) Oxymoron
b) Hyperbole
c) Metaphor
d) Apostrophe
05. 5. Life is as tedious as a twice-told tale.

a) Simile
b) Metaphor
c) Hyperbole
d) Apostrophe
110 • capítulo 5
06. Variety is the spice of life.
a) Metaphor
b) Simile
c) Hyperbole
d) Antithesis
07. Pride goeth forth on horseback, grand and gay

a) Personification
b) Hyperbole
c) Apostrophe
d) Metaphor
08. O Solitude! Where are the charms that sages have seen in thy face?
a) Personification
b) Apostrophe
c) Hyperbole
d) Antithesis
09. Here is the smell of blood still; all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.
a) Hyperbole
b) Antithesis
c) Personification
d) Metaphor
10. Many are called, few are chosen

a) Oxymoron
b) Antithesis
c) Hyperbole
d) Personification
capítulo 5 • 111
BIBLIOGRAPHIC
ELLIS, Donald G. From language to communication. Routledge, 1999
Disponível em <http://www.englishgrammar.org> Acesso em 12 de julho de 2015
2012.
REPPEN, R. et al. Using corpora to explore linguistic variation. John Benjamins, 2002
GABARITO
Capítulo 1
01. "Toto, I've got a feeling we're not in Kansas anymore."

(The Wizard of Oz, 1939)
02. "May these horses bear you to better fortune than their former masters."
(The LordoftheRings: The TwoTowers, 2002)
03. "Louis, I think this is the beginning of a beautiful friendship."

(Casablanca, 1942)
04. "It does not do to dwell on dreams, Harry, and forget to live."
(Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone, 2001)
05. "You know, I always thought that I rescued you from the Dragon's Keep."
(Shrek ForeverAfter, 2010)
06. "In this town, the fewer people who know something, the safer the operation."
(The Dark Knight, 2008)
07. "Son, you got a panty on your head."

(Raising Arizona, 1987)
112 • capítulo 5
08. "Joey, do you like movies about gladiators?"
(Airplane! 1980)
09. "What we do in life echoes in eternity."

(Gladiator, 2000)
10. "Luca Brasi sleeps with the fishes."

(The Godfather, 1972)
11. "Tonight most people will be welcomed home by jumping dogs and squealing kids."
(Up in the Air, 2009)
12. "Mama always said life was like a box of chocolates."

(ForrestGump, 1994)
13. "I love the smell of napalm in the morning!"

(ApocalypseNow, 1979)
14. "In the matter of Harry Potter, the law clearly states that magic may be used before
Muggles in life-threatening situations."
(Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, 2007)
15. "For sixty years the ring lay quiet in Bilbo's keeping, prolonging his life, delaying old age."
(The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring, 2001)
16. "Today, I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the earth."
(The Pride of theYankees, 1942)
17. "On the night Lord Voldemort went to Godric's Hollow to kill Harry, and Lily Potter cast
herself between them, the curse rebounded."
(Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, Part 2, 2011)
18. "Winter must be cold for those with no warm memories."

(An Affair to Remember, 1957)
capítulo 5 • 113
19. "The man who can wield the power of this sword can summon to him an army more
deadly than any that walks this earth."
(The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King, 2003)
20. "And though every single human in the stands or in the commentary boxes was at a
complete loss for words, the man who in his life had uttered fewer words than any of them
knew exactly what to say."
(Babe, 1995)
Capítulo 2
01.
a) noun
b) adjective
c) adjective
d) adjective
e) noun
02.
a) anxious
b) coastal
c) crowded
d) dangerous
e) delightful
03.
Participle adjective
Verb
Verb
04.
a) The King wore a golden crown. Made of gold
b) It is a white elephant. Coloured in white
c) He lived in a stone house. Made of stone
d) There was an earthen pot on the table. Made of earth
e) She wore a diamond necklace. Made of diamond
114 • capítulo 5
f) Much has been said about the Swiss scenery. Made in Switzertland
g) The Spanish flag flew at the top of the mast. Made in Spanish
h) That was a brave act. Act of bravery
i) It was a horrible night. Night of horror
j) Heroic deeds are worthy of admiration. Deeds of heroes
k) They went by Siberian railway. Made in Siberia
l) I have passed several sleepless nights. Night without sleep
05.
a) My son, the policeman, will be visiting us next week.
b) The captain ordered the ship's carpenters to assemble the shallop, a large rowboat.
c) Walter, the playboy and writer, is very attached to his mother, Mrs. Hammon.
d) Paul Newman, the famous American actor, directed five motion pictures.
e) Elizabeth Teague, a sweet and lovable girl, grew up to be a mentally troub-
led woman.
f) Sweetbriar, a company known throughout the South, is considering a nationwi-
de advertising campaign.
g) An above-average student and talented musician, John made his family proud.
h) The extremely popular American film Titanic was widely criticized for its medio-
cre script.
i) Citizen Kane, the greatest America film ever made, won only one Academy
Award.
j) 60 Minutes, the TV news magazine program, featured a story on the popular
singer Whitney Houston.
06.
a) The man, who looked very pale, was sick.
b) He was sitting in the emergency room, which was crowded.
c) A nurse, to whom he called, was nearby.
d) The nurse called a doctor, who came quickly.
e) The doctor, who looked very worried, asked him to lie down.
f) She gave the man an injection, which made him go to sleep.
Capítulo 3
01.
a) 1) “I live in New York” She said she lived in New York.
b) 2) “He works in a bank” She said he worked in a bank.
capítulo 5 • 115
c) 3) “Julie doesn’t like going out much”. She said Julie didn’t like going out much.
d) 4) “I don’t have a computer”. She said she didn’t have a computer.
e) 5) “They never arrive on time” She said they never arrived on time.
f) 6) “We often meet friends in London at the weekend” She said we often met friends
in London at the weekend.
02.
a) said
b) told
c) told
d) said
e) told
03.
a) She said we had gone out in the previous night
b) She said she was coming.
c) She said she had been waiting for the bus when he arrived.
d) She said she had never been there before.
e) She said she hadn’t gone to the party.
f) She said Lucy would come later.
g) She said he hadn’t eaten breakfast.
h) She asked where she was.
i) She asked what you were doing.
j) She asked why you had gone out the previous night.
k) She asked who that beautiful woman was.
l) She asked how your mother was.
m) She asked what you were going to do at the weekend.
n) She asked where you would live after graduation.
o) She asked what you were doing when she saw you.
p) She asked how the journey was.
04.
a) Neither side is thought to want war
b) Fewer than 1000 blue whales is said to survive in the southern hemisphere
c) Eating fruit is known to be good for you
d) One in three bathing beaches ...is considered to be unfit for swimming
e) It is reported that 130,000 are caught in the nets of tuna fishers every year.
f) About 10 million dolphins ..are estimated to have been killed in the past 15 years.
116 • capítulo 5
g) In ancient Greece it was thought that dolphins were men who had abandoned life
on land
h) In ancient Rome dolphins were believed to carry souls to heaven
i) The company was said to have invested fifty million pounds last week
j) Mr Clark is said to be difficult to work with when he was younger.
Capítulo 4
01.
a) pros and cons
b) odds and ends
c) ups and downs
d) piece of cake
02.
a) pie
b) ocean
c) music
d) shoulder
e) rags
f) use
Capítulo 5
01.
a) Metaphor
b) Personification
c) Apostrophe
d) Apostrophe
e) Simile
f) Metaphor
g) Personification
h) Personification
i) Hyperbole
j) Metaphor
k) Antithesis
capítulo 5 • 117
ANNOTATIONS
118 • capítulo 5
ANNOTATIONS
capítulo 5 • 119
ANNOTATIONS
120 • capítulo 5

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LÍNGUA INGLESA –

Autor do original henrique ramaniello passos

Projeto editorial roberto paes

Coordenação de produção gladis linhares

Coordenação de produção EaD karen fernanda bortoloti

Projeto gráfico paulo vitor bastos

Diagramação bfs media

Revisão linguística amanda carla duarte aguiar

Imagem de capa kosobu | dreamstime.com

Dados Internacionais de Catalogação na Publicação (cip)

P289l Passos, Henrique Ramaniello

1. Syntax. 2. Phrases. 3. Figures of speech. 4. Wordclass/part of speech.

Diretoria de Ensino — Fábrica de Conhecimento

1. Word Classes and the World of Prepositions 9

3.1 Active Voice 55

4.1 Lexical aspects 75

5. Linguistic Variation and Figures of Speech 95

The discipline Syntactic Structures I aims at approaching key features

A noun is able to identify a person (man, girl, engineer, friend), a thing

A verb describes events and actions performed by a person or a thing. Verbs

An adjective gives extra information about a noun to which it is closely

An adverb conveys information about a verb, adjective, or other adverb,

Personal pronouns are used in place of nouns referring to specific people

A conjunction (or a connective) is a word such as and, because, but, for,

An exclamation (also called an interjection) is a word or phrase that shows

1.2 The world of prepositions

1.2.1 Simple and complex prepositions

• the position ofsomething:

• the time when something happens:

• the way in which something is done:

Some prepositions may be made up of more than one word:

about behind except outside

above below for over

across beneath from past

after beside in through

against between inside to

along beyond into under

among by near until

at down off with

before during on without

Prepositions “in”, “on” or “at” are used for different circumstances

• We were at the theater (watching a play)

Prepositions and means of transportation

1.2.1.1 Complex prepositions

Examples of complex prepositions in sentences:

• "Thanks to the Interstate Highway System, it is now possible to travel from

• "To see what is in front of one's nose needs a constant struggle."

• ""Man, unlike any other thing organic or inorganic in the universe,

As opposed to simple prepositions, compound prepositions are two or three words

• "'Phrasal preposition' or 'complex preposition' (Quirk et al. 1985: 670)

(Laurel J. Brinton and Minoji Akimoto, Collocational and Idiomatic Aspects

1.3 Prepositions and their meanings

In the beginning - At first

In the end – Finally.

ACROSS AND THROUGH

ACROSS FROM is the same as opposite

IN, INTO, ON, ONTO

Realize the difference

ON AND ABOVE, UNDER AND BELOW

BY, NEXT TO AND BESIDE

ALL AND ALL OF

→ Informal use of like

British people say at the weekend; Americans say on the weekend.