LNGUA INGLESA:

RELAES DISCURSIVAS

SARAH BARBIERI VIEIRA

1 edio
SESES
rio de janeiro 2017
Conselho editorial roberto paes e luciana varga

Autor do original sarah barbieri vieira

Projeto editorial roberto paes

Coordenao de produo luciana varga, paula r. de a. machado e aline karina

rabello

Projeto grfico paulo vitor bastos

Diagramao victor maia

Reviso lingustica marianna la vega

Reviso de contedo fellipe fernandes cavallero

Imagem de capa matt grant|shutterstock.com

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Dados Internacionais de Catalogao na Publicao (cip)

V657l Vieira, Sarah Lcia Alem Barbieri Rodrigues

Lingua inglesa: relaes discursivas. / Sarah Lcia Alem
Barbieri Rodrigues Vieira. Rio de Janeiro: SESES, 2017.
160 p: il.

isbn: 978-85-5548-438-4

1.Discourse. 2. Syntatic Relations. 3. English. I. SESES. II. Estcio.

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Summary

Preface 5

1. Syntactic relations: coordination

and subordination 7
Introduction 8

Syntactic relations and discourse organization 9

Coordination and subordination 10

Subordination Concept and Types 14

Subordination indicators 18

2. Noun clauses and adjective clauses 33

Introduction 34

How to identify noun clauses and adjective clauses? 34

Noun clauses 35
Adjective clauses 50
Relative pronouns 55

3. Subordination: adverb clauses 65

Introduction 66

Adverbial clauses 67
Time adjective clauses 68
Cause and effect adverbial clauses 70
Contrast adverbial clauses 72
Conditional adverbial clauses 74

4. Participles: present, past and perfect 89

Introduction 90

Definitions 90
 Present participle or gerund? 92

Participles as verbs 93
Using the present participle 94
Using the past participle 95
Participle phrases: clauses reduction 99
Perfect participle 102

Participles as adjectives 104

5. Gerunds and infinitives 115

Introduction 116

Gerunds and infinitives 116

Gerunds 117

Infinitives 122

Gerunds or infinitives 132

Preface

Teaching/ Learning a second or foreign language is not an easy task. Students

should be able not only to use the language grammatically but also be able to
communicate effectively in the target language. Even though these are different
approaches, they are both essential goals. Therefore, it is important to define
grammar in a way that suits both purposes a way that accounts for both structure
of the language being learned and its communicative use. Thus, we have to take into
consideration how grammar operates at three levels: the morphological level, the
syntactic level and the discourse level. In this book, we are going to deal mainly with
the relations established in discourse, that is, an analysis of how the morphology and
syntax of the English language are used in an effective way to reach certain discourse
purposes at the suprasentential level (above the sentence level) to convey meaning.
In the first chapter, we are going to revisit the four sentence structures we
have in English which are basically related to the concepts of compound and
complex sentences, and understand why they are intrinsically related to the
concepts of coordination and subordination. In the second chapter, we are going
to deal with two kinds of subordinate clauses that are widespread in both spoken
and written English: Noun Clauses and Adjective Clauses. The difference between
them lies on the functions they perform in the sentences: Noun Clauses have the
same uses in a sentence as nouns, whereas Adjective Clauses have the same use as
adjectives. In the third chapter, we are going to talk about Adverb Clauses, which
are the last kind of subordinate clauses. The linking words that introduce an adverb
clause are called subordinating conjunctions, and they can establish relationship
of time, cause and effect, contrast and condition. In the fourth chapter, we are
going to talk about the form, meaning and use of participles: present participles
(verbals that end in ing), past participles (verbals that end in ed/-en) and perfect
participles (have + past participle). Finally, in the fifth chapter, we are going to
deal with the meaning and function of gerunds and infinitives, which is one of the
most challenging aspects of learning the English language.

I really hope you like the course and do your part to take the most advantage of it!

Enjoy your studies!!

5
 1
Syntactic relations:
coordination and
subordination
Syntactic relations: coordination and
subordination

Introduction

As we have already studied, there are basically four different sentence structures
in English: simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.
Since a simple sentence (sentence type 1) is composed of only one independent
clause, compound (sentence type 2) and complex sentences (sentence type 3) are
the major types of multiple sentences if we consider the fact that compound-
complex sentences (sentence type 4) are a combination of compound sentences
and complex sentences. In this first chapter, we are going to review the concepts
underlying compound and complex sentences and understand why they are
intrinsically related to the concepts of coordination and subordination.

GOALS TO BE REACHED
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Understand the difference between coordination and subordination,
Be able to identify coordinated and subordinated clauses and sentences,
Identify and use of coordinated conjunctions,
Tell subordinated and coordinated conjunctions apart.

QUESTION
Do you remember the difference between a compound and a complex sentence? What
are the components underlying these two different kinds of English sentences? Did you
know that the concepts underlying compound and complex sentences are intrinsically related
to the concepts of coordination and subordination?

captulo 1 8
Syntactic relations and discourse organization

What can we do to make our interlocutor/audience interpret our written or

spoken text exactly as we want it to be understood? Discourse Organization does
the trick! But what exactly is discourse organization?
The organization of any text is intrinsically related to the progression of ideas
presented, the relatedness between clauses, sentences and paragraphs and the
completeness of ideas. It means that the writer/speaker has to establish a well-
organized text, which presents a constancy of purpose and a clear progression of
related ideas, facts and/or events.
The ideas of a text are connected by four different levels: grammatical devices,
prosody (oral texts) / punctuation (written texts), lexical linkage (relationship
between and among words), and pragmatic and semantic implication. These
four connective levels operate simultaneously and are intrinsically related to each
other. However, since in these first three chapters of the book we are going to be
dealing with syntactic relations at the sentence level, and the English sentence
structure is divided into simple, compound, complex and compound-complex
sentences, our focus will be on one of the nine grammar devices - the use of
connectors. Connectors are words which are used to express the relationship
between sentence parts:
coordinating conjunctions: words used to conjoin / connect words,
phrases or clauses which have the same grammatical function in a sentence;
subordinating conjunctions: words used to conjoin/connect adverb
clauses, adjective clauses and noun clauses, all of which are dependent clauses
and cannot stand alone as a sentence in written English. That is why they
must be connected to a main/ independent clause.

Grammar devices According to Quirk & All (1985), the nine relevant aspects
of grammar in textual structure are: (i) Place and Time; (ii) Tense, aspect, and
narrative structure, (iii) Determiners, (iv) Discourse reference, (v) The textual role of
adverbials, (vi) Coordination and subordination, (vii) The part played by questions,
(viii) Participant involvement, (ix) Information processing.

In a great many cases subordinating conjunctions have the same function

of coordinating conjunctions in that they both signal to the interlocutor/reader
how to infer connections between two segments of discourse usually adjacent

captulo 1 9
sentences. Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999) include subordinating
conjunctions in a broader category logical connectors and stablish the
relationship between them and coordinating conjunction in the following terms:

Like some uses of coordinating conjunctions, logical connectors are typically

said to be types of cohesive devices, lexical expressions that may add little or
no propositional content by themselves but that serve to specify the relationship
among sentences in oral or written discourse, thereby leading the listener/reader to
the feeling that the sentences hang together or make sense. (p. 519)

It means that one of the roles of conjunctions is to lead the listener/reader

to interpret the relationship between clauses in a certain meaningful way. It is
the same to say that the use of coordinating and subordinating conjunctions
strengthens the probability that the interlocutor/audience will understand the
relationship between the ideas as the speaker/writer intended them.
As to cohesive devices, the authors mean that conjunctions are the glue that
holds the structure of any oral or written text together. According to Halliday &
Hasan (1976), conjunction is a cohesive device since it signals relationships that
can only be fully understood in relation to other parts of the text.

Coordination and subordination

As we are talking about cohesive devices and conjunctions, it is time to introduce

the relationship between coordination and compound sentences on the one
hand, and subordination and complex sentences on the other. Take a look at the
following sentences taken from Azar (1999). How would you compare them?
How are the sentences alike? How are they different?
(a) The weather was very cold, but we went swimming anyway.
(b) The weather was very cold, yet we still went swimming.
(c) The weather was very cold; we, however, went swimming.
(d) Even though the weather was very cold, we went swimming.
(e) We went swimming although the weather was cold.
Analyzing the semantics of the sentences above, we can say they all have the
same meaning: the idea that the weather is very cold is contrasted with the idea of
going swimming. Therefore, all the sentences present an unexpected result since
we usually do not go swimming if the weather is very cold.

captulo 1 10
 On the other hand, if we analyze the components, or constituents, of the
sentences, we will be able to divide them into two different groups. In the first
group, we can include the compound sentences, that is, sentences which present
syntactically equivalent conjoined constituents; whereas in the second group we
can include the complex sentences, that is, sentences whose components are not
syntactically equivalent. The constituents of compound and complex sentences are:

Compound Sentences: [ independent clause ] + [ independent clause ]

Complex Sentences: [ independent clause ] + [ dependent clause]

Analyzing the components of the sentences above, we have:

(a) [The weather was very cold], but [we went swimming anyway].

independent clause independent clause

(b) [The weather was very cold], yet [we still went swimming].

independent clause independent clause

(c) [The weather was very cold] ; [we went swimming], however.

independent clause independent clause

(d) [Even though the weather was very cold] , [ we went swimming].

dependent clause independent clause

(e) [We went swimming] [although the weather was cold].

independent clause dependent clause

captulo 1 11
 As we can see, the bracketed clauses which do not contain a boldface term are
independent clauses due to the fact that they can stand alone their meanings
are complete. That is why we can use a coordinating conjunction: this kind
of connector simply joins two completely independent clauses. On the other
hand, the bracketed clauses which contain a boldface term are called dependent
clauses since they cannot stand alone they depend on a main clause to have a
complete meaning, to make sense. Furthermore, whenever there is a dependent
clause, the connector is included in the clause which causes it to be embedded
in the main clause. This is called subordination.
Therefore, we can make the analogy: compound sentences are to coordination
as complex sentences are to subordination. It means that whenever there is a
compound sentence, the concept of coordination is involved, whereas whenever
there is a complex sentence, the concept of subordination is involved. Compare
the underlying components of compound and complex sentences above to the
underlying components of coordination and subordination that follows:

Coordination: [ independent clause ] + [ independent clause]

Subordination: [ independent clause ] + [ dependent clause]

To sum up, we can say that a compound sentence is formed by the coordination
of the component clauses, which have the same syntactic status, whereas a
complex sentence is formed by the subordination of one dependent clause to
the main clause. Therefore, we can represent the concepts of coordination and
subordination by means of different scales:

coordination of clauses = grammatically equivalent constituents

subordination of clauses = grammatically different constituents

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 As we can see, coordination implies the balance of elements that are of
equal semantic value in the sentence. There are three coordination possibilities:
coordination of words (nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs), coordination of
phrases and coordination of clauses. Coordination is the use of coordinating
conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, so, yet, for), conjunctive adverbs with appropriate
punctuation (however, therefore, consequently), or punctuation to combine short
independent clauses into a single sentence.
Therefore, analyzing the example sentences again, but now focusing on the
kinds of connectors used to join the clauses, we have:

In (a) and (b), the coordinating conjunctions but and yet are used to join
two independent clauses/simple sentences:
(a) The weather was very cold, but we went swimming anyway.
(b) The weather was very cold, yet we still went swimming.

In (c), the conjunctive adverb however is used to join two independent

clauses that are coordinated by the use of a semicolon (;):
(c) The weather was very cold; we, however, went swimming.

In (d) and (e), the subordinating conjunctions even though and although
are used to join a subordinate clause and a main clause:
(d) Even though the weather was very cold, we went swimming.
(e) We went swimming although the weather was cold.

A significant difference between coordination and subordination of clauses

is that the information included in the subordinate clause is often placed in
the background to the main clause. It means that the syntactic asymmetrical
relation brings about a semantic difference in terms of hierarchization: the main
information is included in the main clause, whereas the less important information
is included in the subordinate clause.
In a previous course, we have studied syndetic (the use of coordinating
conjunctions), asyndetic (coordination without the use of explicit coordinator)
and polysyndetic (the use of a coordinating conjunction - and/or - after every
term in the list, except the last) coordination. In this chapter and the next two,
the focus is on subordination. Therefore, in the next session we are going to
start talking about subordination concept and subordination types. The use of

captulo 1 13
conjunctive adverbs (e.g., however, therefore, furthermore) to coordinate two
independent clauses is not going to be included in this course.

MULTIMEDIA
To review some concepts related to compound sentences, check the video Combining
Sentences (Part 1): < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ANV1Oe6bN3E >
To review the concepts related to complex sentences, check the video Combining Sentences
(Part 2): < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RTFP186r_pM >

CURIOSITY
and, because, but, or, so, also
Many children are taught that it is ungrammatical to begin a sentence with a conjunction.
That's because teachers need a simple way to teach them how to break sentences, so they
tell them that sentences beginning with "and" and other conjunctions are ungrammatical.
Whatever the pedagogical merits may be of feeding children misinformation, it is inappropriate
for adults. There is nothing wrong with beginning a sentence with a conjunction. "And", "but"
and "so" are indispensable in linking individual sentences into a coherent passage, and they
may be used to begin a sentence whenever the clauses being connected are too long or
complicated to fit comfortably into a single megasentence. The conjunction "because" can
also happily sit at the beginning of a sentence. Most commonly it ends up there when it
introduces an explanation that has been preposed in front of a main clause, as in: "Because
you're mine, I walk the line." But it can also kick off a single clause when the clause serves as
the answer to a why question: "'Why can't I have a pony?' 'Because I said so.'"
Source: Pinker, Steven. 10 'grammar rules' it's OK to break (sometimes). Available at:
<https://goo.gl/pqPElx>

Subordination Concept and Types

As we have already talked about the grammar underlying subordination, the

subclause, as subordinate clauses are sometimes abbreviated, is included in the
main clause. It means that the information included in the subordinate clause
tends to be the least important given by a sentence since it is already partly known
or expected by the interlocutor/reader. Dependent, or subordinate clauses, can

captulo 1 14
have different functions in the sentence. They may function as subjects, objects,
prepositional phrases, adverbials, etc. They are, however, usually divided into
three main categories:
Noun clauses perform the same functions in a sentence that regular
nouns do, that is, they can be placed as subjects, direct objects, indirect objects
or complements:
S V SC

What bothers me is his lack of initiative.

In the sentence above, the noun clause is the subject of the verb is.

S V D.O

[ I dont know ] [ why Sam spends so much money with his ex-wife ].

Notice that in the sentence above the noun clause is the direct object of
the verb know.
S V I.O D.O

The government should provide whoever is unemployed a two-year job.

The subordinate clause whoever is unemployed functions as the indirect object

of the verb provide. It is a clause since whoever is the subject, and is, the verb.

S V ADJ. ADJ. COMPLEMENT

It is clear (that) politicians dont represent peoples wishes.

The subordinate clause that politicians dont represent peoples wishes functions
as the complement of the adjective clear. That-clauses (noun clauses beginning with
That) commonly follow certain adjectives in sentences formed by it + be.
This is just an introduction to Noun Clauses. We are going to study these and
other patterns involving them in chapter 2.

Adjective clauses (also known as relative clauses) - modify a noun or a

pronoun, that is why they closely follow the pronoun, noun or noun phrase
they modify:

captulo 1 15
 ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

The woman who sells clothes lives next door.

The woman lives next door who sells clothes.

Adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns that, who, whom, whose,
which, where, when, and why. They are considered the combination of two sentences:
Lucy is an employee. She won the competition.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

Lucy is the employee who won the competition.

The simple sentences above were combined and one of them was turned into
a dependent clause by the addition of the relative pronoun who. In this case, the
adjective clause was included after the main clause.

The grammar book is mine. It is on the table.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

The grammar book which is on the table is mine.

The simple sentences above were combined and the second one was turned
into a relative clause introduced by the relative pronoun which. In this case, the
adjective clause was inserted in the main clause.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

The hostess was the only one (who) I knew at the party.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

Anybody who wants to come is welcome.

Adjective clauses can also modify indefinite pronouns, such as anybody,

anyone, someone, somebody, everyone, everybody and also the words the one(s) and
those, as shown in the sentences above. Adjective clauses are almost never used to
modify personal pronouns.

captulo 1 16
 This is just an introduction to Adjective Clauses. We are going to study these
and other patterns involving them in chapter 2.

Adverb clauses - modify the verb or the whole main clause. They are used
to show relationship between clauses: relationships of time, cause and effect,
contrast and condition. The linking words that introduce an adverb clause are
called subordinating conjunctions.

MAIN CLAUSE ADVERB CLAUSE

The baby woke up when the door slammed.

When the door slammed, the baby woke up.

When the door slammed is an adverb clause of time. It answers the question
when? Both sentences above have the same meaning. Notice that when the
adverb clause precedes the main clause, a comma is used to separate the clauses.

ADVERB CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

Because the door slammed, the baby woke up.

Because the door slammed is an adverb clause of cause-effect that answers the
question why?. It is introduced by the subordinating conjunction because.

MAIN CLAUSE ADVERB CLAUSE

The baby didnt wake up even though his bedroom door slammed.

Even though his bedroom door slammed is an adverb clause of contrast which is
introduced by the subordinating conjunction even though. The idea presented in
this kind of adverb clause shows a contrast to the idea included in the main clause.

ADVERB CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

If the baby cries, give him his milk bottle.

MAIN CLAUSE ADVERB CLAUSE

Dont feed the baby unless he cries.

In the sentences above, the subordinating conjunctions if and unless introduce

the adverb clauses of condition, also known as If-clauses. These kinds of subordinate

captulo 1 17
clauses answer the question under what condition?. Notice that the meaning of
unless is if not, so unless he cries means if he does not cry: Do not feed the
baby if he does not cry.
Adverb Clauses of Condition are divided into three types: factual implications
(Zero and First Conditionals), hypothetical (Second Conditional) as well as
counterfactual (Third and Mixed Conditionals) situations and their consequences.
The meaning of a conditional sentence determines which verb tenses need to be
used in the independent and subordinate clauses. They are used to express that the
action in the main clause (without if ) can only take place if a certain condition
(in the clause with if) is fulfilled. This is just an introduction to Adverb Clauses of
Condition. We are going to go deeper into the subject in chapter 3.

CONNECTION
To read more about the coordination and subordination access:
<http://www2.gsu.edu/~eslhpb/grammar/lecture_9/co_sub.htm>

MULTIMEDIA
To see a video and get more information about the characteristics and uses of coordination
and subordination in writing access:
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fYFUTnEp-Xk>

Subordination indicators

According to Quirk & All (1985), there is usually a signal to introduce a

subordinate clause, and one or more signal from the following list can occur:
the clause can be introduced by a subordinating conjunction;
the clause can be introduced by a wh-word;
the clause can be introduced by inversion;
the presence of certain verb forms in finite clauses is determined by the type
of subordinate clause;
the verb element of the clause is either nonfinite or absent.

captulo 1 18
 As subordinating conjunctions are considered the most common and
important signal of subordination, we are going to begin with them, and then
we are going to talk about wh-words which introduce subordinate clauses. We are
going to review inversion as concerned to subordination as well as finite, nonfinite
and absent verb forms related to subordination in the next chapters.

CONCEPT
Finite Clause: an independent clause, whose verb or verb phrase is finite, that is, inflected
for tense, number or person, conveys tense, aspect or mood, such as goes, went, can go, has
gone, is going, was gone:
Because I didnt want to hurt his feelings, I didnt tell him the bad news.
Nonfinite: a dependent clause which verb or verb phrase is nonfinite, that is, not marked
(inflected) for tense, number or person; does not convey tense, aspect or mood, such as to
take, having taken, taken:
Not wanting to hurt his feelings, I didnt tell him the bad news.
Verbless (absent verb): a clause that even though does not contain a verb, is capable of
being analyzed into clause elements:
Although always busy, I still have time to exercise.
These concepts are going to be more deeply explored in chapter 4.

Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions are connecting words or phrases that introduce

dependent clauses, joining it to an independent clause (main clause). There are
mainly two types of subordinating conjunctions:
Simple subordinating conjunctions: most of the subordinators consist of
just one word: when, until, since, because, whereas, although, unless, whether,
wherever, etc.
Complex subordinating conjunctions: consist of more than one word.
in order that, such that, granted (that), assuming (that), so (that), as long as, only
if, in case, etc.
All languages seem to have some means to use clauses to modify other clauses.
Subordinating conjunctions syntactically bound one clause to another and they

captulo 1 19
have the force of an adverb. In the following table we present the most common
subordinating conjunctions in English.

after before / when while / since until / once as /

TIME whenever / by the time

CAUSE- because / since as / now that

EFFECT

CONTRAST although - though / even though / while - whereas

if unless / whether(or not) / only if in case / even if /

CONDITION provided that

PLACE where / wherever

As subordinating conjunctions introduce adverbial clauses, there are as many

adverbial clause types as there are subordinating conjunction types. Therefore,
there are five main adverbial clause types in English. Following are the most
common adverbial clauses listed with the subordinating conjunctions and their
respective instance sentences.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES SHOWING TIME

CONJUNCTION RELATIONSHIP

AFTER Susan will get married after she graduates.

BEFORE Before Susan gets married, she will graduate.

When I see June tomorrow, I will ask her out.

WHEN When I saw June yesterday, she was studying for her exams.

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 The frying pan caught fire while I was cooking dinner last
WHILE night.

AS As I was cooking dinner last night, the frying pan caught fire.

By the time I got home, my husband had already left.

BY THE TIME By the time I arrive home, my husband will have already left.

I havent seen Gail since she left this morning.

SINCE They have known each other ever since they were children.

UNTIL Tomorrow never comes until its too late.

ONCE Once all passengers get on the plane, it will take off.

CONJUNCTION ADVERBIAL CLAUSES SHOWING CONDITION

If the baby cries, give him his milk bottle.

IF If I were you, I would travel to Europe on vacation.
Sue would have passed the exam if she had studied harder.

You have to hand in your exams whether or not you are

WHETHER finished.
(OR NOT) You have to hand in your exams whether you are finished
or not.

only if The exam will be canceled only if there is a blizzard

ONLY IF tomorrow.
Only if there is a blizzard tomorrow, will the exam be canceled.

captulo 1 21
 IN CASE Ill be at home in case you (should) need to reach me.

EVEN IF Even if you are not finished, you have to hand in your exams.

UNLESS Dont feed the baby unless he cries.

PROVIDED Provided that the boat leaves on time, we should arrive

THAT by 10 a.m.

CONJUNCTION ADVERBIAL CLAUSES SHOWING PLACE

WHERE We need to place the blame where it belongs!

WHEREVER Nowadays there is violence wherever we look.

The use of subordinating conjunctions is important for both spoken and

written English. However, as in written texts there is no chance for disambiguation,
students do need to know how to place and punctuate subordinating conjunctions,
and connectors in general, in order to send the right message concerning the
relationship of ideas in their writings.

Other subordination indicators

Besides subordinating conjunctions, there are other subordination indicators

in English:
Wh-words: some wh-elements introduce noun clauses and adjective
clauses. Therefore, they are indicators of subordination:

captulo 1 22
 I dont know who that man is. (noun clause)
Where she lives is still a mystery. (noun clause)
The man who is standing at the door is my husband. (adjective clause)
The place where we first met is now closed. (adjective clause)

The clauses who that man is and where she lives are labeled noun clauses
because they have the same function in a sentence as a noun: the first function as
the object of the verb know and the latter as the subject of the whole sentence.
The clauses who is standing at the door and where we first met, on the other hand,
are labeled adjective clauses because they modify the nouns man and place.
Relative Pronouns: introduce adjective clauses, which are also known as
relative clauses. The great majority of relative pronouns are wh-words: who(m),
whose, which, where, when and that.

I will never forget the day when I met you.

The dress that she bought is now on sale.

In the sentences above the words when and that are relative pronouns because
they introduce the adjective clauses in italics. Notice how the same words can
receive different labels depending on the function they have on the sentence. We
are going to talk about it in the next session (1.4.3)
Inversion: subject verb inversion in conditional sentences is a
subordination indicator, since the semantic value of the clause is the same as
an if-clause:

Were it not raining right now, we would go for a walk.

Should anyone come, please tell them to wait a bit.

Nonfinite and verbless clauses: these kinds of clauses are necessarily

subordinate. Nonfinite clauses are much more common than verbless clauses:
Having had lunch, Lucy returned to the office.
Some finite are introduced by subordinating conjunctions, in which case the
semantic value is more explicit:

captulo 1 23
 After having had lunch, Lucy returned to the office.

Verbless clauses are usually introduced by subordinating conjunctions:

When in Rome, do as the Romans do.

If in trouble, ask for help.
Though tired, John managed to finish on time.

The easiest verbless clauses to be identified are time, condition and contrast.

Same words used for different functions in sentences

Some words presented in this section as subordinating conjunctions can also fit
other parts of speech categories. It means that these words can have other functions
in sentences in which grammar structure is different. Where, for instance, can
function as subordinating conjunctions, relative pronouns, wh-element or even
wh-question words:
(a) Where there is a will, there is a way. (subordinating conjunction)
(b) The building where he lives is very old. (relative pronoun)
(c) I dont know where he lives. (wh-element)
(d) Where does your son lives? (wh-question word)
As we can notice in the previous examples, the very same word where can
assume different functions in the sentences depending on the grammar structure
it is included: in (a), the word where functions as a subordinating conjunction
since it introduces an adverbial clause; in (b) the word where functions as a relative
pronoun since it introduces an adjective clause; in (c), the word where functions
as a wh-element since it introduces a noun clause; in (d) the word where functions
as a wh-question word since it introduces a direct question. The same is true for
the word when.
Something that can also confuse English students is the fact that the same
subordinating conjunction can have more than one function. Take a look at the
following sentences:

captulo 1 24
 Just as we were leaving the house, I suddenly remembered I hadn't shut the
windows. (time)

As her parents died when she was very young, Lucy had a difficult childhood.
(reason)

Why don't you do it just as it says in the instructions? (manner)

Sometimes, subordinating conjunctions can also function as prepositions:

Ill finish this research report before we have lunch. (conjunction)

I'll finish this research report before lunch. (preposition)

In the first sentence, before is a subordinating conjunction because it introduces

an adverbial clause of time (before we have lunch), whereas in the second sentence
it is a preposition because it introduces a prepositional phrase (before lunch).
According to Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999, p.528), whenever we
are in doubt if the word is a subordinating conjunction or not, we can change the
order of the words in the sentence:

One test for whether or not a form is serving as an adverbial subordinator it to

move the clause into different positions in the sentence, for adverbials typically can
occupy clause-final, initial, and medial positions.
final: A whole crowd came out to see him when he arrived.
initial: When he arrived, a whole crowd came out to see him.
medial: A whole crowd came out, when he arrived, to see him.

As we can notice from the examples given by the authors, the word when in this
sentence structure is a subordinating conjunction since it introduces a dependent
clause that can occupy different positions in the very same grammatical structure.

captulo 1 25
 ACTIVITIES
I. Combine each pair of sentences into one sentence in two different ways: create
one compound sentence (coordinating conjunction) and one complex sentence
(subordinating conjunction)
1. The man was slowing his car down to stop at a red light.
He was rear-ended by a SUV.
2. Police are concerned about safety risks.
The event has been postponed.
3. Many students stay up late to study for a test.
Research has shown that this is counterproductive.
4. My car broke down this morning.
I had to take the subway to work.
5. Some doctors recommend their patients meditation.
It can lower stress.
6. My teenage son has just had a huge meal.
He is still hungry.
II. Change the following compound sentences into complex sentences.
1. Tom was putting the finishing touches on his assignment, and he accidentally deleted
the file. (when)
2. I tried to board the train and find a seat, but there wasnt one available. (although)
3. This company has to improve some of its products, or it wont be able to keep up with
the competition. (unless)
4. John wanted to improve his grades, so he decided to enroll in a Summer course. (because)
5. Read the instructions carefully; then you can begin to answer the questions. (after)
6. Employers wanted to increase productivity at work, so they blocked access to
Facebook. (since)
III. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
1. The main job of a conjunction is to _____ two parts of a sentence.
2. The word "although" can be used to join a dependent clause to a ______ .
3. Coordinating conjunctions always come _______ the words or clauses that they join.
4. The words "and", "but" and "so" are often classified as ______ conjunctions.
5. A subordinating conjunction comes ______ of a dependent clause.
6. The words "although", "since" and "unless" are examples of common _____ conjunctions.

captulo 1 26
 7. Another word for an independent clause is a ______ . 8. When "and" is used with
the last word of a list, a comma is _______ . (adapted from <https://www.englishclub.com/
grammar/conjunctions-quiz.htm>)
IV. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate subordinating conjunction from the box. All
the conjunctions are going to be used only once.

since-if-wherever-until-even though-unless-when-while

1. ______ there are gangs, there is violence.

2. Children may lose the ability to distinguish fantasy from reality ______ they watch too
much TV.
3. ______ youre a good cook and Im not, you should prepare lunch!
4.Johns in good shape physically ______ he doesnt get much exercise.
5. ______ I was in Washington DC, I visited many museums.
6. Josh wont pass the exam ______ he studies really hard.
7. We stayed at the office ______ we finished our work.
8. ______ in some countries the favorite beverage is coffee, in others it is tea.
V. Choose the correct conjunction to fill in the blanks appropriately.
1. You must take care ______ crossing the road. There have been many accidents on this street.
a)when
b)after
c)where
d)because
2. Have some coffee ______ you go.
a)Where
b)Before
c)After
d)While
3. ______ no one asked me, I didnt tell anyone.
a)However
b)Since
c)While
d)Unless
4. You will be allowed to take a make-up exam ______ you have a very good reason.
a)Unless

captulo 1 27
 b)only if
c)even if
d)if only
5. ______ the fire destroyed the building, thankfully no one died.
a)When
b)Although
c)While
d)Whereas
6. Im sorry I didnt get here earlier, ______ I came as soon as I could.
a)and
b)but
c)so
d)yet

CONNECTION
To practice more subordinate clauses and subordinating conjunctions go to:
Online English Book available at: <http://www.englishpage.com/grammar/>
English Grammar Online available at: <https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar>
Study English for Free available at: <http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_
list/alle_grammar.htm>

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

The flexible use of coordination and subordination provides the text with a variety of
structures and with an organized presentation of ideas and information. If no connector is
used or if the wrong connector is used, the speaker/writer intentions can easily be lost or
badly misunderstood. Coordinating and subordinating conjunctions can be compared to
traffic signs since they are intended to lead the interlocutor/reader to the correct direction in
order to interpret the text appropriately. Although these two types of sentence organization
and clause relation are considered different grammar alternatives to express our thoughts,
coordination is far more frequently used as a cohesive device than subordination. It is
important to emphasize, though, that your job as an English student is to understand, learn

captulo 1 28
and memorize not only the semantics (meaning) of each one of the connectors and their
categorization, but also their correct pragmatic use.

REFERENCES
AZAR , Betty Schrampfer . Understanding and Using English Grammar. Prentice Hall Regents, 1999.
CELCE-MURCIA, M.; LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. The Grammar Book: an ESL/EFL teachers course.
Boston: Heinle/Cengage Learning, 2 edio, 1999.
QUIRK, R.; GREENBAUM, S.; LEECH, G.; SVARTVIK, J. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
Language. New York: Longman, 1985.

ANSWER KEY
I. Combine each pair of sentences into one sentence in two different ways: create
one compound sentence (coordinating conjunction) and one complex sentence
(subordinating conjunction).

1a. The man was slowing his car down to stop at a red light, but he was rear-ended by a SUV.
(coordinating conjunction = compound sentence)
1b. The man was slowing his car down to stop at a red light when he was rear-ended by a
SUV. (subordinating conjunction = complex sentence)

2a. Police are concerned about safety risks, so the event has been postponed. (coordinating
conjunction = compound sentence)
2b. Because police are concerned about safety risks, the event has been postponed.
(subordinating conjunction = complex sentence)

3a. Many students stay up late to study for a test, but research has shown that this
is counterproductive.
3b.Many students stay up late to study for a test although research has shown that this
is counterproductive.

4a. My car broke down this morning, so I had to take the subway to work.
4b. Because my car broke down this morning, I had to take the subway to work.

captulo 1 29
5a. Some doctors recommend their patients meditation, for it can lower stress.
5b. Some doctors recommend their patients meditation because it can lower stress.

6a. My teenage son has just had a huge meal, but he is still hungry.
6b. Even though my teenage son has just had a huge meal, he is still hungry.

II. Change the following compound sentences into complex sentences.

1. Tom was putting the finishing touches on his assignment when he accidentally deleted the file.
2. Although I tried to board the train and find a seat, there wasnt one available.
3. Unless this company improves its products, it wont be able to keep up with the competition.
4. Because John wanted to improve his grades, he decided to enroll in a Summer course.
5. After you read the instructions carefully, you can begin to answer the questions.
6. Since Employers wanted to increase productivity at work, so they blocked access to Facebook.

III. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.

1. The main job of a conjunction is to join two parts of a sentence.
2. The word "although" can be used to join a dependent clause to a main clause.
3. Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join.
4. The words "and", "but" and "so" are often classified as coordinating conjunctions.
5. A subordinating conjunction comes at the end of a dependent clause.
6. The words "although", "since" and "unless" are examples of common
subordinating conjunctions.
7. Another word for an independent clause is a main clause.
8. When "and" is used with the last word of a list, a comma is optional. (adapted from
<https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/conjunctions-quiz.htm>)

IV. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate subordinating conjunction from the box. All
the conjunctions are going to be used only once.
1. Wherever there are gangs, there is violence.
2. Children may lose the ability to distinguish fantasy from reality if they watch too much TV.
3. Since youre a good cook and Im not, you should prepare lunch!
4. Johns in good shape physically even though he doesnt get much exercise.
5. When I was in Washington DC, I visited many museums.
6. Josh wont pass the exam unless he studies really hard.
7. We stayed at the office until we finished our work.

captulo 1 30
8. While in some countries the favorite beverage is coffee, in others it is tea.

V. Choose the correct conjunction to fill in the blanks appropriately.

1. You must take care ______ crossing the road. There have been many accidents on
this street.
a)when
2. Have some coffee ______ you go.
b)before
3. ______ no one asked me, I didnt tell anyone.
b)Since
4. You will be allowed to take a make-up exam ______ you have a very good reason.
b)only if
5. ______ the fire destroyed the building, thankfully no-one died.
b)Although
6. Im sorry I didnt get here earlier, ______ I came as soon as I could.
b)but

captulo 1 31
captulo 1 32
 2
Noun clauses and
adjective clauses
Noun clauses and adjective clauses

Introduction

As an ESL/EFL teacher or professor you need to know a great deal about the
different kinds of subordinate clauses we have in English. In this second chapter,
we are going to study two kinds of subordinate clauses which are widespread
in both spoken and written English: Noun Clauses and Adjective Clauses. As
dependent clauses, both of them must be connected to an independent clause,
also known as a main clause, by a subordinating connector to form a sentence.
The difference, however, lies on the functions they perform in the sentences:
Noun Clauses have the same uses in a sentence as nouns, that is, they can be
used as subjects, objects, and complements, whereas Adjective Clauses have the
same use as adjectives, that is, they modify and identify nouns, noun phrases and
indefinite pronouns.

GOALS TO BE REACHED
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Understand the form, meaning and function of Noun Clauses;
Know how to produce and use indirect questions and reported speech;
Understand the form, meaning and function of Adjective Clauses;
Be able to understand and use relative pronouns.

QUESTION
Did you know that questions like Do you know what time it is? and He asked me when you
arrived. are examples of complex sentences which contain Noun Clauses? Every time we ask
an indirect question to a stranger or report what someone has asked or said, we are using
Noun Clauses to communicate.

How to identify noun clauses and adjective clauses?

Noun Clauses and Adjective Clauses have different features and functions. A Noun
Clause takes the place of a noun in a sentence, so it can either follow a verb or, less

captulo 2 34
commonly, precede it. An Adjective Clause, on the other hand, takes the place of
an adjective, so it usually follows a noun in a sentence. Lets study them in detail?

Noun clauses

As we have already seen in the previous chapter, Noun Clauses (NC) are
subordinate clauses which function as nouns and noun phrases. Take a look at the
following sentences:
I know her name.
I know what her name is.
In the previous sentences, her name is a noun phrase that functions as the
object of the verb know. Her name can be replaced by the Noun Clause what her
name is. In sum, a Noun Clause is part of a sentence that contains a subject and
a verb which can replace a noun or a noun phrase. Noun Clauses can function
as subjects, objects of transitive verbs or as subject and adjective complements
in sentences:
What she said is a secret. (NC = subject)
The fact that Im helping people in need fulfills me. (NC = subject)
I really believe (that) it is a wonderful program. (NC = direct object)
Sue makes friends with who(m)ever she meets. (NC = indirect object)
Its clear (that) Alex doesnt understand German. (NC =
adjective complement)
The main educational problem is that many students are dropping out.
(NC = subject complement)
According to Quirk & All (1985, p.1047), The privilege of occurrence of
nominal clauses is more limited than that of noun phrases because semantically
the clauses are normally abstract; i.e. they refer to such abstractions as events,
facts, dates and ideas rather than to perceptible objects. Notice that the authors
refer to Noun Clauses as nominal clauses, which is the same thing. To review the
concept of nouns and noun phrases read the concept box.

CONCEPT
According to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, the definition of Noun Phrase is: a
phrase formed by a noun and all its modifiers and determiners; broadly : any syntactic
element (as a clause, clitic, pronoun, or zero element) with a noun's function (as the subject
of a verb or the object of a verb or preposition) abbreviation NP. Some examples of NP are:

captulo 2 35
 NOUN PHRASE EXAMPLE

Children
Single noun Life
Babies

His wife
Determiner + noun
His mothers friend

Determiner + adj. + noun The old man

Determiner + noun + Prep. Phrase A sense of self

Determiner + (adv + adj) + noun An almost total contrast

John Smith
Proper noun
Switzerland

(Based on: http://www2.gsu.edu/~eslhpb/grammar/lecture_6/important.html)

We basically use Noun Clauses to ask questions, to answer questions and

to add emphasis to something we say. Consequently, there are different types of
Noun Clauses, but in this chapter we are going to talk about Noun Clauses:
beginning with Whether or If;
beginning with a Question Word.
Therefore, in the next section we are going to talk about indirect questions
and then, we are going to talk about indirect speech.

MULTIMEDIA
To see a video and better understand Noun Clauses access:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZVWRLGb25UE

captulo 2 36
Indirect questions

Read the following situation:

You are at the bus stop and you arent wearing a watch. There is a handsome guy
next to you and you ask him: What time is it?. He stares at you and answers: Its
two ten now. By his reaction, you feel you have done something wrong, but really
dont have any idea of what it might have been.

Whats the matter? What have I done wrong? You keep asking yourself
The problem is that you asked him a direct question, and direct questions are
often considered impolite, rude, when speaking to strangers. It is a cultural aspect.
So what would be the best way to ask this question? The best would be asking
an indirect question because it is considered more formal and pragmatically
appropriate when speaking to strangers.
To make indirect questions we have to use an introductory phrase followed
by the question itself in positive sentence structure. If it is a yes/no question
we have to use the introductory phrase followed by if and then the question in
affirmative form.
Look at the following examples:
Direct question: What time is it?
Indirect question: Do you know what time it is?
Direct question: Is John here?
Indirect question: Can you tell me if John is here?

FORM Introductory clause + Affirmative Sentence Structure

The most common introductory phrases are:

Do you know?
Can you tell me?
Do you happen to know ...?
Would you mind?
Have you any idea? (British)

captulo 2 37
 Have you got any idea? (British)
I wonder / was wondering
I have no idea
I'm not sure
I'd like to know
Lets see some more examples.

DIRECT Who did you meet at the party?

QUESTION

INDIRECT Id like to know who you met at the party.

QUESTION

DIRECT What time does the next train leave?

QUESTION

INDIRECT Do you know what time the next train leaves?

QUESTION

DIRECT Have they gone to the USA?

QUESTION

INDIRECT I have no idea if/whether they have gone to the USA.

QUESTION

Have you noticed that the same way there are direct wh- questions and yes/
no questions, there are also indirect wh- questions and yes/no questions? Lets see
how to form both kinds of indirect questions?

Indirect questions beginning with if or whether

When a yes/no question is changed to an indirect question, if or whether is used

to introduce the clause. Notice, however, that whether is used when a more
formal register is desired. Both whether and if are commonly used in speaking.

captulo 2 38
 CONCEPT
According to Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999, p.692), An indirect question (or
embedded question) is so called because the utterer is typically not asking a question but
reporting a real or hypothetical question. The difference between them is that while the first
is a real question, the latter is a statement about someone elses wishes expressed with if or
whether followed by a subordinate clause:
Is anyone going to the play tonight? (direct question)
Susan wants to know whether/if anyone is going to the play tonight. (indirect)
The authors also state that the difference between if and whether is more than just register,
that is, whether being more formal than if : Bolinger (1975) has suggested that there is
a difference between these two complementizers in that if marks true yes/no questions,
whereas whether implies the existence of alternatives. (ibidem, p.701):
Would you rather go to the movies or to the theater?
Susan wants to know whether I preferred going to the movies or to the theater.

FORM Introductory Clause + if / whether + Affirmative Sentence Structure

Will she come? (Direct Question)

I dont know whether she will come.
I was wondering whether she will come.
Have you any idea if she will come?
Do you happen to know if she will come?

Notice that any introductory clause can be used, but if the introductory clause
has a question order then a question mark has to be included. On the other hand,
if the introductory clause has a sentence order (subject + verb), no question mark
is included.

captulo 2 39
 Will she come? (Direct Question)
I dont know whether she will come.
I was wondering whether she will come.
Have you any idea if she will come?
Do you happen to know if she will come?

It is also possible to include or not in indirect questions:

I dont know whether or not she will come.

I wonder whether she will come or not.
Could you tell me if she will come or not?
Whether she eats healthy food or not is killing her.

Notice the pattern in which or not is used: it can also be used in a subject
position, but in this case the standard sentence order (subject + verb) is kept the
whether or not clause is the subject followed by the verb.

Indirect questions beginning with a question word

Whenever an information question (questions that ask for information by using

a question word, such as when, who and where, for example) is changed to an
indirect question, the question word used in the direct question is kept, but
auxiliary verbs do, did and does are never used in indirect questions.

FORM Introductory Clause + wh-question word + Affirmative Structure

WHERE DOES SHE WORK? (DIRECT QUESTION)

I dont know where she works.

Do you happen to know where she works?
Have you any idea where she works?

captulo 2 40
 WHEN DID HE LEAVE? (DIRECT QUESTION)

I dont know when he left.

Do you happen to know when he left?
Have you any idea when he left?

WHAT DO THEY DO FOR A LIVING? (DIRECT QUESTION)

I dont know what they do for a living.

Do you happen to know what they do for a living?
Have you any idea what they do for a living?

Notice that the clauses in italics, which represent the indirect questions,
are always the same for each direct question. What changes, however, is the
introductory clause used before them. Remember: do not use question word order
in indirect questions!

WHAT HAPPENED? (DIRECT QUESTION)

I dont know what happened.

Do you happen to know what happened?
Have you any idea what happened?

In direct questions in which the subject is what or who, the word order is the
same in both the direct question and indirect question. In the example above, the
subject is what and the verb is happened in both the direct and indirect questions.
Thats why there is no change in word order in this case.

captulo 2 41
 WHO IS THAT GIRL? (DIRECT QUESTION)

I dont know who that girl is.

Do you happen to know who that girl is?
Have you any idea who that girl is?

That girl is the subject of the direct question. When the direct question is
changed to indirect question, the subject that girl has to be placed before the verb
be because the word order in a sentence structure is subject + verb.

Indirect speech

There are usually three different ways for a speaker or writer to attribute statements
or thoughts to someone else: direct quotation, indirect reported speech, and
paraphrase. The difference among them is very clear:
In direct quotation or speech, we repeat, or quote, the exact words spoken.
Whenever quoting someone else in writing, we place the words spoken
between quotation marks ("") and there is no change in these words.
In indirect reported speech, we report what someone else has said or asked, but
not necessarily repeating exactly the same words that have been originally used.
In paraphrasing, we repeat the same ideas and concepts using different words.
Both direct and indirect speech usually occur in Noun Clauses, but in this
section we are going to focus on indirect speech only. Reported texts most
commonly involves creating complements to a reporting verb such as say or tell, no
quotation marks are used and the first word of the Noun Clause is not capitalized.
There are, however, some changes in reported statements:

captulo 2 42
a) The verb in the reported clause moves one tense back if the reporting verb is
in the past tense (e.g.: said, told).
Present Past
Present perfect Past perfect
Past Past perfect
Examples:
Peter: Im going to the party.
Peter said (that) he was going to the party.
John: She has been to the USA.
John told me (that) she had been to the USA.
Mary: I won my first bike when I was six.
Mary said (that) she had won her first bike when she was six.
b) Some changes with modal verbs:
can could / will would / may might
Examples:
Mother: He can go to the party.
His mother said (that) he could go to the party.
John: Ill help you.
John said (that) he would help me.
c) There is no tense change if:
the reporting verb is in the present tense (e.g.: says, asks).
Peter: Im going to the party.
Peter says (that) he is going to the party.
The attendant: The plane will be late.
The attendant says (that) the plane will be late.
the reported speech is about something that is still true.
Ricky: I like soccer.
Ricky told me (that) he likes soccer.

d) Some modal verbs do not change:

should
John: You shouldnt buy that car.
John told me (that) I shouldnt buy that car.
might
The old man: It might rain.
The old man said it might rain.

captulo 2 43
 must
Must stays as must, or we can change it to had to.
Peter: I must go.
Peter said he must/had to go.

Statements

When transforming statements, check whether you have to change:

pronouns;
present tense verbs (3rd person singular);
place and time expressions;
tenses (backshift).

TYPE EXAMPLE
direct speech I speak English.

reported speech (no backshift) He says that he speaks English.

reported speech (backshift) He said that he spoke English.

Say and tell

If we say who we are talking to, we use tell.

John told me he didnt see that movie.
If we do not say who we are talking to, we use say.
John said (that) he didnt see that movie.

Reporting verbs

There are several reporting verbs that can be used. In conversation and informal
writing, say, tell and ask are the most commonly used. In more formal writing, on
the other hand, the following verbs are often used:

captulo 2 44
 report confess maintain explain demand

respond claim comment complain promise

query add admit interrupt insist

Reported Questions (wh-questions)

The word order in reported questions is the same as indirect questions: there is no
inversion of subject and verb.

DIRECT How much is that dress?

REPORTED I have no idea if/whether they have gone to the USA.

DIRECT Where did you go yesterday?

REPORTED He asked me where I had gone the day before.

DIRECT What time is it?

REPORTED He wants to know what time it is.

Reporting yes/no questions

When we are reporting yes/no questions, we have to use if or whether.

captulo 2 45
 DIRECT Are you going to the party?

REPORTED She asked me if I was going to the party.

DIRECT Have you been to the USA?

REPORTED She asked me if/whether I had been to the USA.

When transforming direct into indirect questions, check whether you

have to change:
pronouns;
present tense verbs (3rd person singular);
place and time expressions;
tenses (backshift).
Also note that you have to:
transform the structure of the question into an indirect question;
use the interrogative or if/whether.
Compare the difference between a reported information question (wh-
question) and a reported yes/no question:

TYPE EXAMPLE
direct speech "Why don't you speak english?
with interrogative
reported speech He asked me why I didn't speak English

TYPE EXAMPLE
direct speech "Do you speak English?"
Without interrogative
reported speech He asked me whether / if i spoke English.

captulo 2 46
Reporting commands, requests, instructions, offers and advice

When reporting commands, requests, instructions, offers and advice, the sentence
is changed to an infinitive. Tell, ask or order is used instead of say as the reporting
verb. We use:

Verb+pronoun+infinitive

EXEMPLES
DIRECT Can you lend me $20? (request)

REPORTED He asked me to lend him $20.

DIRECT Turn off the television. (command = imperative)

REPORTED He told me to turn off the television.

For negative commands, use not before to.

DIRECT Dont turn off the television.

REPORTED He told me not to turn off the television.

Reported speech: verb forms in noun clauses

If the reporting verb is in the Simple Past, the verb in the Noun Clause will usually
be in a past form. Take a look at the chart to visualize the changes on verb tenses.

captulo 2 47
 DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH
SIMPLE PRESENT SIMPLE PAST
Present Continuous Past Continuous

PRESENT PERFECT
SIMPLE PAST PAST PERFECT
PAST PERFECT
Simple Future (will) would

FUTURE (BE GOING TO) WAS/WERE GOING TO

Modals

can could
may (possibility) might
may (permission) could
will would
might might
must had to
have to had to
should should
ought to ought to
shall would (future)
shall should (ask for advice)

IMPERATIVE INFINITIVE
Yes/no question If/whether

According to Azar (1999, p.254), Changing verbs to past forms in reported

speech is common in both speaking and writing. However, sometimes in spoken
English, no change is made in the noun clause verb, especially if the speaker is
reporting something immediately or soon after it was said.

captulo 2 48
 Take a look at the example:

DIRECT What did the professor just say?

REPORTED He said he wants us to open our booklets to page 65.

REPORTED Last class, the professor said he wanted us to open our

(LATER): booklets to page 65.

Changes in time expressions

Below there is a list of changes we have to make in time expressions when we

are making reported speech.

DIRECT SPEECH INDIRECT SPEECH

today that day

yesterday the day before

tomorrow the following day

ago before

now then

this that

these those

here there

captulo 2 49
 EXEMPLES

DIRECT Did you visit you grandparents yesterday, Lucy?

REPORTED I asked Lucy if she had visited her grandparents the day before.

MULTIMEDIA
To read about questions and answers about say, speak and tell check the link: http://www.
bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/radio/specials/1535_questionanswer/page34.shtml
To listen to the very same explanation, go to: http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/
learningenglish/ask_about_english/mp3s/say_speak_tell.mp3
To read about questions and answer about Reported Speech check the link: http://www.
bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/language/askaboutenglish/2009/04/090324_
aae_archive_reported_speech.shtml

Adjective clauses

Adjective Clauses, also known as Relative Clauses, are dependent clauses that
must be linked to a main clause forming a complex sentence. Adjective clauses
are the junction of two sentences into one using a relative pronoun. They are
used to give additional information about something or someone without starting
another sentence. By combining sentences with the use of a relative clause, your
text becomes more fluent and you can avoid repeating certain words. Take a look
at the following sentences:

a) That blue car is mine.

b) It is parked in the alley.

captulo 2 50
 Notice that (a) and (b) are both simple sentences. However, as the subject of
both sentences refer to the same object (the blue car = it), and the second sentence
is used to identify the car, we can combine the sentences into one sentence:
c) ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

The blue car that is parked in the alley is mine.

d) ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

The blue car which is parked in the alley is mine.

Sentences (c) and (d) have the same meaning. In (c), the Adjective Clause
that is parked in the alley modifies the noun phrase the blue car. It means that the
adjective clause is used to identify which car the person is talking about. Notice
that the adjective clause closely follows the noun it modifies. Thats why the
adjective clause is placed inside the main clause in this sentence:
Main Clause: the blue car is mine.
Adjective Clause: that/which is parked in the alley.
The relative pronoun that is the subject of the subordinate clause in (c)
and which is the subject of the subordinate clause in (d). The relative pronoun
introduces the Adjective Clause which modifies the noun, noun phrase or even
indefinite pronoun that precedes it. Therefore, it is incorrect to say or write:
(*) The blue car is mine which is parked in the alley.
There is a great diversity in English Adjective Clause types. The one we have
just seen is labeled , according to Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999), subject-
subject relatives because the subject of the main clause is identical to the subject
of the adjective clause: the noun car, subject of the main clause, is replaced by
the relative pronouns which/that, subjects of the adjective clause. There are other
three types:
Object - subject Relatives: the object of the main clause (the man) is
identical to the subject of the subordinate clause (who):
e) ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

I helped the man who doesnt speak Portuguese.

Subject - object Relatives: the subject of the main clause (the woman) is
identical to the object of the subordinate clause (whom):

captulo 2 51
 f ) ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

The woman whom you have just met is my lawyer.

Object - object Relatives: the object of the main clause (grammar book) is
identical to the object of the subordinate clause (that):
g) ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

I bought the grammar book that you suggested.

As you might have noticed, there are basically two positions to include the
relative clause: after the main clause and inside the main clause.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE AFTER THE MAIN CLAUSE

MAIN ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

CLAUSE

Subject
Relative Pronoun VERB

Thats the boy who lives next door.

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE AFTER THE MAIN CLAUSE

MAIN ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

CLAUSE

Subject
Relative Pronoun VERB

the boy who lives next door has been to London.

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 There are two kinds of Relative Clauses:
Restrictive Relative Clauses
Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses
Clauses are also classified as defining and non-defining or even essential and
nonessential clauses. American grammarians will make this same distinction by
referring to clauses with the terms restrictive and nonrestrictive. A restrictive
clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence since it restricts and identifies
the noun that the speaker/writer wishes to refer to. A nonrestrictive clause, on
the other hand, is not essential to the meaning of the sentence; it, therefore, can
be removed from the sentence without changing its basic meaning. They are often
set apart from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a pair of commas (if it's in
the middle of a sentence). Nonessential Relative Clauses are more common in
writing than in speaking.

CONNECTION
Review the Notorious Confusables section on the difference between That and Which
for additional clarification on the distinction between restrictive and nonrestrictive. We
recommend Michael Quinion's article on the usage of which and that in his World Wide
Words. Access: http://www.worldwidewords.org/articles/which.htm

Restrictive relative clauses

Restrictive Relative Clauses contain essential information that explains the noun
or indefinite pronoun which precedes it and that is part of the main clause. It tells
us exactly who or what is being talked about. Therefore, it cannot be omitted.
Take a look at the following example:

ADJECTIVE CLAUSE

She likes people who are funny.

The main clause She likes people doesnt mean much; we need to know which
people she likes. And who are funny tells us exactly what kind of people she likes.
Below are some more examples in which the Restrictive Adjective Clauses are
essential to the understanding of the main clause:

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 An architect is someone who designs buildings.
I dont like stories that have sad endings.
I met a man who is a pilot.
Thats that man whose car was stolen last night.
Tell me when you are arriving.
Thats the school where I studied when I was ten years old.
Notice that the bold face Adjective Clauses from the sentences above are
essential to identify the nouns that precede them.

ATTENTION
When the relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause we can leave it out.
I like the dress (that) Julie is wearing.
The man (who) the police arrested has now been released.
When the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative we cannot leave it out.
I met a woman who works for Vogue Magazine.
I dont know the name of the horse that won the race.
For people we use who or that and for things we use which or that. But that is preferred to which
after superlatives, and words such as all, every(thing), some(thing), any(thing), only and it is.
Give him something that will take away his headache.

Nonrestrictive relative clauses

Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses give additional information on something or

somebody, but do not define the noun it modifies. They are enclosed in commas.
As they give extra information, Nonrestrictive Relative Clauses are not necessary
to make the sentence meaningful.
Shakespeare, who wrote a lot of plays, is my favorite writer.
(Shakespeare is my favorite writer.)
Sues house, which has cost a fortune, is in Paris.
(Sues house is in Paris.)
Note: Whenever the relative pronoun is the subject of the adjective clause, do
not use a subject pronoun in the subordinate clause:
*Shakespeare, who he wrote a lot of plays, is my favorite writer. (who is the
subject of the adjective clause: do not use a subject pronoun!!)

captulo 2 54
 *Sues house, which it has cost a fortune, is in Paris. (which is the subject of
the adjective clause: do not use a subject pronoun!!)
In order to understand the difference between Restrictive and Nonrestrictive
Adjective Clauses, lets compare the following pairs of sentences:
The students who had done well on the test were excused from class early.
The students, who had done well on the test, were excused from class early.
In the first sentence, the lack of commas (Restrictive Adjective Clause) means
that only some students had done well on the test, and, therefore, were excused
from class early. The adjective clause is used to identify which students were
excused from class early. In the second sentence, the use of commas (Nonrestrictive
Adjective Clause) means that all the students had done well on the test, and,
therefore, all of them were excused from class early. The adjective clause is used
only to give additional information about the students.

ATTENTION
Pay attention to the fact that:
In nonrestrictive relative clauses we have to use who for people and which for things. We
cannot use that and we cannot leave out who or which.
We can also use whose, when and where in nonrestrictive relative clauses.
He works in London, where my sister lives.
Phil, whose mother is Spanish, speaks both English and Spanish fluently.

Relative pronouns

Relative Pronouns are connectors we use to refer to nouns and indefinite pronouns.
According to Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999, p.582).

Every relative pronoun is entered in the lexicon together with its semantic (and
other) features. The feature specifications allow us to select the appropriate relative
pronoun depending on the features of the NP it replaces and the discourse context
in which it will be used.

captulo 2 55
 It means that the characteristics of the noun, noun phrase (NP) or indefinite
pronoun the relative pronoun will replace determines which relative pronoun can
be used in that specific context. The relative pronouns are that, who, whom,
whose, which and the relative adverbs are where, when, and why. They are used
to join two sentences into one. They are used at the beginning of the subordinate
adjective clause and links it to the main clause.
Lets see some examples:
Who is used to refer to people.
Exotic animals can give exotic diseases to people who get too close.
Whom is used to refer to people. It is only used after prepositions and in
formal texts is used to refer to the object of the adjective clause.
Im talking about whom made such a mess.
The woman whom I saw was Mrs. Jones. (I saw the woman = whom I saw)
Which is used to refer to animals or things.
These are the flowers which were sent by Peter.
That it can be used in the place of who or which.
These are the flowers that were sent by Peter.

P.S.: who, which and that can be omitted if they are not used right before a verb.

Thats the boy (who) I told you about.

Whose is used to refer to possession.
I was talking to the woman whose son went to Harvard last week.
Where it refers to place.
This is the school where I study.
When it used to refer to time and dates.
January is when we have our vacation.
Why it is used to refer to reasons.
I dont know why he left his job.

Note: where, when and why are adverbs that introduce a relative clause and, there-
fore, are labeled relative adverbs. Lets have a look on the table below:

captulo 2 56
Relative pronouns

RELATIVE USE EXAMPLE

PRONOUN

I told you about the

subject or object pronoun
WHO for people
woman who lives next
door.

subject or object pronoun Do you see the cat whi-

WHICH for animals and things ch is lying on the roof?

referring to a whole sen- He couldnt read which

WHICH tence surprised me.

Do you know the boy

possession for people,
WHOSE animals and things
whose mother is a nur-
se?

object pronoun for people,

especially in non-defining I was invited by the pro-
WHOM relative clauses (in defi- fessor whom I met at
ning relative clauses we the conference.
colloquially prefer who)

subject or object pronoun

for people, animals and
I dont like the table that
THAT things in defining relative
stands in the kitchen.
clauses (who or which are
also possible)

captulo 2 57
Relative adverbs

A relative adverb can be used instead of a relative pronoun plus preposition. This
often makes the sentence easier to understand.
The house in which he lives is very modern. (relative pronoun)
The house which he lives in is very modern. (relative pronoun)
The house that he lives in is very modern. (relative pronoun)
The house he lives in is very modern.
This is the shop where I bought my bike. (relative adverb)

relative
meaning use example
adverb

when in/on which refers to a time expression the day when we met him

where in/at which refers to a place the place where we met him

why for which refers to a reason the reason why we met him

MULTIMEDIA
To see a video about defining and non-defining adjective clauses go to: https://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=ZMfTt-WPNfI
To read and listen about the difference between who and whom go to: http://www.bbc.co.uk/
worldservice/learningenglish/radio/specials/1535_questionanswer/page12.shtml
To read and listen about which vs. that go to: http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/
learningenglish/radio/specials/1535_questionanswer/page36.shtml
To read and listen about relative clauses with prepositions go to: http://www.bbc.co.uk/
worldservice/learningenglish/radio/specials/1535_questionanswer/page52.shtml

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 ACTIVITIES
01. Direct or Indirect Question? Write D if the underlined part of each sentence is a direct
question or I if it is and indirect question:
a) I couldnt hear him. What did he say? ( )
b) Did you hear what he said? ( )
c) I need some information. Where does Tom live? I have to send him some books. ( )
d) I need to know where Tom lives, I have to send him some books. ( )
e) There something I dont understand. Why did Tony cancel his vacation plans? ( )
f) I have no idea what they did. Do you happen to know, Ann? ( )
g) What did they do? Please tell me. ( )
h) Do you happen to know where Susan went? ( )

02. Make information questions (who, what, where, how, etc) from the given sentences. The
words in parenthesis should be the answer to the question you make. Then change the direct
question to an indirect question.
a) That professor is (Mrs. Anderson)
Direct:
Indirect:
b) My daughter bought (a new car).
Direct:
Indirect:
c) Jackie was late to class (because she missed the bus).
Direct:
Indirect:
d) My parents live (in San Francisco).
Direct:
Indirect:
e) This is (Mikes) coat.
Direct:
Indirect:
f) Alice likes (this) book best, (not that one).
Direct:
Indirect:

captulo 2 59
03. Complete the sentences in reported speech. Pay attention if the sentence is a request,
a statement or a question.
a) She said, I like this song.
She said
b) Where do you live? she asked me.
She asked me
c) I dont speak Italian, she said.
She said
d) Say hello to Jim, they said.
They asked me
e) The film began at seven oclock, he said.
He said
f) Dont play on the grass, boys, she said.
She told the boys
g) Where have you been? she asked him.
She asked him
h) I never make mistakes, he said.
He said
i) Does she know Robert? he wanted to know.
He wanted to know
j) I have been smoking too much, she said.
She said

04. Complete the sentences below with an appropriate word from the box:
whatever - whenever - wherever - whichever whoever
a) You are welcome to come and stay with us __________ you like.
b) I'd like to speak to __________ is in charge of sales.
c) __________ you do, don't forget to call me as soon as you arrive.
d) It comes in three colours; choose __________ you prefer.
e) What do you want to do on Saturday? I don't mind - ___________ you like!
f) He always makes friends quickly, ________________ he goes.
g) _______________ borrowed the dictionary should return it as quickly as possible.
h) The teacher says I don't participate enough, but ____________ I try to speak, someone
interrupts me!
i) There is no entrance fee; you give __________ you can afford.
j) He says he's from Brookstown, ____________ that is.

captulo 2 60
05. Combine the sentences using defining relative pronouns. When the relative pronoun is
an object, it can be omitted.
a) Shes the nurse. She looked after me.
b) Thats the magazine. It arrived this morning.
c) I talked to a girl. I know her mother.
d) That's the girl. She spoke to me yesterday.
e) I rent a house. It is very small.
f) The businessman was very rich. I saw him last night.
g) The man smoked forty cigarettes a day. He died of a heart attack.
h) We stayed in a hotel. The hotel was very expensive.
i) What's the name of the book? You want me to read it.
j) The car was stolen. It was a Ferrari.

CONNECTION
To have more practice on Reported Speech and Relative Clauses go to: https://www.ego4u.
com/en/cram-up/grammar/relative-clauses.
http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_list/alle_grammar.htm (reported speech)
http://www.better-english.com/grammar/nondef.htm> (nonrestrictive relative clauses)
http://www.englishlanguageguide.com/english/grammar/relative-pronoun.asp

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

In this chapter, we talked about two kinds of subordinate clauses: Noun Clauses and Adjective
Clauses. These two different kinds of clauses are very widespread both in spoken and
written English: Noun Clauses are used in indirect questions and indirect speech, whereas
Adjective Clauses are used to identify (restrictive clauses) or even give additional information
(non-restrictive clauses) about something (a noun) without starting another sentence.
Understanding and using them in complex sentences is essential to developing fluency and
proficiency in the English language.

captulo 2 61
 REFERENCES
AZAR , Betty Schrampfer . Understanding and Using English Grammar. Prentice Hall Regents, 1999.
CELCE-MURCIA, M.; LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. The Grammar Book: an ESL/EFL teachers course.
Boston: Heinle/Cengage Learning, 2 edio, 1999.
QUIRK, R.; GREENBAUM, S.; LEECH, G.; SVARTVIK, J. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
Language. New York: Longman, 1985.

ANSWER KEY
01. Direct or Indirect Question? Write D if the underlined part of each sentence is a direct
question or I if it is and indirect question:
a) I couldnt hear him. What did he say? ( D )
b) Did you hear what he said? ( I )
c) I need some information. Where does Tom live? I have to send him some books. ( D )
d) I need to know where Tom lives, I have to send him some books. ( I )
e) There something I dont understand. Why did Tony cancel his vacation plans? ( D )
f) I have no idea what they did. Do you happen to know, Ann? ( I )
g) What did they do? Please tell me. ( D )
h) Do you happen to know where Susan went? ( I )

02. Make information questions (who, what, where, how, etc) from the given sentences. The
words in parenthesis should be the answer to the question you make. Then change the direct
question to an indirect question.
a)Direct: Who is that professor?
Indirect: I want to know who that professor is.
b)Direct: What did your daughter buy?
Indirect: Do you know what your daughter bought?
c)Direct: Why was Jackie late to class?
Indirect: Do you happen to know why Jackie was late to class?
d)Direct: Where do your parents live?
Indirect: I dont know where your parents live.
e)Direct: Whose coat is this?
Indirect: Have you any idea whose coat this is.
f)Direct: Which book does Alice like best?

captulo 2 62
 Indirect: Could you tell me which book Alice likes best?

03. Complete the sentences in reported speech. Pay attention if the sentence is a request,
a statement or a question.
a) She said (that) she liked that song.
b) She asked me where I lived.
c) She said (that) she didnt speak Italian.
d) They asked/told me to say hello to Jim.
e) He said (that) the film had begun at seven oclock.
f) She told the boys not to play on the grass.
g) She asked him where he had been.
h) He said (that) he never made mistakes.
i) He wanted to know if/whether she knew Robert.
j) She said (that) she had been smoking too much.

04. Complete the sentences below with an appropriate word from the box:
a) You are welcome to come and stay with us whenever you like.
b) I'd like to speak to whoever is in charge of sales.
c) Whatever you do, don't forget to call me as soon as you arrive.
d) It comes in three colours; choose whichever you prefer.
e) What do you want to do on Saturday? I don't mind - whatever you like!
f) He always makes friends quickly, wherever he goes.
g) Whoever borrowed the dictionary should return it as quickly as possible.
h) The teacher says I don't participate enough, but whatever I try to speak,
someone interrupts me!
i) There is no entrance fee; you give whatever you can afford.
j) He says he's from Brookstown, wherever that is.

05. Combine the sentences using defining relative pronouns. When the relative pronoun is
an object, it can be omitted.
a) She is the nurse who/that looked after me.
b) That is the magazine which/that arrived this morning.
c) I talked to a girl whose mother I know.
d) That's the girl who spoke to me yesterday.
e) The house I rent is very small.
The house (which) I rent is very small.

captulo 2 63
The house (that) I rent is very small.
f) The businessman (whom) I saw last night was very rich.
The businessman (who) I saw last night was very rich.
The businessman (that) I saw last night was very rich.
g) The man who died of a heart attack smoked forty cigarettes a day.
The man who smoked forty cigarettes a day died of a heart attack.
h) The hotel (which) we stayed in was very expensive.
The hotel (that) we stayed in was very expensive.
The hotel where we stayed in was very expensive.
We stayed in a hotel which was very expensive.
i) Whats the name of the book (that) you want me to read?
Whats the name of the book (which) you want me to read?
Whats the name of the book you want me to read?
j) The car which was stolen was a Ferrari.
The car that was stolen was a Ferrari.

captulo 2 64
 3
Subordination:
adverb clauses
Subordination: adverb clauses

Introduction

In this chapter we are going to see the last kind of subordinate clauses - Adverbial
Clauses. As Noun Clauses and Adjective Clauses, Adverbial Clauses are also
widespread in both spoken and written English. Their function in the sentence
is to modify the whole main clause or only its verb, and as adverbs in general,
they can precede or follow the main clause. The linking words that introduce
an adverbial clause are called subordinating conjunctions, and they show the
relationship between the subordinate and the main clauses. They can establish
relationship of time, cause and effect, contrast and condition.

GOALS TO BE REACHED
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Identify Adverbial Clauses in sentences;
Understand the form, meaning and use of the different Adverbial Clauses in English;
Understand and use subordinating conjunctions in spoken and written texts.

QUESTION
Did you know that adverbial clauses are used on a regular basis in written and spoken English
texts in general? Take a look at the lyrics of the song If I Were a Boy, by Beyonc. It contains
many adverbial clauses? Can you identify any of them?

captulo 3 66
 If I were a boy
I think I could understand
How it feels to love a girl
I swear I'd be a better man
I'd listen to her
Cause I know how it hurts
When you lose the one you wanted
Cause he's taken you for granted
And everything you had got destroyed

Adverbial clauses

We usually use Adverbial Clauses in speaking and writing to combine thoughts

and show the relationship between ideas. They are also used to vary ones writing
style. Compare two different ways to convey the same idea shown below:
Teenagers must be engaged with meaningful activities. Otherwise, they are
likely to get involved in crime. (two independent sentences)
Unless teenagers are engaged with meaningful activities, they are likely to
get involved in crime. (a complex sentence)
In the first example, there are two independent sentences linked by the
conjunctive adverb otherwise, which expresses the idea if the opposite is true, there
will be a certain result. In the second example, on the other hand, the dependent
clause is conjoined to the main clause by the subordinating conjunction unless,
which expresses basically the same idea of the conjunctive adverb (unless = if not),
but with the advantage of eliminating any chance of confusion or misunderstanding
by the reader. According to Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999), the use of
conjunctions both coordinating and subordinating conjunctions - to join ideas
strengthens the likelihood that the listener/reader will understand the connections
as the speaker/writer intended them. (p.519)
In chapter 1, we have seen the different kinds of subordinating conjunctions.
As subordinating conjunctions introduce adverbial clauses, there are as many
adverbial clause types as there are subordinating conjunction types. In this chapter,
we are going to study each kind of adverbial clause in separate.

captulo 3 67
Time adjective clauses

Adverbial Clauses of Time, or only Time Clauses as they are usually known, are
dependent clauses which provide additional information about when something
happens, is caused or is done. They are introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions which denote time, such as when, after, by the time, since, as soon as,
whenever, just to mention a few. Their specific feature is that they always take a
PRESENT TENSE VERB it does not matter if they refer to the present or to the
future. Take a look at the following sentences:
After Sam graduates, hes going to live abroad to learn another language.
When the students finish their work, they can go home.
My sister will already have had the baby by the time she graduates.
I will never forget what you have done as long as I live.
In the sentences above, the subordinating conjunctions after, when, by the
time and as long as introduce time clauses. Notice that all the sentences refer to
the future and the verbs used in the main clauses are will, can or be + going + to.
Be careful when using the subordinating conjunction by the time! It means one
event is completed before another event (AZAR, 1999, p.72) and the grammar
structure is different from the one we use with the subordinating conjunction
when! The meaning of when, in English, is: at that time. Portuguese speakers
have the tendency of using when and by the time interchangeably. They do not
understand that there are differences in meaning and use!!
If the sentences refer to the past, however, a PAST TIME TENSE is used.
Take a look at the following examples:
After he (had) graduated, Tom got a really good job!
When my husband got home, I was talking on the phone.
We had already left by the time the fire our house started burning on fire!!
I have known my husband since I was a child.
In the sentences above, the subordinating conjunctions after, when, by the
time and since introduce time clauses. But in these examples, the sentences refer
to the past since the verbs used in the main clauses are in the simple past and
past continuous. Notice that the verbs used in the time clauses can either be
in the simple past or in the past perfect (had + past participle). Whenever you
use the verbs in the time clause in the past perfect, it means that you want to
emphasize that the action in the subordinated clause, that is, in the time clause,

captulo 3 68
happened before the action in the main clause. Therefore, the sentences 1 and 3
above mean that:
First, Tom graduated and then he got a really good job.
First, they left and then the house started burning on fire.
As you might have noticed, you can either start the sentence by the
subordinated clause or the main clause, the meaning is exactly the same. The
punctuation, however, is different:

Main Clause + Time Clause

Time Clause , Main Clause

Therefore, according to Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999, p.525),

Usually, the two-clause sequence of main clause + subordinate clause does not
require comma punctuation. [] With the combination of subordinate clause +
main clause, a comma is almost always used between the clauses in written texts.
The following chart contains some examples of sentences composed of
adverbial clauses showing time relationships introduced by the most common
subordinating conjunctions of time. Notice the verb tenses used in the time clauses.

After my sister graduates, she is going to move to Europe.

AFTER Anna got a job after she (had) graduated.

BEFORE Sue will call you before she leaves the office tonight.

When I see you tomorrow, I will tell you the news.

WHEN My children were already sleeping when I got home.

WHILE The frying pan caught on fire while I was cooking last night.

captulo 3 69
 By the time I arrived, my husband had already left.
BY THE TIME By the time Tom graduates, he will have finished his
English course.

SINCE We have known each other since we were children.

UNTIL / TILL We have to stay in the office until the boss arrives.

AS SOON AS I will leave as soon as it stops raining.

ONCE Once it stops raining, I will leave.

AS LONG AS I dont want to see his face again as long as I live.

SO LONG AS I dont want to see his face again so long as I live.

WHENEVER Whenever he sees her, his heart starts beating faster.

THE FIRST / The first time I went to Paris, it was snowing.

LAST TIME I saw two plays the last time I went to New York.

As you can notice, adverbial clauses of time can either be used after or before
a main clause. The meaning is exactly the same. The only difference is the use of a
comma when it precedes the main clause. Besides, when the time clause refers to
a future time, a PRESENT TENSE VERB is used (NOT a future tense).

Cause and effect adverbial clauses

Adverbial Clauses of Cause and Effect are used to explain the reasons for what
happens in the main clause. That is the reason why some grammarians label them
Adverbial Clauses of Reason. The most common subordinating conjunctions that
introduce this kind of Adverbial Clause are:

captulo 3 70
 Tim received a high score on the test because he had studied hard.
BECAUSE I will not prepare dinner because you are a better cook than me!!

Since tomorrow is a holiday, we can stay in bed till late!

SINCE They left early since the train was scheduled to leave at 5 am.

AS LONG AS As long as you are on vacation, why dont you pop up for dinner?

AS As it was getting late, he decided to leave her a message.

Inasmuch as the students had successfully passed their English

INASMUCH AS proficiency exams, their parents rewarded their efforts by giving
them a trip to England.

NOW THAT Now that Sue has finally found a job, she will pay all her bills.

The subordinating conjunctions because, since, as long as, as and inasmuch as

have exactly the same meaning. There are, however, some differences among them
in terms of register and use:
because is the prototypical subordinating conjunction to show cause and
effect relationship.
since, in some contexts, is also used to express a known cause. According
to Azar (1999, p.362) it means because it is a fact that or given that it is true
that. The author also states that, Cause and effect sentences with since say:
Given the fact that X is true, Y is the result. (Idem)
as long as means the same as because, but tends to be used in more
informal contexts.
as, on the other hand, tends to be used in more formal contexts as the
example given in the previous chart.
inasmuch as, as we can notice from the example above, is usually used in
very formal written English.
The meaning of the last time subordinating conjunction mentioned in the
previous chart now that is a little different it means because now. Therefore,

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the sentence above means: Because now Sue has gotten a job, she will be able to pay
her bills. Now that is used for present causes related to present or future situations.
Notice that some subordinating conjunctions can be used in different contexts
with different meanings:
Since (time): I have been teaching English since I graduated.
Since (cause/effect): Since she has already graduated, shell find herself a job.
As (time): As time goes by, she gets prettier.
As (cause/effect): As she decided to stay, I will leave.
Therefore, it is essential to analyze the context in which the conjunction is
included. Never take the meaning of conjunctions for granted!!
And last but not least: according to Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999,
p.530), there are two types of because that are often distinguishable in speech by
intonation patterns and in writing by punctuation conventions:
My coworker got fired because she did not arrive at work on time.
Sam is probably sick, because hes been absent from school for a week already.
The first sentence presents the more common of the two meanings - the
idea of presenting the truth-condition in explaining the cause why something
happens. It is instantiated with no punctuation in writing and with no drop
in intonation until the end of the sentence. In the second sentence, a more
colloquial meaning related to the subordinating conjunction is related to
the idea of presenting an inference that signals the evidence for a specific
belief. It is instantiated with a comma after the main clause whenever it comes
first in writing, and a drop in intonation after both the main clause and the
subordinate clause.

Contrast adverbial clauses

The easiest way to understand the meaning of Adverbial Clauses expressing contrast
or concession is to keep in mind that the idea presented in the subordinate clause
expresses unexpected results, that is, it contrasts with the idea presented in the
main clause. Compare the following sentences:
I went to bed because I was both tired and sleepy.
I went to bed even though I wasnt tired or sleepy.
In the first sentence, the idea expressed in the subordinate clause is expected:
the reason why I went to bed is the fact that I was not only tired but also sleepy.
In the second sentence, however, the idea expressed in the subordinate clause is

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not expected: I decided to go to bed despite the fact that I was neither tired nor
sleepy. That is the main difference between Adverbial Clauses showing Cause and
Effect (session 1.2) and the ones showing Contrast. According to Celce-Murcia &
Larsen-Freeman (1999, p.529):

The concessives although, even though, though, and while fall within the
class of inferential connectors. A concession is a special variety of contrast
where the sense conveyed is Yes, but: where concession occurs, the
speaker/writer wishes to grant the truth of one proposition while asserting the
truth of another proposition in such a way as to make the first proposition seem
of lesser importance.

It means that the information in the main clause is normally intended as the
primary focus and it is the idea conveyed in the concessive clause that draws the
listener/reader to that conclusion, inference.
The most common subordinating conjunctions that introduce Contrast/
Concessive Adverbial Clauses are:

Sue works for minimum wage even though she has a Masters
EVEN THOUGH Degree.

ALTHOUGH Although Sue has a Masters Degree, she works for minimum wage.

THOUGH I walked all the way home though I was dead tired.

John is rich, while James is poor.

WHILE While John is rich, James is poor.

Whereas Tina has more enemies than friends, her sister, Tanya, is
extremely popular at school.
WHEREAS Tina has more enemies than friends, whereas her sister, Tanya, is
extremely popular at school.

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 Notice that the conjunctions although, even though, though are
interchangeable and follow the same punctuation pattern of all the other types
of subordinate clauses. The conjunctions while and whereas, on the other hand,
have a little different pattern they show direct contrast: this is exactly the
opposite of that. In the sentences above, this direct contrast is instantiated
in terms of rich vs. poor; not being popular (more enemies than friends) vs.
popular. Notice also that while and whereas may be used with the idea of
either clause with no difference in meaning. Whereas mostly occurs in formal
written English and a comma is usually used even if the adverbial clause comes
second. (AZAR, 1999, p.366)

Conditional adverbial clauses

A Conditional Adverbial Clause, also known as If-Clause, is considered to be

more syntactically complex than the other complex sentences containing the other
types of subordinate clauses. It happens because conditional sentences express the
dependence of one set of circumstances (i.e., the result clause) on another (i.e.,
the if-clause) (CELCE-MURCIA & LARSEN-FREEMAN, 1999, p.546). Besides,
the semantics underlying each type of If-Clause is subtle and hard for ESL/EFL
students to handle. They must not only know English verb tenses well but also have
a good grasp of the modal verbs and negation to be able to correctly understand and
produce the full range of conditional sentences in English. According to the authors
previously mentioned, we must point out that ESL/EFL textbooks and reference
grammars typically provide highly oversimplified information. For example, they
introduce and practice only three conditional structures. (ibidem, p. 545)
Therefore, in this section of the chapter, we are going to be studying five
conditional structures:
1. Generic Factual Conditionals (Zero Conditional)
2. Habitual Factual Conditionals (First Conditional)
3. Present Counterfactual Conditionals (Second Conditional)
4. Past Counterfactual Conditionals (Third Conditional)
5. Mixed Conditionals
As the other kinds of subordinate clauses, If-Clauses can either precede the
main clause or follow it with no difference in meaning:
If the weather improves, well go for a walk.
Well go for a walk if the weather improves.

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 In either order, the If- Clause sets up the condition, and the main clause
gives the result or outcome. Use a comma after the If-clause when it comes
before the main clause.
The subordinating conjunctions that introduce Adverbial Clauses of Condition
are: if - whether (or not) even if in case in the event that unless only if. As
they typically begin with the adverbial subordinator if or the complex subordinating
conjunction contains if, they received the nickname of If-Clauses.
The following chart summarizes the syntactic constructions of
conditional sentences. However, we will go through each one of the five
structures included here.

OVERVIEW OF BASIC VERB FORMS USED IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Result
Situation If-Clause Examples
Clause

If it rains, the
Always true Simple Present Simple Present
streets get wet.

True in the If I have enough

Will / Wont +
present/ Simple Present time, I will watch
base form
future TV later on.

Untrue If I had enough

in the Would + base time, I would
Simple Past
present/ form watch TV now or
future later on.

If I had had
enough time,
Untrue in Would have +
Past Perfect I would have
the past Past participle
watched TV
yesterday.

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 If I were rich,
I would have
Untrue traveled the
Would + past
in the Simple Past/ Past world.
participle/ base
present/ Perfect
form
past If I had eaten,
I wouldnt be
hungry now.

Zero conditional

The zero conditional is used to express a situation that is always true, a fact. These
conditional sentences express generic factual conditions and are of high frequency
in everyday English. Because of their unchanging truth value, these conditionals
normally take a simple present tense in both clauses. They are especially frequent
in scientific writing, since the sciences are often concerned with such absolute
relationships. (CELCE-MURCIA & LARSEN-FREEMAN, 1999, p. 548)
Take a look at the following examples:
If you freeze water, it becomes ice.
If I dont eat breakfast, I always get hungry during class.
Form:

If + simple present simple present

Lets see more examples:

If you cross an international date line, the time changes.
If there is no rain, the grass doesn't grow.
If you heat ice, it melts.

ATTENTION
In zero conditionals, the condition always has the same result.

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First conditional

The first conditional sentence expresses a possible condition and its probable
result in the future.
Take a look at the following examples:
If I have enough money, I will buy a new computer.
If I dont get the loan, I wont buy the house.
Im going to buy you an ice cream cone if you finish your vegetables.
Form:

If + simple present will / wont / be going to

Lets see more examples (degree of weakened condition or result)

He may not pass the test if he doesnt study. (possibility)
If I go to the party, I should take you with me. (probability)
If it is sunny, they will go swimming. (certainty)

ATTENTION
In first conditionals, depending on the modal verb used on the main clause, the condition is
certain, possible or probable.

Zero and First Conditionals, consist of an if-clause and a main clause. These include
promises, warnings and threats. Until now, we have reviewed what you have already
learned about Conditional Sentences. We are going to expand the topic, referring
to Zero and First Conditionals as Real Conditionals, since they deal with present or
future situations that are real or possible.

captulo 3 77
Real conditionals

In most real conditional sentences, we use the present tense (simple, continuous
or perfect) in the IfClause, even when we are talking about the future.

IF- CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

Simple Present If you arrive early, wait for me in the station caf.

Present Progressive If youre spending any time in London, come visit me.

Present Perfect If you havent finished by ten, youll miss the post.

Going to If youre going to talk to me like that, Im leaving!

Modal Auxiliary If you cant do it, ask John for help!

Main Clause: we usually use the Simple Present, modal auxiliaries (especially
will/wont, can, must and may), or the imperative in the main clause.

If public transportation were good,

Id be home by now!!

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 IF- CLAUSE MAIN CLAUSE

its all over for you and me.

well be in big trouble.
If he finds out the truth,
you can forget about our holiday in Rome.
deny everything!

Unless means the same as if not : Unless you agree= If you dont agree
Lets see some examples:
Unless you start studying now, youll never pass your exams. (If you dont
start studying)
We are going swimming tomorrow unless its cold. (if it isnt cold)
You cant travel unless you have a passport. (if you dont have a passport)

Second conditional

The second conditional is used to talk about an unreal situation and its probable
result. The situation or conditional is improbable, impossible, imaginary, or
contrary to known facts.
Take a look at the following examples:
If they won the prize, theyd travel to Miami.
If he were here right now, he would help us!
Form:

If + simple past would / wouldnt

EXAMPLE
Lets see more examples:
If I were you, I wouldnt buy that house.
They would pass their exams if they studied more.
What would you do if you won the lottery?

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 ATTENTION
In second conditionals, the condition is improbable, impossible or imaginary.
We often use were and not was after I/he/she/it.
If I were you is often used to give advice.
Would can be replaced by could or might.

First or Second Conditional?

Both conditionals (first and second) can refer to the present and future. So the
difference between them is not about time, its about probability. First conditional
sentences are real and possible; second conditional sentences are unlikely,
impossible or imaginary.
Sometimes the difference between them is just a matter of the speakers attitude
rather than on facts. For example, consider two people, a pessimistic one and an
optimistic one.
Look at the examples:
Optimistic: If I win the lottery, I will buy a very big house.
Pessimistic: If I won the lottery, I would buy a very big house.

Third conditional

Read the following situation:

Last month there was a pop concert in town. Tim didnt know about the concert,
so he didnt attend it.
If he had known about the concert, he would have attended it.
Can he go to this concert now? Of course not. The concert is over. It was a
week before.

So we use the third conditional for past unreal events, to talk about an
impossible situation, things that didn't happen, but we can imagine we put

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the verb in the condition clause a further step back into the past perfect: Do
you know why it is impossible? Because they are in the past and we cannot change
what has happened.
Form:

If + past perfect would have + past participle

Past Perfect = had/hadnt + past participle

Past Participle = -ed / 3rd column of irregular verbs

Lets see more examples:

If he had studied hard, he would have got better grades at school.
(But he didnt study hard, so he didnt get better grades)
They would have traveled if they had had time and money.
(But they didnt have time or money, so they didnt travel)
If she had driven more carefully, she wouldnt have caused the accident.
(But she didnt drive carefully enough and she caused the accident)
Did you notice?
All the situations above happened in the past and we cannot change the facts now.
So thats why we say that these conditions are untrue (contrary to fact) in the past.

ATTENTION
1. We can use could or might instead of would, if we want to introduce the idea of possibility
rather than certainty.
If we had played better, we might have won the game.
They could have gone to the club if the weather hadnt been so bad.
2. It is also possible to use the past perfect continuous instead of the past perfect simple if
the action described continues over a period of time.
If he hadnt been driving so fast, he would have seen the dog in the middle of the street.

captulo 3 81
Mixed time conditional

Frequently the time in the If-Clause and the time in the main clause (result
clause) are different and dont fit any of the conditional clause rules previously
presented: one clause may be in the present and the other in the past. Notice that
past and present times are mixed in these sentences.

TRUE

I did not eat breakfast several hours ago, so I am hungry now.

CONDITIONAL
If I had eaten breakfast several hours ago, I would not be hungry now.

(past) (present)

TRUE

He is not a good student. He did not study for the test yesterday.

CONDITIONAL
If he were a good student, he would have studied for the test yesterday.

(present) (past)

MULTIMEDIA
To see a video about Mixed Conditionals go to:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SSYDHyyZKJM

captulo 3 82
 Omitting if: the conditional can also be signalled by means of a subject-verb
inversion. This inversion replaces the word "if"; it is inappropriate to use both the
word "if" and the subject-verb inversion in the same sentence. Therefore, with
were, had (past perfect) and should, sometimes if is omitted and the subject and
verb are inverted.
Were Robert a better student, he would get good grades at school.
Had Robert studied harder last fall, he would not have to take so many courses
this spring.
Should anyone call, please take a message.

CURIOSITY
Speaking Humorously or Sarcastically!!
Speaking of inversion, according to Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999, p.558), the
initial position of the if clause in the following sentences is virtually obligatory since much of
the humor or sarcasm would be lost if the two clauses were reversed. The authors give the
following examples:
If hes intelligent, then Im Albert Einstein!
If you had half a brain, youd be dangerous.
If shes not coming, shes not coming!
The last sentence is a tautologism where the same words are repeated in both clauses,
which would sound completely unacceptable if reversed!
(?) *Shes not coming if shes not coming.

ACTIVITIES
01. Fill in the blanks with the correct verb tense to complete the time clauses:
a) After Jessica ______ her degree, she intends to work in the family business. (to finish)
b) When my relatives ______ for a visit next month, they will see our son for the first time.
(to arrive)
c) By the time I get married, I ______ a job (to get a job)
d) I had turned off all the lights of the room, by the time I ______ it. (to leave)
e) We have to wait here until my little sister ______ her rehearsal. (to finish)
f) Once it ______ raining, I will leave the restaurant. (to stop)

captulo 3 83
g) It began to snow when I ______ home. (to walk)
h) Since I moved to New York six months ago, I ______ my family several times. (to visit)
i) Ever since my son entered the university, he ______ some very special meals for the
entire family. (to prepare)
j) Helen ______ 25 countries by the time she turns 50 years old. (to visit)

02. Cause and Effect vs. Concessive Clauses: Complete the sentences with because or
even though:
a) Put your coat on your backpack, Jim, ______ it is a bright, sunny day, dear!
b) Yesterday, I put on my raincoat ______ it was raining.
c) _______ Jim is a good student, he received a scholarship.
d) July did not receive a scholarship ______ she is an excellent student.
e) Yesterday, ______ there was a strong wind, we went for a walk.
f) We did not go for a walk yesterday _____ there was a strong wind.
g) ______ Anna doesnt exercise often, she is in good shape!
h) Larry is in good shape, ______ he does not exercise regularly.

03. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb: Zero, First, Second, Third or
Mixed Conditionals.
a) If I (to be) ___________stronger, I'd help you carry the piano.
b) If we'd seen you, we (to stop) _________________.
c) If we (to meet) ______________him tomorrow, we'll say hello.
d) He would have repaired the car himself if he (to have) _________the tools.
e) If you drop the vase, it (to break) _________________.
f) If I hadn't studied, I (not/to pass) _____________the exam.
g) I wouldn't go to school by bus if I (to have) ___________a driving license.
h) If she (not/to see) _____________him every day, she'd be lovesick.
i) I (not/ to travel) _____________to London if I don't get a cheap flight.
j) We'd be stupid if we (to tell) _______________him about our secret.
k) If I hadnt left the door open, the room (not/ to be) ___________ full of flies.
l) If Anita (to follow) __________ the doctors orders, she wouldnt be sick now.

04. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb: Zero, First, Second, Third or
Mixed Conditionals.
New Orleans was founded by the French. It first had a French name, Nouvelle-Orlans, in
honor of the (Herzog) Duke of Orleans, King of France. The city lies on the river Mississippi

captulo 3 84
and a riverboat cruise on the Mississippi is an unforgettable experience. New Orleans is also
an important center for music, especially for jazz and rhythm and blues.
a) Do you like jazz music? Because if you (like) ___________jazz, you (love) ______________
New Orleans.
b) Vanessa hates boat trips. But if she (hate / not) _____________boat trips, she (enjoy)
____________a riverboat cruise on the Mississippi.
c) I (do) ______________a course in jazz dancing if I (have) _____________more time. But
nfortunately I don't have time.
d) If the founders of the city (hate) _____________the King of France, they (call / not)
______________the place Nouvelle-Orleans in honor of him.

CONNECTION
To have more practice on Adverb Clauses of Time go to:
<http://wwwedu.ge.ch/cptic/prospective/projets/anglais/exercises/time1.htm>
<http://wwwedu.ge.ch/cptic/prospective/projets/anglais/exercises/time2.htm>
To have more practice on Adverb Clauses of Condition go to:
<https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/>.
<http://www.englishpage.com/grammar/>
< http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_list/alle_grammar.htm>

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

In this chapter, we have talked about the use of subordinating conjunctions to join thoughts
and show connections between ideas. The use of a subordinating conjunction in a clause
causes it to be dependent on the main clause. The dependent clause which contains a
subordinating conjunction is called Adverbial Clause. The number and classification of
adverbial clauses vary among grammarians. In this chapter, we have followed Azars (1999)
classification, and, therefore, we have seen adverbial clauses showing relationships of time,
cause and effect, contrast and condition. In order to be proficient in English, especially in
writing, ESL/EFL students do need to know not only how to use these structures correctly,
but also how to place and punctuate them properly. It is also essential to understand the
semantics underlying their pragmatic use in spoken and written texts.

captulo 3 85
 REFERENCES
AZAR , Betty Schrampfer . Understanding and Using English Grammar. Prentice Hall Regents, 1999.
CELCE-MURCIA, M.; LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. The Grammar Book: an ESL/EFL teachers course.
Boston: Heinle/Cengage Learning, 2 edio, 1999.
QUIRK, R.; GREENBAUM, S.; LEECH, G.; SVARTVIK, J. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
Language. New York: Longman, 1985.

ANSWER KEY
01. Fill in the blanks with the correct verb tense to complete the time clauses:
a) After Jessica finishes her degree, she intends to work in the family business. (to finish)
b) When my relatives arrive for a visit next month, they will see our son for the first time.
(to arrive)
c) By the time I get married, I will have gotten a job. (get a job)
d) I had turned off all the lights of the room, by the time I left it. (to leave)
e) We have to wait here until my little sister finishes her rehearsal. (to finish)
f) Once it stops raining, I will leave the restaurant. (to stop)
g) It began to snow when I was walking home. (to walk)
h) Since I moved to New York six months ago, I have visited my family several times. (to visit)
i) Ever since my son entered the university, he has prepared some very special meals for
the entire family. (to prepare)
j)Helen will have visited 25 countries by the time she turns 50 years old. (to visit)

02.Cause and Effect vs. Concessive Clauses: Complete the sentences with because or
even though:
a) Put on your sweater on your backpack, Jim, even though it is a bright, sunny day, dear!
b) Yesterday, I put on my raincoat because it was raining.
c) Because Jim is a good student, he received a scholarship.
d) July did not receive a scholarship even though she is an excellent student.
e)Yesterday, even though there was a strong wind, we went for a walk.
f) We did not go for a walk yesterday because there was a strong wind.
g) Because Anna just eats healthy food, she is in good health!
h) Larry is in good shape even though he does not exercise regularly.

captulo 3 86
03. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb: Zero, First, Second, Third or
Mixed Conditionals.
a) If I were stronger, I'd help you carry the piano.
b) If we'd seen you, we would have stopped.
c) If we meet him tomorrow, we'll say hello.
d) He would have repaired the car himself if he had had the tools.
e) If you drop the vase, it will break.
f) If I hadn't studied, I would not have passed the exam.
g) I wouldn't go to school by bus if I had a driving licence.
h) If she didn't see him every day, she'd be lovesick.
i)I won't travel to London if I don't get a cheap flight.
j) We'd be stupid if we told him about our secret.
k) If I hadnt left the door open, the room wouldnt be full of flies.
l) If Anita had followed the doctors orders, she wouldnt be sick now.

04. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the verb: Zero, First, Second, Third
or Mixed Conditionals.
a) Do you like jazz music? Because if you like jazz, you will love New Orleans.
b) Vanessa hates boat trips. But if she didnt hate boat trips, she would enjoy a riverboat
cruise on the Mississippi.
c)I would have done a course in jazz dancing if I had had more time. But unfortunately I
don't have time.
d) If the founders of the city had hated the King of France, they wouldnt have called the
place Nouvelle- Orleans in honor of him.

captulo 3 87
captulo 3 88
 4
Participles: present,
past and perfect
Participles: present, past and perfect

Introduction

In this chapter, we are going to study the form, meaning and use of participles
in English. But what is a participle? A participle is a word formed from a verb
that typically ends in -ing (present participle) or ed /-en (past participle). It can
function as an adjective or indicate tense, aspect or voice whenever used with one
or more auxiliary verbs. In English, there are three kinds of participles: present,
past and perfect participles. First, we are going to understand the participles
functioning as verbs and then as adjectives.

GOALS TO BE REACHED
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Understand the difference among the three kinds of participles and their uses;
Know the difference in function and meaning among the terms related to the ing
ending words;
Understand the difference between adjectives ending in ing and ed;
Learn how to produce reduced adjective and adverbial clauses.

QUESTION
What is the difference among the terms continuous, progressive, present participle and
gerund? If all of these terms refer to lexical units (words) that end with the suffix ing, why
do we have so many different denominations in English? Is there any difference in meaning,
use or function in the sentences?

Definitions

As we have already seen, a sentence is a group of words that contains a subject

and a verb and expresses a complete thought. Subjects and verbs are the building
blocks of the sentence. To avoid subjectverb agreement mistakes in your texts,
especially the written ones, as well as other common mistakes such as run-ons,

captulo 4 90
sentence fragments and dangling modifiers, you should be able to identify, at least,
the parts of speech the words of a sentence belong to: nouns, verbs, adjectives,
adverbs. Sometimes it is difficult to identify if a certain word functions as a noun,
a verb or even an adjective in a sentence. Take a look at the following sentences.
What is the function of the word recycling in each one of them?
Recycling saves energy.
We can help the environment by recycling various materials.
There are different recycling technologies.
Thankfully a lot more people are recycling these days.
99 In the first sentence, recycling is a noun and functions as the subject of
the sentence.
99 In the second, it is also a noun but functions as the object of the preposition
by. In both sentences, we have a noun that is a verbal a word (recycling) which
is derived from a verb (recycle). Whenever there is a verbal ending in -ing that
functions as a noun, it is called GERUND. Therefore, in the first and second
sentences above the word recycling is called gerund.
99 In the third sentence, the word recycling modifies the noun technologies,
functioning as an adjective. It is also a verbal ending in -ing, but as it functions as
an adjective, it is called PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
99 And finally, in the last sentence, the word recycling functions as a verb and
together with the auxiliary are forms the verb tense called present continuous or
present progressive. It is also called PRESENT PARTICIPLE.
As you should have noticed, the form of the words included in the previous
examples is the same RECYCLING what changes is its function in the
sentences. To sum up, the -ing form of a verb can be either a Gerund or a Present
Participle, depending on its function in the sentence:

Gerund: the -ing word functions as a noun (subject or object)

Present Participle: the -ing word functions as a verb or an adjective.

Therefore, the terms continuous and progressive refer to the same thing and
can be used interchangeably, that is, you can use either one or the other that
the function in the sentence is exactly the same. However, the terms gerund and
present participle refer to different parts of the speech and, consequently, have
different syntactic functions in the sentences.

captulo 4 91
 In this chapter, we are going to be dealing with participles and, therefore, one of
the topics we are going to be approaching is exactly the present participle. Gerunds,
on the other hand, are going to be studied in the next chapter together with infinitives.

Present participle or gerund?

In order to check if you are able to identify which part of the speech the boldface
word belongs to, decide if the -ing form from the following sentences is a gerund
or a present participle.

01. He likes reading books.

()Gerund
()Present Participle

02. He is reading books.

( ) Gerund
( ) Present Participle

03. Reading books can be great fun.

()Gerund
( ) Present Participle

04. He is interested in reading books.

()Gerund
( ) Present Participle

05. He was reading books.

()Gerund
( ) Present Participle

06. He has been reading books for two hours.

()Gerund
( ) Present Participle

07. Instead of reading books Henry went to bed.

()Gerund

captulo 4 92
( ) Present Participle

08. Do you like reading books?

()Gerund
( ) Present Participle

09. He had been reading many books when he was unemployed.

()Gerund
( ) Present Participle

10. His hobby is reading books.

()Gerund
()Present Participle

Participles as verbs

As verbs, the present and past participles are used with one or more auxiliary verbs
to indicate tense, aspect, or voice. Tense and aspect are two qualities that verbs in
general have. Tense traditionally refers to time of an events occurrence (present,
past or future tenses), while a typical aspect distinction denotes whether or not
the event has occurred earlier (perfect aspect) or is still in progress (progressive
aspect). The present participle, as we are going to see later, is intrinsically related
to the progressive aspect, while the past participle and the perfect participle are
intrinsically related to the perfect aspect.
According to Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999), there are four
inflections of English verbs, among which are:
-en of the past participle: She has seen the movie three times already.
-ing of the present participle: I am teaching three courses this term.
And finally, the perfect participle is used if we want to emphasize that
one action happened before another one. We are going to see each one of the
participles in separate.

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Using the present participle

The present participle is not complete by itself; therefore, it cannot be used

as the only verb of the clause or sentence and needs at least one auxiliary verb to
compose a verb tense:
Present Participle
The pretty woman walking down the street.
The police looking for the criminal for two years.
Complete Verb
99 The pretty woman was walking down the street. (one auxiliary verb)
99 The police has been looking for the criminal for two years. (two auxiliary verbs)
As we have already seen the difference between aspect and tense, English is
said to have 12 combinations of tense and aspect. Therefore, the following chart
represents the combination of the four aspects simple, progressive, perfect and
perfect progressive and the three tenses present, past and future of a regular
(study) and an irregular (drive) verb. Although there is no inflection for the future
in English, there is a form-meaning combination that accounts to future time
in English.
The verb tenses resulting from the combinations mentioned above are named
by combining a tense with an aspect or aspects: Simple Present, Simple Past,
Simple Future; Present Progressive/ Continuous, Past Progressive/ Continuous,
Future Progressive/ Continuous; Present Perfect, Past Perfect, Future Perfect;
Present Perfect Progressive, Past Perfect Progressive and Future Perfect Progressive.

PRESENT PAST FUTURE

study/studies studied will study

Simple
drive/ drives drove will drive

Progressive/ am/is/are studying was/were studying will be studying

Continuous am/is/are driving was/were driving will be driving

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 has/have studied had studied will have studied
Perfect
has/have driven had driven will have driven

h a s / h a v e will have been

Perfect been studying had been studying studying
Progressive has/have been had been driving will have been
driving driving

As you can see in the chart, the -ing form of the verbs, that is, the present
participle (studying and driving) is always preceded by verb to be, which can be
in the present (am/is/are), in the past (was/were), in the future (will be) or in the
past participle (been). Therefore, the name progressive or continuous refers to the
use of verb to be + present participle.
The semantics of the progressive aspect is related to an incomplete action which
means that the action is still going on. The incompleteness nature of action depends on
the semantic class of the verb being used. The fact of the matter is that whether the verb
is punctual (kick or hit) or durative (live or work) influences in meaning expression when
they combine with certain grammatical morphemes. Compare the following sentences:
The maid is hitting the rug with a stick to clean it. (repeatedly)
She is living in Paris when she is modelling. (temporarily)
In sum, the tense-aspect combination system conveys meaning that helps students
identify and understand the semantics of the sentence, but the lexical aspect of the
verb (punctual or durative) does influence in the meaning of the sentence as a whole.

Using the past participle

The past participle of the verbs can be divided in two groups as to the form:
Regular Verbs: to form the past participle of regular verbs, add -ed to the
verb: tried, injured, stopped. However, when adding the -ed ending to verbs, pay
attention to the spelling rules we have previously seen.
Irregular Verbs: there is no pattern to form the past participle of irregular
verbs. You are supposed to know them by heart, that is, memorize them. Some
irregular verbs keep exactly the same form in the base form, past and past participle,
while others have completely different forms:

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 BASE FORM PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

cost cost cost

put put put

set set set

BASE FORM PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

buy bought bought

begin began begun

see saw seen

The most common symbol used for the past participle is -en, but as you must
have noticed, the past participles of verbs in English are not always formed with
an -en. Therefore, it is necessary to have a lot of practice using the past participles
in order to master the different forms. If you are not sure about the form of the
verb you are going to use in the third list, look it up in the dictionary or on the
Internet. There are many lists available.
As well as the present participle, the past participle verb form also is not
complete in itself and uses an auxiliary verb, usually has/have/had in the active
voice or was/were in the passive voice:
Past Participle
The Smiths lived in the same house since 1990.
Complete Verb
99 The Smiths have lived in the same house since 1990.
Past Participle
The house destroyed by the fire.
Complete Verb
99 The house was destroyed by the fire.

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 Here we reproduce the same chart which contains the verb tenses resulting
from the combinations of a tense with an aspect or aspects; however, we highlighted
the use of the past participle in verb tenses:

PRESENT PAST FUTURE

study/studies studied will study

Simple
drive/ drives drove will drive

Progressive/ am/is/are studying was/were studying will be studying

Continuous am/is/are driving was/were driving will be driving

has/have studied had studied will have studied

Perfect
has/have driven had driven will have driven

will have
has/have been
been studying
Perfect studying had been studying
will have
Progressive has/have been had been driving
been driving
driving

As you can notice, the past participle is used only in three verb tenses: Present
Perfect, Past Perfect and Future Perfect: The perfect tenses all give the idea
that one thing happens before another in time or event. (AZAR, 1999, p. 4)
According to Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman (1999, p. 17)

[] a typical aspect distinction denotes whether or not the event has occurred ear-
lier (perfect aspect) or is still in progress (progressive aspect). To illustrate aspect,
compare the following two sentences, where the verb have + the past participle
of the first sentence signals that the action is complete and the verb be + present
participle of the second sentence shows the action is in progress, i.e., uncompleted:
John has written his term paper.
Now he is studying for his final exam.
(italics in the original)

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 The following chart includes all the verb structures in which the past participle
is used followed by one example sentence.

EXAMPLES

PRESENT The Smiths have lived in the same house since 1990.
PERFECT

PRESENT The painter has completed his work in the house.

PERFECT

PAST Sue had just finished her exam when the bell rang.
PERFECT

The bill was paid by my father.

PASSIVE The rent will be paid by the company.

I got worried because my son was three hours late!

Besides the three verb tenses previously presented, the past participle is also
used in the passive voice. The passive voice is made with a form of the verb to be
or to get (considered more informal) and the past participle. In the passive voice,
the subject of the sentence receives the action of the verb.
As both the present perfect and the present passive in 3rd person singular are
formed by the contraction of is or has ('s) + the past participle, mainly in spoken
English, students have to pay closer attention to tell the active and passive voices apart:
Shes done with the exercise. (She is done with = passive voice)
Shes done her homework. (She has done her HW = present perfect)
Its broken. (It is broken = passive voice)
Its broken. (It has broken = present perfect)
The difference between the present passive and the present perfect (with no
specific mention of time) is a matter of voice: while the first is in the passive voice,

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the latter is in the active voice. We choose the active or the passive depending
on what we are more interested in. It is a matter of focus: in passive sentences
we move the focus from the subject, who is usually the doer of the action, to the
object of the active sentences.
the passive voice describes an existing situation (is done with) or state (is
broken), there is no action taking place because the action happened earlier.
the active voice (has done / broken) expresses the idea that something
happened (or never happened) before now, at an unspecified time in the past.
The focus is on the action and not on the situation or state.

Participle phrases: clauses reduction

As we have already seen, sentences are basically formed by the combination of

two kinds of clauses: independent (main) and dependent (subordinate) clauses.
However, sentences may also contain phrases, which are groups of related words,
that is, words that act together, but do not contain both subject and verb.
According to Robitaille & Connelly (2007), there are many kinds of phrases that
can add information to sentences, these include:
noun phrases: Both of my older sisters are married with children.
verb phrases: They always eat, drink and dance together.
prepositional phrases: Sue gave ten dollars to the man on the corner.
verbal phrases: Walking home takes me fifteen minutes.
In this section, we are going to be dealing specifically with verbal phrases since
these phrases begin with a present participle (such as going, buying, seeing), as
the previous example (walking); past participles (such as gone, bought and saw)
and infinitive verbs (such as to go, to buy, to see). In this chapter, we are going
to be discussing only phrases beginning with participles. Phrases beginning with
infinitives will be approached in the next chapter.
Therefore, participle phrases are reduced adjective or adverbial clauses which
begin with a participle (present or past participle) and enable us to provide
information in a more economical way. We can use participle phrases when the
participle and the verb in the main clause have the same subject.

Reducing adverbial clauses

Some adverbial clauses, not all of them, can be changed to reduced phrases and
the procedure is always the same, according to Azar (1999, p.374): 1. Omit the

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subject of the dependent clause and the be form of the verb. OR 2.If there is no
be form of a verb, omit the subject and change the verb to -ing.
Original Sentences
The children had nothing to do. They were bored.
Combined Sentences
Because the children had nothing to do, they were bored.
Participle Phrase
Having nothing to do, the children were bored.
The combined sentence Because the children had nothing to do, they were bored is
a complex sentence since the subordinating conjunction because, which introduces
the dependent clause, connects the ideas which were previously presented in two
independent sentences. Therefore, in the last example, that is, in the participle
phrase, we have a reduced adverbial clause expressing cause and effect. Notice that
the meaning of the participle phrase is the same as the adverbial clause introduced
by the conjunction because. The reduction of this clause was possible only because
the subjects of the clauses were the same: the children = they.
Reduction of adverbial clauses into participle phrases, or modifying adverbial
phrases, is possible with the following Adverbial Clauses:
Time Clauses:
While Sue was teaching, she saw a mouse in the classroom.
While teaching, Sue saw a mouse in the classroom.
Sometimes while is omitted, but the present participle in the beginning of the
sentence gives the same meaning:
While Jack was walking down the street, he ran into an old friend.
Walking down the street, Jack ran into an old friend.
Pointing to the board, the professor explained the meaning of the sentence.
If we wish to emphasize that one action happened before another then we can
use a perfect participle (having + past participle):
After Mel (had) finished doing the laundry, she made her bed.
After finishing the laundry, she made her bed.
After having finished doing the laundry, Mel made her bed.
In the first sentence above, there is no difference in meaning between After
Mel finished and After Mel had finished; the same way there is no difference in
meaning between After finishing and After having finished. The only detail is that
if we want to emphasize that the action of doing the laundry was over when
the second action happened, we have to use the perfect participle (having + past
participle) with the verb related to the first action.

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 According to Azar (1999), Adverbial Time Clauses beginning with after,
before, while, and since can be reduced to Participle Phrases.
Adverbial Clauses expressing cause and effect can also be reduced to Participle
Phrases. The present participle used to introduce the reduced phrases gives the
meaning of because.
Because Richard lacked the required qualifications, he wasnt hired by
the company.
Lacking the required qualifications, Richard wasnt hired by the company.
The subordinating conjunction because is not included in the reduced phrase.
If we want to emphasize the completion of the first action, we have to use Having
+ past participle, which gives the meaning of both because and before.
Having eaten before, I dont feel like eating anything now. (present)
Having eaten before, I didnt feel like eating anything then. (past)

Reducing adjective clauses

Adjective Clauses can also be reduced to Participle Phrases. However, there are two
different ways to make this reduction, according to Azar (1999, p. 290): 1. If the
adjective clause contains the be form of a verb, omit the pronoun and the be form.
2. If there is no be form of a verb in the adjective clause, it is sometimes possible to
omit the subject pronoun and change the verb to its -ing form. When it comes to
Adjective Clause reduction, only the clauses whose relative pronoun - who, which or
that - is the subject can be reduced:
None of the people who were walking up and down the street offered help
to the injured guy.
None of the people walking up and down the street offered help to
the injured guy.
In the previous sentence, the subject relative pronoun who and the verb were
(past of verb to be) were omitted from the restrictive adjective clause. The present
participle is enough to keep the meaning of the reduced adjective clause.
In the following sentence, the Adjective Clause contains a different verb form
after verb to be - the past participle:
The mansion that was built in the 1890s by a timber baron was the
grandest building in town.
The mansion built in the 1890s by a timber baron was the grandest
building in town.

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 Built in the 1890s by a timber baron, the mansion was the grandest
building in town.
In this case, there are two possibilities: 1. just omit the relative pronoun and
the past of verb to be (was), or 2. change the past participle to the beginning of
the phrase and omit everything else. The following example also contains the
structure: subject relative pronoun + verb to be + past participle. The difference is
that here, the past participle functions as an adjective and not as a verb:
The secretary who was tired of her job told her boss she was quitting.
The secretary tired of the job told her boss she was quitting.
Tired of her job, the secretary told her boss that she was quitting.

Perfect participle

As we have previously discussed, the present participle can be used to reduce

clauses into phrases as well as combine clauses which subject is the same if:
99 The action instantiated by the perfect participle is completed before the
action performed in the other clause:
My mother bought all the ingredients and prepared a special dinner.
Having bought all the ingredients, my mother prepared a special dinner.
99 The action instantiated by the perfect participle has been going on for a
period of time when the action performed in the other clause starts:
I had been teaching at the same university campus for such a long time that
I didnt want to be transferred to another campus.
Having taught at the same university campus for such a long time, I didnt
want to be transferred to another one.
Another point is that the perfect participle can be used either in the active or
the passive voice:
active voice:
Having flunked the course, the girl broke up in tears.
passive voice:
Having been told the news, the girl broke up in tears.

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 ATTENTION
Misplaced modifiers:
Modifiers that modify the wrong word or words because of their placement are called
misplaced modifiers. To avoid confusion, place modifiers as close as possible to the word,
phrase, or clause they describe.
He gave ice cream to the children covered with chocolate.
Are the children covered in chocolate? The phrase covered in chocolate is supposed to
modify ice cream not children. To correct the error, place the modifier next to the word it describes.
He gave ice cream covered with chocolate to the children.
The woman walked down the stairs wearing the slinky black gown. The phrase
wearing the slinky black gown incorrectly modifies the words the stairs. To avoid confusion,
place the modifier as close as possible to the word it describes.
The woman wearing the slinky black gown walked down the stairs.
(ROBITAILLE & CONNELLY, 2007, p. 377)
Dangling Modifiers
Some modifiers are incorrect because what they modify has been left out of the sentence. If a
modifier has no word to describe, it is called a dangling modifier. Dangling modifiers can be corrected
by adding a subject after the modifier or rewriting the modifying phrase to include a subject.
Running down the street, my heart was pounding.
What does running down the street modify? Who was running down the street? A heart
cant run down the street. One way to correct the dangling modifier is to change the subject
of the independent clause to say who was running down the street. Another way to correct
the dangling modifier is to rewrite the modifying phrase to include a subject.
99 Running down the street, I felt my heart was pounding.
99 As I was running down the street, my heart was pounding.
Using a telephoto lens, the pictures of the soccer match turned out beautifully.
What does using a telephoto lens modify? Pictures cant use a telephoto lens. Who was
using a telephoto lens? One way to correct the dangling modifier is to change the subject of
the independent clause to express who was using the telephoto lens. Another way to correct
the dangling modifier is to rewrite the modifying phrase to include a subject.
99 Using a telephoto lens, Leslie took beautiful pictures of the soccer match.
99 Because Leslie was using a telephoto lens, the pictures of the soccer match turned
out beautifully.
(ROBITAILLE & CONNELLY, 2007, p. 380)

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 Dangling Modifiers With Verbal Phrases

Often, a dangling modifier occurs when a sentence begins with a verbal phrase:
A present participial phrase (a phrase that begins with a verb ending in -ing).
A past participial phrase (a phrase that begins with a verb ending in -ed/-en).
Dancing at the club, the music was too loud.
99 Dancing at the club, I thought that the music was too loud.
99 When I was dancing at the club, the music was too loud.
Defeated by their enemy, the war was lost.
99 Defeated by their enemy, the soldiers lost the war.
99 When the soldiers were defeated by their enemy, the war was lost.
(ROBITAILLE & CONNELLY, 2007, p. 381)

Participles as adjectives

What frightens you? What are you afraid of? People can be frightened of/by
different things, such as spiders, public speaking, the unknown, the dark, open
water. I am particularly afraid of heights. So, frighten is a verb, while afraid is an
adjective which is usually used with the prepositions of or by:

Doug is afraid of flying.

Its a frightening experience for him.
He is a frightened passenger.

The semantic definition of an adjective is that it describes or denotes the qualities

of something. As we have already mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, the
present participle and the past participle can also be used as adjectives. When used
in this way, they are sometimes called participial adjectives and the present participle
has an active meaning, while the past participle usually has a passive meaning. Lets
understand what exactly it means. Take a look at the following sentences:

The book The Picture of Dorian Grey is

very interesting.
Some English classes can be highly entertaining.
Politicians usually deliver boring speeches.

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 In these sentences, the book is described as interesting, some classes are characterized
as entertaining, and politician speeches are considered boring. The present participle
has an active meaning since it is related to the fact that the book causes something
on the readers - it interests the reader- as if it had a kind of power over people - as
illustrated in the picture. The same is true about the classes and the speeches, included
in the other example sentences. Therefore, the suffix -ing is related to cause. So, if
something or somebody is interesting, it causes interest. If something or somebody is
exciting, it causes excitement. If something or somebody is boring, it causes boredom.
Now compare the previous sentences to the following ones. Notice that the
root of the adjective is the same, but the suffix -ed is different:

The girl is interested in the book

The Picture of Dorian Gray.
Students can get highly entertained
during some English classes.
The audience became really bored by
the speech delivered by the politician.

The suffix ed, on the other hand, has a passive meaning since it is related to
the effect, that is, the result of a particular influence of a person, a place, a situation,
an event, etc. on someone or something. The picture above illustrates the effect
the book has on the girl. The girl is interested, the students are entertained and
the audience became bored. Something gave rise to these feelings mentioned in
the sentences. Therefore, the past participle is related to the effects brought about
by someone or something. Have you noticed that the use of the past participle as
an adjective is closely related to the structure of the passive voice? And as we have
already seen, form and meaning are intrinsically related.
Have you ever heard of the stative passive?

The door is modern.

The door is locked.
It is a double-glazed door.

The words modern, locked and double-glazed

describe the door depicted on the picture. Modern
is an adjective. Locked and double-glazed are past

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participles that end in -ed. They both also function as adjectives in the sentences because
they describe the door.
The past participle locked is used to describe an existing situation or state.
It is called stative passive because, even though no action is taking place, the
action happened before. In this case, the past participle functions as an adjective.
Compare the following sentences:
The doorman locked the door five minutes ago. (active voice)
The door was locked by the doorman five minutes ago. (passive voice)
Now, the door is locked. (stative passive)
In the first sentence, the verb locked is in the simple past and the doorman,
who is the subject of the sentence, is doing the action. Therefore, the sentence is
in the active voice.
In the second sentence, the structure was locked (to be + past participle)
indicates that the subject door is suffering the action performed by the agent of
the passive (by the doorman). Therefore, the sentence is in the passive voice.
In the third sentence, the past participle functions as an adjective since it
describes the door, its situation or state: the door is not open or ajar, and is not
only closed it is locked! Another characteristic of stative passives is that there is
no by-phrase. However, depending on the past participle used and the structure
of the sentence, prepositions other than by can be used:
Sue is interested in ancient art.
Brazilians are worried about losing their jobs.
Susan is married to Patrick.
Sam felt disappointed with her exam results.
The students are done with their exercises.
A person who is addicted to drugs needs professional help.
This author is known for writing a number of bestsellers.
Common Stative Passive Verbs (past participle as adjectives) + Prepositions

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be accustomed to be divorced from be limited to

be acquainted with be done with be married to

be addicted to be dressed in be opposed to

be annoyed with/by be engaged to be pleased with

be associated with be equipped with be prepared for

be bored with/by be excited about be located in

be composed of be exhausted from be made of

be concerned about be exposed to be qualified for

be connected to be filled with be related to

be covered with be finished with be remembered for

be crowded with be frightened of/by be satisfied with

be dedicated to be gone from be scared of/by

be devoted to be interested in be terrified of/by

be disappointed in/with be involved in be tired of/from

be discriminated against be known for be worried about

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 According to Quirk & All (1985, p. 413), when there are no corresponding
verbs (*to unexpect, *to talent, *to disease), the forms are obvious not participles,
but have what they call a full adjective status. Examples from the authors:
The results were unexpected. (The unexpected results)
All his friends are talented. (His talented friends)
His lung is diseased. (His diseased lung)
And the authors (ibidem) go on, When there is a corresponding verb, attributively
used -ed forms usually have a passive meaning. To understand the difference between
attributive and predicative position of adjectives, check the concept box.

CONCEPT
Present and past participle as adjectives
Adjectives commonly occur between a determiner and a noun (in this case the adjective
is labeled as attributive), or after verb to be or other linking verb (in this case it is labeled as
predicative), although they can also follow a noun:
Attributive position before nouns:
The survey revealed some worrying results. (present participle)
The wind was blowing through the broken living room window. (past participle)
Predicative position after linking verbs:
The results of the survey were/seemed worrying.
The living room window was/looked broken.
Compound modifiers are constructed of more than one word. One kind of compound
modifier is formed by the combination of a noun and a present or past participle. When
compound modifiers precede a noun, they are normally hyphenated.
The athlete ran at a record-breaking speed. (His speed broke records)
Its a crime-related problem. (Its a problem related to crime)
According to Quirk & All (1985), when the participle is compounded with another
element, just like the ones above, it reaches full adjective status.

MULTIMIDIA
To watch a video and learn more about Participles and Participle Clauses, access:
Writing Skills: Participles - Smrt Live Class #20
Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ptloQ6ZLMKQ

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 Grammar Lesson: Participle Clauses - Smrt Live Class #30

Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JKPZyt1xBKI

ACTIVITIES
01. Read the following article. There are 11 adverbial reduced phrases. Five are correct and
six are wrong because they contain dangling modifiers. The first wrong reduced phrase has
already been underlined. Find the other five (5) incorrect ones.

(Source: MAURER, J. Focus on Grammar, 1995, p. 208)

02. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the adjectives:

EXCITED / EXCITING INTERESTED / INTERESTING BORED / BORING

SURPRISED / SURPRISING TIRED / TIRING EMBARRASSED / EMBARRASSING

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a) I'm ___________________ about my new apartment.
b) I'm feeling really ____________________. I didn't sleep well.
c) The museum was very __________________ . You should go!
d) I'm _____________________ with my hairstyle. I want to change it.
e) She was __________________ to hear that they were getting married.
f) The flight was _________________ so I think I'll go to bed.
g) The film was ___________________. I didn't like it.
h) He didn't know the answer to the question and felt __________________.
i) I'm _____________________ in art. Are you?
j) I was singing a song to many people at the concert and I couldn't remember the words.
It was really _____________________ !
(Source: http://www.eslbase.com/resources/adjectives.asp)

03. Write the correct form of the adjective from the verbs in parenthesis.
Bill: Hi, Mark. You look _____________ (tire).
Mark: I am. I'm totally _____________ (exhaust)
Bill: Why? What have you been doing?
Mark: I've been getting my house ready for the painters to come tomorrow. Now they ring
me to tell me, yet again, that they can't come till next week. I'm getting very ____________
(annoy) with them.
Bill: That's _____________ (disappoint). I'll bet that you'll be (please) when it's finished.
Mark: You're not wrong! I'm starting to get very ___________ (bore) with all the delays. It's
_______________ (distress).
Bill: You must be so _____________ (frustrate). When do they think they will finish painting
your house.
Mark: They say that it will take about two weeks to finish. But when they will start I don't know.
Bill: Don't be too _____________ (depress). Just think of how ____________ (relieve) you'll
be when it's finished.
Mark: That's the ______________ (frighten) thing. I'm starting to believe that it will never be finished.
Bill: What a _______________ (shock) thought. Never mind. One day soon you'll wake up
with the _____________ (relax) thought that it's finished and you don't have to worry about
it anymore.
Mark: I hope you're right.

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 FOOD FOR THOUGHT
In this chapter we have discussed the difference among the terms continuous,
progressive, present participle and gerund, focusing only on the present participle as verbs,
whose function is related to verb tenses and aspects, as well as adjectives. Gerunds are
going to be studied in the next chapter together with infinitives. Therefore, our main concern
was to introduce the form, meaning and function of the present, past and perfect participles
departing from the definition that participles are verbals that typically end in -ing (the present
participle) or -ed (the past participle), while the perfect participle (have + -ed) is used in
clauses and sentences if we want to emphasize that one action happened before another
one. Therefore, the present and past participle can be used as verbs and adjectives, while
the perfect participle is only used as a verb. We have also approached other important topics,
such as how to reduce adverbial and relative clauses to participle phrases, dangling modifiers
and misplaced modifiers.

REFERENCES
AZAR , Betty Schrampfer . Understanding and Using English Grammar. Prentice Hall Regents, 1999.
CELCE-MURCIA, M.; LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. The Grammar Book: an ESL/EFL teachers course.
Boston: Heinle/Cengage Learning, 2 edio, 1999.
MAURER, J. Focus on Grammar: an advanced course for reference and practice. New York: Longman,
1995
QUIRK, R.; GREENBAUM, S.; LEECH, G.; SVARTVIK, J. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English
Language. New York: Longman, 1985.
ROBITAILLE, J.; CONNELLY, R. Writers Resources: from paragraph to essay. Boston: Tompson -
Wasdworth, 2nd edition, 2007.

ANSWER KEY
In order to check if you are able to identify which part of speech the boldface word belongs
to, decide if the -ing form from the following sentences is a gerund or a present participle.

01. He likes reading books.

( X ) Gerund

captulo 4 111
02. He is reading books.
( X ) Present Participle

03. Reading books can be great fun.

( X ) Gerund

04. He is interested in reading books.

( X ) Gerund

05. He was reading books.

( X ) Present Participle

06. He has been reading books for two hours.

( X ) Present Participle

07. Instead of reading books Henry went to bed.

( X ) Gerund

08. Do you like reading books?

( X ) Gerund

09. He had been reading many books when he was unemployed.

( X ) Present Participle

10. His hobby is reading books.

( X ) Gerund

01. Read the following article. There are 11 adverbial reduced phrases. Five are correct and
six are wrong because they contain dangling modifiers. The first wrong reduced phrase has
already been underlined. Find the other five (5) incorrect ones.

1. By arguing that I dont have enough money anyway, the request is ignored.
2. Having landed in the capital, a taxi took me to my hotel in the center of town, and thats
where I met her.
3. Sitting on a dirty blanket on the sidewalk in front of the hotel, my eye was caught by her.

captulo 4 112
4. While talking later with a nun at a nearby convent that administers gift money from other
countries, much worthwhile information was given to me.
5. Selling her matches, her spirit shone through, simply trying to scratch out a semblance of a living.

02. Complete the sentences with the correct form of the adjectives:
a) I'm excited about my new apartment.
b) I'm feeling really tired. I didn't sleep well.
c) The museum was very surprising. You should go!
d) I'm bored with my hairstyle. I want to change it.
e) She was excited to hear that they were getting married.
f) The flight was tiring so I think I'll go to bed.
g) The film was boring. I didn't like it.
h) He didn't know the answer to the question and felt embarrassed.
i) I'm interested in art. Are you?
j) I was singing a song to many people at the concert and I couldn't remember the words.
It was really embarrassing!
(Source: http://www.eslbase.com/resources/adjectives.asp)

03. Write the correct form of the adjective from the verbs in parenthesis.
Bill: Hi, Mark. You look tired.
Mark: I am. I'm totally exhausted.
Bill: Why? What have you been doing?
Mark: I've been getting my house ready for the painters to come tomorrow. Now they ring me
to tell me, yet again, that they can't come till next week. I'm getting very annoyed with them.
Bill: That's disappointing. I'll bet that you'll be pleased when it's finished.
Mark: You're not wrong! I'm starting to get very bore with all the delays. It's distressing.
Bill: You must be so frustrated. When do they think they will finish painting you house.
Mark: They say that it will take about two weeks to finish. But when they will start I don't know.
Bill: Don't be too depressed. Just think of how relieved you'll be when it's finished.
Mark: That's the frightening thing. I'm starting to believe that it will never be finished.
Bill: What a shocking thought. Never mind. One day soon you'll wake up with the relaxing
thought that it's finished and you don't have to worry about it anymore.
Mark: I hope you're right.

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captulo 4 114
 5
Gerunds and
infinitives
Gerunds and infinitives

Introduction

To use gerunds or to use infinitives, that is the question! Learning how to use
gerunds and infinitives is one of the most challenging aspects of learning English.
A gerund (often known as an -ing word) is a noun formed from a verb by adding
-ing. It can follow a preposition, some special expressions or adjectives and most
often another verb. An infinitive is to + the verb. When a verb follows another
verb it takes either the gerund or infinitive form. Some verbs can take either the
gerund or the infinitive with no difference in meaning. Sometimes the use of
the gerund or infinitive changes the meaning of the sentence. Therefore, in this
last chapter of the book, we are going to study these important aspects of the
English language.

GOALS TO BE REACHED
By the end of this chapter you should be able to:
Understand the form, meaning and use of gerunds;
Understand the form, meaning and use of infinitives;
Learn the verbs and structures that require the use of gerunds and/or infinitives.

Gerunds and infinitives

In the following text, there are some boldface typed words. Can you tell why? Do
you know when or why these structures are required or mandatory in English?

New Years Resolutions!!

For New Years people agree to make New Years resolutions. By making a resolution,
we promise to do or not do things during the New Year. Some people avoid making
them. Some people like to make them so they can have a fresh start as the year
begins. Some people dont like making them. They avoid making promises that they
will not keep. What do you think? When we begin making promises will they eventually
be broken? When we begin to make promises, is it the start of a good plan?

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 Here are some top New Years Resolutions:
1.Start to spend more time with my family.
2.Stop smoking.
3.Try to save some money.
4.Enjoy living life.
5.Manage to organize my life.
6.Agree to study more.
7. Look forward to being successful.
8.Finish reading at least 5 books.
9. Keep on working out.
10. Give up eating sugar and fat.
11.Continue to make progress in English.
12.Decide to make an effort to lose weight.
13.Expect to keep all resolutions.
(Adapted from: https://goo.gl/OIZ8eC)

You must have noticed that the form of the boldface words from the previous
text either end in -ing (gerund) or is preceded by the particle to (infinitive). The
verbs preceded by the particle to are called infinitives since they are not finite, or
tensed. Even though gerunds and infinitives have completely different forms, they
can assume the same functions in the sentences: subjects, direct objects, objects of
prepositions, complements. Depending on the sentence structure, they are used
interchangeably, but there are some other structures that demand the use of one
or the other form. Therefore, gerunds and infinitives are usually studied together
because they can assume the same functions in the sentences, despite of following
their own rules and holding their own characteristics.

Gerunds

Last chapter we briefly treated the difference between the verbals that end in ing
(present participle vs. gerund), but went deeply discussing the form, meaning and
function of the three participle forms in English: present participle, past participle
and perfect participle not only as verbs but also as adjectives. In this chapter, we
will go deeper on gerunds and contrast them with infinitives mainly in terms of
sentence use.

captulo 5 117
 ATTENTION
As we have already mentioned, a gerund (a verbal noun) is derived from a verb by adding
-ing suffix to its base form and making any necessary spelling changes. Here we have a
review of the spelling rules of ing forms:
1. verbs that end in a consonant and E:
hopehoping -ing form: if the verb ends in e, drop the e and add -
datedating - ing*.
injureinjuring
*Exception: IF a verb ends in ee, the final e is not dropped: seeing, agreeing, freeing.
2. verbs that end in a vowel and a consonant:
a) one-syllable verbs: 1 vowel 2 consonants**
stopstopping
robrobbing
begbegging
**Exception: -w and x are not doubled: plow plowing, fix fixing.
b) one-syllable verbs: 2 vowels 1 consonant
rainraining
foolfooling
dream dreaming
c) two-syllable verbs: 1st. syllable stressed 1 consonant
listenlistening
offeroffering
openopening
d) two-syllable verbs: 2nd. syllable stressed 2 consonants
beginbeginning
preferpreferring
controlcontrolling
3. verbs that end in two consonants: just add the ending ing
startstarting
foldfolding
demanddemanding
4. verbs that end in y:
e) if y is preceded by a vowel, keep the y
enjoyenjoying
praypraying

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 buybuying
f) if y is preceded by a consonant: keep the y, and add ing.
studystudying
trytrying
replyreplaying
5. verbs that end in ie: change ie to y, add ing
diedying
lielying

A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term ver-
bal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbals - infinitives and
participles - is based on a verb and, therefore, expresses action or a state of being.
However, since a gerund functions as a noun, it occupies, as previously mentio-
ned, some positions in a sentence that a noun ordinarily would, for example:
subject, direct object, subject complement, and object of preposition.
Gerund as subject:
Traveling is always a pleasure. (Traveling is a gerund)
Swimming is good for your health. (Swimming is a gerund)
Gerund as direct object:
They do not appreciate my singing. (singing is a gerund)
They do not appreciate my assistance. (The gerund has been removed)
I love swimming in the lake. (swimming is a gerund)
Gerund as subject complement:
My cat's favorite activity is sleeping. (The gerund is sleeping.)
My cat's favorite food is salmon. (The gerund has been removed.)
Gerund after prepositions
The gerund (-ing form) must be used when a verb comes after a preposition:
The following sentences contain one of the prepositions - against | at | after | by
| on | instead of | talk about | tired of | without which is followed by a gerund:
I am against smoking in public places.
She is good at speaking English.
I went home after leaving the party.
You can improve your English by using the Internet.
We need to keep on going.
You should tell the truth instead of lying all the time.

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 We can talk about going home.
I'm tired of hearing excuses.
You can't learn English without making mistakes.
Gerund after certain verbs
Gerunds are used as the objects of certain verbs. There is a list of verbs that
when/if followed by another verb, the second verb must be in the gerund.
My husband and I always enjoy visiting the Smiths.
The student admitted cheating on the final exam.
In the previous sentences, the verbs enjoy and admitted are followed by a gerund
(visiting - cheating). Enjoy and admit must not be followed by an infinitive. It is the
rule. There is a list of common verbs that are usually followed by gerunds.
Common Verbs Followed by Gerunds

admit describe imagine practice

adore detest involve quit

anticipate discuss keep recall

appreciate dislike justify recommend

avoid dread mention resent

confess endure mind resume

consider enjoy miss suggest

delay fancy omit tolerate

deny finish postpone understand

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 EXAMPLES
I adore reading your books.
They anticipated winning the election.
I detest going to discos.
We postponed making any decision in the meeting.
I quit smoking.
Do you recall seeing someone like that?

Some phrasal verbs are also followed by gerunds. Phrasal verbs, as we have
already seen, consist of a verb followed by one (two word verbs) or two particles
(three word verbs).
My father gave up smoking. (give up = quit)
The boys put off leaving the party till the last minute. (put off = postpone)
Keep on trying!! (keep on = continue)
Gerunds after special expressions
Certain special expressions are followed by the gerund:
The kids had fun playing hide and seek.
The kids had a good time playing hide and seek.
Sue had trouble finding a job.
Sue had difficulty finding a job.
Sue had a hard time finding a job.
Sue had a difficult time finding a job.
Teenagers spend most of their money hanging out with friends.
Young people waste a lot of time finding, hunting, and catching Pokmons.
Ricky sat at the table doing his homework. (sit + expression of place + gerund)
The girl stood at the door calling her mother. (stand + expression of place + gerund)
My daughter is lying in bed watching TV. (lie + expression of place + gerund)
Liz found him talking to another girl. (find + (pro)noun + gerund)
Liz caught her boyfriend kissing another girl. (catch + (pro)noun + gerund)
Note: According to Azar (1999, p. 304), both find and catch mean discover.
Catch often expresses anger and displeasure.
Go + Gerund
We use gerund after go in certain idiomatic expressions to express recreatio-
nal activities:

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 Mary went shopping for clothes last week.
My husband and my son will go fishing this coming Saturday.
I love going dancing on weekends!!
Common recreational idiomatic expressions with go which are followed
by gerund

go
go fishing go sailing go sledding
birdwatching

go boating go hiking go shopping go snorkeling

go
go bowling go hunting go swimming
sightseeing

go
go camping go jogging go skating
tobogganing

go mountain go
go canoeing go
climbing windsurfing

go window
go dancing go running go skiing
shopping

MULTIMEDIA
To watch a video about gerunds and infinitives access:
http://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/3137100.html

Infinitives

An infinitive is to + the base form of a verb. As gerunds, infinitives and infinitive

phrases often substitute for nouns, performing the same functions that regular
nouns do: they act as subjects, objects and complements. When two verbs are
used in a row, that is, a verb follows another verb, the second verb of the row either
takes the gerund or infinitive form. Although it is easy to identify an infinitive
because of the to + verb form, deciding what function it has in a sentence can
sometimes be confusing.

captulo 5 122
Infinitives as Subject
To make mistakes is human. (to make is an infinitive)
To sleep a few more minutes wouldnt hurt anything. (to sleep is an infinitive)
Note: often an infinitive phrase is used with it as the subject of the sentence.
According to Azar (1999, p. 323), when it happens, the word it refers to and has
the same meaning as the infinitive phrase at the end of the sentence.
To learn English is essential in a globalized world.
It is essential to learn English in a globalized world. (It = to learn English)
As we have already seen, gerunds, infinitives or it + infinitive phrase all can
be used as the subject of a sentence with no difference in meaning. However,
it is far more common to use either a gerund or it + infinitive phrase than an
infinitive as the subject.
Another possibility is the use of the phrase for (someone) to specify exactly
who the speaker is referring to:
It is essential for students to learn English in a globalized world.
To learn English in a globalized world is essential for students.
Learning English in a globalized world is essential for students.
Infinitives as Direct Object:
a) Verbs immediately followed by infinitives: Remember that certain verbs
are followed directly by the infinitive. When it happens, the infinitive functions as
the direct object of the preceding verb. Therefore, in the following examples, the
infinitive to leave is the direct object of the verb expect, whereas to do is the direct
object of the verb want.
Nancy expected to leave earlier from work yesterday (to leave is an infinitive)
Susan doesnt want to do anything that might hurt her sister. (to do is
an infinitive)
Sometimes it is difficult to identify the main verb of the sentence. It happens
because, as it has already been mentioned, whenever there is a verb that follows
another verb, the second verb can be either a gerund or infinitive, depending on
the main verb of the sentence. Therefore, a gerund or infinitive verb is not part of
the main verb of the sentence. Whenever there is a verb tense containing an -ing
form preceded by verb to be, it is the present participle and not a gerund.
The policeman agreed to help us.
Gary hopes to arrive next week.
Susan has decided to quit her job and apply for another one.
My family will arrange to meet us at the train station.

captulo 5 123
 My fiance and I are managing to improve our relationship.
The boldface words of the previous sentences are the verb tenses which contain
the main verb. Depending on the verb tense, there can be one or more auxiliary verb
together with the main verb. Notice, however, that the infinitive is not in bold since
it is neither considered the main verb nor is part of the verb tense of the sentence.

afford deserve plan volunteer

agree expect prepare wait

arrange hesitate pretend want

ask hope promise wish

beg learn refuse appear

care manage seem would like

claim mean struggle consent

decide need swear fail

demand offer threaten

Note: The general rule in formal written English is to avoid splitting the verb
and the particle (to) of the infinitive unnecessarily with a modifier, especially those
formed by more than one word.
My son needs to as soon as possible have extra Math classes.
In the previous sentence, the modifier as soon as possible splits the infinitive to
have. Placing the whole modifier at the end of the sentence (after the infinitive)
solves the problem.
My son needs to have extra Math classes as soon as possible.
However, according to Maurer (1995, p.151) Some native speakers of English
object to splitting an infinitive inserting modifying words between to and the

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verb that follows. However, split infinitives are common in English speaking and
writing, even in relatively formal writing.
b) Verbs followed by an object and the infinitive: Some verbs are followed
by a noun or a pronoun, which functions as indirect object of the verb, and then
by an infinitive, which still functions as a direct object of the preceding verb.
When these verbs are used in the passive voice, they are followed immediately by
the infinitive verb:
The teacher is always telling the young boy to be quiet during class.
His parents will allow him to stay up late.
The professor encouraged the students not to quit school. (negative)
The candidate was told to arrive on time for the job interview. (passive voice)

Common Verbs Followed by Object + Infinitive

advise force prepare *

allow hire remind

ask * invite require

cause need * teach

choose order tell

convince pay * want*

encourage permit warn

expect * persuade would like *

* These verbs may or may not be followed by a (pro)noun object:

I expect to do well on the final exam.
My parents expect me to do well on the final exam.

captulo 5 125
 Infinitives as Subject Complement:
Peters intention was to arrive home before dark. (to arrive is an infinitive)
His job was to advise the president on environmental issues. (infinitive:
to advise)
Infinitives of Purpose ("in order to do something")
Examples:
He bought the English dictionary to look up difficult words. IN ORDER
TO LOOK UP
Janine sold her car to get the money that she needed. IN ORDER TO GET
Juan uses Englishpage.com to learn English. IN ORDER TO LEARN
Note: This idea of "in order to do something" is found in many English pat-
terns. In order to expresses purpose in this kind of structure, but in order is often
omitted and we use only the particle to. Therefore, to express purpose, we have to
use to, not for, with a verb:
Sam went downtown (in order) to run some errands.
Sam went downtown for to run some errands. (incorrect)
Sam went downtown for running some errands. (incorrect)
Sam went downtown for run some errands. (incorrect)
Use in order not to or not + infinitive to express a negative purpose:
Alex always writes a reminder to himself in order not to forget to run
some errands.
Alex always writes a reminder to himself not to forget to run some errands.
Using Infinitives with too

EXAMPLES
This pile of books is too heavy to carry.
The television is too expensive to buy.
Fiona ran too slowly to win the race.
We arrived too late to see the beginning of the movie.
Note: there is a difference in meaning between too and very + infinitive: too implies a negative
result. Compare the difference:
This pizza is too hot for me to eat! (its impossible to eat it!!)
This pizza is very hot, but I can eat it! (its possible to eat it!!)

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Using Infinitives with enough
a) enough usually follows an adjective or adverb

EXAMPLES
She is tall enough to reach the book on the shelf.
Brian was smart enough to enter college at the age of 12.
Linda runs quickly enough to win the race.

b) usually enough precedes a noun, but in formal English it may follow a noun:

EXAMPLES
I have enough money to buy that sports car. (enough + noun - informal)
I have money enough to buy that sports car. (noun + enough - formal)

Adjectives Followed by Infinitives

Certain adjectives can be immediately followed by infinitives. In general, these
adjectives describe people and not things, and they related to feelings or attitudes.

EXAMPLES
They were anxious to begin.
She was delighted to receive such good feedback.
He is glad to have such good friends.

captulo 5 127
List of be + Adjective Combinations Followed by Infinitives

BE AMAZED He was amazed to discover the truth.

BE ANXIOUS She was anxious to start her new job.

BE ASHAMED He was ashamed to admit he had lied.

BE BOUND She is bound to be elected class president.

They were careful not to reveal the winner of the prize until
BE CAREFUL the end.

BE CERTAIN She is certain to get the job.

BE The student was content to receive second place in the

CONTENTE competition.

BE We were delighted to be invited to the wedding.

DELIGHTED

BE He was determined to finish the marathon.

DETERMINED

BE EAGER He was eager to begin.

BE ELIGIBLE They were not eligible to participate in the program.

BE She was fortunate to receive the research grant.

FORTUNATE

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 BE GLAD I would be glad to help out.

BE HAPPY She was happy to see them at the party.

BE HESITANT Mary was hesitant to say anything.

The mountain climber is liable to hurt himself if he doesn't

BE LIABLE use well-made equipment.

BE LIKELY They are likely to show up at any time.

BE LUCKY You were lucky to have such an opportunity.

BE PLEASED I am pleased to meet you.

BE PROUD He was proud to have been chosen to lead the project.

BE READY I'm ready to go now.

BE The witness was reluctant to reveal what he had seen.

RELUCTANT
BE SAD She was really sad to leave.

BE SHOCKED He was shocked to discover the truth.

BE SORRY I am sorry to have to tell you that the tickets are sold out.

BE She was surprised to discover that he had never learned how

SURPRISED to swim.

(source: http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/adjective_infinitive_list.htm)

captulo 5 129
Nouns Commonly Followed by Infinitives

EXAMPLES
It was a good decision to move to San Francisco.
His wish to become an actor was well-known.
Laura's desire to improve impressed me.

List of Nouns Followed by Infinitives

ADVICE His advice to continue was good.

APPEAL The appeal to reduce pollution was ineffective.

ATTEMPT Her attempt to locate them was unsuccessful.

CHANCE In Britain, you will have a chance to improve your English.

DECISION The decision to increase taxes was not popular.

DESIRE His desire to get a good job motivated him.

DREAM Her dream to become an actress was never realized.

GOAL His goal to run a marathon seemed unrealistic.

MOTIVATION Her motivation to enter university impressed them.

NEED Bob's need to be the center of attention was irritating.

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OPPORTUNITY The opportunity to live in New York interested Sandra.

ORDER They followed the general's order to retreat.

PERMISSION Permission to enter the area was difficult to get.

PLAN Sandy's plan to move to Madrid bothered her parents.

PREPARATION NASA's preparations to launch on Monday moved forward.

PROPOSAL Her proposal to host the party impressed the committee.

His recommendation to close the school upset the

RECOMMENDATION
community.

REFUSAL Debra's refusal to help did not go unnoticed.

Her reminder to review the vocabulary helped me pass

REMINDER the test.

REQUEST Their request to participate was granted.

Their requirement to speak four languages was

REQUIREMENT unreasonable.

SUGGESTION His suggestion to leave seemed like a good idea.

TENDENCY His tendency to tap his desk during a test annoyed me.

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 WISH Her wish to be treated normally was respected.

WAY One way to improve your English is to read novels.

Gerunds or infinitives

Some verbs can take either the gerund or the infinitive with no loss of meaning,
that is, the meaning of the sentence is exactly the same.

EXAMPLES
With the verb start:
It started to rain.
It started raining.
It began to rain.
It began raining.

The verbs start and begin, for example, can be followed either by gerund or
infinitive with no difference in meaning. Therefore, both sentences containing
these verbs have the same meaning.
Sometimes the use of the gerund or infinitive changes the meaning of
the sentence.

EXAMPLES
With the verb remember:
I remembered to do my homework.
I remembered doing my homework.

In the first sentence (I remembered to do my homework), the person spea-

king remembered they had some homework first and then carried out the action
and did it. In the second sentence (I remembered doing my homework.), the

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person speaking carried out the action (their homework) first and then remem-
bered doing it.

Verbs Followed either by Gerunds or Infinitives with a Difference in Meaning.

EXAMPLES
Nancy remembered getting married. NANCY HAS A MEMORY OF GETTING MARRIED.
Fred remembered to bring sunblock to the beach. FRED REMEMBERED THAT HE NEEDED
TO BRING SUNBLOCK.

List of Verbs Followed by a Gerund or Infinitive (Different Meaning)

She began singing.

She began to sing.
WHEN "BEGIN" IS USED IN
begin
NON-CONTINUOUS TENSES,
YOU CAN EITHER USE A
GERUND OR AN INFINITIVE.
She is beginning to sing.
WHEN "BEGIN" IS USED IN
CONTINUOUS TENSES, AN
INFINITIVE IS USED.

He dreaded to think of the

consequences of his actions.
"DREAD" IS SOMETIMES USED
She dreaded taking the test.
WITH INFINITIVES SUCH AS
dread USUALLY "DREAD" IS
"THINK" OR "CONSIDER." IN THE
FOLLOWED BY A GERUND.
SENTENCE ABOVE, "DREADED
TO THINK" MEANS "DID NOT
WANT TO THINK."

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 She forgot reading the
book when she was a kid.
WHEN "FORGET" IS USED
WITH A GERUND, IT MEANS
"TO FORGET THAT YOU
forget HAVE DONE SOMETHING."
THE SENTENCE ABOVE
MEANS THAT SHE READ
THE BOOK WHEN SHE WAS
A KID, AND THAT SHE HAS
FORGOTTEN THAT FACT.
She kept talking.
"KEEP" IS NORMALLY USED
keep WITH A GERUND TO MEAN
THAT YOU CONTINUE
DOING AN ACTION.
The house needs cleaning.
WHEN "NEED" IS USED
WITH A GERUND, IT TAKES
need ON A PASSIVE MEANING.
THE SENTENCE ABOVE
MEANS "THE HOUSE NEEDS
TO BE CLEANED."
captulo 5
She forgot to pay the rent this
month.
WHEN FORGET IS USED WITH
AN INFINITIVE, IT MEANS "TO
FORGET THAT YOU NEED TO DO
SOMETHING." THE SENTENCE
ABOVE MEANS THAT SHE
FORGOT THAT SHE NEEDED TO
PAY THE RENT.
The attackers kept hostages to
prevent the police from entering.
"KEEP" CAN ALSO BE USED
WITH AN OBJECT FOLLOWED
BY AN INFINITIVE, BUT THEN
THE INFINITIVE TAKES ON THE
MEANING OF "IN ORDER TO... ."
IN THE SENTENCE ABOVE, THE
ATTACKERS KEPT HOSTAGES
IN ORDER TO PREVENT THE
POLICE FROM ENTERING.
He needs to call his boss.
He needs him to call his boss.
"NEED" IS USUALLY USED WITH
AN INFINITIVE OR AN OBJECT +
AN INFINITIVE.
134

I regretted being late to the
interview.
regret
"REGRET" IS NORMALLY
USED WITH A GERUND.
I remember mentioning the
meeting yesterday.
WHEN "REMEMBER" IS
USED WITH A GERUND,
IT MEANS "TO REMEMBER
THAT YOU HAVE DONE
remember
SOMETHING." THE
SENTENCE ABOVE MEANS
THAT I MENTIONED THE
MEETING, AND THAT I
REMEMBER THE FACT THAT
I DID THAT.
captulo 5 135
We regret to inform you that
your position at the company is
being eliminated.
"REGRET" IS SOMETIMES USED
WITH INFINITIVES SUCH AS "TO
INFORM." IN THE SENTENCE
ABOVE, "WE REGRET TO
INFORM YOU" MEANS "WE
WISH WE DID NOT HAVE TO
TELL YOU (BAD NEWS)."
He remembered to turn off the
lights before he left.
WHEN "REMEMBER" IS USED
WITH AN INFINITIVE, IT MEANS
"TO REMEMBER THAT YOU
NEED TO DO SOMETHING." THE
SENTENCE ABOVE MEANS THAT
HE REMEMBERED THAT HE
NEEDED TO TURN THE LIGHTS
OFF.

Marge started talking
really fast.
Marge started to talk
really fast.
start
WHEN "START" IS USED IN
NON-CONTINUOUS TENSES,
YOU CAN EITHER USE A
GERUND OR AN INFINITIVE.
He stopped smoking for
health reasons.
stop
"STOP" IS NORMALLY USED
WITH A GERUND.
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Marge is starting to talk really
fast.
WHEN "START" IS USED IN
CONTINUOUS TENSES, AN
INFINITIVE IS USED.
I started to learn Russian, but it
was so much work that I finally
quit the class.
IN OTHER SITUATIONS, AN
INFINITIVE MEANS THAT YOU
DID NOT COMPLETE OR
CONTINUE AN ACTION.
He stopped to rest for a few
minutes.
WHEN "STOP" IS USED WITH
AN INFINITIVE, THE INFINITIVE
TAKES ON THE MEANING OF "IN
ORDER TO." IN THE SENTENCE
ABOVE, HE STOPPED IN ORDER
TO REST FOR A FEW MINUTES.
136
 She can't find a job. She
tried looking in the paper,
She tried to climb the tree, but
but there was nothing. She
she couldn't even get off the
tried asking friends and
ground.
family, but nobody knew
WHEN YOU "TRY TO DO"
of anything. She also tried
SOMETHING, YOU WANT TO DO
going shop to shop, but
IT, BUT YOU DO NOT SUCCEED
nobody was hiring.
IN ACTUALLY DOING IT. IN
"TRY + GERUND" MEANS
THE SENTENCE ABOVE, AN
TO TRY OR TO EXPERIMENT
INFINITIVE IS USED BECAUSE
try WITH DIFFERENT
SHE CANNOT SUCCESSFULLY
METHODS TO SEE IF
CLIMB THE TREE.
SOMETHING WORKS.
Try not to wake the baby when
She tried eating the snake
you get up tomorrow at 5 AM.
soup, but she didn't like it.
AN INFINITIVE IS ALSO USED IF
"TRY + GERUND" IS
YOU ARE ASKING SOMEONE
OFTEN USED WHEN
TO TRY SOMETHING THEY
YOU EXPERIMENT WITH
MAY OR MAY NOT BE ABLE TO
SOMETHING, BUT YOU DO
ACCOMPLISH.
NOT REALLY LIKE IT OR
WANT TO DO IT AGAIN.

(Source: http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/gerund_or_infinitive_different_list.htm)

Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive with little diffe-

rence in meaning.

EXAMPLES
She likes swimming.
She likes to swim.

Although the difference in meaning is small with these particular verbs,

gerunds and infinitives can often be used interchangeably; there is still a mea-
ning difference. Using a gerund suggests that you are referring to real activities or

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experiences. Using an infinitive suggests that you are talking about potential or
possible activities or experiences. Thus, depending on the context, gerunds and
infinitives cannot be used interchangeably, such as in the examples below.

EXAMPLES
The British reporter likes living in New York. HE LIVES IN NEW YORK AND HE LIKES
WHAT HE EXPERIENCES THERE.
The British reporter likes to live in New York whenever he works in the United States. HE
LIKES THE OPTION OR POSSIBILITY OF LIVING IN NEW YORK WHEN HE WORKS IN
THE UNITED STATES.
I like speaking French because it's such a beautiful language. I LIKE THE EXPERIENCE OF
SPEAKING FRENCH, AND THE WAY IT MAKES ME FEEL WHEN I SPEAK THE LANGUAGE.
I like to speak French when I'm in France. I PREFER THE OPTION OF SPEAKING
FRENCH WHEN I AM IN FRANCE.

List of Verbs Followed by a Gerund or Infinitive (Similar Meaning)

can't bear He can't bear being alone. He can't bear to be alone.

Nancy can't stand working the Nancy can't stand to work the late
can't stand
late shift. shift.

The government ceased The government ceased to provide

cease
providing free health care. free health care.

continue She continued talking. She continued to talk.

hate He hates cleaning dishes. He hates to clean dishes.

like Samantha likes reading. Samantha likes to read.

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 love We love scuba diving. We love to scuba dive.

He neglected doing his daily He neglected to do his daily

neglect
chores. chores.

prefer He prefers eating at 7 PM. He prefers to eat at 7 PM.

Drew proposed paying for

propose Drew proposed to pay for the trip.
the trip.

MULTIMEDIA
To read more about gerunds and infinitives access:
<https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/627/01/>
<https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/627/03/>

ACTIVITIES
01. Fill in the blanks with a gerund or infinitive form.
a) It's hard for her __________ the housework. (to do)
b) Would you mind _________ back tonight? (to come)
c) You are supposed ________ the report by noon. (to finish)
d) The girl is tired of __________ punished. (to be)
e) Couldn't you help her ___________ the dishes? (to do)
f) I don't feel like ___________ (to eat).
g) Sometimes I enjoy ___________by myself. (to walk)
h) I think you are strong enough ___________ at least two miles. (to run)
i) They are about ___________arrested by the police. (to be)
j) Do you think that film is worth _______________? (to see)
k) The woman couldn't help _____________ (to cry) when she saw her car ___________
(to hit) the other.
l) You shouldn't listen to other students ________________.(to talk)

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02. Fill in the blanks with either the gerund or the infinitive form of the verb in parentheses.
Jack was in his first year at university, studying History. He was rather a lazy student, and
he tended to avoid _______(work) whenever he could. In the middle of the semester, his
History professor gave out an assignment, due in two weeks. Jack intended _______(do)
the assignment, but he postponed ______(write) it for a week. The following week, he forgot
_______(do) it. The night before the assignment was due, he suddenly remembered it, and
rushed to the library. He tried _______(read) as much as possible on the topic, but there
wasn't enough time. Jack considered ________(ask) for more time to do his paper, but the
History professor was known to be very tough on students, so finally he decided ________
(cheat) and copy his paper from somewhere else. He found an old article on the same topic,
and quickly typed it out. The next day, he submitted the paper. The following week, he was
alarmed ______(see) the professor approaching him, looking angry.
"Is this your own work, or did you copy it?" asked the professor. Jack denied ______ (copy)
the paper.
"If you expect me ______ (believe) that, you must be very stupid," said the professor. "Every
word is taken from an article I wrote myself five years ago. Did you really think I would
forget__________ (write) it?
(Source: http://web2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/studyzone/410/grammar/gerinf1.htm)

03. Fill in all the gaps with the verbs in the gerund or infinitive form.

a) I had to ask the boys (stop) ________(ride) _________their mini scooters in the corridor.
b) Don't start (try) __________(learn) __________algebra before you have finished (learn)
__________(do) ___________simple things in arithmetic.
c) We can't think of (buy) __________a new house before (sell) _________the old one.
d) I'd love (have) __________the opportunity of (meet) ________you again.
e) Our teacher has promised (help) _________us (prepare) _________for next week's test.
f) I hate (get up) __________early in winter and (get ready) __________in the dark.
g) If you can't fix that old thing, try (hit) _________it with a hammer!
h) I saw her (sit) ________at the bus stop, and I heard her (tell) _________her friend not to
wait for her.
i) Poor Charles! The police suspected him of (try) ________(sell) ______stolen bicycles.
j) Can you manage (finish) _________(pack) _________these parcels alone?

captulo 5 140
 CONNECTION
To have more practice on Gerunds and Infinites go to:
English Grammar Online
available at:< https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/infinitive-gerund >.
Englishpage.com
available at: < http://www.englishpage.com/gerunds/index.htm>
Study English for Free
available at: < http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/exercises_list/alle_grammar.htm >

FOOD FOR THOUGHT

Last but not least, in this chapter we have seen that both gerunds and infinitives are verbals
that perform the same functions as nouns do: they act mainly as subjects, direct objects,
subject complements, objects of prepositions. The term verbal indicates that gerunds and
infinitives are based on verbs and therefore express action or state of being. Gerunds and
infinitives, together with participles, are considered complements in the grammar world since
they do not cause grammar world to shake by any stretch of the imagination as verb tenses,
questions, negatives etc. Understanding and practicing how to use gerunds and infinitives
is generally considered a matter of memorizing many lists of verbs, adjectives, nouns
and structures in which these verbals take part. Therefore, the focus of this last chapter
is to present the different functions assumed by gerunds and infinitives together with the
difference in meaning and use underlying discourse relations.

REFERENCES
AZAR , Betty Schrampfer . Understanding and Using English Grammar. Prentice Hall Regents, 1999.
CELCE-MURCIA, M.; LARSEN-FREEMAN, D. The Grammar Book: an ESL/EFL teachers course.
Boston: Heinle/Cengage Learning, 2 edio, 1999.
MAURER, J. Focus on Grammar: an advanced course for reference and practice. New York: Longman, 1995

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 ANSWER KEY
01. Fill in the blanks with a gerund form, infinitive or infinitive without to.
a) It's hard for her to do the housework. (to do)
b) Would you mind coming back tonight? (to come)
c) You are supposed to finish the report by noon. (to finish)
d) The girl is tired of being punished. (to be)
e) Couldn't you help her to do the dishes? (to do)
f) I don't feel like eating (to eat).
g) Sometimes I enjoy walking by myself. (to walk)
h) I think you are strong enough to run at least two miles. (to run)
i) They are about to be arrested by the police. (to be)
j) Do you think that film is worth seeing? (to see)
k) The woman couldn't help crying when she saw her car hit/hitting the other. (to cry - to hit)
l) You shouldn't listen to other students talk/talking. (to talk)

02. In each gap, write either the gerund or the infinitive form of the verb in Parentheses.
Jack was in his first year at university, studying History. He was rather a lazy student, and
he tended to avoid (working) whenever he could. In the middle of the semester, his history
professor gave out an assignment, due in two weeks. Jack intended (do) the assignment, but
he postponed (writing) it for a week. The following week, he forgot (do) it. The night before
the assignment was due, he suddenly remembered it, and rushed to the library. He tried
(to read) as much as possible on the topic, but there wasn't enough time. Jack considered
(asking) for more time to do his paper, but the History professor was known to be very tough
on students, so finally he decided (to cheat) and copy his paper from somewhere else.
He found an old article on the same topic, and quickly typed it out. The next day, he submitted
the paper. The following week, he was alarmed (to see) the professor approaching him,
looking angry.
"Is this your own work, or did you copy it?" asked the professor. Jack denied (copying) the paper.
"If you expect me (to believe) that, you must be very stupid," said the professor. "Every word is
taken from an article I wrote myself five years ago. Did you really think I would forget (writing) it?"

03. III - Fill in all the gaps with the verbs in the gerund or infinitive form.
a) I had to ask the boys to stop riding their mini scooters in the corridor.
b) Don't start trying to learn algebra before you have finished learning to do simple things
in arithmetic.

captulo 5 142
c) We can't think of buying a new house before selling the old one.
d) I'd love to have the opportunity of meeting you again.
e) Our teacher has promised to help us prepare for next weeks test.
f) I hate getting up early in winter and get ready in the dark.
g) If you can't fix that old thing, try hitting it with a hammer!
h) I saw her sitting/sit) at the bus stop, and I heard her telling/tell her friend not to wait for her.
i) Poor Charles! The police suspected him of trying to sell stolen bicycles.
j) Can you manage to finish packing these parcels alone?

captulo 5 143
ANOTAES

captulo 5 144