I N TRO DU C TI O N

P H Y S I O L O G I C AL P S Y C H O L O GY

DR T H . EO DO R ZI E H E N

by C . C . VA/V L I E W a n d Dr . O TTO B E YE R

WI TH 2 1 I L L U S TR A TI O N S

l e mo n
S W AN ON NENS C HEI N
S C O .

P A T E RN O S T E R S ! U A R E

1 89 2
 AUTH O R S P RE F AC E
’
.

TH E pr e s e n t wo rk o r i g i n at e d i n le c t u r e s on ph y s i ol o g i c a l

ps y c h ol o g y t h at I h a v e de li v e r e d at t his u n i v e r s i t y fo r
se ve r a l y e a r s d oc t r i n e s h e r e i n p r e s e n t e d d e v i a t e
. Th e

fr o m Wu n dt s t h e o r y n o w d o m i n a n t i n G e r
’
e s s e n t i all y ,

m an y, an d c o n fo r m cl o s e l y to t he E n g l i s h ps y c h ol o gy o f

a s s oc i a t i o n . O n ly Ms un t e r b e rg in Ge rm a n y h a s re ce n t ly
ra i se d o bj e c t i o n s fr o m t he s t a n d po i n t o f ph y s i ol o g ic a l

ps y c h ol o g y t o t h e d oc t r i n e o f a ppe r c e pt i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c,

of t he s c h o ol o f W u n d t By i n t r od u c i n g an e s pe c i a l
.

a u x il i a r y fu n c t i o n t he -
s o c a l l e d a pe r c e
, p pt i o n fo r , the ex

p l a n a t i o n o f c e r t a i n ps y c h i c a l
pr oc e s s e s W u ndt , e v a d e s it
,

i s t r u e n u m e r o u s d i ffi c u l t i e s i n d e m o n s t r a t i o n
, . Wh e r e v e r
a ps y c h i c a l pr oc e s s t h a t i s d i ffic u l t t o ex
pl a i n a ppe a r s ,

i t i s a sc r i be d t o t h i s a ppe r c e pt i o n At . t he s a me t i me ,

h o we v e r ,
al l ps y c h o -ph y s i ol o g i c a l e x pl a n a t i o n i s a b a n
do n e d . T h i s bo o k i s i n t e n d e d t o s h o w t h a t s u c h an
a u x il i a r y fu n c t i o ni s s u pe r fl u o u s an d t h a t a l l ps y c h o
”
,

l o g i c al ph e n o me n a c an b e e x pl a i n e d w i t h o u t i t .

Th e w o r k w as o r i g i n al l y d e s i g n e d fo r t h e ps y c h i a t e r ,

j u st as t he s t u d y o f m o r b i d ps y c h i c a l ph e n o me n a g a v e
vi P r eface .

t he fi rst i m pu l s e t o t h e ps y c h ol o g i c al st u d ie s o f t he a u t h o r .

Bu t a s t h e c i r c l e o f h e a re r s b r o a d e n e d ,
the ch a r act e r o f t he

I n t ro d u ct i o n h a s c h a n ge d . I n i t s pr e s e n t fo r m i t i s

de s i g n e d fo r t h e s t u d e n t o f n a t u r al s c i e n c e ,
t he s a me a s
fo r t h e ph y s i c i a n . r e t a i n e d t h e e x t e n s iv e c o n
I h ave
s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e ps y c h i c a l pr o c e s s e s o f t h e i n s a n e w i t h
g o o d re a s on J u s t a s a c a r i c a t u r e s e t s o ff a s i n g l e t r a i t
.

o f c h a r a c t e r m o r e fo r c i b l y s o t h e m e n t a l d i s e a s e r e v e al s
,

t o u s n o w t h i s n o w t h a t fe a t u r e o f ps y c h ic a l l i fe w i t h
,

e s pe c i a ll y i ns t r u c t i v e s h a r pn e s s an d i n a m e a s u r e d i s
,

e n t a n gl e d fr o m t h e i n t r ic a ti o n o f o t h e r ps y c h i c a l ph e
no me n a .

As re ga rd s t he c it at i on s I
,
wish to o b s e rv e t h a t i t i s t h e i r

pu r po s e s ol e l y to s e r v e a s a gu i d e t o fu r t h e r s t u d y i n
s u i t a bl e c h a n n e l s . I t h a s n o t b e e n m y i n t e n t io n t o r e fe r

to all t he a u t h o rit ie s o
up n w h ic h t h e s t a t e me n t s o f t his

wo rk ar e b a se d .

TH . ZI E H E N .
 T R A N S L AT O R S P RE F AC E
’
.

FO R s e v e r a l d e c ad e s a new l i n e o f t h ou g h t an d re s e a rc h i n
t he s ph e r e o f ps y c h ol o g y h a s b e e n d e v e l o pi n g in Ge rman y .

It r e c e i v e d i t s i m pu l s e c h i e fl y fr o m t h e do m i n a n t t e n de n

c ie s t h at c h a r ac t e r i z e t he m o d e rn m e t h od s of n at u ral
sc i e n c e . P s y c h ol o g y , in e n de a v ou r i n g to main t a in it s

po s i t i o n a s a sc i e n c e a m o n g sc i e n c e s ,
w as b ro u gh t i n
c on t act wi t h t he so -
c al l ed n a t u r a l sc i e n c e s ,
an d t he re s u l t
w as i n e v i t a b le . Th e cl o s e re l a t i o n t hat ex i s t s be t we e n
c e r t a i n d e pa r t m e n t s o f ps y c h ol o gy an d t h e ph y s i ol o g y o f
t h e n e r v o u s s y s t e m an d t h e e ff o r t s t h a t h a v e b e e n m a de
,

s in ce H r b a r t t o a ppl y t h e m e t h ods o f n a t u r a l sc i e n c e t o
e

t h e fo r m e r i n e v i t a b l y le d t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f ps y c h o
,

l o g y fr o m a n e w po i n t o f v i e w (v i z t h e ph y s i ol o g ic a l ) an d
.

u lt i mat e ly t o t h e de v e l o pm e n t of a new s c i e n ce ,
t he sc i e n c e
o f ph y s io lo g i c a l ps y c h ol o gy .

B r i e f a s t h e h i s t o r y o f ph y s i o l o g i c a l ps y c h ol og y i s i t h a s ,

ye t o pe n e d a g r e a t m a n y n e w fie l d s fo r i n v e s t i g a t io n Th e .

e m pi r i c a l da t a , h o we v e r , w h i c h t h e sc i e n c e h a s t h u s far
b e e n able to e s t a b l i s h a l r e a dy
,
r e c e i v e a v a r i e t y o f i n t e r pr e
t at i o n s t h a t ar e fa r fr o m be i n g c on c o rd a n t I n fa c t a s t h e
.
,

v ii
viii Tr am /a t o r s
’
P f
r e a ce .

pe r u s al o f t h i s wo r k w il l s h ow , t wo d i s t i n c t i n t e r pr e t a t i o n s
t h at c on fl i c t in ma n y o f t he most e s s e n t i a l po i n t s h a v e
,

b e c o me s pe c i al l y pr o m i n e n t
e Th e o n e i s h e l d b y Wu n d t

Ms
.

an d h i s s c h o ol t h e o t h e r b un t e b e g r r an d Zi e h e n
, y .

The l at te r ,
who is we l l k n o wn i n G e r m a n y b o t h a s ,

U n i ve rs it y i n st ru ct o r an d as a n ot e w o rt h y i n v e s t i g at o r in
t he l i n e s o f ph ys i ol o g i c a l ps y c h ol og y an d ps y c h i a t r y h a s ,

pr o d u c e d t h e fir s t w o r k w h i c h g i ve s a b r i e f pr e s e n t a t i o n o f
t he fie l d o f ph y s i ol o g i c al ps y c h ol o g y i n ge n e r al , an d of an

i n t e r pr e t a t i o n b a s e d u po n t h e E n g l i s h ps y c h ol o g y o f a s s o
c i at i o n i n
p a r t ic u l a r F o r t h i s r e a s o n t h e t r a n sl a t o r s h a v e
.

t h o u gh t it a d v i s a bl e to p r o d u c e a t r a n sl a t i o n of the rk
wo

fo r E n g l i s h re a d e r s . Th e w o r k , t h o ugh small in c o m pa r i
so n wi t h t h at o f Wu n dt s ’
G r u n dz u g e de r ph y s i ol o g i sc h e n

P s y c h ol o g i e or e ve n wi t h t h at o f t h e Am e r i c a n a u t h o r ,

L ad d E l e m e n t s o f P h y s i ol o g i c a l w h o h as

p r o d u c ed the o n l y o t h e r E n g l i s h w o r k u po n t h e s u bj e c t ,

e mb race s w i t h i n a s m al l c o m pa s s t h e e s s e n t i a l s o f t h e

sc i e n c e . I t i s t h e r e fo r e fit t e d t o b e an e x c e ll e n t i n t r o du c
to yr c o m pe n d i u m t o ph y s i ol o g i c a l ps y c h ol o g y .

Th e re a d e r w il l n ot e t h at i n t he o pe n i n g an d cl o s i n g
c h a pt e r s t he a u t h o r c l e a rl y an d s h a r pl y d e fin e s t h e pr o

v i n ce o f h i s s c ie n ce , an d fix e s t h e l i m i t s t h a t s e pa r a t e i t

fr o m o t h e r re l a t e d s c i e n ce s . T h ro ug h o u t t he ent i re wo rk
it h a s b e e n h is ai m to d e v e l op a l l e xp l a n a t i o n s as fa r a s
p o s s i bl e f r o m ph y s i c a l o r ph y s i ol o g ic a l d a t a an d t o a cc o u nt ,

fo r t h e pr e s e n c e o f c e r t a i n fu n c t i o n s b y an a ppl i c a t i o n o f
 Tr an s lat o r s
’
P r eface . ix

t he l a w s o f e v ol u t i o n . H en ce t h e wo rk c an o n l y be u n d e r
s t o od an d c o rr e c t l y j u d ge d w he n r e g a r d e d a s t re a t i n g of
n a t u r al s c i e n c e
ph y s i ol o g i c al ps y c h ol o g y as a .

B e s id e s b e i n g fit t e d fo r t h e u se o f t he a l ie n i st an d t he

st u de n t o f n at u ral s cie n ce ,
t he w o rk w il l u n d o u b t e d l y be o f
se rv i ce to t he e d ucat or an d t e ache r in s o far a s i t i s a

g u i d e t o t he u n de rst an d in g o f t he re l a t i o n s t h at ex i s t be
t w e e n ps y c h i c a l r
st a te s
p o c e s s e s o n t h e o n e h a n d an d
an d ,

n e r v o u s e s pe c i a l l y c e r e b r al pr oc e s s e s o n t h e o t h e r
, ,
.

T h e t e r m i n ol o g y o f t h e s u b j e c t w h i c h i s a l r e a d y s o ,

h i g h l y d e v e l o pe d i n G e r m a n y p r e s e n t s a s e r i e s o f di ffic u l
,

t i e s fo r a n E n g l i s h t r a n sl a t i o n t h a t a r e by n o m e a n s e a s i l y

ov e r c o m e Th e t e r m i n ol o g y o f t h i s t r a n sl a t i o n h o w e v e r
.
, ,

h ol d s s o fa r a s po s s i bl e t o a l r e a d y e s t a bl i s h e d pre c e d e n t s
, , ,

w h e r e v e r t h e y d o n o t c o n fl i c t w i t h a c o rr e c t r e n de r i g o f n

t he v ie ws o f t he a u t h o r W h e r e v e r t h e c o i n a ge o f a t e r m
.

o r ph r a s e h as be e n n e c e s s a r y i t w i l l be fo u n d t o be j u s t i
,

fie d by t h e n e e d s o f t h e s u bj e c t an d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f

t h e o r i g i n al .

T h e i n d e x t o s u bj e c t s a u t h o r s e t c h a s be e n a d d e d i n
, , .
,

t h e t r a n sl a t i o n a s i t w as t h ou g h t a d v i s a b l e t o pr o v i d e a
,

r e a d y r e fe r e n c e t o re l a t e d s u bj e c t s i n d i ffe r e n t c h a pt e r s t o
w h ic h t h e t e t c o n s t a n t l y a ll u d e s T h e e x pl a n a t o r y l i s t
x .

o f s y m b ol s h a s a l s o be e n a d d e d t h a t t h e r e a d e r m ay fin d
n o d i ffic u l t y i n i n t e r pr e t i n g t h e s a m e at o n c e w h e n e v e r ,

t h e y o cc u r .

C . C . VAN L I EV
V .

O TT O W . B EY ER .
 T A BL E O F C O N T E N TS .

A UT H O R S ’
P RE FA C E
TR ANS LA TO R S ’
P RE FA C E

C H A P TE R I .

TH E M E AN D S Y N O P S I S o r C O N TE N TS
Th a tit h i f mat ria l d p y hi a l ph m a—Th pr vi c
—C ri t r i
e n es s o e an s c c eno en e o n e

of phy i l g ica l p ych l gy—Py h l gy

s o o a i s o o sc o o as sc e n c e e on

of t h p yc h ica l — R fl
e s a t i —I t -
p ych ica l ch ar ct r
e d ex c on s non s a e an

i t fit s —Aut mat i c act i —Di t i g i h d f m R fl acti

n es s o on s n u s e ro e ex on

T w cl a of u t mat i c a t i
sse s o —I t p ychi ca l ch aract r
- a o c on s no n s e .

C H A P TE R II .

S E NSA TI O N —A SS O C I A TI O N —AG I I O N ’ ’

Th e l t f t h p ychi c l pr
e e me n s o —Act i d i ti g i h d fr m
e s a o c ess on s n u s e o

re fl x d a t mat ic act —S at i
e an u o d a ci ati —Acti s e ns on an sso on on

it lf wi t h u t a p y h ica l
se o c m i ta t — S ati s d i d at ic co n o n ens on an e on

th l y p ych ica l pr c —Th q u t i f v lu tary act i

e on s o e sse s e es on o o n on

Cl ifi ti
ass d div i i
ca f t h th r
on f rm f a t i —Th i r
an s on o e ee o s o c on e

a at m i ca l l cali at i
n o o z on.

C H A P TE R III .

S TI M ULU S —S ENSA TI O N
K i d n i l i —Ad quat d i ad q at t i mulati
s an d o f rm s o f st mu e e an n e u e s on

Th ry f p ifi c
eo rgy—N rv -
o c duct i —Tab l f ti muli
s ec e ne e e on on e o s
—! al it i f uat i —I t ity f
es o at i —I t m a u r m t
se n s on n e ns o s e ns on s e s e en

—L w f W b r—F ha o f rmul a —Th t h r i t rpr tat i

e e ec n er s
’
o e ee n e e o ns

f V
Vb L w —A t h r i t rpr tat i
’ ’
o e er s a u o s n e e on.
xi
x ii Co n t en ts .

P A G E
C HA P TE R IV .

SE NSA TI O NS or TAS T E , S ME LL AN D T O U C H
O rgan , ce n tre an d s ti m uli o f tas t e —A ppli cati o n o f W e b e r s L aw
’

L o c al i z ati o n o f gus tato ry s e n sat i o n s— O rgan ce n tre an d s t i mul i , ,

o f s m e ll —A p li c at i o n o f W e b e r s L aw —L o c ali z at i o n o f se n sa
’
p
t i o n s o f s m e ll - O rgan o f t o uc h —S ti muli o f t o uch — C o rt i ca l
c e n tre — C l as s e s o f se n sati o n s o f fe e li n —A
ppli cat i o n o f We b e r s
’

g
L aw— L o cal i z at i o n — L o ca l s i gn s—Th e o ry o f s pace - pe rce pt i o n b y
t o uc h .

CH A P TE R V .

SE NSA TI O NS O F H E A R I N G
S t i mul i f h ar i g —M i a l
o u d d i —Th i r a
e n us c so n s an n o se s e n alys i s
Th rgae f h ar i g —Th
o n c rt i ca l c tr f h ari
o e n e o en e o e n g—Th e

mu i al al —I t r l ati t W b r L w—Th ry
s c sc e s e on o e e
’
s a eo o f o ve r

t —I t i ty f
o n es d d t h applicati f W b r
n en s o so u n an e on o e e
’
s L aw

L ca li ati
o f ac u t i c
z at i
on o o s se n s ons .

C H A P TE R VI .

SE NSA TI O NS O F S IG H T
S t i m li f i g h t —Th
u o rga f i gh t —S p ctra l l r— S at rat d
s e o n o s e co o u u e

l ur — Th ry f v i i —C l u r
,

-at u rat d
non s d m ix d e an e co o s eo o s on o o

b li d —I t ity f v i ual at i —A ppli cati fW b r

’
n n e ss n e ns o s se n s o ns on o e e s

L w—Th ry
a f pac - p r
eo pt i b y i
o g h t—L cali at i
s f e e ce on s o z on o

vi ua l at i —Pr j ct i f vi ual at i
s se n s o ns o e on o s se n s o n s.

C HA P TE R VI I .

TH ETO N E O F F E E LI N G AN D TH E S UC C E SS I O N O F TH E S E NSA
T I O NS
T o ne f f li g f
o at i
ee d i t i g i h d fr m t hat f id a
n o se ns o ns s n u s e o o e s

P it iv
os d g ateiv t
an f f li
ne g
— T h u r v f f li
e g o nes o ee n e c e o ee n

Em ti al t
o d p d t i t ity d quali ty f ati
on one e en en on n ens an o se n s on

—Pai —Di a t
n d a t h rd —I fl
s so n n f th
an co n s o n n c o s n u e n ce o e

a ci ati
s so f id a — E m t i a l t
on o d p d t p patia l
e s o on o ne e en en u on s

arra g m t n d tim
e en l ti —Pr l g d
an ati —L a t e ~r e a o ns o on e se n s on e s

du rat i f t i mulat i apab l f pr duci g ati —Bl d i g

on o s on c e o o n se n s on en n

f u c
o s iv at i —N u mb r f
c e ss e se n s ati at y gi v t i m
o ns e o se n s o ns an en e

— E m ti a l t d p d t rhyt h m d rhym —
o on one Th ry f
e en en on an e eo o

m ti a l t
e o —I t i mp rta c
on o ne s o n e.
 Co n t e n t s . x iii

P A G E
C H A P T E R VII I .

SE S N A TI O N — I D E A — C O N C E PTI O N
D p i ti
e os f t h m ta l i mag —I d a di t i g i h d fr m
on o e en eat i e s n u s e o se n s on

— Th q u t i e f l at t id a - P h y i l g i cal b a i
es on o en f t h id a
e s s o o s s o e e

S y th i n f t h i d a — M t r i d a —Th c
es s o e e rt o opt i e s e onc e e co n c e on

Th g e l r t c c pt i —Ae t t c
en e r a co n c e e on pt ie — I magi a
on s r ae o n ce o ns n ~

t iv id a —Th pr p rt i
e e s ef th id a—Th
o e t t f id a
es o e e e co n e n o e s

T h d i ti t
e s f id a —Th i r m t i
n c n e ss o al t —Th i r r l ati
e s e e o on o ne e e o ns

t pac
o s d t i m
e an— F rg t f l e o e u n e s s.

C H A P TE R IX .

TH E A SS O C I A TI O N O F I D E AS
R e pro d u c t i o n o f i d e as —Th eo ry o f asso ciat i o n —Re co gn i t i o n — C h ie f
L aw o f as so c i ati o n —P h ys i o l o g i c a l b as i s o f asso c i at i o n —Assoc i a
t i o n o f succe ssi v e id e as —Th e t h e o ry o f appe rce pti o n —I n fl u e n ce
o f t h e g ro u pi n g o f i d e as —H e r bar t s co m pu tatio n s —A fte r- i mag e s
’
.

C H A P TE R X .

R A PI D ITY O F TH E A SS O C I A TI O N O F I D EAS—JU DG M EN T AN D
C O N C LU S I O N
Ti m f a ciat i —S i mpl cti -t i m —Ti m f r g iti
e o sso on e re a on e e o ec o n on

Ab rm al a iat i —Abb r viat i

no sso c f a
on iati —Th j ud g
e on o s so c on e

m t—I t en p h y i l
s g ica l b a i —I t
s o o v al i d i ty — Th y ll gi m
s s s e s o s

App r pt i e ce da ci ati
o n an s so o n.

C H A P TE R XI .

A TT E N TI O N —VO LU N TA R Y TH O UG H T—T H E E G O —M E M O R Y
Att e n t i o n —Th e co n di t i o n s o f att e n t i o n —Att e n ti o n as a fe e li n g
C h an ge o f att e n t i o n —Th e asso c i at iv e po we r o f a s e n sat i o n de
p e n d e n t o u fo u r fact o r s— C o n tra s t — V o lu n tary an d i n vo lu n tary
t h o u gh t —O r i g i n o f t hi s di st i n c ti o n —Th e e go —De ve l o pme n t o f
t h e id e a o f t h e e g o - I t s acti vi ty —S u mmary o f t h e facto rs c h ar
c a ll e d v o lu n tary t h o u gh t
ac t e r i z i n g so - — O t h e r s e c i a l fo rms o f
p
t h o u gh t - M e mO I
y
— I t s p h y s i o l o g i ca l b as i s - L o ss o f m e m o ry an d

fo rge tful n e ss .
x iv Co n t en t s .

P A G E
A P TE R X I I CH .

M O R B I D TH O UG H T—S L E EP —H Y P N O TI S M
S e co n d ary se n sati o n s —P h o t i s m s an d ph o n is m s —N atu re o f se c o n
dary se n sat io n s—H alluc i n at i o n s—Th e i r cause —I llus i o n s—Th e i r
o ri g i n an d n at u re —Th e d e lu s i v e an d t h e co m pul so ry id e a—S l e e p
— Dre am s - C harac t e r o f t h e l att e r —Do u b l e co n sc i o usn e ss
H ypn o t i sm—I t s n at u re .

HA P TE R X II I
C .

A C TI O N — E X P R E SS I VE M O TI O NS —S P E E C H
De ve l o pm e n t o f m o t i o n s—O f m o to r i d e as —T h e m o to r z o n e o f t h e
co rte x — R e ac t i o n -t i m e —M usc u l ar an d se n so ri a l re ac t i o n —H o w
dist i n gui sh e d— Re co gn i t i o n -t i m e an d disce rn me n t -t i me - S e l e c
tio n - ti m e —C han ge s i n re act i o n - ti me —Fo rms o f ac t i o n —E x pre ssi v e
m o t i o n s — S pe e c h —De v e l o pm e n t o f e x pre ss iv e m o ve m e n ts
O ri gi n o f spe e ch —C o rt i cal ce n tre fo r e x pr e ss iv e m o ti o n s .

C H A P TE R XIV .

W I LL—G EN E R AL C O N C LU S I O NS
T h h yp t h i
e o f a fa ul ty f t h w ill —Th
es s o c ri g io f t h i h yp
e e o n o s o

t h i —N p cial fa ul ty f t h wi ll —T ti m y f p yc h iatry
es s o s e c o e es on o s

Th e ti
no f fr d m i
o n o a t i —E t hi
ee o d ph y i l gica l
n c o ns cs an s o o

p y h
s l
c y
o o
g
—Th p i t at wehi c h t h
o ny fl i t — Th para ll l i m
e co n c e e s

f m at r ia l
o e d p ychi cal pr
an s —T h dual i t i c t h r i —Th
o ce ss e s e s eo es e

m i t i c t h r i —Th cri t i ca l ta d -p i t —Th fi al pr p it i

on s eo es e s n o n e n o os on

of phy i l g i a l p ych l gy
s o o c s o o .

I N D EX
L I ST L S F R E ! U EN TL Y U S E D I N T H I S W O R K W H I C H
O F S Y M BO ,

A CO NS TAN T S IG N I FI CA TI O N As I N D I C A T E D B E LO W .

C : co rte x ce n tre , .

c = c o r t i e al .

d= dis t i n c t i o n , difl e r e n c e
'

E = e x ci t at i o n , e x
itan t (h e n ce
c s t i mul at i o n , ti mulus
s ,

irri tati o n an d i rrita n t ) .

=
f to ne o f li g
f ee n .

F gan g li -
c ll
on e s, e t c .

i = i n te n s i ty d id an e ati o nal .

1= id a e .

1 = l at t en .

I ll or m = m o t o r, ki naes th e t ic , etc .

0 or o = o bj ec t .

=
q q uali t y .

R: re ti n a .

S or = se n sati o n , se n so ry ,
e tc .

T o r t = t ime .
 T b K
m e mn m a e )“ o o
t r o du a lo S L
(
’

I
.
n

I N T RO DU C T I O N

P H Y S I O L O G I C AL PSYC H O L O GY
 ' '
2 I n tro du ct i o n t o P /zys z o log z eal P syclz o logy .

ph e n om e n a an d r e s e r ve fo r a lat e r stag e t h e fi n di n g o f a u n ity fo r

t h e two c o n tra r i e s bas e d u po n a l l o ur physiological an d psych o
,

logi cal r e s e arch e s B ut we m ust h e re e mphasiz e o n e p roposi t i o n

.
,

which we c an d r aw dire ctly fr om physio l ogy an d which c an s e rv e

as fu n dam e n tal fo r t h e e n ti r e fi e ld o f physiological psychol o gy .

Th e r e i s with o u t doubt a c e r t ai n n um b e r o f psychical ph e n o m e n a

o r proc e ss e s tha t do n o t occu r i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f c e rtai n mat e r ial
ph e n om e n a an d proc e ss e s an d that ar e n o t o n ly n o t fo r e ig n to
,

t h e la t t e r but sta n d i n obvious co rr e latio n to th e m Mor e b r i e fl y .

stat e d —c e rtai n co n com ita n t m at e r ial proc e ss e s co rr e sp o n d to a

,

c e r tai n s e r i e s of psychi c al proc e ss e s s o that t h e latt e r ca n n ot

,

occu r wi th o u t t h e fo r m e r n o r t h e form e r wi thou t t h e latt e r Th e

,
.

physiology o f t h e b r ai n fo r e xampl e t e ach e s u s tha t s e n satio n s

,

, ,

of sight o n ly occu r as lo n g as t h e occipital lob e of t h e c e r e b r u m

r e mai n s i n tact I f we re m ov e this fr om a dog w ith a k n ife o r
.

caut e ry an d k e e p t h e a n imal al iv e i t wi ll b e bli n d fo r t h e futu re

,
.

C on v e r s e ly i t ap pe a r s that s e n satio n s an d p e r c e p tio n s o f si gh t

occu r as lo n g as c e r tai n mat e ri al proc e ss e s (t h e pa r ticulars of
wh ich ar e as ye t quit e u n k n ow n to u s ) t ak e plac e i n t h e u n
i n j u re d occip ital lob e of t h e c e r e brum L e t u s ask i n g e n e ral
.
,

What m at e rial p r oc e ss e s c an b e cl e a rly shown t o b e accom pa n i e d

by c o n comita n t psychical proc e ss e s ? O u r fi r s t a n sw e r i s ,

physiological proc e ss e s z e thos e m at e rial p r oc e ss e s that p r op e rly

'

, . .

b e lo n g to li vi n g matt e r ; still mo r e sp e cifically e xp r e ss e d t h e ,

m at e r ial p roc e ss e s o f t h e c e n tr al n e rvo u s syst e m e sp e cial l y o f t h e

,

b r ai n Lat e r w e shall h av e to i n v e stigat e wh e th e r such mat e ri al

.

proc e ss e s i n t h e c e n t ral n e rvous syst e m accom pa n y all psychi cal

ph e n om e n a an d ou r a n sw e r will b e d e cid e dly n e gativ e P hysi o
,
.

logical psychology howe v e r d e als e xc l usiv e ly with t hos e psych ical

, ,

ph e n om e n a to wh ich co n com ita n t physiological p r oc e ss e s o f t h e

b r ai n cor r e spo n d H e n c e i ts n am e I t ig n o r e s all psychica l
. .

p r oc e ss e s fo r which n o co rre spo n di n g physiological pr oc e ss e s i n

t h e b r ai n ar e co n c e i vabl e H e n c e physiological psych ology is
.

c o rre lat e d to t h e physiology of t h e b r ai n j ust as psychical p r o ,

c e ss e s ar e co rr e la t e d t o c e r e b r al e xcitatio n s Wh e r e v e r t h e
.

ph ysiology of t h e b r ai n do e s n o t ye t o fl e r su ffi ci e n t k n owl e dg e

'

,
 771 6 7728 and S yn ops i s f
o C n t e n ts
o .
3

p h ysi o logical psychology m ay b e a ll o w e d to i n v e stigat e t h e ba r e

psychical ph e n om e n a —as pu r e l y psyc h ical— provid e d i t is always
g u id e d by t h e though t that e v e n fo r th e s e psychical ph e n om e n a
, ,

at l e ast t h e po ssi bi li ty of co n com ita n t c e r e bral proc e ss e s mus t b e

sh own .

F o rm e rly i t was do u bt e d wh e th e r th e r e could b e an e xact

n a t u r al sci e n c e o f psychology at a ll E v e n Ka n t sh ar e d thi s
.

doub t O n e of h is chi e f a rgum e n ts is as fo ll ows Th e psych ica l

.

ph e n om e n a ar e i n comm e n surabl e b e caus e th e y ar e n o t qua n ti

t i v e ly com pr e h e n sibl e . Th e r e for e th e y c an n e v e r be s u bj e ct e d t o
m ath e matical tr e atm e n t I t is n o t n e c e s sary for u s to d e duc e from
.

t h e co n c e pti o n o f psychical life t h e po s si b i l ity o f applyi n g ma th e

m at i c al comp u ta ti o n to th at fi e ld of sci e n c e fo r Ka n t h as alr e ady ,

b e e n r e fu t e d b y t h e h ist o ry o f p sycho l ogy L e ss tha n fo r ty y e ar s

.

aft e r Ka n t had giv e n this j udgm e n t H e rbart had a lr e ady app l i e d

,

m ath e matics to p sych o logy i n t h e most fr ui tfu l way O n e may .

agr e e with his r e sults o r n o t ; at all e v e n ts t h e po s si bi li ty o f a

math e matical tr e atm e n t o f psych o logy was d e m o n st rat e d by t h e
w o rks o f H e rbart as e arly as 1 8 2 2 F u rth e rm or e physiological
.
,

p sychology has n o w e s tablish e d im po r t a n t p r o positio n s capa b l e

o f e xact m a t h e matical stat e m e n t This d e pa rt m e n t o f physio
.

l o gical psychology c o mmo n ly re c e iv e s t h e sp e cial d e sig n ati o n o f

psycho-physics . I t was F e ch n e r t h e psychol o gist of Le ipsic
, ,

r e c e n tly d e c e as e d who fi rst t r e at e d c e r tai n d e pa rt m e n ts of physio

,

l o gical psychology m ath e m atically with positive s u cc e ss We .

s hal l b e c o m e acquai n t e d with a s e r i e s o f such psych o - p h ysi cal

laws ; psycho- physics will th e r e for e b e a com po n e n t fac t of o u r
sci e n c e T h e followi n g sch e m e will m ak e cl e ar to us t h e posi tio n
.

o f ou r sci e n c e

.I S p e culati v e P sych ol ogy .

2
. E mpiri cal P sychol o gy .

a
) Tra n sc e n d e n tal P sych o logy : p sych ical proc e ss e s n o t

co n ti n g e n t o n c e r e bral fu n ctio n .

as) P hysiologi cal P sychology : psych ical p r oc e ss e s co n

t i ng e n t o n c e r e b r a l fu n ctio n ( i n t e gr al part : me t r i c
physiological psychology p sycho-physics ) .
4 I n t r o du ct o n i t o P /zys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

I nr e pairi g to t h e gr e at world o f p sychical ph e n o m e n a o ur

n
,

fi r st task wi l l be t h at o f e v e ry e m pirical sci e n c e viz t h e critica l ,

.
,

i n v e s tigatio n o f data which we m ust fi rst gath e r e m pirica ll y tha t

,

we m ay th e n st u dy th e i r co n n e ctio n H e r e we e n c o u n t e r t h e .

qu e sti o n at o n c e h o w do we r e cog n is e p sych ical ph e n o m e n a ?

,

Wha t will h e l p us to a trustworthy d iag n osis o f such p h e n om e n a ?

T h e c r it e r io n c an o n ly b e word e d th u s — All an d o n ly t h e ,

ph e n om e n a wh ich ar e im pa r t e d to o ur co n sci o u sn ess ar e psychica l .

Tha t which is withou t u s i n spac e an d tim e which we assig n as ,

t h e ca u s e o f o u r s e n sati o n s is m at e rial Th e tr e e who s e e xist e n c e

, .
,

we acc e pt as e xt e r n al t o u s wh e n we hav e t h e visual s e n satio n o f

a tr e e is m at e r ial Th e s e n satio n o f sight its e lf is psych ical i n s o
, .

fa r as i t co n c ern s o ur c o n scious n e ss H e r e a t t h e b e gi n n i n g o f .

ou r i n v e stigatio n s w e fin d psyc h ical an d c o n sciou s t o b e who ll y

id e n tica l fo r we c an fo r m n o i d e a at all o f what an u n co n sci o us
,

s e n sation o r id e a m ight be We k n ow s e n sati o n s an d id e as o n ly

.

as far as we ar e c o n scio u s o f th e m Lat e r we sh a l l se e th at m a n y .

i n v e stigators hav e a l so assu m e d u n c o n scious s e n satio n s an d id e as .

L e t u s suppos e that we pass a fr i e n d an d b e i n g absorb e d i n , ,

thoug h t fail to se e h i m but aft e r a fe w st e ps fu rt h e r i t s u dd e n ly

,

o ccu r s to u s that o u r fr i e n d has j u st pas s e d an d we th e n gr e e t

h im I n this c ase i t s e e m s r atio n al t o assum e that an u n c o n

.

scious s e e i n g of t h e fri e n d pr e c e d e d t h e co n scious s e e i n g that an ,

u n c o n scio u s s e n sati o n o f sigh t was p rior to t h e co n scio u s s e n sa tio n .

O n cl o s e r i n v e s tigati o n ho we v e r this as s umptio n is s e e n to be

, ,

who l ly arbitrary Wh e n t h e fri e n d pass e d t h e r e ti n a an d optic

.
,

n e r ve w e re irritat e d an d t h e latt e r co n duct e d t h e e xcitati o n

,

farth e r to t h e occip ital lob e o f t h e c e r e b r u m t h e s o - call e d v isua l ,

c e n t r e We k n o w that this e xcitatio n i s a m at e ria l a ch e m ica l

.
,

p r oc e ss At fi rs t n o psychical p ro c e ss at all co r r e spo n d e d to t h e

.

m at e rial proc e s s O th e r mo re i n t e n s e id e as i e m or e i n t e n s e
.
, . .

e xcitatio n s of o th e r pa r ts o f t h e bra i n absorb e d ou r tho u g h ts ,

.

To e xp r e ss t h e fact b r i e fly we m ay say C o n com i ta n t p sychica l

, ,

p roc e ss e s took plac e fo r t h e t im e b e i n g o n ly i n oth e r p o r t io n s o f

t h e b rai n Th e re for e we did n o t se e t h e fr i e n d an d pass e d with
.
,

o u t r e c o g n isi n g h im Th e n aft e r a fe w st e ps we w e r e arous e d

.
, ,
 Co n t e n t s
l

T/z e zn e a n al S y n ops i s f
o .
5

fr om o ur m e ditatio n s an d t h e id e as that had j u st b e e n occ u pyi n g

,

o ur att e n tio n d im i n ish e d i n i n t e n sity an d r e ti r e d N ow fo r t h e .

,

fi rst tim e a c o n com ita n t p sychical proc e ss app e ars i n r e spo n s e t o

,

t h e m at e rial e xcitatio n o f t h e occipital lob e which h as r e m ai n e d ,

p e rsist e n t an d gradually tak e n e fl e c t N o w fo r t h e fi r st tim e i t .

occ u rs to us that we h av e s e e n t h e fri e n d T hus we p e rc e i v e .

that i t is by n o m e a n s n e c e ssary to assum e an u n co n scio u s s e n sa

tio n as a n t e c e d e n t to t h e co n scio u s T h e assu m pti o n t h at .

pr i m arily o n l y a physical e xcitati o n e xist e d wh ich s u bs e qu e n tly ,

le d to psychical p r oc e ss e s i e e n t e r e d i n t o t h e co n scious n e s s , . .
,

i s j u st as simp l e an d d e cid e dly mor e l e gitimat e s i n c e i t i n tr o d u c e s ,

n o n e w an d who l ly u n i n t e l ligibl e co n c e ptio n L e t us r e p e at i t .

“ “
p syc/z i ca l an d co n sci o u s ar e f o r u s, a t least at t i l e beg i n n i ng
of our
i i n vest g aT
t i h latt
o n s,
e e r as i t w e r
i de n t i cal
e is t h e .
1
, ,

S hib b ol e th fo r t h e form e r F r om t h e outstart t h e co n c e ptio n .

,

u n c o n scio u s psychical proc e ss e s i s fo r us an e m pty c o n c e ptio n

”
,
.

We sh all m e e t wi th i t agai n farth e r o n as a hypoth e s is th o u gh ,

o n e t o b e r e gard e d fr om t h e b e gi n n i n g with gr e at sc e pticism .

W i thou t p r oc e e di n g fr om a d e fi n it e classifi ca tio n i n to thr e e

m e n tal facul ti e s o r from an y oth e r hypoth e s is what e v e r le t us
, ,

n o w see k the p sychical ph e n om e n a wh e re v e r we fin d th e m

i n co n n e ctio n with t h e p r oc e ss e s o f t h e n e rvous sy st e m It is .

1
u
I n n m e rab l
tro ve rsi e s h ave b e e n spu n o u t c o n c e rn i n g t h e q ue st i o n as
e co n

to wh t h
e e r t h e re ar e u n co n sci o u s psyc hi ca l c o n di t i o n s o r n o t A go o d .

syn o ps i s o f t h e se d i sc u s s i o n s i s t o b e fo u n d i n t h e wo rk o f G C ESC A U e be r .
,

di e E xi s t e n z v o n u n be wus st e n psychi sch e n Zu st an d e n ”

( Vi cr te lj ali r sclz f r . .

u i ss
'
P lz i losop/z i c 1 8 8 5 Ed
.
, Th e co n c lu s i o n at whi c h M r C e sca
, . .

arr ive s i s u n d o ub t e dl y wh o ll y fal se A mo n g th o s e tre at i n g t h e q ue st i o n.

e xh au s t iv e ly ar e e s e c i all y H A M I L T O N L e c t u re s o n M e taph ys i cs an d L o gi c
”
p , ,

1 8 8 2 ; J MI LL . An al ys i s o f t h e P h e n o m e n a o f t h e H u ma n M i n d 1 8 78 ;
, ,

L E W ES , Pro b l e ms o f L ife an d M i n d 1 8 79 an d MA U DSL EY P hys i o l o gy ,

”
,

o f M ind I n t h e case o f t h e pass i n g fr i e n d a l re ad y c i t e d h o we v e r t h e

.
, , ,

pro c e ss i s al so fre qu e n t l y t h e fo ll o w i n g Th e e x c i tat i o n o f t h e vi su a l c e n tre

.

b y t h e i mage o f t h e fri e n d m ay i n d e e d b e acc o m pa n i e d by a s e n sat i o n w hi c h

, , , ,

h o we ve r i n co n se que n c e o f t h e pre d o m i n an ce o f o th e r id e as i s n o t su ffi c i e n tl y
, ,

i n t e n s e at fi rst t o pro mpt an y fu rth e r t h o u gh t l e ast o f all t h e re co gn i t i o n o f ,

t h e fri e n d .
6 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P /cys i o log i cal P syc/z o logy .

obvious tha t t h e fi rs t b e gi n n i n gs o f a n e r vous p r oc e ss ar e to be

sough t wh e r e a n imal a n atomy fi r st m e e ts with a n e r vo u s appara
tus i n t h e asc e n d i n g scal e o f a n imal life An im al a n atomy how .
,

e v e r is fa r fr om havi n g b r ough t i ts i n v e stigati o n s i n this l i n e to a

,

clos e We fin d t h e fi rst u n qu e stio n abl e r udim e n ts o f a n e rvou s

.

syst e m i n t h e M e dus a o n t h e fr e e m ar gi n o f wh o s e swi m m i n g

,

u mb re lla R o m a n e s has fou n d n um e r ous n e r v e -e n ds an d co n d u e

tiv e filam e n ts wh ich p e n e t r at e t h e umb r e lla I rritatio n at an y
, .

p oi n t of t h e umb r e lla ca u s e s a co n t r actio n of t h e li n i n g sh e e t o f

m uscula r tissu e re sulti n g i n locom otio n T h e co n t r actio n ap .

p e a r s t o b e gi n at som e d e fi n i t e poi n t o f t h e umb re l l a an d e ve n t u ,

ally t o b e com e u n iv e rsal A c e rtai n capaci ty fo r n e rvous p roc e ss e s

.

m ight p r o pe r l ybe re cog n is e d i n t h e m oto r activity of e v e n t h e

si m pl e st Am oe b ae L e t us i m agi n e a m o n ad to b e p l ac e d b e fore
.

us an d a g r ai n to b e b r ough t i n co n tact wi th i t P r oto plasmic

, .

m ass e s t h e so -call e d ps e udopodia st re t ch t h e ms e lv e s ou t e n

, , ,

v e lo
p t h e g r ai n an d co n trac t agai n with i t to t h e m ai n m ass
,
.

I n this p r oc e ss thos e fe atu r e s ar e al r e ady p r e s e n t th at we sha l l

,

r e cogn is e i n t h e future as t h e e ss e n tials o f n e r vous fu n ctio n vi z ,

( )
I a stimulatio n ( lat e r we shall say a s e n sibl e sti m u latio n) a nd

as a re spo n s e to th is stimul atio n ( 2) a r e actio n , in fac t a motor ,

e ffe c t that is by n o m e a n s e asily e xplicabl e by m e r e ly physic al

,

laws H e n c e wh e r e v e r we fin d co n t r actil e sub sta n c e t h e c o n

.
, ,

di t i o n s o f n e r v e -
l ife ar e alr e ady p r e s e n t I n t h e protis t a o n e .
,

an d t h e sam e c e ll as a whol e i s s till t h e s e at of t h e r e c e ptio n of

, ,

t h e sti mulus an d o f t h e m otor r e actio n

,
I n a v e ry i n t e r e sti n g .

way this is cha n g e d i n t h e C oe l e n t e r ata I n t h e Hydra we fin d .

t h e so — call e d n e u r o -muscula r c e lls o r e pi th e l ial m uscula r c e lls .

Th e y ar e l e ss disti n ct iv e ly de v e lop e d also e v e n i n m a n y Flage l

lata ( P o t e r i o de n dr o n ) I n th e s e cas e s t h e stim ul atio n is re c e iv e d
.

by t h e c e ll o n ly a t s (fig an d t h e m oto r r e actio n tak e s plac e

.

o n ly at t h e p oi n ts ui an d m so that a s e pa r atio n of t h e s e n sory

'
,

an d moto r y pa r ts has al r e ady b e e n e fie c t e d I n t h e M e dus ae we

’

fin d still fu r th e r d e v e lop m e n t t h e gradual acc o m pl ishm e n t o f

,

which we must co n c e iv e o f as follows L e t us suppos e an a n im al .

body compos e d o f m a n y c e lls to b e b r ought i n co n tac t wi th an y

,
 Tne n z e an d S yn ops i s o f C on t en ts .
7

giv e n s timulus T h e lat t e r is co n sta n tly t r a n smi tt e d as an e xcita

.

tio n with i n t h e a n imal alo n g t h e path offe r i n g t h e l e ast r e sis ta n c e .

Thus t h e e xcitatio n s wi ll com e to b e t r an smi t t e d o n ly al o n g fi x e d

paths t h e so -
,
ca ll e d paths o f co n duc ti o n Accordi n g to a fu n da .

m e n tal law o f b iology t h e co n s t a n t e x e cu t io n o f d e fi n it e fu n c t io n s

,

also gradually e ffe cts c e rtai n s t ruct ural m odi fica t i o n s Accord .

i n g l y th e s e pat hs of co n ductio n b e com e a n atomically di ffe r e n t i at e d

from th e i r su rroun di n gs an d t h e n e rv e s d e v e lop i n to i n d e p e n d e n t
an atomical tissu e s .E v e n i n t h e M e du sa: we fin d t h is d e gr e e o f
d e v e lopm e n t I n t h e s e a n im als i n fac t a m e diat i n g orga n h as
.
, ,

al r e ady b e e n i n t r oduc e d i n t h e fo r m o f a s o call e d g an g l io n c e ll

,
~
,

b e tw e e n t h e s e n sory co n ducto r r e c e ivi n g t h e stim u latio n an d t h e

FIG . 1 .

m oto r co n ducto r impa r ti n g con t r actio n Tha t which we fin d i n .

t h e c o m p l e t e n e rvous syst e m o f t h e M e dus ae h as o n ly be e n de

v e lo pe d from t h e im e r fe c t capaciti e s wh ich w e re alr e ady pr e

p
t ypi fie d i n t h e l ow e s t P r otista but wh ich did n o t ye t app e a r t o
,

b e a n at o mical l y d i ffe re n tiat e d Wh e n as i n t h e cas e of t h e

.
,

M e d u s ae a stimulus acti n g upo n t h e n e rv e-

, e n d s ( fig I ) r e ach e s a .

ga n gl io n -c e ll an d is t r a n smi tt e d by t h e lat t e r al o n g a n e w n e rv e
,

path t o co n tractil e m ass e s so as to im par t m otio n t h e e n t ir e

, ,

p r oc e ss is d e sig n at e d as r efl ex act i o n R e fl e x actio n is t h e si m

.

p e s t n e rvous proc e ss o f which we h av e k n owl e dg e

l Aft e r t h e .

ab ov e stat e m e n ts th e r e c an b e n o obj e ctio n to d e sig n ati n g t h e

n um e r ous mov e m e n ts o f t h e p r otista caus e d by t h e m e cha n ica l
,
8 I n t r o duct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P syc/zo logy .

stimul i o f ligh t (r e c e n tly d e sc r ib e d a n e w by Ve r wo r n ) as r e fl e x

ac tio n al though n e rv e -paths c an i n n o wis e b e show n to e x is t
,

i n th e s e a n i mals Am o n g th e s e r e fl e x actio n s ar e t h e wi thd rawal

.

o f t h e P se u do po di um
l
wh e n p r ick e d i n t h e cas e of t h e Acti n o ,

sph ae ri u m o r t h e m ov e m e n ts o f t h e Flag e llata i n da r t i n g back

,

by m e a n s o f t h e mov e m e n ts of th e ir o wn cilia .

L e t us pa s s at o n c e from t h e M e dus ae to t h e high e st class es o f

a n im als an d s e e k r e fl e x ac tio n i n t h e latt e r H e r e i t app e ar s
, .

that tha t wh ich we le ar n e d from t h e M e dus ae is to b e m e t wi th ,

agai n scarc e ly alt e r e d i n t h e high e st a n im a l s We u n d e r s ta n d

, , .

by r e fl e x actio n i n h igh e r a n im als a m otio n i m pa rt e d by a st i m u ,

l u s which acts u po n a s e n sibl e p e r iph e ry Thi n k o f t h e w e l l .

k n own r e fl e x a ctio n p r oduc e d upon t h e sol e of t h e foot A p rick .

o n t h e sol e o f t h e foot is a n sw e r e d by t h e wi th d r awal of t h e foo t ,

by fl e x i o n an d to som e e xt e n t by t h e co n trac t io n of t h e to e s
, , , .

I n this cas e t h e e ss e n tial a n atomical e l e m e n ts of t h e proc e ss ar e

tho r o u ghly k n own I n t h e sol e of t h e foot ar e t h e t e rm i n ati o n s
.

of s e n so ry n e rv e s Th e s e ar e i rri tat e d an d c o n duc t t h e stimulus

.
,

o r as w e s h al l call t h e sti m u lus as soo n as it h as b e e n r e c e iv e d by

,

t h e n e r v e s t h e ex ci t at i o n to a s e n so ry ga n g l io n -
,
c e l l S (fig 2 ) in .

t h e spi n al cord This c e ll s e n ds t h e e xcitatio n r e c e iv e d al o n g

M
.

t h e i n t e r- c e n t r al p ath S to t h e m oto r g an glio n -c e ll i ll wh ic h ,

i n t urn t r a n smits t h e im puls e agai n towa r d t h e p e rip h e ry i e ,

. .

c e n tri fugally an d g e n e r at e s m uscula r acti vi ty T h e r e is a l arg e

,
.

n um b e r of su ch r e fl e x m otio n s Th e y ar e a l so d e sig n at e d as
.

low e r o r sim pl e r e fl e x m otio n s N ow do e s a co n com i t an t psych

.
,

ical p roc e ss co rr e spo n d to th is n e rvous p roc e ss wi th wh ich we

h av e j u st b e com e acq u ai n t e d as sim pl e r e fl e x acti on ? O u r c o n
sc i o usn e ss as show n above i s alo n e abl e to d e c id e t h e qu e sti o n
, ,

i t u n doub t e dly a n sw e r s N 0 I f o ur foo t is bu t prick e d u n awa re s

.
,

i t i s o n l y a ft e r t h e m ov e m e n t h as b e e n e x e c u t e d tha t we are i n

1
E v en h e e,r case s o f t h e s i mpl es t re fl e x acti o n
i n th e fi tn ess i c ,
“
, . .

ad aptati o n t o a d e fi n i t e pur po se be co mes v e ry appare n t fo r n e arl y all t h e

, ,

r e fl e x m o v e m e n ts o f t h e pro t i sta r e su l t i n g fro m m ec h an ical i rritati o n cau se

, ,

t h e w i t hd rawal o f t h e o rga n i sm fr o m t h e i rr i tan t (n e gat iv e t hi g mo t r o pis m ) .

I O I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

igou r with wh ich t h e to e s ar e co n tract e d o r t h e foo t is wit h

'

Th e v

d r awn m ay cha n g e but t h e sam e gr oups o f m uscl e s ar e always

,

i n n e r v e d an d always e x e cut e t h e sam e m ov e m e n ts Th e pe c u

, .

li ar i t i e s o f t h e stim u lus h av e n o i n flu e n c e upo n t h e mo t o r r e actio n .

At t his poi n t le t us call att e n tio n also to a n oth e r disti n guish i n g

fe atu re o f th e s e low e r re fl e x m oti o n s Notwiths t an di n g th e ir c o n .

s t an c y th e y ar e g e n e r ally fi tti n g i e adapt e d to a purpos e

, H e re
,
. . .
,

ab o v e al l we must gu a r d agai n st t h e id e a too e asi l y fo rm e d i n

, ,

co n n e ctio n wi th t h e id e a o f r e fl e x actio n th at t h e fi t n e ss o f a ,

n e rvous proc e ss d e m o n st r at e s i ts p sychi cal n atu r e Th e colou r .

of t h e bird s plum ag e t h e st r uctur e of t h e h an d an d co u n tl e ss

’
, ,

ph e n om e n a o f t h e v e g e tabl e wo r ld i n wh ich we fi rst m e e t wi th ,

e xp e di e n cy an d o r gan i z atio n ar e fi tti n g ; i n n o oth e r s e n s e is

,

l ow r r e fl e x ac tio n fi tti n g Th e r e fo re i t is n o m or e p sych ical

e .
l

tha n t h e c o lou r o f a fe ath e r I n fact t h e fi t n e ss o f this r e fl e x ac

.
,

tio n an d t h e fit n e ss of t h e b ird s plum ag e w e r e d e v e lop e d i n a v e ry

,
’

simi l ar m a n n e r v iz by tra n smiss i o n o r h e r e dity an d by n atur al

, .
,

s e l e ctio n An imals whos e n e r vous m e cha n ism was so con st r uct e d

.

t hat th e y d id n o t r e spo n d to a p r ick by w ithd r awi n g bu t r ath e r ,

by e xt e n di n g t h e i rr itat e d m e mb e r still fu r th e r w e r e m uch m or e ,

e xp o s e d t o i n j ur i e s tha n thos e poss e ss e d o f a n e r vous capacity ,

p ri m a r i l y accid e n tal wh ich e n abl e d th e m t o withdraw i n r e sp o n s e

,

to t h e ir r itation Acco r di n gly t h e fo r m e r d e v e lop e d with l e ss

.

vig o u r di d n o t live so lo n g p r opagat e d l e ss r apidly an d c o n s e

, , , ,

qu e n tly tra n sm i tt e d th e i r u n fit t i n g m e cha n ism to a co n sta n tly

d e c r e asi n g n u m b e r o f o ffspri n g T h e co n st an t op e r atio n o f th i s .

n a t ural s e l e ctio n e ffe ct e d t h e fi n al e xt in c tio n of all a n im als h avi n g

an u n fit t i n g r e fl e x m e cha n ism O n ly thos e a n imals p r e vail e d i n

.

wh ich a fi tti n g m e chan ism e xist e d , as a t t h e pr e s e n t ti m e .

M o r e ov e r t h e fi t n e ss o f r e fl e x actio n by n o m e a n s d e mo n st rat e s
that psych ical proc e ss e s a ccom pa n y t h e r e fl e x m otion s Accord .

i n gly P fl t i ge r was w r o n g i n assum i n g a sp e cial soul fo r t h e spi n al

'

co r d upo n t h e g r ou n d o f th is fi t n e ss of spi n al r e fl e x acti o n I n .

L S h d f d d t h th
EWE as e en e e eo ry o f t h e o i
mn pre s e n ce o f co n sc i o u sn e ss i n

all r fl x c tr t t h x tr m
e e en es o e e e e, but u po n q it i u ffici t gr u d
u e ns en o n s .
 The me an d S yn ops i s o f Co n t e n t s . [ I

s u pp o rt o f his th e o r y P fl u ge r m ad e u s e o f t h e fo l l o wi n g w e ll
,

k n own e xp e rim e n t A frog is d e capitat e d an d i ts l e ft le g

.
,

am p u tat e d ; as s o o n as a spot o n t h e l e ft sid e o f t h e body i s

m o i s t e n e d with acid i t i s imm e diat e l y wip e d o ff wi th t h e r igh t
,

le g B ut th i s e xp e rim e n t o ffe rs n o pr o o f what e v e r o f h is th e o r y

.

o f a sp e cial so ul i n t h e sp i n al cord : ( I ) b e ca u s e th is sa m e r e fl e x

ac t tak e s p l ac e e ls e wh e r e as a n o rmal p h e n om e n o n an d i s s o m e ,

t im diag o n a ll y e x e cut e d
e s
1
( )
2 b e caus e e v e n t h e gr e at e st fi t n e s s

is c o n c e ivab l e wi tho u t psychi cal p r oc e s s e s .

From t h e ab o v e e xp l a n atio n w e shal l s o o n b e ab l e t o u n d e rstand

still a n oth e r poi n t T h e s e low e r r e fl e x m ov e m e n ts ar e g en e r ally
.

fi tti n g i e t h e y v e ri fy t h e i r fi t n e ss i n t h e gr e at m aj o ri ty of cas e s
, . .

b u t th e r e ar e cas e s also i n which th e y m ay b e dire ctly u n fit t i n g

an d i n j urio u s I n s u c h cas e s t h e c h arac t e ristic c o n stan cy tha t
.
,

has b e e n i n h e ri t e d th r o ugh m a n y c e n turi e s by all r e fl e x act io n ,

i s an o b stacl e Th e r e fl e x m otio n o f t h e foot fo r e xam pl e i s

.
, ,

e x e cut e d i n j u s t t h e sam e ma n n e r wh e n a s e co n d sharp e r n e e dl e

i s p l ac e d ahoo e t h e i n st e p t h e ski n b e i n g th e re by e xpos e d to a

,

m u ch s e v e r e r i n j ury u po n wi thdrawi n g t h e foo t Th e low e r r e fl e x .

m otio n s ar e abs o lut e l y an d h e n c e bli n d l y co n stan t ; th e y ar e

, ,

th e re fo r e o n ly ge n er ally fi tti n g .

Wh e th e r th e s e r e fl e x acts i n wh ich al l psychical co n com i ta n t ,

i s wa n ti n g hav e o rigi n at e d fr om acts o rigi n al l y psych ical that is

, ,

fr o m n e rv ous p r oc e ss e s h avi n g a psychical corr e lativ e (fo r e xam pl e ,

volu n tary act s) i s a q u e stio n th at ca n n ot a ffe c t o u r co n c e ptio n

,

o f th e m We S ha l l s e e l at e r wh at d e gr e e of p r ob ability c an be
.

gra n t e d this as s um ptio n At fi r s t w e ar e o n ly acq u ai n t e d with

.

l o w e r r e fl e x acti o n as we no w fin d i t ; w e k n ow n o t hi ng o f an y
p sych ical corr e lat e fo r t h i s r eflex p r oc e ss .

Th e nu m e rous m or e com plicat e d r e fl e x acts with w h ich w e ,

ar e at pr e s e n t acquai n t e d ar e t o b e disti n guish e d fr o m th e s e

,

si mpl e st r e fl e x acts as r e gards t h e m ot o r part of t h e pr o c e ss T h e .

1
Th e e x p ri me AU E RB AC H (Ze i t sch r j : kli n fl i e d I V 4) an d
t
en s o f . .
, ,

S AN D E RS - E ZN (Arb e i t e n au s d ph ys i o l A n s t z L e i pz i g 1 867) al s o d e mo n
. . .
,

strat e o n l y r e fl e x—h ardl y au t o mat i c —a c t ivi ty o f t h e s i n a l co rd

p .
12 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P h o logy
syc .

s e n sibl e stim ulus at l e ast so far as qual ity is co n c e r n e d r e mai n s

, ,

t h e sam e ; bu t t h e m oto r r e sp o n s e b e com e s m o r e c o m plicat e d

i n proporti o n as t h e growi n g i n t e n si ty o f t h e ir r itatio n s e ts a
gr e at e r n umb e r o f m uscl e s i n actio n Fi n a ll y, t h e thr u st o f t h e .

n e e dl e havi n g b e com e su ffi ci e n tly i n t e n s e n o t o n ly t h e o n e le g , ,

but also t h e a r m o n t h e sam e sid e th e n e v e n t h e o th e r le g an d ,

arm an d t h e muscl e s o f t h e fac e wil l b e se t i n m otion B u t .

oth e r wis e t h e m oti o n r e tai n s its mo n oto n o u s ch a r act e r Th e .

withdrawal o f t h e s u ck e rs o f t h e sta r fish also furn ish e s a good

i l lustratio n o f t h e g radual propagatio n o f r e fl e x m otio n as t h e
s timulus i s i n cr e as e d T h e m ov e m e n ts of t h e C ri n oid e a c u lmi
.
,

n ati n g i n actual fl igh t o fl e r a n ot h e r e xampl e ,

T h e fo ll owi n g .

e xp e rim e n t fur n ish e d by G o l tz 5 also i t e r sti g

1
1 n e n .

I f aft e r h avi n g r e m ov e d t h e c e r e brum o f a fr o g we to u ch t h e

, ,

cor n e a o f t h e b r ai n l e ss a n imal w ith a c o u ch i n g-n e e dl e t h e fi rst ,

r e fl e x m otio n is t h e closi n g of i ts e y e l id I f w e r e p e at o r i n .

t e n sify t h e sti m ulatio n t h e a n imal wil l s trik e t h e n e e dl e asid e

,

with t h e cor r e spo n di n g fro n t foot A s till fur th e r i n cr e as e caus e s .

t h e h e ad an d tru n k to b e tu rn e d away fr o m t h e irri ta n t Fi n al l y .

,

u p o n co n sta n tly i n cr e asi n g b oth t h e fr e q u e n cy an d i n t e n si ty of

t h e ir r i tatio n t h e a n imal wi l l r e ti r e t o som e oth e r plac e

,
Vu l .

pian has m ad e a mo re acc u rat e s t u dy o f th e s e m or e comp l icat e d

r e fl e x m otio n s .

Fu r th e rmo r e t h e con ditio n s of r e fl e x actio n t h e s e n sibl e

, ,

s timuli m ay n o t o n ly b e com e m or e i n t e n s e b u t a lso m o r e

, ,

n um e r o u s an d com plica t e d Au e rbach has obs e rv e d that a de .

capitat e d frog t h e ski n o f whos e b re as t h as b e e n cau t e ri z e d at

,

som e p oi n t e x e cut e s a va r i e ty of m ov e m e n ts accordi n g to t h e

,

positio n o f i ts l imbs an d t h e locatio n o f t h e cau t e riz e d spot .

H e n c e so call e d c o ordi n ation i s al so cha r act e r istic of r e fl e x

,
- “ - ”

actio n t o a g r e at e xt e n t An d ye t we h a v e n o g r ou n d what e v e r
.

for ass u mi n g t h at th e s e high e r o r m or e c o mp l icat e d r e fl e x acts

ar e accom pa n i e d by psych ical p roc e ss e s .

1
G OLTZ , Be i trag
'

e z ur L e hr e vo n de n F u n c t i o n e n de r N e rv e n ce n t r e n de s
F r ch
os e s,
”
Be r li n , 1 8 69 , S .
59 .
 Th e m e an d S y n ops i s o f Co n t en ts .
3

L et us n o w l e a v e r e fl e x actio n an d pass o n to t h e n e x t s tag e .

A frog whos e c e r e b ru m i n clu di ng t h e o ptic thalam us has b e e n

, , ,

e xtirpat e d sti l l l e ap s away wh e n pi n c h e d ; b u t i n so doi n g i t

,

st u m b l e s agai n s t a l l obst r uctio n s L e t u s n e x t obs e r v e a frog .

m o r e cl o s e ly i n wh ich t h e c e r e b ru m ex clu si ve o f t h e op tic tha l a ,

m us has b e e n r e mov e d All r e fl e x actio n i s r e tai n e d A p ric k

,
. .

o n i ts foot e asily caus e s i t to l e ap o ff I f we plac e an o bstacl e .

i n t h e p ath o f i ts r e t r e at i t avoids t h e obstruction o r i n ra r e , , ,

1
cas e s cl e ars i t with a w e ll e stimat e d b o u n d
, Th e m e r e ac t o f .

l e api n g away m ay poss i bly i n cas e o f n e c e ssity b e r e gard e d as , ,

a c o mplicat e d r e fl e x ac t ; bu t t h e fact t h at t h e frog avoids t h e

o bstacl e wh il e r e t r e ati n g sh ows at o n c e that q u it e a n oth e r p r oc e ss

i s co n c e r n e d This p r oc e ss we sha l l a n alyz e A s e n sibl e st i mu

. .

lati o n (t h e p r icki n g ) impa r ts a c o mpl icat e d m otor r e actio n (t h e

m ov e m e n t s i n l e api n g ) which thus far m ay be c o n sid e r e d as r e fl e x
, .

Whi l e t h e latt e r is taki n g plac e a n oth e r i n t e r cu r r e n t stim ulu s ,

app e a r s viz t h e obst r uct io n wh ich we plac e i n t h e way an d

, .

which i r ri tat e s t h e t e r m i n atio n s of t h e optic n e rv e S uc h an .

i n t e rcur r e n t stimulus has n o i n fl u e n c e at all up o n r e fl e x a ctio n ,

o r at t h e m o s t its i n flu e n c e is b ut qua n titativ e I f we prick t h e .

sol e o f o n e s foot an d at t h e sam e tim e apply an y oth e r form of

’

stimu l atio n by p e r mi tti n g fo r e xampl e t h e brig h t e s t light to b e

, ,

flash e d o r t h e loud e s t n ois e to be m ad e t h e m otor r e ac tio n w ill

, ,

at m ost p r o ve t o b e som e what w e ak e r o r st r o n g e r b u t t h e sam e ,

m u s cl e s will b e a ffe ct e d S o fa r as quality i s co n c e r n e d t h e

.
,

r e fl e x m o tio n o f t h e so l e is co n sta n t B u t that compl icat e d .

p r oc e s s i n volv e d i n t h e mov e m e n ts o f t h e brai n l e ss fr o g wh il e

,

m aki n g its e scap e is v e r y d iffe r e n t Th e i n t e r cu rr e n t visual

, .

irrita n t m odifi e s t h e actio n an d t he a n i mal a vo i ds t h e o hst r u ct i o n

, .

Th e r e fo r e i n t h is cas e moto r r e actio n s o f q u it e a n o th e r ki n d ar e

,

co n c e r n e d Thos e m oto r re actio n s t ha t ar e n o t t h e i n va r iabl e

.

r e sul t o f a d e fi n it e stimul us as ar e t h e r e fl e x acts but that ar e , ,

m odifi e d wh il e i n p r ogre ss by t h e actio n o f n e w i n t e rc urr e n t

1
G O LT Z , Be i trag e z ur L e hr e vo n de n F un ct i o n e n de r N e r ve n c e n t r e n de s
Fr h
o sc e s,
”
Be r li n, 1 869 , S . 65 .
I 4 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

s timuli ,
sh all call au t o mat i c act s o r r eact i o n s i n t h e m o r e r e
we 1
,

st r i c t e d s e n s e o f t h e word s We fin d such automatic acts i a .

n um e r abl e C all t o m i n d t h e pia n ist who e x e cut e s an oft e n p r a e

.

t i s e d p i e c e of m usic whil e h is thoughts ar e wan d e r i n g e l s e wh e r e .

D e spit e his abs e n c e o f m i n d his fi n g e r s glid e ov e r t h e r igh t k e ys

,

i n prop e r succ e ssio n I n this cas e also an a u tomatic ac t is c o n

.

c e r n e d Th e visual im ag e o f t h e n ot e s an d t h e s e n satio n s o f
.

t ouch , impa r t e d b y co n tact with t h e k e ys ac t without i n t e rrup ,

tio n upo n t h e e x e cutio n of t h e m ov e m e n ts o f t h e fi n g e r s Or .

,

to cit e a n oth e r e xampl e we oft e n d e sc e n d a fl ight of stairs whil e

,

d e e ply absorb e d i n tho u gh t I n t h is cas e a l s o as i n that of

.
,

t h e e x pe r im e n t with a frog t h e actio n of t h e c e r e bru m upo n t h e

,

m otio n s o f t h e body h as i n a c e rtai n s e n s e b e e n r e mov e d An d .

e t w e ar e abl e to plac e o n e fo ot aft e r t h e oth e r sa fe ly Th is is

y .

an oth e r e xam pl e i n wh ich a m otio n i n p r ogr e ss i s m odifi e d by

co n sta n tly i n te r cu rr e n t stimuli Th e s e e xampl e s also show us .

th at we ar e u n co n scious o f such automatic p r oc e ss e s an d tha t ,

t h e latt e r ar e n o t psychical ; i n fact o ur co n scio u s n e ss i s e m ,

loy d e ls e wh e re A ll wa rr a n tabl e fou n datio n fo r t h e ass u mptio n

p e .

o f co n comit a n t py sc h i c a l p r oc e ss e s 2
is wa n ti n g S e lf-o b s e rva .

tio n w h ich is alo n e abl e to d e m o n st r at e co n c l usiv e ly t h e e xi s

,

t e n c e o f a psych ical p r oc e ss t e sti fie s to t h e co n trary T h e r e for e

, .

t h e a u tom atic acts shar e with t h e r e fl e x acts t h e charac t e r istic

abs e n c e o f co n com ita n t psych ical o r co n scious ph e n om e n a
, ,
.

G oltz has t e rm e d t h e autom ati c mov e m e n ts r e sp o n s e -m ove “

”
m e n ts . H e also e m phasiz e s as e ss e n tial t h e fact that th e y ar e
adap t e d to a d e fi n it e p ur pos e an d ar e abl e to ov e r com e opp o si n g

1
Un f rtu
o n ate l y
wo r d auto m atic i s u se d wi th a gre at var i e ty o f si g
the

n i fic at i o n s we ar e e spe c i all y w o n t t o d e si g n at e as au to mati c al s o t h o se

.

r h yth m i c r e fl e x m o v e m e n t s w hi c h ar e t h e re sul t o f i n t e rn al st i mul i —fo r ,

e x a m pl e t h e pul sat i o n s o f t h e h e art

, Thi s se n se wi ll b e e n t i re l y e xcl ud e d
.

h e re .

2
G O L I Z t o w h o m w e ar e i n d e b t e d fo r t h e fi r st k n o wl e d g e o f t h e se m o t o r
’ ‘

re act i o n s h as assu me d su c h a pro c e ss t h o ug h o f co urse w i t h o t c o n sc io usn e s s

, , u .

I n t h i s part i cul ar h e i s o ppo se d t o L o t z e b u t h i s t h e o ry is base d u po n i n su ffi

,

ci e n t gro un d s .
 Th e me an d S yn ops i s o f Co n t e n t s . 1 5

obstacl e s By th is h e also u n d e r sta n ds e ss e n tially t h e capaci ty

.
,

al r e ady e mphasiz e d fo r r e g u lati n g an d m odifyi n g t h e r e actio n a r y

,

m ov e m e n t by i n t e r cu r r e n t stim u li .

I t is di ffi cu l t to stat e j u s t wh e r e we fi rs t m e e t with autom atic

m oti o n s i n t h e a n im al s e ri e s At all e v e n ts th e y ar e to b e fou n d .

i n an adva n c e d stag e of d e v e lopm e n t i n t h e E ch i n o d e rm ata

!

Ti e d e m a n n Rom a n e s an d oth e r s hav e d e scri be d that star-fish

,
1
, ,

wh e n c r awli n g o fl ar e abl e to avoid obstacl e s by st re tchi n g th e i r

'

t e n tacl e s arm e d with e y e s forwa rd an d upward E s p e cia ll y t h e

, ,
.

O ph i ur ae k n ow how t o o v e rc o m e o bstr u ctio n s r e adi l y fo r e xam pl e , ,

a l i n e o f uprigh t pi n s clos e ly e n circl i n g th e m O n e c an e asily .

r e mov e this capaci ty fo r automatic m o ve m e n ts by com pl e t e ly

s e v e ri n g a si n gl e r ay from t h e c e n t r al d isk o f t h e sta r- fish T he .

ray thus s e v e r e d fr o m t h e c e n tr al n e rve - ri n g is s till capabl e of

loc o motion b u t i t m ov e s q uit e aiml e ssly ; i t n o l o n g e r avoid s
,

obstacl e s Th e mov e m e n ts o f t h e s ta r-
. fish i n tu r n i n g ov e r as ,

also t hos e o f t h e frog laid upo n i ts back i n r e tur n i n g t o t h e

, ,

positio n u po n t h e abdom e n ar e stil l to b e r e gard e d as v e ry com ,

plicat e d r e fl e x acts T h e compl e t e ly s e v e r e d r ay o f a sta r-

. fis h
succ e e ds i n t u r n i n g its e l f ov e r tho u gh o f cou rs e v e ry irre gula rly ,

an d with e xtr e m e slow n e ss ; t h e frog d e p r iv e d o f its b rai n an d , ,

poss e ssi n g o n ly t he m e d ul la oblo n gata b e sid e s t h e spi n al chord ,

is abl e wh e n l ai d o n its back to re s u m e t h e n atu ral positio n upo n

t h e abdom e n P r e y e r obs e rv e d O ph i urae o n a si n gl e arm of
.
,

wh ich h e had draw n a v e ry i m p e ditiv e sh e ath o f c aou tcho u c ,

sh o v e o ff t h e sh e ath by j e rks o f t h e two n e ighbou r i n g a r m s I n .

oppositio n to P r e ye r , we must sti l l d e si gn a t e this also as an

a u tomatic act I n t h e pr o tista we fin d n o po si t i ve automatic
.

m otio n s i n t h e s e n s e i n which we u n d e r s ta n d t h e l att e r Th e y .

do n o t avoid obstacl e s a l though a si n gl e ob s e rv atio n of En g e l,

1
P R EY E R, U e be r di e Be we gu n ge n de r S e e st e rn e .
’
Mi h tt e ilu ng e n au s d .

Zo o lo g . St . 2. N e a pe l , D E M AN N De ut sc h es Arc
VI I . 1 an d 2 ; TI E ,
hiv
f d P h ysi o lo gi c 1 8 1 5 ; V U LP IAN C o m pt re n d S o c Bio lo g 61 62 ;
. . , , . . . .
, ,

R O M AN E S a n d E W A R T “
O b se rv ati o n s o f t h e L o co mo t o r S yst e m o f Echi
,

n o de r mat a
”
P h i l o so ph Tran sac t 1 8 8 1
,
. .
,
.
1 6 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

m a s wh o saw a vo r tic e l—
nn
’

,
1
bud sudd e n ly cha n g e i ts co u rs e an d
swim aft e r a larg e vo r tic e ll a with wh ich i t had com e i n co n tac t ,

would d e m o n strat e t h e occu rr e n c e o f r e actio n s i n th e s e a n imals ,

i f i t is co rr e c t .

At all e v e n ts we c an c l aim tha t t h e fi r st automatic m o v e m e n ts

to b e m e t with i n t h e a n i m al s e ri e s d e v e lop e d fr om r e fl e x ac tio n
,

th r o ugh t h e ag e n cy o f n atu r al s e l e ction

“ ”
I f we wish to i l lus
”

t r at e t h e p r oc e ss o f this n atural s e l e cti o n i n a r ough sk e tch , ,

m uch m or e sim pl y tha n it has actually tak e n plac e we m ay pr e ,

s e n t t h e followi n g
Or igi n ally t h e am ph ib ia n s that re gula r ly avoid e d an obstacl e
sudd e n ly place d i n t h e way th e r e by m odifyi n g th e ir locomotor
,

cours e w e r e j u st as n um e r o us as thos e that d id n o t I n t h e

, .

struggl e fo r e xist e n c e how e v e r t h e form e r h ad a d e cid e d advan

, ,

tag e fo r m e chan ism s situ at e d b e low t h e co r t e x r e l i e v e d t h e c e r e

,

brum o f wo r k an d oth e r d e e p e r n e r vous c e n t r e s fit t i n gly pe r

fo r m e d its fu n c tio n s This fi tti n g p e c ulia r ity was i n h e r i t e d an d
.

co n stan t l y br e d by tra n sm issio n wh il e thos e a n im als gradually ,

d i e d out that w e r e l e ss favou r a b ly co n stitut e d Y o u wil l th e r e .

for e u n d e r sta n d also why au tomatic an d r e fl e x acts ca n n ot always

b e d isti n guish e d from e ach o th e r with absolu t e accu r acy ; th e r e
ar e n um e rous e asy tra n sitio n s fr o m r e fl e x actio n to autom atic

actio n .

B ut automa t i c acts ar e n o t alo n e t h e product of a pr o gr e ssiv e

d e v e lopm e n t fr om r e fl e x acts By a so r t of r e trogr e ssiv e d e v e l op
.

m e n t th e y m ay b e t h e r e sul t of t h e so -
,
c a ll e d co n scious o r

vo l un ta r y act s C all to m i n d o n c e m o r e t h e abov e -ci t e d e xampl e

.

of t h e pia n ist wh o plays a w e ll—

, p r actis e d pi e c e whil e his thoughts ,

his co n scious n e ss wa n d e r e ls e wh e r e We d e sig n at e this playi n g .

as aut o matic alth ough i t was n o t au tomatic o r igi n ally B e fo re

, .

t h e pi e c e c an b e e x e cut e d autom atically t h e play e r m u st practis e ,

i t fo r hou r s wi th t h e a pplication of all h is e n e rgy an d att e n tio n ,

an d m a n y such co n scious volu n t ar y acts m ust tak e plac e H e n ce .

au t om atic actio n m ay be ac q u i r e d by pr act i ce i e by t h e fre qu e n t ,

. .

1
P FL
’
U G ER S Archiv , Ed . 2 .
1 8 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P syclwlo
gy .

origi n a ti n g i n t h e g e n ital orga n s s imply a r ous e s t h e actio n of a

r e fl e x m e chan ism that is i n h e ri t e d O n ly aft e r t h e bird has b e gu n
.

to b uild its n e st do e s it b e com e awa r e to som e e xt e n t o f what i t

is about Th e r e fo r e th e s e i n sti n ctiv e ac ts ar e u n doub t e d l y pe r
.

fo r m e d u n co n sciously th e y do n o t b e lo n g to t h e volu n tar y act s

with wh ich we shall b e com e acquai n t e d lat e r O f cou rs e how .
,

e v e r m a n y o f th e s e acts los e th e i r pu r e ly r e fl e x cha r act e r an d

,

r e s e mbl e t h e au t omatic acts Wh e n a frog whos e fo o t has b e e n

.

c r ush e d l e aps away i t s m ov e m e n ts may possibly b e r e gard e d as

,

pu r e ly r e fl e x We c an co n c e iv e that e v e n th ough t h e frog whi l e

.
,

h op pi n g sh o uld n o t r e c e iv e n e w s e n satio n s o f touch e v e r y t i m e i t

cam e i n c o n tact wi th t h e floo r o r n e w s e n sation s o f positio n e v e ry
,

ti m e i t m ov e d its l e gs , t h e m otion s thus e x e cut e d would still

occu r i n t h e m an n e r i n wh ich th e y actually do tak e plac e i e as , . .

pu r e ly r e fl e x actio n Th e fro g pe rfo r m s an autom atic ac t o n ly

.

wh e n it avo i ds an o bst r u ct i o n lyi n g i n t h e way of its progr e ss S O .

t h e motion s of t h e b i r d whil e b u ildi n g i ts n e s t ar e at l e ast affe ct e d

by i n t e r cu rr e n t s e n satio n s T h e fi rst m oto r y stimulus origi n at e s
.

i n t h e g e n ital orga n s , bu t t h e r e sulti n g m otion s ar e d e t e r m i n e d

an d m odi fi e d by i n n um e r abl e i n t e r cu rr e n t s tim u li Th e b ir d .

p e r c e iv e s a s t r aw s e iz e s it an d ca rr i e s i t to a t r e e H e e spi e s a
,
.

flock o f wool an d th is i n t e r cu rr e n t visual stimulus caus e s him t o

,

s e iz e t h e fl ock I n th is way t h e s e r i e s of m oto r proc e ss e s i s

.

modifi e d an d com pl icat e d Th e r e for e ma n y i n sti n ctiv e acts ar e

.

to be r e ga r d e d as automati c an d n o t r e fl e x O n t h e oth e r ha n d .

n o i n sti n ct iv e ac t i s a volu n ta r y act .

W h il e t h e re fl e x acts ar e e ss e n tially co n sta n t t h e a u tomati c ,

acts ar e cha r act e riz e d b y gr e at div e rsiti e s Th e m otio n s e x e c u t e d

.

i n d e vi ati n g from a d e fi n it e cou r s e vary acco r di n g to t h e c h aract e r

an d positio n o f t h e i n t e rcu rr e n t stim ulus that caus e s t h e d e viati o n .

By r e as o n of th is i n fi n it e ly g r e at e r va r iab i l ity t h e au tomatic act s

,

o r r e act io n s r e s e mb l e t h e co n scious o r volu n tary acts O n t he .

oth e r ha n d t h e autom atic acts ar e quit e lik e th e r e fl e x ac ts i n

t h at th e y hav e n o psych ic a l co n com i ta n t We hav e a lr e ady se t
.

fo r th abov e th at th e re i s n o grou n d what e v e r fo r t h e assum ptio n

o f co n com ita n t psychical p r oc e ss e s an d t h e , e xam p l e o f t he
 Th e me an d S yn ops i s o f C o n te n ts . I 9

p ia n ist illust r at e s b e st t hat n o such co n scious proc e s s e s a e c o m

pa n y t h e automatic acts H e n c e r e fl e x an d au tomat ic actio n s do
.

n o t b e lo n g p r op e rly to t h e sph e r e o f physiologi cal psychology .

O u r co n si d e ratio n of t h e acts o f will i n t h e n e xt chap t e r will

i n tr oduc e that su bj e c t fo r t h e fi r st tim e T h e r e fl e x an d autom atic
.

acts p r e s e n t m e r e l y t h e physiologi cal n o t psychologi cal a n t e

, ,

c e d e n ts of volu n tary acts .

 C H AP T E R I I .

S E NSA TI O N ASS O C I A TI O N A CTI O N

, ,
.

WE hav e b e com e ac quai n t e d wi t h co n sta n cy as cha r act e ri stic

“

o f r e fl e x actio n at l e ast as r e ga r ds qual ity As a c r i t e rion o f

, .

autom atic act s we fi x e d o n t h e m odifi catio n o f a m o tio n b y

,
“

e x t e rn al i n t e r cu rr e n t s t i muli L e t us r e call to m i n d t h e fr og
.
,

d e p ri ve d of i ts c e r e b ru m tha t is Still abl e to avoi d an obstr u ctio n

, .

N e ith e r r e fl e x n o r aut o m atic acts h ave a p sychical co rr e lat iv e ;

i n o t h e r words bo th ar e p e r fo r m e d u n co n sciously
, At l e as t we.

foun d n o au t ho r ity fo r t h e assumptio n o f con com i ta n t psychica l

p r oc e sse s L e t u s n o w a n alyz e a simpl e co n sci o us actio n r e sulti n g
.

from an e xt e r n al s tim ulus We se e a fri e n d fo r e xam pl e an d

.
, ,

gre e t him I n this c as e t h e visual s e n satio n o r t h e imag e of t h e

.
,

fri e n d is t h e e xt e r n al s t imulus ; t h e s alutatio n with t h e ha n d is

,

t h e r e sul ti n g actio n o r as i t h as b e e n t e r m e d, r e ac ti o n
, , What .

was i t t h at c o - op e r at e d i n t h e p r oducti o n o f j u st this m o t io n ? I t

is obvious tha t a su ffi ci e n t caus e is n o t to b e fou n d i n t h e e xt e rn a l
stimulus alon e fo r if it had b e e n som e oth e r pe r so n n o t o ur fri en d
, ,

t h e salutatio n would n o t hav e t ak e n plac e I t is plai n that t h e

.

m e m o ry of h avi n g alr e ady s e en this sam e p e r son occurs to us .

A m e n tal im ag e s to r e d up i n som e m a n n e r i n t h e brai n t h e ,

imag e of ou r fri e n d as i t i s ca rr i e d with us i n m e mo ry h as ,

i n fl u e n c e d o r m odifi e d t h e moto r p r oc e ss I f it had b e e n our

.

e n e my we m igh t possibl e hav e t u r n e d away o r look e d e ls e wh e r e

,
.

B ut t h e m e m ory t e lls us that i t i s o ur fri e n d we r e cog n is e h i m

as such an d t h e salutatio n fo l lows I n t h is cas e th e r e fo r e t h e
.
, ,

cou rs e o f t h e r e actio n i s i n fl u e n c e d by i n t e rcu rr e n t men t al i mages ,

which hav e b e e n ca l l e d f o r th from th e i r stat e of lat e n cy by t h e

 S e n s at i o n , A s so ci at i o n , Ac t i o n . 2I

s e n sati o n its e lf We shall d e sign at e t h e m e n tal im age by I (id e a )

.

( Fig an d i n dicat e t h e m odificatio n of t h e r e actio n at fi rst

M
.

simply by a s e ri e s of li n e s c o n n e cti n g I with t h e tract S Th e

.

co n t r ast wit h autom atic acts b e c o m e s at o n c e v e ry ob vi o u s T h e .

latt e r ar e charact e ri z e d by t h e m odificatio n of moti o n through t h e

ag e n cy o f e xt e rn al i n te r c u rr e n t stimu l i act io n is ch ar act e r iz e d
”

by t h e m odificatio n o f motio n thr o u gh t h e ag e n cy of i n t e r c u rr e n t

m e n tal imag e s Th e autom atic acts ar e u n co n sciously p e rfo r m e d
.

“
actio n
”
tak e s p l ac e co n sciously We th e r e for e d e sign at e t h e
.

latt e r as co n sci o us or som e tim e s as vol u n ta ry acti o n

”
,
bu t

FIG .
3 .

we must always k e e p i n m i n d that th e s e e xp r e ssio n s ar e sim ply

syn o n ym s fo r m oti o n that i s m od ifi e d by i n t e r cu rr e n t m e n tal
“

imag e s o r moti o n accom p an i e d by psychical p r oc e ss e s

”
, ,
”
.

Th e abov e is also a typi cal cas e of all psychical p r o c e sse s .

Th e r e is n o psychical pr o c e ss havi n g a physiol ogical co rr e la t iv e ,

i e n o psych o -
. . physiological p r oc e ss tha t t h e abov e-,
d e scri be d
p r oc e s s d o e s n o t compr e h e n d A su r v e y o f its si n gl e e l e m e n ts
.

fur n i s h e s u s at o n c e wit h t h e b e st classificatio n an d sum m ar y o f

o u r s ci e n c e Th e e xt e r n al stim u lus E (e xcita n t ) wi th w h ich we
.
,

s h a ll b e gi n i s a pur e ly physi o l ogical e l e m e n t By i rr i ta ti n g t h e

, .
22 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

e xtr e m i ti e s o f t h e s e n sory n e r v e s th is e xt e r n al stimulatio n b e

,

c om e s a n e rv e - e xcitati o n This n e rv e -e xcitatio n i s a n ot h e r

.

physiological p r oc e ss that m ay also be prop e rly r e gard e d as

,

physic a l o r ch e mical This physiological p r oc e ss o f e xcitatio n i s

.

t r a n sm itt e d toward t h e c e n t r e alo n g t h e path o f t h e c e n t rip e tal

n e r v e s an d fi n ally p r oduc e s an e xcitatio n i n t h e c e r e b r al c o rt e x
,

at S (s e n satio n ) T h e fi rst p sychical e l e m e n t t h e sen sat io n

.
, ,

cor re spo n ds t o this c e re bral e x ci tation Th e r e for e t h e fi r st pa r t

.
,

o f physiological psych ology t r e ats of t h e th e o r y of s e n sati o n In .

t h e ab ov e cas e we hav e assum e d o n e s e n satio n as t h e sta r ti n g

poi n t o f t h e “
ac tio n ”
G e n e r ally h ow e v e r m an y s e n satio n s
.
, ,

tak e e ffe ct at t h e sam e tim e an d t h e actio n occurs as t h e r e sul ta n t

,

o f s e v e ral o r m a n y s e n satio n s But i t i s n o t always n e c e ssa ry

.

t hat th e s e s e n sat io n s op e rat e at t h e same t i me O n t h e co n t r ar y.

,

t h ey m ay also app e a r i n pa r t as i n t e r cu rr e n t facto r s wh il e t h e

m e n t al i m ag e s that h av e alr e ady tak e n e ffe c t ar e still ac t iv e as i n ,

t h e cas e of t h e automatic acts Accordi n gly t h e sch e m e o f sim pl e

.

actio n will app e a r as re p r e s e n t e d i n Fig 3 Th e di ffe r e n c e

. .

b e tw e e n simpl e ac t ion an d autom atic actio n co n sists o n ly i n t h e

fact that i n t h e fo rm e r i n t e r cu rr e n t m e n tal i m age s i n addition to ,

t h e i n t e r cu rr e n t s e n sa t io n s app e a r an d m odify t h e m otio n

,
In .

t h e abov e sta t e m e n t w e hav e sil e n tly acc e p t e d t h e hypoth e sis

t ha t
“
action is always accom pa n i e d by a psychical p r oc e ss I n
”
.

fact s e lf-obs e r vatio n t e ach e s that e v e ry action i s att e n d e d by a

,

p sych ical p r oc e ss b u t t his c o n n e ctio n is n o t absolut e ly n e c e ssa ry .

I t i s possibl e to c o n c e iv e that all o u r actio n s e v e n t h e m ost ,

complicat e d abst ractly co n sid e r e d hav e a pur e ly m e chan ical o r

, ,

m at e r ial caus e Or di n arily we imagi n e that all t h e complicat e d

.

actio n s of h u m a n l ife ar e mor e e asily e xpl ai n e d by i n tr oduci n g

t h e h e lp o f p sychical p r oc e ss e s Th e Opposi t e i s co rr e ct ; all
.

action s e v e n t h e fi t t e st an d m o st complicat e d c an b e u n d e r stood

, ,

a s t h e e ffe ct of t h e m at e r ial p r oc e ss e s of t h e brai n But , o n t h e .

con t ra ry th e r e i s som e thi n g wo n d e r ful an d i n e xp l icabl e i n t h e

,

fact tha t o n ly a c e r tai n pa r t of th e s e c e r e bral proc e ss e s c e rt ai n ,

proc e ss e s of t h e c e re b r al co r t e x call e d actio n s ar e accom pan i e d

“
,

by psych ical p r oc e ss e s an d ar e th e r e fo re co n n e c t e d wi th a n e w
,
 S e n sa t i o n , A ss o ci a t i o n , Act i o n . 23

s e ri e s of ph e n om e n a that c an o n ly b e k n ow n through t h e c o n
C o n sid e re d as pur e ly m at e r ial t h e p r oc e ss of actio n
“ ”
s c i o us n e ss .
,

is as follows : A c e r tai n stimul u s imp ar t s a cortical e xcitation ;

t h e latt e r h ow e v e r is n o t t r a n sm it t e d di r e ctly to a muscl e al o n g
, ,

a c e n t ri fugal path u n til aft e r i t has b e e n e ss e n tially m odifi e d by

t h e actio n o f t h e r e sidu e of fo rm e r cortical e xcitatio n s im pa r t e d
by fo r m e r stimuli Th e cortical e xci tatio n co rr e sp o n ds to t h e
.

s e n satio n S ; t h e r e sidua o f fo rm e r co r t ical e xcitatio n s co rr e spo n d

,

t o t h e m e n tal imag e s o r i d e a I By n atu r al s e l e ctio n this

, .
,

m e cha n ism o f t h e b r ai n has b e e n so d e v e lop e d that t h e r e sidua of

fo rm e r e xcitat io n s c an b e u ti lize d i n t h e m ost com plicat e d
ma e r n n .
1
Th e r e fo re e v e ry ac tio n can b e co n c e iv e d of as a
pur e ly physico- ch e m ical p r oc e ss I t is o n ly t h r ough s e l f-
. obs e rva
ti o n that we k n ow o ur actio n s ar e accom pa n i e d by psych ica l
proc e ss e s . H e n c e we ar e j ust i fi e d i n asc r ibi n g co n com itan t
psych ical p r oc e ss e s t o all thos e an im al actio n s that ca n n ot b e
accou n t e d fo r wi thou t assum i n g t h e c o - op e r ati o n of id e as (i e t h e . .

re sidua of fo r m e r co rt ical e xcitatio n s occ ur ri n g i n t h e life of t h e

i n dividual ) al though o ur co n clusio n is d rawn m e r e ly from p r o b
,

abiliti e s .

Th e sta t e m e n t mad e abov e tha t o n e sim pl e s e n sa tio n ra r e ly

, ,

o p e r at e s al o n e r e q uir e s still furth e r c o n firm atio n

, L e t us c o n .

s id e r a w e ll k n ow n e xp e rim e n t o f physiologi cal optics S u ppos e .

a poi n t o f homog e n e o us r e d ligh t to flash u po n t h e d ar k fi e l d o f

vision S u ppos e fu rth e r mo r e that this poi n t o n accou n t of i ts
.
, , ,

i n fi n i t e simal m ag n itud e c an i rr itat e bu t a si n gl e s e n siti v e e le

,

m e n t o f t h e r e ti n a I n t hi s cas e i t m igh t s e e m as if bu t o ne
.

simpl e s e n satio n w e r e r e al l y activ e B ut thi n k of t h e i n n u me r.

abl e s e n satio n s of touch co n sta n t l y p r oduc e d by ou r cloth i n g an d

,

t h e surrou n di n g ai r wh ich is n e v e r quit e calm

, That m an y .

s e n satio n s would sti l l be pr e s e n t i n this cas e is obvious I f we, ,

.

c o n sid e r fu r th e r what an e xc e ptio n al cas e is assum e d i n t h e

abov m e n tio n e d e xp e r im e n t i t b e com e s cl e a r t o us at o n c e that
e -
,

m a n y s e n satio n s ar e co n sta n tly taki n g e ff e ct S e n satio n s wh ich .

1
M U NST E RB G ER ,
“
Will h a dlu en s n ng , S .
55 .
 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

ar e i n capabl e o f furth e r a n alysis i n co n scious n e ss we call sim pl e ,

s e n sat io n s L e t us ca l l att e n tio n e xp r e ssly to t h e fact that t h e

.

e xt e r n al stim uli may b e v e ry n um e r ous an d e t t h e s e n satio n m ay

y
re mai n simpl e as i n t h e cas e of a to n e str uck o n t h e pia n o
, .

Wi th t h e e xc e ptio n of i n dividua l s that ar e musically v e ry gift e d ,

m ost p e r son s h av e a sim pl e s e n satio n although six o r m o re ,

ov e r ton e s ” 1
b e sid e s t h e fu n dam e n tal to n e ar e p roduc e d by t h e
, ,

vib r ati n g co r d an d e ach to n e i s fu r th e r mo r e compos e d o f a l arge

,

n umb e r of si n gl e vib r a t io n s I t is also worthy o f n otic e h e re

.

that t h e s am e e x t e r n al stimulus o r t h e sam e gr oup o f e xt e rn al

,

stimul i m ay b e p e r c e iv e d di ffe r e n tly by di ff e r e n t i n d ividuals O n e .

m ay p e r c e iv e a simpl e a n oth e r a compl e x s e n sat io n I n fac t

, .
,

e v e n du r i n g t h e life of t h e sam e i n dividual a simpl e s e n satio n ,

m ay b e com e compl e x o r a com pl e x s e n satio n m ay b e com e

,

simpl e At first wh e n C i s st r uck o n t h e p ia n o we h e ar but a

.
,
’
,

si n gl e composit e sou n d D e spi t e t h e con son an t ov e rt on e s t h e

.

s e n satio n is sim pl e By p r actic e h ow e v e r we c an a l so cul ti vat e

.
, ,

t h e ability t o d isti n guish t h e ov e r to n e s i n t h e com p o si t e sou n d

fr om t h e fu n dam e n t al to n e C ; thus t h e simpl e s e n sati o n will

’

h av e b e com e compl e x O n t h e oth e r ha n d s e v e r al s e n satio n s

.
,

tha t oft e n e n t e r co n scious n e ss tog e th e r m ay bl e n d to a si n gl e

s e n satio n Fo r e xampl e t h e tas t e of an ap r ico t i s comp os e d of
.
,

i n n um e r abl e s e n satio n s ; ye t we e xp e ri e n c e but o n e s e n satio n of

tast e wh e n w e e at t h e frui t .

As soon as t h e s e n satio n is associat e d with t h e id e as t h e play ,

o f mo t i ves
(d e l ib e r atio n
) com m e n ce s Wi th a v
.i e w to futu r e

co n sid e ratio n s this play o f m oti v e s o r d e lib e r atio n m ay b e

, , ,

t e r m e d m o r e p r op e rly t h e activi ty of ASS O C I A TI O N T his n am e .

shall d e sig n at e t h e sum o f all psychical proc e ss e s that ar e i n

duc e d by s e n satio n an d that r e s u l t i n actio n i e all i n t e r c e n t r a l
M
. .
,

proc e ss e s occu r ri n g b e tw e e n S an d (fig Associati o n .

mak e s u se o f t h e s e n satio n s r e c e iv e d a t S (i n cludi n g t h os e that

m ay app e ar lat e r as i n t e r cu rr e n t ) an d t h e m e n tal image s that h av e
origi n at e d i n fo r m e r s e n sati o n s Th e l att e r ar e bri e fl y d e sig n at e d
.
26 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

I . Th e id e a o f t h e m oti o n r e qui r e d i n graspi n g t h e obj e ct .

This id e a o f a m otio n that we hav e oft e n e x e c u t e d is t h e pu rpos e

o r m otiv e of wh ich we ar e co n scious i n t h e first m om e n t S uch .

m e n tal im ag e s ar e t e r m e d id e as of m otio n
“
.

2 .T h e s e n satio n s by m e a n s of wh ich we b e com e awar e that

t h e m otio n h as b e e n e x e cut e d We see t h e arm m ovi n g we f eel
.
,

t h e o bj e ct s e i z e d an d fi n al l y t h e s e n so r y n e r v e s i n t h e i n t e r io r of
,

t h e righ t arm i n form us that t h e muscl e has co n t r act e d This .

l ast m ost i m po r tan t s e n sati o n is d e sig n at e d as a ki n ae sth e tic

s e n satio n o r a s e n satio n o f m otio n i n t h e n ar row e r s e n s e .

T hat n o co n scious facto r i s i n s e r t e d b e twe e n t h e i d e a of t h e

d e sir e d motio n an d t h e s e n sat io n of t h e e x e cut e d m otio n is a ,

fact that c an b e e asily co n fi r m e d by t h e t e s t of i n trosp e ctio n .

N o psych i cal p r oc e ss i n t e rc e d e s b e tw e e n t h e id e a of m otio n an d

t h e s e n satio n o f m otio n At o n e m om e n t we h av e t h e id e a at
.
,

t h e n e x t t h e s e n satio n o f m otio n T hu s we s e e that wh e n actio n

.

i s su bj e ct e d to an alysis it is r e duc e d to two psychical e l e m e n ts

, ,

t h e id e a an d t h e s e n s atio n B e sid e s th e s e th e r e i s n o oth e r

.

psych ical e l e m e n t that i s c h a ract e r istic of actio n Th e fac t tha t .

we hav e e xp e ri e n c e d a s e n sat io n l e ads u s co n sta n tly to assig n

s om e stim u l us as t h e c aus e o f o u r s e n sat io n We co n clud e tha t
.

a co n tractio n o f t h e m uscl e s an d a m ov e m e n t o f t h e arm h av e

tak e n plac e o n ly wh e n we hav e a s e n satio n of m otio n wh ich is ,

co n fi r m e d b y s e n sation s o f t ouch an d sigh t .

We h av e fou n d that t h e m oto r sch e m e b e gi n s o n t h e o n e

ha n d wi th e xt e rn al stimulati o n an d s e n satio n an d clos e s o n t h e
o th e r ha n d also with s e n satio n an d e xt e rn al stim ul ati o n Th e .

e n tir e psycho - physi cal p r oc e ss i s b rought i n as an acc e ss o ry

cur r e n t Th r ough this psychological vi e w t h e a n tith e sis of s e n
.
,

s o ry an d m otory e l e m e n ts los e s a gr e at d e al o f its sig n ifica n c e .

M otor e l e m e n ts i n t h e strict s e n s e do n o t pa r ticipat e i n t h e

, ,

psych ical life ; a l l co n sciou s ph e n om e n a ar e e ith e r s e n satio n s o r

id e a s A th ir d p sychical fact o r do e s n o t e xist un l e ss we w i sh t o
.
,

c o n sid e r t h e asso ci a t i o n of s e n satio n s an d i d e as as such .

T h e i n v e stigatio n of t h e impo r ta n t g e n e r al an d i n p ar t phi l o , ,

S ophical d e ductio n s that may be d rawn from t h e ab ov e d iscussio n

, ,
 S e n s at i o n , A s s o c i a t i o n , A ct i o n . 27

i s for e ign to o ur pr e s e n t p u rpos e At pr e s e n t w e wish to d e m o n .

s trat e that al l psycho- physi ca l pr o c e ss e s ar e i n cl u d e d i n t h e abov e

s ch e m e . T h e r e is n o psychica l pro c e ss what e v e r that is produc e d
by t h e op e ratio n o f o th e r e l e m e n t s tha n th o s e n am e d a b ov e n o r
i s th e re an y psychical p r oc e ss that do e s n o t m ak e u se o f th e s e
t wo e l e m e n ts by m e a n s o f t h e associatio n of id e as I t is t ru e .
,

how e v e r tha t m a n y o f o ur psychical p r oc e ss e s ar e sho r t e r tha n

,

t h e proc e ss j u st d e scrib e d I n t h e fi rst plac e it i s n o t n e c e ssa ry

.
,

that t h e associatio n o f id e as ca us e d by s e n satio n sh o u l d always

, ,

r e sul t i n m otio n T h e i n fl u e n c e of t h e id e a s m ay m o d e rat e an d

.

fi n ally a rr e st t h e moto r p roc e ss C o n d u ctio n havi n g b e e n thus

.

ch e ck e d i n t h e i n t e rn u n cial path s t h e i n t e rc e n tral i n citati o n ca u s e d

,

by t h e s e n sati o n e ith e r awak e n s n o id e a o f mo ti o n at all o r o n ly ,

an id e a that is n o t su ffi ci e n tly i n t e n s e t o i mpart t h e m o tio n L et us .

tak e t h e e xam pl e o f a r os e T h e e xt e r n al stimul u s t h e r os e i n t h e

.
,

ga r d e n of a stra n g e r im parts a visual s e n satio n o r p e r c e ptio n

,
.

We se e t h e r os e I n sta n tly n um e r ous m e n tal i mag e s o r id e as

.

b e com e acti v e .We r e m e mb e r t h e fr agran c e of t h e r o s e an d

fa n cy ou r r oo m d e corat e d by i t Th e s e ar e all id e as that urge
'

us t o act to p e rform t h e m ot io n s o f s e izi n g an d p l ucki n g t h e

,

fl ow e r h e n c e as we sha l l say th e i r e ffe c t is p o sitiv e

, ,
Bu t oth e r .

id e as also o ccur t o us we r e m e mb e r that t h e ga r d e n is t h e

p r op e rty o f a n oth e r an d th at a p e n alty awaits us if we tak e what
,

do e s n o t b e lo n g t o u s Th e s e id e as h av e a n e gati v e e fl e c t t h e y
'

t e n d to r e st r ai n our ha n d an d arre st t h e act Thi s m ay l e ad to a .

g e n ui n e co n flict b e tw e e n s e n satio n s an d id e as o r b e twe e n o ppos ,

i n g id e as Th e p l ay o f m otiv e s (d e lib e ratio n ) b e com e s a strugg l e

.

b e tw e e n m otiv e s (h e sitatio n ) T h e acti o n is t h e pr o d u ct o f t h e

.

stro n g e r m otiv e s an d may th e re fo r e oft e n r e m ai n whol l y u n

,

e x e cut e d H e n c e t h e fi n al e l e m e n t o f t h e pys c h i c al p ro c e ss m ay
.

b e suppr e ss e d . Th e proc e ss c e as e s with p e r c e pti o n an d d e l ib e ra

tio n an d n o m o tio n e n s u e s Fu r th e rmore i t sh o ul d be e xpr e s s l y
.
,

e mph asiz e d that also i n cas e o f i n trosp e ctio n we oft e n o v e r l o ok

, ,

t h e actio n b e caus e i t i s v e ry slight Thus La n g e h as shown that .

t h e sim pl e m e n tio n o f t h e wo r d tow e r fo r e xampl e o r o u r o wn

“ ”
, ,

volu n tary r e p ro ductio n o f t h e id e a o f a t o w e r g e n e ra ll y caus e s ,

28 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

m otio n s o f t h e e y e s that co rr e spo n d to t h e co n tou r o f t h e obj e c t

t h e acoustic stimulus of t h e s pok e n wo r d sti l l ca u s e s c e rtai n
sligh t m o tio n s O n e r e aso n that m otio n do e s n o t al ways e n su e
.

may b e fou n d i n t h e r e lativ e w e ak n e ss o f t h e stimu l us Ev e ry .

s e n satio n i n d e e d has a m oto r t e n d e n cy — i t t e n ds to g e n e r at e

, ,

muscu l ar actio n ; bu t d iffe re n t s e n satio n s hav e this t e n d e n cy i n

v e r y di ffe r e n t d e gr e e s T h e s e n satio n m ust h av e a c e rtai n i n
.

t e n si ty i n ord e r to o v e rcom e t h e r e sista n c e to co n d u ctio n i n t h e

i n t e r c e n tral paths an d t o prod u c e a m oto r e ffe ct Th e associa .

tio n o f id e as may e i th e r i n c re as e o r dimi n ish t h e r e sista n c e to

co n d uctio n A v e r y si n g u l ar positio n i s o ccupi e d by th o s e
.

actio n s i n which t h e m o tio n i s n o t co n fi n e d to t h e o n e occupyi n g

t h e m i n d but i s accompa n i e d by oth e r m otio n s th at ar e s e e m

‘

i n gly sup e rfl uous Th e p e r so n who is about t o st r ik e a bl o w

.
,

cli n ch e s his t e e th ; oft e n b e fo re t h e blow i s giv e n th e re is an

almost u n iv e r sal t e n sio n o f t h e e n ti r e m u sc ula r syst e m such as ,

is cha r act e r istic o f a n im als wh il e c r ouchi n g i n i n t e n s e e xpe c

“ ”

t at i o n
. S carc e ly p e r c e ptibl e t e n sio n s of t h e fro n tal m uscl e v e r y
fre qu e n tly accom pa n y ou r actio n s e sp e cially wh e r e stro n g e m o ,

tio n s ar e pr e s e n t at t h e sam e t im e S uch actio n s as th e s e we

.

ar e e sp e cia ll y i n cli n e d to d e sig n a t e as vo lu n t ary actio n s

’
x ar ,

xj
e fo r v
’
. T h is t e n d e n cy assist e d by t,
h e fa n cy that we act from
choic e i n t h e associatio n o f id e as has le d to t h e assum pt io n o f
“

a sp e cial faculty o f will B ut that wh ich we c all wil l o n s tr ic t

.
,

an alysis i s r e d u c e d e ss e n tia l ly to t h e s e n satio n s of t e n sio n ac

,

comp an yi n g t h e associatio n o f id e as an d t h e ac t i o n Th e fe e l i n g .

that we e x e r cis e a fr e e choic e i n t h e associatio n o f id e as an d in

act io n , i s e asily e xplai n e d by t h e fact tha t i n d isti n c tio n fr o m ,

aut o matic acts associat io n an d action ar e n o t o n ly d e t e rm i n e d

,

by e xt e r n al s timul i b u t ar e also i n fl u e n c e d by id e as t he sum

, ,

total o f which we m ay d e sig n at e as o u r e mpi r ical Ego “

A .

d e fi n it e actio n m u s t fol l o w c e r tai n e xt e rn al stimul i an d c e r tai n

i d e as accordi n g to an i n e v i tabl e law o f causatio n j us t as a s to n e ,

d e tach e d fr o m i ts su pport mu s t fall i n a c e r tai n d i r e c tio n with a

c e r tai n v e l ocity Accordi n gly physiol o gical psycho l ogy ack n ow
.
,

l e dg e s n o fr e e dom o f t h e will S i n c e S p i n oza ou r gr e at ph ilo so

.
,
 S e n s at i o n , A s s o ci a t i o n ,
A ct i o n . 29

ph e r s hav e b e e n agr e e d i n this poi n t But we b e li e v e that we .

( I ) we ou r s e lv e s ar e c o n §c i o u s
1
e x e rcis e a fr e e choic e b e caus e ,

pa r ticipan ts i n t h e activ e association of id e as ; an d 2) a l thoug h

t h e r e su l t o f this associatio n or i n oth e r w o rds t h e r e s ul t of t h e
, ,

play o f m otiv e s is n o t disti n ctly for e s e e n i t i s n e v e rth e l e ss a n ti

, ,

c i pat e d ;
(3 ) b e caus e t h e d e cisio n is also fi n a ll y mad e by a p ar t
o f t h e Ego i e t h e pr e vai l i n g id e as
, . . .

We shall always sp e ak simpl y of act i o n s ; we m ay add t h e

t e rm c o n sci o u s an d sp e ak o f co n scious acti o n s b u t we m u st
“
,

always k e e p i n m i n d th at every actio n i n d isti n cti o n from r e fl e x ,

an d autom ati c acts h as a psychical co rr e lativ e an d i s th e r e for e

, ,

p sychical o r co n scious Th e acti o n i s als o fre qu e n tly d e sig n at e d

.

a s a vo lun t ary act i o n o r act i o n of t h e w i ll But this i s also a .

pl e o n asm Ev e ry actio n as such is a volu n tary actio n o r an act

.
, ,

o f t h e wil l We m ay m ak e u se o f t h is combi n atio n o f t e rm s a l so

.
,

b u t we m ust n o t associat e with i t t h e fals e id e a th at actio n s ar e

p ro duc e d by a sp e cial faculty t h e will Th e re i s n o s u ch sp e cial
l
,
.

facu l ty of t h e wi l l Th e e x pr e ssio n s “
actio n o f t h e will ”
,

vo l u n tary ac tio n an d co n sciou s actio n sig n ify n o m or e to

,

us th a n t h e sim pl e t e r m actio n ”
.

We hav e se e n abov e t h at t h e psych ical p r oc e s s as t rac e d by u s

co n sists of th r e e chi e f facto rs ( I ) t h e se n sat i o n o r per cept i o n ( 2 )
, ,

t h e play of mo t i ves o r asso ci at i o n of i deas an d ( 3 ) t h e act io n It , .

has al r e ady b e e n e m phasiz e d that t h e r e s ult of t h e play o f m o tive s

is oft e n n e gat iv e t h e actio n p rom pt e d by t h e ass o ciatio n o f ce r
tai n id e as is n o t p e rfo rm e d b e caus e oth e r id e as m or e n u m e rous ,

an d e n e rg e tic a rr e st it L e t us co n sid e r a n oth e r v e ry striki n g

, .

e xam p l e o f t h is fact Whil e h e ari n g a play i n t h e th e atr e

.

i n n u m e rabl e visual an d acoustic stimuli a ffe ct u s Num b e r l e ss .

id e as ar e co n sta n tly b e i n g associat e d wi th t h e p e rc e ptio n s that

h av e th u s ar is e n A c e rtai n charact e r i n t h e p l ay is kill e d
. .

M a n y id e as urg e us to t h e ai d o f t h e im p e r il l e d i n dividual b u t ,

t h e y subsid e b e for e t h e fa r st r o n g e r r e coll e ctio n that it is all o n ly

1
C o n sc iu
o sn e ss i s m e re ly
abstract i o n Th e as so ciat i o n
an . o f id e as w i t h
,

its acco mpan y i n g se n sat i o n s an d i mage s i s c o n sc i o u sn e ss i tse lf

,
.
30 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i ca l Psycho logy .

s e mbla n c e an d that we sh o uld m ak e ou rs e lv e s r idiculo u s if we

,

att e m pt e d to r e sc u e T h e r e for e we r e mai n qui e tly s e at e d ; n o

.

actio n tak e s plac e We h av e alr e ady s e e n abov e how e v e r tha t

.
, ,

t h e m otor actio n is oft e n simply ov e rl ook e d b e caus e i t is so

slight ! Who has n o t at tim e s n otic e d an almost imp e rc e pti bl e

quiv e r i n g o f his limbs wh il e wi t n e ssi n g such a sc e n e a s t h e o n e
just d e scri be d ? Th e om issi o n of t h e fi n al m otor stag e of such
psychical proc e ss e s is r e m ar kably fr e qu e n t wh e n t h e proc e ss e s ,

h av e o r igi n at e d i n w e ak s e n sati o n s or i n s e n satio n s that hav e bu t

a sligh t moto r t e n d e n cy .

O n e would suppos e t h at i n v e ry r a r e ca s e s both t h e s e co n d an d

t h e th ird stag e s — t h e associatio n o f id e as o r t h e d e lib e r atio n fol
l owi n g t h e p e rce p tio n an d t h e m o tio n — may possi bly b e om itt e d
, .

I n this cas e we should sp e ak o f p ur e p e rc e ptio n o r t h e simpl e

ap pr e h e n sio n o f s e n satio n s B u t i f we co n sid e r tha t t h e e ss e n c e
.

o f t h e psych ical p r oc e ss co n sis t s i n t h e activity of id e as we shal l ,

doub t wh e th e r th e s e pur e p e rc e p tio n s ar e psychical p r oc e ss e s

at all .

Fo r t h e sam e r e as o n t h e m iddl e stag e of t h e psychical proc e ss ,

t h e associat io n o f i d e as c an n e v e r b e e n tir e ly om i tt e d
,
I t c an .

o n ly b e v e r y m uch sh o rt e n e d F o r e xampl e a p e rso n sudd e n ly

.
,

r e c e iv e s a blow an d al most i n sta n t l y r e tur n s i t How fe w hasty .

id e as fl ash through t h e m i n d i n t h e m om e n t i n t e rv e n i n g b e tw e e n
t h e r e c e ptio n o f t h e b l o w an d r e ta l iati o n ! I n this cas e t h e
cou n t e r-attack occu r s al m ost aut o m atica l ly ; t h e r e productio n o f
i d e as m ay fi n al l y b e al m o s t e n ti r e l y e xc lu d e d We ar e acquai n t e d
.

with a m e n tal dis e as e m an ia i n wh ich from p athological caus e s

, , , ,

t h e associatio n o f id e as occu rr i n g b e t we e n s e n satio n an d actio n

h as b e com e r e g u l a rly an d e xc e ssiv e ly s h ort e n e d .

T h e first stag e of t h e psych ical proc e ss t h e s e n satio n c an lik e

, ,

wis e n e v e r be e n tir e ly om i t t e d I n fact th e r e i s n o psych ical

,
.
,

p r oc e ss that ca n n ot b e t r ac e d to an e xt e r n al stim ulus an d t h e

s e n satio n im part e d by i t .

B ut stimulatio n an d s e n sati o n ar e oft e n so r e mot e or so w e ak

that t h e s e co n d an d th ird stag e s s e e m to b e i n d e p e n d e n t o f th e i r
i n fl u e n c e L e t us s u ppos e for e xam pl e t h at w e hav e cha n c e d t o
. , ,
 S e n s at i o n , A sso c i at i o n A ct i o n
, .
3 I

se e a fri e n d N o w this o n e p e r c e ptio n i s fo l low e d by t h e r e c o l

.
,

l e ctio n o f n um e r ous i d e as ; with th e s e we co n sta n t l y a ssociat e

n e w l i n e s o f thought that ultimat e ly hav e n o co n n e ctio n what

e v e r wi t h t h e fri e n d Th e s e li n e s o f thought i f th e y hav e a

.
,

m oto r t e n d e n cy m ay p r oduc e actio n ; o r as we h av e s e e n t h e

, , ,

action m ay b e e n ti re ly a rr e st e d I n t h e fi r st cas e t h e actio n

.

s e e m s to b e t h e imm e diat e r e sul t of t h e r e producti o n o f id e as

with ou t e xt e rn al stim u lation an d is th e n comm o n ly d e sign at e d
,

as spo n ta n e ous Th e s e co n d cas e i s e x e mplifi e d by so -ca ll e d

.

sim pl e r eflect i on o r t ho ught ; t h e pri mary stim ulus o f s e n satio n i s

so r e m ot e an d t h e m o to r t e n d e n cy is a t t h e sam e t im e so sligh t
th at actio n ca n n ot tak e plac e .

I t i s a l so di ffi cult t o d e t e r m i n e wh e r e act io n (a n e rvous p r oc e s s

u n doubt e dly accompan i e d by a psychical proc e ss ) i s first m e t
with i n t h e a n im al s e ri e s I t do e s n o t app e ar that such a proc e s s
.

has b e e n d e mo n strat e d wi th absolut e c e r tai n ty e v e n i n t h e

E chi n od e r m ata .

L e t u s n o w b ri e fly r e vi e w all o f t h e fu n ctio n s co n n e c t e d with

t h e life o f t h e n e rv ous syst e m We h av e classifi e d as follows
.

I . R E FL EX A CTI O N : M otio n co n sta n t an d g e n e r ally fi tti n g ;

r e s u lts from o n e o r m o re e xt e r n al stimu l i ; n o p s ychical
co rr e lativ e .

2 . R E A C TI O N (au t oma t ic acts ) : M oti o n modifi e d by o n e o r

m o r e i n t e r cu rr e n t stimul i ; g e n e rally fitti n g ; n o psych ica l
co r r e lativ e .

3 I D E A TI O NA L AC TI O NS O R ACT S (co n sci o u s or v o l u n tary

.

acti o n s o r acts o f t h e will ) : M otio n r e s u l ts di r e ctly or

i n di r e ctly from o n e o r m ore e xt e rn al s tim ul i ; mod ifi e d
by t h e associatio n o f i n t e r cu rr e n t s e n satio n s an d id e as ;
g e n e r ally fitti n g ; with p sych ical co rr e lativ e .

S i n c e actio n fu r n is h e s us with an out l i n e of t h e psychical

proc e ss we hav e at t h e sam e t im e l e ar n e d t h e psychica l e l e m e n ts
,

o f act io n .

I S e n satio n o r p e rc e ptio n
. .

2 .I mag e of m e mo r y o r id e a , .

Th e r e is n o g r ou n d fo r t h e assum ptio n o f an y oth e r e l e m e n ts

32 I n t r o du ct i o n to P /iys i o logi cal P syc/i o logy .

in t h e psychical p roc e ss . This p r oc e ss its e lf is d ivid e d i n to th re e

stag e s
r . S e n satio n p e r c e p tio n ;or

2 Associati o n o f id e as o r Id e atio n (also cal l e d t h e play o f

.

m otiv e s o r d e lib e r atio n )

A ctio n su s t r i ct o ; t h e r e sul ti n g id e a of m oti o n
3 . n se , pr e c i pi
tat e s t h e act .

T h e om ission o f t h e third stag e an d t h e d isapp e ar a n c e o f t h e

fi rst stage giv e r is e to subo r di n at e fo rm s o f psychical fu n ctio n
that ar e of e sp e cial impo r ta n c e Am on g th e s e fo r ms ar e simpl e .

r e fl e ctio n o r thought .

We will n o w bri e fly att e mp t to fo r m a co n c e ptio n also of t h e

a n atom ical lo ca l izati o n o f t h e thr e e n e r vou s p r oc e ss e s— r e fl e x
actio n a u tomatic actio n an d volu n ta ry actio n Th e b r ai n o f
, , .

v e rt e b r at e s co n sists o f g r ay an d wh it e m ass e s t h e ga n glio n -c e l l s ,

b e i n g t h e most e ss e n tial co n stitu e n ts of t h e gr ay mass e s Th e .

whit e m ass co n sists c h i e fly o f n e r v e - fibr e s B e sid e s t h e p r oto .

plasm i c p r oc e ss e s that do n o t i n t e re st us h e r e e v e r y ga n glio n

, ,

c e l l p ro b ably h as at l e ast o n e so -call e d axis -cyli n d e r This .

divid e s som e o f i ts t e rm i n al ram ifi catio n s e n t e ri n g t h e whit e

,

mass an d b e com i n g p a r t of i ts co n sti tu e n t n e r v e -fibr e s som e ,

passi n g o n an d u n iti n g wi th t h e t e r m i n al r amificatio n s of n e igh

b o u r i n g ga n gli o n -c e lls Th e g r ay m ass e s ar e dis t r ibut e d b e t w e e n
.

t h e wh it e s o that a fi b r e that origi n at e s i n a g an gl io n -

,
c e ll of t h e
mos t c e n t r a l ly locat e d pa r t o f t h e gr ay m ass o r c e r e b ral cort e x , ,

pass e s th r ough a p ortion o f t h e whit e mass an d fi n ally r e ach e s a

s e co n d agg r e gatio n o f g r ay s u bsta n c e wh e re i t u n i t e s with o n e o f ,

i ts ga n gl io n -c e l ls 1 I t may also l e av e this c ell agai n an d p e n e t r at e

.

s ti l l oth e r whi t e an d gray m ass e s u n til it fi n a l ly quits t h e las t ,

g r ay m ass i n t h e spi n al cord an d pass e s o n with t h e p e ri ph e r a l,

1
C o m pare t he l at
t re s e arc h e s o f G O L G I F O R EL an d e s pe c i ally
es
'

, ,

FL EC H S I G Th e o n e give n abo ve i s base d u po n t h e rese arche s o f

. u tli
Fl e c h si g S i n ce t h e se n so ry fi b re s rami fy m o re an d m o re as th ey appro ac h
.

t h e c e n tre t h e i r c o n n e ct i o n w o uld se e m t o d e v iat e fro m t hi s o u t li n e

,
t h e l as t
ram ifi cati o n s appe ar s i mpl y t o i n t e rl ace wit h t h e ram ifi cat i o n s o f t h e se n so ry
a n li o n - ce ll s i n st e ad o f j o i n i n g t h e m d i r e ct ly
g g , .
34 I n t r o duct i o n to P hys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

1 . Th e cer e br al co r t ex , wh ich cov e r s the sph e r ical mass Of the

c e r e b rum lik e a thi n r i n d
2 . T h e la rg e ga n glia sit u at e d i n t h e i n t e r io r of t h e c e r e b ru m ,

e sp e cially t h e t h alamu s opt i cus (optic thalamus ) an d b e h in d th is

t h e co r po r a quad r ig e m i n a (i n som e a n imals c o r po r a big e mi n a ) ,

3 . T h e g r ay m ass e s o f t h e ce r ebellu m

4 . T h e g r ay m ass e s o f t h e spi n al co r d — t h e s o cal l e d a n t er i o r

-
an d po st er i o r h o r n s Th e s e gray m ass e s ar e co n n e ct e d b y i n
.

n u m e r abl e paths S om e o f th e s e ar e s e n sory pat h s that e n t e r

.

t h e sp i n al co r d by t h e so - call e d post e rio r r oots an d co n duct t o

wa r d t h e c e n t re O th e r s ar e mo t o r paths that co n duc t tow ar d
.

t h e p e ri ph e r y T h e most im porta n t m oto r p ath is t h e so -

. call e d
\

“
py r am idal tract which o r igi nat e s i n a d e fi n it e part o f t h e
”
,

c e r e b r al co rt e x k n ow n as t h e m ot o r r e gio n (zo n e o f Rola n d o ) ,

pass e s t h e Optic th al am u s an d is fi rst i n t e rr upt e d by ga n glio n

,

c e lls i n t h e a n t e r io r h o rn s o f t h e spi n al co rd From th e s e c e ll s .

it l e av e s t h e sp i n al co r d by t h e a n t e r io r r oots B oth i n t h e gr ay .

m ass e s o f t h e spi n al cord an d o f t h e opt ic thalamus c e r e b e ll um ,

an d c r
e e b r um t h e s,
e n sory ga n glio n c e l ls ar e co n n e ct e d with
-

m oto r c e lls by i n t e rn u n cial fib r e s H e n c e a s e n sibl e sti mu l us

.

c an b e tr an sfe rr e d to m oto r e l e m e n ts a t va r ious plac e s an d ,

im pa r t m oti on O n e gray m ass p r oduc e s ch i e fly r e fl e x acti o n a

.
,

s e co n d chi e fly autom atic actio n an d a third o n ly co n sci o u s

,

action .

N o w p hysiology t e ach e s that t h e r efl ex act i o n o f v e r t e brat e s

g e n e rally o r igi n at e s i n t h e spi n al co r d although i n t h e cas e o f
,

t h e fr og t h e co r po r a b ig e m i n a an d t h e c e r e b e llum ar e al so chi e fly
i n volv e d i n t h e r e fl e x m e cha n ism Th e m ov e m e n ts o f t h e frog
.

wh e n it wip e s o ff t h e ski n o n t h e back that has b e e n moist e n e d

with acid wh e n it h op s away aft e r its foot has b e e n p i n ch e d
, ,

wh e n i t r e cov e rs t h e n atural posi tio n upo n t h e abdom e n a ft e r

h avrn g b e e n plac e d o n its b ack wh e n it b ala n c e s i ts e lf wh il e sit
,

t i n g upo n a ha n d that is r e volvi n g ar e all r e fl e x acts that c an b e

,

sh ow n to d e p e n d upo n t h e spi n al cord t h e c e r e b e l l um t h e so, ,

call e d m e dulla oblo n gata an d t h e co rpo r a b ig e mi n a We hav e

, .

n o t ye t b e e n abl e to localis e th e s e m otor fu n ctio n s i n high e r an i

 S en s at i o n , A s s o c i a t i o n A ct i o n , .
35

m als so e x a ctly alth o ugh i n th e s e t h e chi e f orga n o f r e fl e x action

,

is also t h e spi n al cord .

I n t h e cas e o f t h e frog r eact i o n s o r au t o mat i c act s o n l y occur,

w h e n at l e ast t h e Op tic thalam u s corpora b ig e mi n a c e r e b e llu m , ,

an d spi n al co r d ar e r e tai n e d We h av e al r e ady s e e n that a frog .

i n this co n di tio n avoids an o b structio n that has b e e n p l ac e d i n

t h e path of i ts p r ogr e s s s h o wm g t h at it is abl e t o r e act au tom atic
,

all y . I t is also p r oba b l e that t h e optic t halamus is t h e ch i e f

c e n t re o f au to m ati c act i o n i n t h e high e r o r d e r s of a n im als i n ,

cludi n g m an .

Vo lu n t a ry act i o ns w e r e cha r act e r is e d by t h e i n t e rcu rr e n c e o f

id e as E xp e rim e n tal physiology i n dicat e s wi th t h e g re at e st p r o b
.

abil ity th at id e as ar e d e posit e d o n l y i n t h e c e r e b r al cort e x an d ,

that th e r e fo re actio n s origi n at e o n ly i n t h e co r t e x I f t h e cort e x .

o f t h e occipital l o b e o f a do g h e r e m ov e d t h e a n i mal los e s all ,

visual s e n satio n s an d id e as i e also all t h e imag e s of fo r m e r se n ,

. .

1
s at i o n s o f sigh t C orr e spo n d i n g r e sul ts h av e b e e n ob tai n e d fo r
.

all t h e s e n s e s Th e r e fo r e t h e c e r e b r al cort e x i s t h e s e at o f that

.

n e r vous p r oc e ss which al o n e as w e hav e show n

,
is c e r tai n l y ao , ,

c om pa n i e d by a psychical p roc e ss ; i t i s th e re for e t h e s e a t o f all

psychical p r oc e ss e s s e n satio n o r p e r c e ptio n t h e a s s ociatio n of
, ,

id e as an d vol u n ta ry actio n This vi e w also ag r e e s v e ry w e ll wi th .

t h e a n atom ical fac t tha t t h e py r amidal tract ,

t h rough which as , ,

we hav e show n ou r volu n ta ry m oto r i mpuls e s ar e co n duct e d t o

,

t h e m uscl e s e xt e n ds u n i n t er r upt ed/y fro m t h e c e r e b r al

,
cort e x
t h rough t h e d e e p e r gan glia u n til i t r e ach e s t h e spi n al cord I n .

t h e sam e way that t h e r e fl e x acts d e p e n d u po n t h e s pi n al c o r d .

a n d t h e automatic acts up o n t h e Optic thala mus t h e v o lu n ta ry ,

actio n s d e p e n d e xc l u s ive l y u po n t h e c e re b r al c ort e x S til l .

1
MUNK w fi r t x p ri m t r w h h w d t h at a i mal i t h i
as the s e e en e o s o e an n n s co n

di t i l g r h v i ua l
o n no on ati
e id aas It h s t y t b se n s
p i o ns o r e s . as n o e ee n ex er

m ta ll y d t rm i d w i t h c rtai ty wh t h r t h m v m t
en e e ne f a d ge rabb i t
n e e e o e en s o o or

t h at h b d priv d f t h r b ral c rt x
as ee n e e t ill i flu c d by v i ua l
o e ce e o e , ar e s n en e s

s t i muli i wh t h r i t h d g
, . e. rab b i t t h am
e e n i the fr g h pti c
o or , e s e as n e o , t e O

t h al amu i u ffic i t f t h pr du t i
s s s f au t matic act i
en or (f e xam pl t h
o c on o o on or e e , e

av id a
o f b tr t i
n ce o ) an O s uc on .
 36 I n t r o duct i o n to P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

a n o t h e r fact agr e e s w ith thi s stat e m e n t A n im als i n which all o f .

t h e c e r e b r um e xc e pt t h e optic thalam us has b e e n e xti rpat e d ar e ,

cha r act e r is e d by g r e at r e st r i ctio n of t h e so -call e d spo n ta n e ous

m o t io n s i e m otio n s that ar e n o t t h e i mm e diat e r e sult of e xt e r n al
, . .

sti muli Th e s e spo n t a n e ous m o t io n s ar e chi e fl y acts tha t r e s u l t

.

dir e c t ly from id e as wh os e p r ima ry e xt e r n al stim ulus is v e ry r e

m ot e Lik e all ac tio n s th e y also d e p e n d upo n t h e c e r e b ral co r
.
,

t e x an d m ust disapp e a r wh e n t h e l att e r is d e s t r oy e d

, H ow e v e r .
,

a fe w spo n ta n e ous m otio n s still t ak e plac e as i n t h e cas e of a ,

pig e o n fro m wh ich t h e b r ai n has b e e n r e m ov e d This is e x .

pl ai n e d by t h e fact that i n t e rn al sti muli (h u n g e r thi r st e t c ) s t i l l , , .

co n t in u e to p r oduc e r e fl e x m otio n s which we ar e accustom e d t o

d e sign at e as spo n t a n e ous 1 b e caus e th e s e i n t er n al stim uli ar e i n
,

visibl e I n such c as e s t h e ci r culat io n o f t h e blood ca rr i e s t h e

.

e xci t atio n i mpa r ti n g m otio n to t h e c e n t r e thus taki n g t h e plac e ,

o f e xcitatio n th r ough t h e c e n t r ip e t al n e r v e s .

I n t h e cours e of t h e phylog e n e tic d e v e lopm e n t of t h e a n imal

s e r i e s m an y a fu n c tio n will h av e cha n g e d its loca tio n Th e
,
.

c e r e b e llu m of t h e fr og wi thou t t h e co rp o r a quad r ige mi n a fo r ,

e xam pl e i s still abl e to im part t h e r e fl e x motio n s of hoppi n g

, ,

whil e t h e r abb i t r e quir e s at l e ast t h e a n t e rior an d post e r io r co rpo r a

quad r ig e mi n a i n add itio n to t h e c e r e b e llum I n n o r e sp e c t h ow
,
.
,

e v e r has t h e phylog e n e tic d e v e lopm e n t cha n g e d t h e ch i e f facts of

,

l ocali zat io n as ab ov e s tat e d ,

.

Th e localisat io n of r e fl e x actio n au tomati c actio n an d c o n , ,

scious actio n i n t h e i n v e r t e b r at e s is far l e ss c e r tai n S o littl e has

,
.

b e e n e stablish e d e sp e cially co n c e r n i n g t h e volu n tary actio n s of

,

th e s e low e r a n im als that att e m pts at localizatio n hav e thus far

,

b e e n too hasty O ur fu tu r e i n v e stigatio n s wi l l th e r e fo r e b e c o n

.

fi n e d to v e rt e b r at e s particu l arly to m an T h e latt e r is alo n e abl e

, .

t o giv e us an y i n fo r matio n con c e r n i n g h is psychi cal pr oc e ss e s ;

for to r e p e at i t we o n ly k n ow th at ph e n om e n a ar e psych ical
, ,

wh e n we ou r s e lv e s ar e co n scio u s of th e m .

1 P R EY E R d e sign at e s t h e m as i mpu lsi ve , B AI N as a u t o m at ic mo t i o ns .

 C H AP T E R I I I .

S TI M ULU S —S E NSATI O N .

I N th is l e c tu r e we b e gi n t h e discussio n o f t h e si n gl e e l e m e n ts o f
th e psychica l p r oc e ss wi th t h e first e l e m e n t — s e n sation As we .

hav e s e e n t h e e xt e rn al stimulus fi r st imp ar ts t h e s e n satio n O n ly

,
.

m ot io n i n t h e broad e st s e n s e acts as stim ulus upo n t h e p e r i

, ,

p h e r al o r ga n s of s e n s e . B ut n o t e v e r y m otio n c an p r oduc e an

e xcitatio n o f t h e t e rm i n al r am ifi catio n s of o u r s e n so r y n e r v e s th at

will b e con duct e d toward t h e c e n t r e , an d fi n ally g e n e rat e a sim ila r

e xcitatio n i n t h e c e r e b r al cort e x an d, as a corre lat e of t h e l att e r a ,

s e n sation L e t us fi r st b r i e fly re vi e w t h e va r ious ki n ds of m otio n

.

to b e m e t wi th i n n atu r e t hat c an ac t upo n t h e p e r i ph e r al o rgan s

,

o f s e n se Th e y ar e as follows
M
.

I . o la r mo t i o n s Th is class-n am e d e sig n at e s all thos e

motion s that m ay be r e ga r d e d as t h e p r oj e ctio n o r i mpact o f
e lastic o r i n e lastic bodi e s I n this cas e a d e fi n it e m otio n i s e xe
.

c u t e d i n a d e fi n it e di r e ctio n by a mat e r ial body i e by an e n ti r e

, . .

c om pl e x of n umb e r l e ss m ol e cul e s To th i s class b e lo n g al l t h e

.

stim ul i of t o uch an d p re ssur e T h e latt e r we c an co n c e iv e of as

.

p r oj e ctil e m otio n s h avi n g t h e app r oxim at e v e locity of O .

2 A t o mi c an d molecu la r mo t i o n s : Th e s e m otio n s r e sul t i n

.

ch e mical cha n g e s wi thi n an d am o n g t h e m ol e cul e s B e sid e s t h e .

stimuli o f tast e an d sm e ll m an y visc e r al stimuli also probably b e

,

lo n g to this c l ass .

3 T h e mo t i o n s of et h e r : P hysiological psych ology must acc e p t

.

t h e hypoth e sis of physics tha t pa r ticl e s o f e th e r p e r vad e t h e spac e

,

b e tw e e n t h e m ol e cul e s of m att e r an d tha t t h e vib r ati o n s o f this

,

e th e r , acco r di n g to th e ir v e loci ty p r oduc e t h e ph e n om e n a that

,

37
38 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i ca l P sych o logy .

ar e d e sign at e d as light an d r adia n t h e at

“
, ,
"
an d p r obably also
t hos e o f m ag n e tism an d e l e ct r icity
“
.

Th e aco u st i c s t i mu li an d so fa r as t h e
t h e t h er mal st i muli , in
co n du ct i on o f h e at i s co n c e r n e d ar e t o b e class e d u n d e r p r oj e ctil e
,

m otio n s As ye t we k n ow but l ittl e o f t h e sp e cial cha r act e r istics

.

o f th e rmal stimul i I n d isti n ctio n fr om oth e r proj e ctil e m otio n s

.
,

acoustic s t imul i ar e char act e ris e d by t h e fact tha t t h e proj e ctil e

m otio n s o f t h e si n gl e m ol e cul e s of t h e vib r ati n g body p r oduc e a ,

wav e of m otio n i n a d e fi n it e d i r e ctio n which is im m e diat e ly fol ,

low e d by a r e cu rre n t wav e i n t h e opposit e d ir e ctio n .

Th e n um b e r of stim u l i tha t p r oduc e di r e ct e xci tatio n o f t h e

n e rv e - e n ds an d t hat ar e t h e r e fo r e t o b e co n sid e r e d by physio
,

logical psychology m ay be still fu r th e r r e d u c e d We k n ow that .

t hos e m otio n s of e th e r t hat p r oduc e light do n o t act d i r e ctly o n

t h e r e ti n al t e r mi n at io n s o f t h e op t ic n e r v e but produc e ch e mical ,

cha n g e s o r as we m ay a l so say atomi c m otio n s i n t h e r e ti n a

, , , ,
.

I t i s o n ly th e s e ch e m ical p r oc e ss e s that act as stimulus u po n t h e

e n ds o f t h e Optic n e rv e .

Th e re fo r e o n ly two chi e f g r oups of s e n sibl e s ti muli r e mai n ;

t h e y m ay b e d e sign at e d as ch e m ical s t imul i an d m e cha n ical
stimuli To th e s e we m ay add t h e e l e ctric stim u li of s e n satio n
.

as a thi r d gr oup n o t ig n o r i n g t h e fact how e v e r tha t t h e e l e c tr ic

, , ,

s t imul i may also fi r s t produc e ch e mical chan g e s i n t h e fl uids O f

t h e tissu e s which e n v e lop t h e n e rv e- e n ds an d that th e s e ch e m ical ,

p r oc ess e s would th e n b e t h e i mm e diat e i rr ita n ts .

As ye t we ar e t o o li ttl e ac q uai n t e d with t h e physical cha r act e r

i st i c s o f r adian t h e at to b e abl e to d e t e r m i n e wh e th e r it acts
di r e ctly upo n t h e n e r v e -e n ds o r th r ough t h e m e diatio n of ch e m i
,

cal cha n g e s I r is also q u e stio n abl e wh e th e r r adia n t h e at as

.
,

such acts d i re ctly upo n t h e n e r v e s as a sti mulus at all ; or

,

wh e th e r i t mus t n o t fi r st b e co n v e r t e d i n to co nduc t e d h e at 1
It .

is at l e ast p r obabl e that t h e s e n satio n of h e at i n t h e ha n d wh e n ,

n e a r a glowi n g stov e i s p roduc e d i n t h e followi n g m a n n e r :

,

1
But t h e qu ti es on ti ll u n d e ci d e d as t o wh e th e r t h e e pi d e r m i s i s di at h e r
is
MASJ E clai ms that i t i s G O L DSC H E I D ER that it is n o t
s

mo u s o r not ,
.
 S t i m u lu s —S e n sa t i o n .
39

Th e surfac e o f t h e han d n e xt t h e stov e i s fir st wa rm e d by r adia n t

h e at t h e h e a t thus p r oduc e d i n t h e su r fac e of t h e skin is t h e n
co n du ct e d i n wa r d to t h e n e rv e - e n ds .

Fi n ally t h e i rri tatio n of t h e n e r v e -e n ds by m agn e tism has n e v e r

,

b e e n obs e rv e d with c e rtai ty n O .n t e co tr a ry

h n H rm a s
e n n
1
,
’

e xp e r im e n ts s e e m to d e m o n st r a t e t h e i n ability o f m agn e tism to act

as a n e r v e -i rr ita n t h e plac e d b oth an im al s an d pa r ts of an im als

withi n t h e m ag n e ti c fi e ld o f a larg e e l e ct r o - mag n e t an d Obs e r v e d ,

n o e ffe c t wh at e v e r .

H e n c e two fo r ms o f t h e m otio n s o f n at u r e m ag n e tism an d ,

radian t h e at i n t h e light of o ur pre s e n t k n owl e dg e s e e m to b e

, ,

e xclud e d fr om t h e l ist o f n e r v e - i rr ita n ts e v e n t h e oth e r fo r m s

o f m otio n ar e e ffe ctiv e o n ly with i n c e rtai n l im its For e xam pl e .
,

m otion that p r oduc e s sou n d m ust hav e n o t l e ss t h a n sixt e e n n o r

m or e tha n vib r atio n s pe r s e co n d ; oth e rwis e n o i rr i tatio n
o f t h e n e r ve - e n ds s e e m s to b e produc e d S im i l a r lim itatio n s ar e
.

fou n d i n t h e cas e o f ult r a-r e d an d ul t r a-viol e t r ays o f ligh t I t is .

al r e ady probabl e tha t t h e n o n -n e rvous e l e m e n ts of t h e s e n s e

o rga n t ha t fi r st r e c e iv e s t h e e xt e r n al stimu lu s ac t lik e a si e v e , ,

a rr e sti n g c e r tai n quali ti e s of t h e i rr itati n g m otio n s an d p e rm itti n g

c e rtai n oth e r q ual iti e s to pas s o n an d irritat e t h e n e rv e -e n ds .

T h us to a c e r tai n e xt e n t t h e orga n s o f s e n s e ha v e a pow e r to

, ,

s e l e c t wh ich is doub t l e ssly a n atu r al fi t n e ss brough t about by t h e

,

struggl e fo r e xist e n c e Th e r e is n o grou n d what e v e r fo r r e fe rri n g

.

t h e e x e r cis e o f thi s s e l e ctio n to t h e activi ty o f c e r e b r al c e n tr e s .

I t is much m o r e p r obabl e that t h e s e l e ct io n which is a ppa re n t i n ,

t h e e xclusio n o f ul tr a - r e d an d ultra- viol e t rays of ligh t an d o f

s o u n d- wav e s havi n g t o o g r e at o r t o o l ittl e v e locity is ae com
, ,

li s h e d at o n c e i n t h e p e r i ph e r al o r ga n o f s e n s e Th e r e for e w e
p .

m ay assum e t h at c e rtai n m e cha n ical an d ch e m ical m otio n s p ro

duc e n o n e rvou s e xci tatio n what e v e r Thi s pe r iph e ral s e l e ctio n
.

i s e ss e n tially d e t e rm i n e d by t h e q u ali ty o f t h e stimulati n g m oti o n s

we shall pr e s e n tly l e a r n o f a n oth e r form of s e l e ctio n that is ac
com pl ish e d i n t h e ce n t r al n e r v e- o rga n s an d wh ich is d e t e rm i n e d

1
P EL
’
U G ER S Archiv , Bd 43. .
40 I n t r o du ct i o n to P hys i o log i cal Psy ch o logy .

by t h e i n t en si ty
f st i mu lat i o n I t has Oft e n b e e n claim e d tha t
o .

t h e pow e r Of qualitativ e s e l e ctio n is e x e rcis e d by t h e n e r v e - e n ds

to a still g r e at e r e xt e n t F o r e xampl e i t has b e e n suppos e d that

.
,

t h e t e rm i n atio n s o f t h e optic n e rv e ar e o n ly s e n si tiv e to ch e m ica l

stimu l i p r oduc e d by t h e vib r ati o n o f e t h e r an d t h e t e r mi n atio n s ,

o f t h e aud itory n e r v e o n ly t o acoustic sti muli Th is qu e sti o n is .

clos e ly r e lat e d to t h e th e o ry of t h e so -call e d sp e cific e n e rgy of t h e

s e n sory n e rv e s .

Th e l att e r h as oft e n b e e n a t tack e d r e c e n tly an d i n co n s e qu e n c e ,

t h e th e o r y has h ad to b e gr e atly m odi fi e d Th e fo llowi n g stat e .

m e n ts tak e n fr om t h e th e ory o f t h e sp e cifi c e n e rgy ar e of fu n da

, ,

m e n t al impo r ta n c e to o u r fu tu re co n si d e r a t io n s 1 .

Acc o rdi n g t o t h e abov e stat e m e n ts i t is v e ry doubtfu l wh e th e r

an y ki n d of sti mulus what e v e r i s capabl e of i r r i t at I n
g t h e e n ds o f
an y n e r ve i e wh e t h e r t h e n e r v e s ar e charact e riz e d by r e c e tiv e
, . .
p
i n di ffe re n c e .

Th e s e l e ctio n e x e r cis e d by t h e n o n - n e r vo u s e l e m e n ts o f t h e

s e n s e -o rgan is follow e d by a n oth e r i n t h e n e rv e- e n ds E v e ry .

s e n so r y n e r v e has i ts sp e cifi c o r ad e q ua t e st imulus .

O n t h e oth e r h an d how e v e r wholly dispa r at e o r i n ad e quat e

, ,

sti mul i m ay also som e tim e s caus e i rr ita t io n o f t h e n e rv e - e n ds .

I f t h e r e ti n a b e twitch e d fo r e xam pl e thi s m e cha n ical i rr itatio n , ,

produc e s a glim m e r of ligh t P ar t icula r ly t h e m e cha n ical an d .

e l e ct r ical stim u li s e e m to b e n owh e r e wh olly e xcl u d e d from

r e c e p tio n as i rr ita n ts of t h e n e r v e e n ds
- 2
.

Bu t an e xcitatio n p r oduc e d by s om e i n ad e quat e sti mulus i n

t h e n e r v e e n ds i n b e i n g co n duct e d to t h e c e n tral orga n s of se n
,

satio n will t r av e r s e paths an d r e ach t e rm i n al c e n t re s that hav e

,

b e e n fi t t e d by t r a n sm issio n an d e x e r cis e fo r t h e r e c e ptio n o f

v e ry diffe re n t e xcitation s This e xcitatio n th e r e for e will n o t har .
, ,

m o n i z e w e ll wi th t h e n e r vous e l e m e n ts upo n wh ich i t has b e e n

W U N D T P h y i l g P y h l g i I S 3 3 d if M U N K S i t g
,
“
s o o . s c o o e, , . 2 an .
,
z un s

b er d KO i gl Pr Ak d Wi
. . n 8 89
. . . . ss .
, 1 .

9
G O L D SC H I D a um it i tr t h at wh v r t h y app ar i ad q uat
E ER ss e s, s ue , ene e e e as n e e

st i muli th y act di r ct l y u p t h
, e r v -fib i t ad f u p t h
e d- rga on e ne e res ns e o on e en o ns

o f t h m lv
s e n se e se es .
42 I n t r o du ct i o n to P hys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

i n cludi n g p e r iph e r al t e r mi n atio n s an d c e n t re is n o t o n ly fi tt e d ,

fo r a si n gl e q u ality o f e xcitatio n but also fo r a s e r i e s o f similar ,

qua l i ti e s agr e e s v e ry w e ll with t h e abov e th e ory H e n c e i t

, .

fo ll ows that t h e co n stitutio n o f t h e n e r vous syst e m is an e ss e n tial

factor i n d e t e rm i n i n g t h e quality o f s e n satio n This fact r e v e als .

t h e obvious e r ro r o f fo r m e r c e n t u ri e s fi r s t r e fut e d by Lock e , ,

though still sha r e d by n aiv e though t t o day th at t h e Obj e cts abou t ,

u s th e ms e lve s ar e colou r e d wa r m cold e t c As e xt e r n al to ou r , , ,

.

co n scious n e s s we c an o n ly assum e m att e r v ib r ati n g wit h m ol e

, ,

c u lar m otion an d p e r m e at e d by vibrati n g pa r ticl e s o f e th e r Th e .

n e rv e - appa r atus s e l e ct o n ly c e rtai n moti o n s o f m att e r o r o f e th e r ,

which th e y t r an sform i n to that fo r m o f n e rv e - e xcitatio n wi th whic h

th e y ar e fam i liar I t is o n ly th is n e r v e -e xc itatio n t h at we p e r c e i v e

.

as r e d warm o r hard
, , .

T h e followi n g tabl e giv e s a com p r e h e n siv e r e vi e w o f t h e

di ffe r e n t fo r m s o f irritation

I ERME A E P R E DI OC SS
S NT
PE R ER A O RG A N
T
TI MU L I I N TH E I PH L
A ARA
.

PP T US .

V ibrat i ons o f e th e r ; Tra f rmat i i t n o

—
ns o on

40 0 9 00 b illi o n (E n g . n m l ul ar at m
i tra- o ec o

n um ) v i brat i ons
pe r i m ti
c o on
d
. .

s e co n .

l ul T
O rgan s o f ast e , S m e , ll
I n tra -m o e c ar (ch e m i Wa t i an d G e n e ra S e n si l
c al) m o t I o n s
n n
g
l
.

b i i fy
.

M h a i al t i muli (p
ec n c s ro

j e ct i o n i m pa t c pre s Wa t i n n
g . All O rgan s o f S e n se .

ur
, ,

s e ) .

H e at Wa n i ng t O rgan s o fG ene ra l S e n
s i bi li t y
. .

P o ssi bly tran s fo r ma

l ti o n i n t o ato m i c All
,

E ec tri c ity . O rg an s of S e n se .

mo ti o n .

M l ul ar
o ec m o ti o n s o f
so u n d s ub c o n t r av

Wa ti n g
C -e g ; 16 vi n .

b r at i o n s pe r se co n d.
 S t i n i u lu s —S e n s at i o n .
43

We ha v e no w r e ach e d o n e of t h e chi e f r e sul ts of th e s e i n v e s ti

gat i o n s for physi o l o gi cal p sychology A giv e n s tim ul u s E
.
,

(e xcitan t ) g e n e rat e s an e xcitatio n i n t h e p e riph e ral ram ificatio n s

,

Of t h e n e r v e s which we shal l de sig n at e as Ep ( p e r iph e r a l e xcita

,

t io n ) Th i s Ep wh ich has alr e ady b e c o m e di ffe r e n t from E

.
, ,

u ltim at e ly re ach e s t h e c e re b r al cort e x by way o f t h e appropriat e

n e rv e - path an d duri n g con ductio n u n d e rgo e s s ti l l furth e r fi n al
, , ,

modifica tio n s We s hall d e sign at e that w h ich E15 has b e com e

.

wh e n i t has r e ach e d t h e c e n tr e i n t h e c e r e b ral co rt e x as E c ,

(co r tical e xcitati o n ) I n a giv e n cas e we c an d e t e rmi n e E e xactly

.

as to qua n tity an d qu a l ity though Oft e n wit h di fficulty E1) an d

, .

E c ar e al most e n ti r e ly wit h dra wn fr om o u r ob se r vati o n N ow E c .

i s that m at e r ial p r oc e ss o f t h e cort e x to w h i ch t h e s e n satio n S

cor r e spo n ds as a co rr e lat e d psych ical pr o c e ss O f cours e t h e .

e xac t physi cal o r

physi o logi cal m e asu r e m e n t Of this S i s l ik e wis e
i mpossibl e ; but t h e S is a fact of co n sci o us n e ss an d as such i s ,

di r e ctly k n ow n by u s th r o ugh co n sci o u sn e ss N o w what pr o .

pe r t i e s d o we p e r c e iv e i n ou r s e n satio n o r by what char act e r istic s

,

ar e ou r s e n satio n s to be d isti n guish e d from o n e a n oth e r ? We

ar e acquai n t e d with thr e e such disti n g u ishi n g fe at u r e s ; as t h e

fi r st o f th e s e we sha l l m e n tio n t h e qu ali ty o f s e n satio n s Th e .

s e n satio n s o f r e d an d o f g re e n of t h e to n e C an d o f t h e tast e o f
, ,

suga r ar e di ffe re n t i n quali ty A fu r th e r disti n g u ish i n g fe at u r e of

.

s e n satio n s is th e i r i n t en si ty I f t h e t o n e C is s o u n d e d lo u d e r an d
.

loud e r o r if t h e to n gu e is moist e n e d with a mo r e an d m or e c o n

,

c e n t r at e d solutio n o f s u gar t h e i n t e n s ity o f t h e s e n s atio n vari e s

,

witho u t a chan g e of qual ity I t wo u l d be wh o lly fal s e to r e duc e

.

di ffe re n c e s i n i n t e n sity to di ffe r e n c e s i n quali ty ; i t is always pos s ibl e

fo r t h e i n t e n sity o f a s e n satio n t o b e g radua ll y r e d u c e d t o z e r o ,

b ut n o t for t h e q u ality A thi r d an d last ch aract e r istic we

.

d e sig n at e as t h e accompan yi n g t o n e of f e e li ng I n trosp e cti o n .

t e ach e s that e v e ry s e n sati o n i s accompa n i e d by a fe e l i n g of

pl e asur e o r pai n (displ e asu r e ) Th is e moti o n al e m phasis o f
.

s e n satio n s m ay d im i n ish t o z e r o as a r ul e h owe v e r i t i s p r e s e n t, , .

I n e v e r y s e n satio n th e r e fo r e we d isti n gu ish t h e qu ality (o) t h e

, , ,

i n t e n si ty (i ) an d t h e to n e of fe e li n g (f ) an d i n dicat e th e m by ,
44 I n t r o du c t i o n to P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

placi n g a i an d f as t h e i n dic e s o f S —S o i f Lat e r w e shall

, , , .

b e c o m e acq u ai n t e d with two oth e r charact e ristics o f s e n satio n s

i n c o n n e cti o n with a n oth e r su bj e c t — th e ir lo cali z at i o n an d th e i r
,

du r a t i o n .

L et us co n sid e r t h e i n t e n sity o f s e n satio n s We a t o n c e

now .

e n co u n t e r t h e q u e stio n : I f t h e i n t e n sity o f t h e stimul us E b e

k n o w n wh at i s t h e i o f t h e accom pa n yi n g s e n s atio n S P We
,

hav e n o m e a n s w h at e v e r fo r t h e e xact m e asur e m e n t o f t h e i n t e n

s i t y o f our s e n satio n s I f we allow two so u rc e s o f l igh t to ac t
.

u po n t h e e ye we can e asi l y e stim at e t h e i n t e n sity o f e ach by

,

co mpar i so n b u t this e st imatio n i s o n ly possibl e as a compa r iso n ,

an d e v e n th e n is capabl e of b u t v e ry i n e xac t n um e rical e xp r e ssio n .

At fi r st t h e r efo r e w e sha l l d o b e tt e r to e xp r e ss t h e p r o bl e m as
, ,

follows : G i v e n t wo stim u li E 1 an d E 2 E 2 b e i n g by a d e fi n it e
, ,

ratio gr e at e r tha n E , ( fo r e xampl e E 2 i s t wic e E 1 ) i n what ,

r e lation do t h e t wo i n t e n siti e s of t h e accompan yi n g s e n satio n

sta n d to e ach o th e r ? A s t h e simpl e st solutio n o n e migh t at fi r st
s u pp o s e tha t S 2 is also twic e as i n t e n s e as S I si n c e E 2 h as twic e ,

t h e i n t e n si ty o f E 1 i n this cas e S would simply b e p r opo r tio n al

to E T o i l lustrat e th is r e latio n g r aphically o n e m igh t prot r ac t
.
,

t h e s timu l i up o n an axis o f ab scissas (fig an d t h e i n t e n si ti e s

.

o f the s e n sati o n s p e r p e n dicula r t o th is axis as o rdi n at e s By .

simpl e p r opo r ti o n t h e s e r i e s o f i n t e n si ti e s o f s e n satio n would th e n

p r od u c e a straight l i n e (a-e ) .

I f ah (fig 5) r e pr e s e n t t h e mag n itud e of t h e stimulus E 1 an d

.

ac t h e m ag n itud e o f t h e stimulu s E 2 ac b e i n g e qual to 2 ah th e n , ,

'
(
c c t h e i n t e n sity o f S
2)
is twic e as gr e at as ab (t h e i n t e n sity of S i ) .

C los e r c o n sid e ratio n h ow e v e r ca u s e s such a sim pl e propo r tio n

, , ,

assum e d b e for e t h e appl icatio n o f an y e xp e ri m e n tal t e st what e v e r ,

t o app e ar i m probabl e We h av e al r e ady s e e n tha t E is r e c e iv e d

.

as E n d fi n al l y r e ach e s t h e cort e x of t h e c e r e brum as E c ;

p ,a

h e n c e E is subj e c t to a lo n g s e ri e s o f m od ification s b e fo r e t h e
c o r r e lativ e pr o c e ss S is imp ar t e d I t will b e st r a n g e i n d e e d i f
.
, ,

th e s e m o difi cati o n s ar e show n t o be so e xac t fo r all t h e differ e n t

mag n i tu d e s o f E that Ep always r e mai n s propo r tio n al to E an d
, ,

E c p rop o rti o n a l to Ep T o b e gi n wit h i t is m uch m or e probabl e

.
,
 S t i ni u lu s S e n sa t i o n .
45

that t h e e xac t r e latio n b e tw e e n S an d E i s far m o r e comp l i ca t e d ,

e v e n though S i n c r e as e i n g e n e r a l with t h e a u g m e n ti n g E Of .

cou r s e a d e fi n i te d e cisio n c an o n l y b e fu r n ish e d by e xp e ri m e n t .

H ow e v e r b e fo r e we e n t e r i n to a discussio n o f t h e n um e r o us
,

e xp e ri m e n ts t hat hav e b e e n e mpl o y e d si n c e F e c h n e r to asc e rtai n

t h e c o n n e ctio n b e tw e e n S an d E w e m ust bri e fly d iscuss t h e

,

m e ani n g o f S an d E .By o ur o wn e xp e ri e n c e we k n ow dir e ctly

“
what is m e a n t by i n t e n sity of t h e s e n sati o n b u t what is to be
“
u n d e r s t ood by t h e m ag n itud e o f t h e stim u lu s O bvi o usly t h e
quan tity o f livi n g fo r c e co n tai n e d i n t h e stimul u s I t i s s e l f .

e vid e n t t h at t h e m e asu r e m e n t o f th is fo rc e is i n ma n y cas e s l ik e

FI G .
5 .

wis e di fficult o r i mpossibl e Fo r e xam pl e wh o could d e t e rm i n e

.
,

e xactly t h e ki n e tic e n e rgy of a sourc e of lig h t O n ly v e ry

r e c e n tly hav e we b e e n fu r n ish e d with e xac t r e su l ts i n th is d e part
m e n t o f sci e n tific r e s e arch through t h e i n v e stigatio n s of Th o m s e n
an d T u mli r z . But h e re agai n we m ust h a v e r e cours e to t h e
co mpa r i so n o f t wo stimuli By p e rmitti n g t h e sam e s ou rc e O f
.

l igh t fo r e xampl e t o act fi rst at a d e fi n it e d i stan c e a an d th e n a t

, , ,

t h e dis t a n c e 2 a we hav e an i n t e n sity of ligh t i n t h e s e co n d ca s e

, ,

at l e ast whos e r e latio n to t he fi rst i n t e n s ity c an b e e asily

,

e st i mat e d.

We shall b e gi n ou r e xp e rim e n tal i n v e stigatio n s wi th t h e follow

i n g simpl e t e st . We plac e o urs e lv e s a t a dista n c e o f 1 0 m from .
46 I n t r o du c t i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

a trump e t wh ich is blowi n g with a u n ifo r m i n t e n si ty an d th e n ,

r e c e d e from i t g radually u n til we r e ach a poi n t wh e re we c an j ust

h e a r t h e sou n d an d th e n o n e wh e r e we j u s t fail to h e a r i t an y
,

m o r e S uppos e t h e lat t e r p oi n t to be abo u t 1 2 0 m from t h e

. .

trump e t A t this dista n c e t h e sou n d-wav e s sti l l r e ach o ur e ar i t

.
,

i s tr u e bu t wh e th e r th e y p r oduc e an e xcitatio n i n t h e n e rv e -e n ds
,

( Ep) o r n o t i s doub tful i t is still mo r e doubtful wh e th e r an E c

tak e s plac e ; b u t b e yo n d a l l doub t n o S is produc e d I t fo l lows .

that th e r e ar e s timu l i w h ich p r od uc e s e n s atio n s t h e s e n sibl e ,

i n t e n si ty o f wh ich is e qual to 0 T h e s tim u lus m ust fi rs t r e ach

.

a d e fi n i t e i n t e n sity b e for e i t c an i mpa r t a s e n sa tio n i e we m u st ,

. .

approach t o 1 1 9 m fr o m t h e trum p e t b e fo r e we h e a r i t Th e r e
. .

for e th at i n t eh si t y o f stimulus which i s j ust s u ffi ci e n t to impart a

,

s e n satio n we d e sig n at e as t h e m i n imum o f stimulatio n (R e i n .

sch w clle = t h r e sh o ld o f e xcitatio n ) .

We n o w app r oach t h e trump e t gradually ; acco r di n gly t h e

acoustic stimulatio n an d lik e wis e t h e i n t e n si ty o f t h e s e n satio n
,

i n c r e as e At t h e d ista n c e o f 8 m t h e s o u n d al re ady i mparts a

. .

p i e r ci n g s e n satio n We c o n ti n u e to appr o ach but c an n o w pe r

.
,

c e i v e n o furth e r i n c r e as e of t h e s e n sat io n o r i n oth e r wo r ds t h e

, , ,

S ou n d is so l o ud that we do n o t p e r c e iv e an y furth e r augm e n tatio n .

We h av e r e ach e d t h e poi n t wh e r e o ur s e n satio n is n o l o n g e r

capabl e o f fu rth e r i n c r e as e ; h e n c e that i n t e n sity o f s timulus ,

which impa r ts a s e n sation i n capabl e o f fu rth e r augm e n tatio n is ,

d e si gn at e d as t h e maximum of stim ulatio n (R e i z h oh e = h e igh t

“ ” ’

o f e xcitatio n ) I n t h e u n lim i t e d s e r i e s of i n t e n siti e s o f s tim ulu s

.

r isi n g from 0 to 00 t h e fi rst s e ctio n impa r ts n o s e n satio n what

e v e r ; i n t h e s e co n d s e ctio n t h e i n t e n sity of t h e se n sat i o n s i n c r e as e s

with t h e stim ulus ; i n t h e th i r d an d last s e ct io n of t h e scal e o f

stim u lus t h e s e n satio n r e m ai n s co n s ta n t at a m aximu m of i n t e n
,

si t y d e spit e t h e furth e r i n c r e as e of t h e i n t e n sity o f t h e stimulati o n

,
.

Th e g r aphic e xp r e ssio n fo r th i s i s p r e s e n t e d i n fig 6 T h e cu rv e
. .

o f s e n satio n s o n l y ris e s abov e t h e axis o f abscissas r e pr e s e n ti n g ,

t h e variou s i n t e n siti e s o f t h e s t imulus at a d e fi n it e dista n c e ( t h e

,

“
th r e sh old o r m i n im u m o f e xcitatio n ) fro m t h e z e ro poi n t ; i t
”
,

t h e n g r adually asc e n ds as t h e stimul u s i n cr e as e s to a c e r tai n

, ,
 S t i m u lu s S e n sa t i o n .
47

h e ight an d fi n al l y at a d e fi n it e dis t a n c e from t h e z e r o poi n t ( t h e

, ,

h ght o r maxim u m o f e xci tatio n ) c e as e s to r is e an d e xt e n ds

e i
, ,
48 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i ca l P sych o logy .

as a co n sta n t para l l e l t o t h e axis E 1 E 2 e t c (fig 6) t o E 1 0 ar e

.
, , .
, .
,

too w e ak t o prod uc e an S o n l y at E 1 1 is t h e fi r st S p e rc e i v e d ;
E 1 2 produ c e s a stro n g e r s e n satio n tha n E 1 1 E 1 3 a str o n g e r s e n sa ,

tio n than E 1 2 T hus t h e S s a u g m e n t wi th t h e i n c r e as e o f t h e

.
’

E s u n til a s e n satio n g e n e r at e d by E 3 0 t h e ma ximum o f sti mu lu s

’
, , ,

h as b e e n r e ach e d T h e n t h e fo l l o wi n g E 3 1 do e s n o t impar t a
.

st r o n g e r S tha n t h e p re c e di n g E s b u t simply t h e sam e S 3 0 i m

’
,

pa r t e d b y E 3 0 I n t h e sam e way all su b s e qu e n t E s ar e u n ab l e

.
,
’

to r ais e S abov e t h e i n t e n si ty S 3 0 E 1 1 i s t h e m i n im u m (t h r e s
‘

h old ) E 3 0 t h e m axim u m (h e igh t ) o f stimulatio n

,
.

I n this cas e we hav e l e ft t h e q u e s tio n e n t ir e ly op e n as t o how

t h e i n t e n si ti e s O f s e n satio n i n c r e as e b e tw e e n E 1 0 an d E 3 0 wh e th e r
i n p r opo r ti o n to t h e i n c r e as e o f t h e E s o r i n som e oth e r ratio ’
, .

A v e r y simpl e e xp e rim e n t is su ffici e n t to show us that t h e s e n sa

tio n do e s n o t i n c r e as e i n p ro p o rti o n t o t h e stimul u s L e t u s .

tog e th e r obs e r v e a ligh t that gradually b e c o m e s brigh t e r t h e

,

n e ar e r we approac h i t By car e fu l s e l f-obs e rvat io n we p e rc e iv e

.

th at a t fi rst t h e i n t e n sity of t h e ligh t as r e ga r ds o ur s e n satio n )

s e e ms to augm e n t v e r y r apidly w h il e lat e r i t appa r e n tly i n cr e as e s
,

b ut v e ry s l o wly T h e re fo r e i n t h e graph ic i l l u stra tio n t h e i n

.
, ,

t e n siti e s o f s e n sati o n wi ll p r e s e n t a curv e that r is e s at fi r st swiftly

an d a b ruptly abov e t h e axis of a b s ci s sas from t h e poi n t r e pr e s e n t

i n g t h e m i n imum o f sti mulus th e n m o r e an d mo re slowly u n ti l

, ,

i t fi n al l y va n ish e s at t h e p o i n t corr e sp o n di n g to t h e maxim um o f

sti m ulus an d b e com e s a st raight l i n e pa r a l l e l t o t h e axis
,
.

Th e s e th r e e e ss e n tial fe atu r e s o f t h e s e n ti e n t l i fe — t h e p re s e n c e
o f a m i n imum an d m aximum o f e xcitatio n an d fi n ally t h e i n c r e as e ,

of t h e i n t e n sity o f s e n satio n t h at tak e s plac e b e tw e e n t h e m i n i

,

m u m an d m aximu m o f stimulat io n at fi rst r ap idly an d th e n , ,

g radually mor e sl o wly— ar e as we c an e asily co n c e i v e e xc e e d

, ,

i n gly fi tti n g .Th e s e p e culiariti e s h av e b e e n d e v e l op e d sim p l y

becau se th e y ar e fi tti n g i n t h e strugg l e fo r e xist e n c e Natu r al .

s e l e ctio n is j u s t as e ffic i e n t i n t h e d e v e lop me n t o f psycho -p hysio

logical ch a r act e r istics as i n t h e d e v e l o pm e n t o f t h e pu r e l y physio
,

logical T h e e xist e n c e O f a m i n im u m o f e xcitatio n prot e ct s u s

.

from an i n u n dation o f small stimu l i that would fl o od t h e c o n ,

 50 I n t r o du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

lay mor e an d m o re u po n t h e h an d b u t t h e s e n sati o n d o e s n o t ,

cha n g e u n til we hav e add e d lb o r about I 60 g to t h e I lb .

, .
, .

t h e n we p e rc e iv e a cha n g e an i n c r e as e o f t h e s e n satio n Th i s
, .

i n c r e as e o f stimulus that is j u s t su ffi ci e n t to p rod u c e a c h a n g e o f

,

s e sation we shall d e sig n at e as t h e absolut e th re shold o f d is

n ,
“

”
ti n ctio n t h e cha n ge o f s e n satio n its e lf as d S
, Th e re for e wh en , .

lb is add e d to t h e I lb we disti n guish o r fe e l n o g r e at e r i h

. .

cr ease tha n b e for e wh e n 2 mg w e r e lai d upo n t h e e mp ty h an d

, . .

We n o w l oad t h e han d with 2 1bs an d add lb t o that b u t t h e .

, .

additio n o f lb p r oduc e s n o disti n guishabl e i n c r e as e i n s e n sa

.

t io n an d we fin d that we m ust n o w add g lb i n ord e r to o b tai n

, .

an y cha n g e of s e n satio n what e v e r We t ak e 3 lbs a n d as a . .

,
.

r e sult fin d that an addition o f lb i s n e c e ssary to p r o duc e a

, .

ba re ly n otic e abl e ch a n g e of s e n satio n Th e addi tio n o f g lb to . .

t h e p r e vious w e igh t of 3 lb o f 3; l b to t h e pr e vious w e igh t o f .

, .

2 lh . of , lb to o n e lh an d t h e layi n g of 2 m g upo n t h e n u
. .
, .

w e ight e d ha n d all prod u c e i n t h e sam e m a n n e r t h e s e n satio n o f

,

d i ffe r e n c e o r mo r e co rr e ctly a b ar e l y n otic e abl e cha n g e o f

, , ,

s e n satio n d S N ow le t us co n sid e r wh e th e r t h e n e rv e s o f t h e
, .

ha n d wh ich was e mp ty b e fo r e t h e 2 m g w e re laid up o n i t w e r e

, .
,
'
re ally fr e e fr om t h e e ffe cts of stimulation by p re ssur e ? C e rtai n ly
n ot. Both ski n an d ai r al r e ady p r e ss e d upo n t h e n e r v e s of t h e
ski n Th e r e aso n t h at t h is p r e ssu re is n o t p e r c e iv e d is p robably
.

to b e sough t i n t h e fact that t h e pr e ssu re of t h e ski n an d ai r has

e xist e d co n s ta n t l y si n c e b irth an d that as we sh al l pr e s e n tly , ,

l e a rn we g e n e r ally o n ly p e r c e iv e ch anges in sti mulatio n an d n o t

, ,

s timuli that hav e lo n g r e m ai n e d t h e sam e This is fo r e xam pl e .

, ,

t h e r e aso n that we hav e n o s e n sati o n s from t h e visc e r al organ s ,

d e s pit e t h e ab u n da n c e o f th e i r n e r v e s T h e fact that w e m ust .

con sid e r h e r e how e ve r is that t h e co n sta n t s t im ulatio n by t h e

, ,

a i r an d ski n m ay sti l l b e i n cr e as e d som e 2 mg wi tho u t t h e ap .

pe ar an c e of a s e n sati o n But o u r e xp e r im e n ts also t e ach that

.

n o t e v e ry cha n g e o f stim ul u s p r oduc e s a s e n sat io n ; t h e latt e r

app e ar s on ly wh e n t h e cha n g e of stim ul u s has r e ach e d a c e rtai n

lim it o r mag n i t ud e bu t th is m agn itud e is d e t e r m i n e d by t h e
,

r ela t i ve cha n g e ; t h e abso lu t e cha n g e o f stim ulus i s o f n o i m

 S t i m u lus —S e n s at i o n .
5I

porta n c e what e v e r T h e law e mbodyi n g this fact we d e sig n at e

.

L aw o f W e b e r
”
as t he I n t h e abov e e xp e rim e n ts t h e stim ulus
.

m u st always b e i n cr e a se d o n e -third i n o rd e r t o pr o d u c e a chan g e ,

i n t h e s e n sati o n We saw fi rst that a c h a n g e in s e n satio n d S

.
, ,

was p r oduc e d by a w e ight o f 2 m g N e xt F e c h n er g o i n g b e y o n d .

, ,

t h e lim its o f W e b e r s l aw ass u m e d tha t e xact l y t h e sam e s e n sa

’
,

t io n d S is pr o duc e d wh e n l b i s add e d t o I lh o r g l b t o 2 l b . .
, . .

an d that t h e r e for e th is d S is co n sta n t a l t h o ugh i t corr e sp o n d s

, , ,

t o v e r y di ffe r e n t a b s o l ut e i n c r e as e s I n stim u l ati o n A t fi rst we .

s h all adop t th is hyp o t h e sis as assum e d by F e c h n e r t h e fat h e r o f ,

p sych o — physics a l t h o u g h as wil l app e ar l at e r it n e e ds corr e ctio n

, , , .

A ccordi n gly t h e stimu l u s m ust always i n cr e as e o n e -thi r d o r r e ach ,

fo ur-th irds o f i ts o r igi n a l mag n i tud e i n o rd e r t o produc e d S I f , .

we d e sig n at e t h e n umb e r t h e ratio o f t h e bar e ly p e rc e pti bl e

i n cr e as e o f stim u lus t o t h e origi n al stimul u s as t h e “ r e lativ e ,

thr e sh o ld o f disti n ctio n t h e Law o f W e b e r m ay b e fo r m u l at e d

,

t h u s : T h e r e lativ e thr e sh o l d o f d isti n ctio n i s c o n sta n t Th e r e .

for e b e gi n n i n g with t h e m i n im um of stimu lu s 2 m g we can

, .
,

c o n st ruc t a c o mp l e t e scal e of stim uli i n which e ach succ e ssiv e ,

m e mb e r i s 3 Of t h e p r e c e di n g an d i n which t h e d i ffe re n c e b e ,

t w e e n an y two adj ac e n t m e mb e rs always pr o d u c e s t h e i n cr e as e o f

s e n satio n dS wh ich acc o rdi n g to F e c h n e r s ass u mp tio n is
, ,
’

a lways co n sta n t .

This s e r i e s th e re fo r e i s as fo l lows
, ,

z — z ta— z e P — z e r —z e r

dS dS dS (1 5

H e n c e t h e stimul i i n c r e as e i n g e om e t r ical t h e s e n sa tio n s ,

a r ithm e tical p r og r e ssio n An y sti m ulus E m ay acco r di n gly

.

e xp r e ss e d as 2 t im e s a giv e n pow e r o f g Thus fo r e xampl e .

1
h all f t h pr t d i r gard
We s or e e se n s e t he fact th at t h e L aw o f V
\ e be r is
'

not

e xa tly val id f v ry li gh t timul i

c or e s s .
52 I n t r o duct i o n to Phys i o log i ca l P sycho logy .

Th e n s e n satio n S
t he x, p r oduc e d by E ” i s obvio u s l y e qual to

x x dS an d S
,
i s e qual t o y x dS Th e r e fo re : .

S ,
x d x

S, yd 5
Now we c an e asily com pu t e the valu e o f x in t he abo v e com
p a r iso n loga r ithm ically I f .

E, =2 x th e n
E , = log . 2 + x lo g .

log . E — lo g
x . 2

lo g 3 .

lo g E , .
—lo g . 2

lo g .

Th e r e fo r e
—log
,

S , _
log . E x
. 2

S, log . E , -log . 2

O bs e r vi
g furth e r that log 2 (mi lli gr ) i s almost i n fi n it e simal
n , , . .
,

an d may th e r e for e b e d is r e ga r d e d w e th e n obtai n b r i e fly , ,

Th e r e fo r e t wo s e n satio n s ar e i n t h e sam e ratio as t h e logari th m s

of th e ir stimu l i o r t h e se n sat i o n i s pr opo r t i on a l t o t he loga r i t h m
,

of i t s st i m u lu s Th is r e m arkabl e p r opo s itio n was d e sign at e d by

.

F e ch n e r as t h e fu n dam e n tal fo r m u l a o f P sycho-

1 “ ”
physics As .

al r e ady m e n tio n e d i t is on ly a r e s ul t of t h e law o f We b e r wh e n

,

o n e adm its t h e assumpti o n that dS t h e bar e ly n otic e a b l e s e n sa ,

tio n is always co n sta n t

,
We d e sig n at e it th e r e fo r e as t h e
.

Fo r m ul a of F e ch n e r i n dist i n ctio n from t h e Law o f W e b e r

“ ”
,

which e xp r e ss e s o n ly t h e co n sta n cy o f t h e r e lativ e thr e shold o f

“

d isti n ctio n ”
O th er s i n fact hav e r ej e ct e d t h e formula : dS i s
.
, ,

co n stan t an d hav e substitut e d i n st e ad : dS is p r opo rtio n al to S

, ,

dS
is co n stan t ; am o n g thos e who mak e us e of the latt e r ar e
S

F C HNE l ER,
“
E e m e n t e de r P sych op hy ik s , an d
“
Re vi i
s on de r H au pt
punk t d eP ych
erp h y i k s o s .
”
 S t i mu lus — S en s at i o n . S3

P lat e au an d B r e n ta n o . I n th is cas e t h e s e n sa tio n do e s n o t

d e p e n d upon a loga r i thm ic r atio but upo n t h e fo r mula S E
,
= “
,

c an d It b e i n g co n sta n ts . R e tai n i n g t h e fo r mula of F e ch n e r u n ti l

we shall hav e e xami n e d i t m or e clos e ly l at e r le t us n e x t ask ,

D o e s it co r r e spo n d to t h e ab ov e -e stablish e d ch ar act e ristics o f

t h e c u rv e o f s e n satio n ? We a n sw e r i n t h e a ffi rm ative I n fact .
,

t h e log ar i t h mi c cu r ve al s o b e lo n gs t o t h e m a n y cu r v e s that ar e

c h a r act e ri z e d by asc e n di n g as t h e m agn itud e Of t h e abscissas

,

i n cr e as e s at fi rst r apidly th e n m o r e slow l y b e comi n g co n sta n tly

, , ,

fl att e r an d fi n a l ly va n ishi n g i n a par al l e l t o t h e axis

,
.

T h e e xp e rim e n ts i n t e n d e d to d e m o n str at e e i th e r t h e s o c all e d

Law o f W e b e r its e lf o r t h e Form ula o f F e ch n e r hav e b e e n oft e n ,

r e p e at e d si n c e th e y w e r e fi r st appli e d bu t t h e origi n a l r e s ul t s
,

hav e o n l y b e e n pa rt ia ll y corrob orat e d M a n y b e sid e s u s h av e

.
, ,

fo u n d t h e e xist e n c e o f such a simpl e alg e braic r e la tio n b e tw e e n

mat e rial s t imu l i an d p sych ical s e n satio n s too str a n g e A g re at .

m a n y sagacio u s m e thods hav e b e e n d e vis e d to e stabl ish this

r e lation w ith e mpi r ical e xac t n e ss We shall b e com e acquai n t e d
.

with s o m e o f th e s e wh e n we c o m e to d i s c u s s t h e q u ali ti e s o f
s e n satio n s e parat e l y . I n g e n e ral t h e m ost re l i abl e r e c e n t i n
v e s t igat i o n s d e mo n s t r at e that t h e Law o f W e b e r i ts e lf is s t r ic tly

valid o n ly wi thi n c e rtai n lim its ; that i n t h e cas e o f v e r y s tr o n g

or v e ry s l igh t sti muli i t has bu t an approxim at e validity
, .

W h e th e r t h e Fo r m ula Of F ech n e r n e c e ssa rily follows from t h e

Law o f Weber e v e n i f t h e st r i ct validi ty o f t h e latt e r be gra n t e d
, ,

i s a q u e stio n that r e quir e s a n oth e r sp e cial d iscussio n I n plac e .

o f t h e fo rm e r H e lmholtz an d oth e rs hav e sought to substitut e a

,

m or e c o mplicat e d form u la tha t should c o n fo r m m or e clos e ly to

e xp e ri m e n tal r e sults bu t without succ e ss
, .

A s ti ll m o r e spir it e d co n trov e r sy h as b e e n associat e d with t h e

i n t e r e sti n g qu e stio n as to what th is co n n e cti o n e xp r e ss e d by t h e
,

law o f W e b e r an d F e ch n e r m e a n s , Th e r e h av e b e e n i n ve sti
.

gat o rs who thought t h e y could solv e o n e o f t h e gr e at p r obl e m s

o f t h e world by this law Am o n g th e s e al so was F e ch n e r t h e
.
,

fo u n d e r o f psych o- physics t h e o n e whom we h av e to tha n k fo r

,

t h e m o s t thoro u gh i n v e stigati o n s an d d i s cussio n s i n t h is fi e ld .

54 I n t r o du c t i o n to P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

H e assum e d that t h e law i s d i r e ctly valid as e xp re s si n g t h e

r e latio n o f t h e psychical ph e n om e n a to t h e physi cal We r e m e m .

be r that t h e stimulus E b e com e s fi r st Ep an d fi n a l ly E c .

F e ch n e r ass u m e d that t h e m at e rial cortica l e xci tatio n E c r e m ai n s

propo r ti o n al to t h e acti n g stimul u s i ts e lf (E ) an d that o n ly t h e
s e n satio n S followi n g t h e E c i n t h e c e re bral co r t e x b e ars tha t
r e m a r kabl e logarithm ic r e latio n t o E c an d h e n c e also to E As , .

we se e -a sort o f bridg e would thus spa n t h e chas m b e tw e e n t h e

,

physica l an d t h e psych ical li fe ; at l e as t t h e q u a n titativ e co n n e c

tio n b e twe e n t h e two wo u l d b e e stablish e d H ow e v e r we m u s t .
,

r e j e ct this b old i n t e rp r e tatio n To assum e that t h e e xcitatio n.

chan g e s i n so simpl e a m a n n e r du r i n g t h e proc e ss o f co n ductio n

t h at t h e ulti m at e E c still r e m ai n s p r oportio n al to Ep is wh ol l y
ar b i tra r y an d imp r obabl e This Fe c h n e r s i n t e rpr e tati o n o f t h e
.
,
’
,

law m ay b e call e d t h e psych o - physi ca l i n t e rpr e tati o n .

O n t h e co n tra r y t h e physi o logi cal i n t e r pr e tatio n assum e s that

,

t h e e xcitatio n is t r a n sm ut e d i n t h e v e ry path l e adi n g from t h e

p e r iph e r a l su r fac e of s e n s e to t h e n e rvous c e n tr e acco rd i n g to t h e
loga r i thm ic fo r m ula o f F e c h n e r s Law H e n c e E c wo u l d b e ’
.

p r oportio n al to t h e log o f E but t h e s e n satio n S p r oportio n al

.
,

to t h e E c i ts e l f Ve r y n atu r ally we k n ow n o thi n g what e v e r ye t

.

as t o how t h e p e riph e ral e xcitatio n is ch an g e d o n t h e way to t h e

c e re bral cor t e x o r by what r atio t h e cortical e xcitatio n augm e n ts
,

wi th t h e i n cr e as e i n s ti mulatio n Th e b ota n ist f fe r has i n

P e f 1
.
,

fact , show n by som e i n t e r e sti n g e xp e rim e n ts that t h e loga r ithm ic

re latio n e xp re ss e d by t h e L aw of We b e r is like wis e va l id i n a
v e r y di ffe r e n t sph e r e wh e r e o n ly a physio l ogical i n t e rpr e tati o n
c an b e co n c e r n e d Fo r e xampl e i f t h e z o O spe r m s of t h e fe r n
.
,

ar e plac e d i n solutio n s o f ma l ic acid t h e latt e r att r ac t t h e fo r m e r ,

with a c e r tai n forc e I t app e ar s that t h e forc e o f this r e actio n

‘

is p r opo r tio n al to t h e log of t h e stim ulu s t h e latt e r b e i n g a

.
,

gi v e n co n c e n t r atio n of t h e solution of malic acid H e r e we hav e .

an a n alogy e v e n though r e mot e to t h e r e latio n s e xisti n g be t w e e n

, ,

stim ulus an d s e n satio n I n fac t P fe ffe r has plac e d h is e x pe r i

.
,

1
U n t e rs uch . a . d . b o tan . I n st . 2 . Tub i n ge n , Bd I.
, H .
3 , 1 884
.
 S t i m u lu s — S e n s at i o n .
55

m e n ts o n t h e scal e s i n favou r o f t h e phy s io l ogical i n t e rpr e tati o n

o f W e b e r s Law E mpirical d ata how e v e r t h at wo u ld t e n d t o
’
.
, ,

substa n tiat e such a p h ysiological i n t e rpr e tati o n ar e sti l l t o o

lim it e d alth ough t h e latt e r h as t h e u n d o u b t e d adva n tag e o f
,

b e i n g abl e to e xplai n o r acco u n t fo r Fe c h n e r s Form ula e n tir e ly ’

i n acco r da n c e wi th t h e spiri t o f t h e n at u ral sci e n c e s an d wit h o u t ,

a n e w hypoth e sis From t h e sta n dpoi n t o f t h e ab o v e th e ory o f

.
,

c o u rs e o n l y an app r oxima t e va l idity o f t h e logarith m ic r e latio n

,

c an b e gr a n t e d ; fo r we would n o t b e j u stifi e d i n assumi n g that

i n a ll cas e s this si m pl e an d e xac t r e lati o n is pr e s e r v e d d e s pit e ,

t h e various c o mplicat e d m odificatio n s w h ich t h e e xc i ta tio n must

,

u n d e rgo wh il e b e i n g c o n d u ct e d t o t h e c e r e bral co r t e x .

A th ird i n t e rpre ta tio n whos e chi e f r e pre s e n tativ e is Wu n dt i s

, ,

d e sig n at e d as t h e psych o logi cal Wu n dt r e ga r ds t h e La w o f W e b e r

.

as o n l y a sp e cial cas e o f t h e u n iv e r s a l l aw o f r e l ativi ty applicabl e

to o ur p syc h ical p r oc e ss e s i n g e n e r al I n acco r dan c e wi th th is
.

l aw co n s cious n e ss is o n l y ab l e to m e asu r e t h e i n t e n sity of its

,

pr e s e n t co n ditio n s by a r e l ati v e s tan da rd n o t by an absolut e

,

sta n dard H e n c e app e r c e pti o n m e asu re s e v e ry m e n tal c o n

.
“ ”

ditio n by som e oth e r an d we b e c o m e awar e of a d e fi n it e di ffe r

,

e n c e o n ly w h e n t h e i n cr e a s e o f o n e s e n satio n has r e ach e d a

c e rtai n co n sta n t fractio n al pa rt Of a n o th e r s e n sat i o n tha t e i th e r

pr e c e d e d o r accompa n i e d i t This i n t e rp r e t atio n as we s e e
.
, ,

i n t roduc e s a wholly n e w an d hypoth e tical m e n tal faculty tha t i s

an importa n t factor i n Wu n dt s psych o logy
’
I t is t o a c e rtai n
.

e xt e n t an
“ - ”
,
-
O v e r s o ul t h e so ca l l e d app e rc e pti o n which n o t e s
”
, ,

e stim at e s compa r e s an d comb i n e s t h e l o w e r psyc h i ca l p r oc e ss e s

, .

As we s h all e n d e avou r to Sh ow at s o m e l e n gth i n t h e fu tur e ,

t h e r e is n o d e mon st r ati o n what e v e r that c an be fo u n d to p r o v e

t h e e xist e n c e o f this app e r c e ptio n T h e s e n satio n is th e r e an d
.
,

of a d e fi n it e i n t e n sity ; i t d o e s n o t n e e d to b e e stim at e d fi r s t .

Th e re fo r e we s h all r e j e c t t h i s a r b i tra ry assump ti o n i n cludi n g

Wu n dt s i n t e rpr e tatio n o f t h e Law o f W e b e r
’
.

I n o ur i n t e rpr e tati o n o f t h e L aw o f W e b e r we p r e fe r to s ta rt
from t h e simpl e fac t that a c e n tral pr o c e ss of e xcitatio n (E c) i n
t h e c e r e bral co r t e x p r oduc e d by a s e n sibl e stim ul u s E m ust
, ( ) , ,
56 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sych o lo
gy .

t he sam e as E hav e a c e rtai n l ivi n g fo rc e o r e n e rgy i n ord e r to

,

prod u c e an y psychica l pr o c e ss o r s e n satio n what e v e r N o w t h e .

c e r e bral co r t e x is n e v e r a comp l e t e tab ula rasa

“ ”
i t i s n e ve r
e n ti r e ly without e xcitatio n s r e sulti n g fr o m c e rtai n s e n sibl e stim u l i

t h e first e xcitatio n was pr e s e n t as soo n as t h e fi rst n e rv e h ad

d e v e lop e d T h e r e fo r e s o m e E c is always at ha n d
. No w the .

Law o f We b e r stat e s : I f n o s e n satio n i s ye t pr e s e n t o n e will ,

o n ly app e ar wh e n E c o r E has r e ach e d a c e rtai n m ag n itud e ,

n am e ly t h e m i n imu m o f e xci tati o n

, Furt h e r mor e if a s e n satio n
.
, ,

co r r e spon di n g t o an E o r E c a b ov e t h e m i n im u m e xcitatio n is ,

alr e ady p r e s e n t i n o r d e r to produc e a cha n ge o f s e n s ati o n th e re

, ,

m u st b e a cha n g e o f sti mulus whos e abs o lut e m ag n it u d e i s i n

,

g e n e ral ir r e l e va n t b u t whi ch always co n stitut e s a d e fi n it e frac

,

t i o n al p ar t o f E T his r ul e i s valid h o we v e r o n l y i n t h e mos t

.
, ,

fa v o u rabl e ca s e wh e n all o th e r s e n satio n s an d id e as th e n o c c u

,

pyi n g t h e att e n tio n ar e r e d u c e d to a m i n im um l e avi n g b u t o n e ,

simpl e s e n satio n i n t h e c o n scio u s n e ss We m ak e u se o f t h is .

m o s t favo ur abl e cas e wh e n we t e s t t h e Law o f W e b e r i n t h e

u sual m a n n e r ; we th e n dir e ct o ur e n tir e att e n tio n t o t h e a n tici
pat e d s e n satio n i e we m ak e ou r s e lv e s as fr e e as possi b l e from
,
. .

oth e r disturbi n g id e as L e t us r e coll e ct o u r e xp e ri e n c e s with

.

t h e tooth - ach e h o w oft e n an i n t e r e sti n g c o n v e rsatio n c an caus e

u s t o fo r g e t t h e pai n fo r a m om e n t ! Wha t happ e n s i n suc h a _

cas e as thi s ? We oft e n a n sw e r fa l s e ly -t h e s e n satio n has n o t ,

c o m e i n to co n sciou s n e ss B ut u n c o n scio u s s e n sati o n s do n o t

.

e xis t ; t h e r e al proc e ss i n s u ch a cas e i s as fo l l o ws : Th e stim ulus

co n ti n u e s to act bu t al tho u gh i ts i n t e n si ty is u n cha n g e d i t

, ,

g e n e r at e s n o s e n satio n b e ca u s e of oth e r m or e i n t e n s e s e n satio n s

an d id e as i e m o r e i n t e n s e E c s Fo r th is r e l ati o n H e r i n g h as
’
,
. . .
,

formulat e d t h e foll o wi n g fu n dam e n tal law : Th e p u r ity disti n ct

“
,

n e ss o r cl e a r n e ss of an y s e n satio n or id e a d e p e n ds upo n t he

r e latio n i n wh ich t h e w e ight o f t h e sam e (i e t h e m ag n it u d e o f . .

t h e co rr e spo n di n g psycho- physical p r oc e ss ) is to t h e c o ll e ctiv e

w e igh t o f all simul ta n e ously p r e s e n t s e n sati o n s an d id e as i e to ,
. .

t h e sum o f t h e mag n itud e s of all co rr e spo n di n g psycho- physical

p roc e ss e s.
”
T h e re fo re wh e th e r a stim ul u s g e n e rat e s a s e n satio n
,
58 I n t r o du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

as e v e ry im age of m e m ory is d e posit e d an d r e tai n e d as a v e r bal

,

id e a i n a d e fi n i t e po r tio n o f t h e c e r e b ral co rt e x All ou r s e n sa .

tio n s i n so far as th e i r i n t e n s ity an d th e i r r e latio n s to spac e an d

,

t im e ar e co n c e r n e d wh e n two o r m or e app e ar e i th e r s im u l
,

t an e o u sly o r o n e a ft e r t h e oth e r an d t h e ci r cumsta n c e s ar e

favou r abl e fo r associatio n m ay ac t upo n this id e a o f gr e at e r

,
“ ”
,

an d t e n d to r o us e it i n to acti o n Now du r i n g chi l dho o d t h e

.

id e a o f gr e at e r i s so d e p o si t e d i n t h e b r ai n t h at it always
“ ”

r e spo n ds t o t h e stro n g e r e xcitatio n impart e d b y t h e m o re i n t e n s e

Of two h omoge n e ous s e n satio n s acti n g upo n i t I t is th e r e fo r e .
, ,

always a s sociat e d wi th t h e stro n g e r s e n satio n Th e n we ar e .

”
wo n t to say f th is s e n satio n i s gre at e r
,
‘
I f b oth s e n satio n s ar e
.

alik e th e i r i n fl u e n c e up o n t h e id e a g re at e r is d e st r oy e d i n a
,
“

c e r tai n s e n s e by i n t e r fe r e n c e B ut a l so v e ry sligh t di ffe re n c e s i n

.

mag n i tud e ar e i n su ffi ci e n t t o e xcit e an d r e produc e t h e d o rma n t

id e a g r e at e r
“ ”
. G e n e r ally t h e d iscipli n e o f th is capaci ty as o f ,

e v e ry oth e r , is i n e xac t ; cas e s o f fal s e compariso n occu r b e sid e s

thos e o f co rr e c t com pa r iso n Wh e re lar ge diffe r e n c e s b e tw e e n

.

t h e s tim u l i occur t h e a bsolu t e di ffe r e n c e i n s timu l ati o n is t h e

,

e ss e n tia l d e t e r mi n ativ e factor i n compariso n H e r i n g obs e r v e s .

.

v e r y cor re ctly 1 that i f w e plac e a w e igh t of 1 0 0 g i n t h e l e ft

,
.

h a n d an d g i n t h e r igh t an d t h e n ad d 1 0 0 g t o t h e
.
,
.

fo r m e r an d g t o t h e latt e r d e spit e t h e u n ifo r m ity i n t h e

.
,

r elat i ve i n cr e as e of t h e two sti mu li t h e i n c r e as e of s e n sati o n

,

p e rc e iv e d i n t h e r igh t h an d is co n sid e r a bly gr e at e r tha n t h e

i n cr e as e p e rc e iv e d i n t h e l e ft O n ly wh e n t h e d i ffe r e n c e r e pr e
.
,

s e n ti n g t h e amou n t by which t h e first stimu lu s i s i n c r e as e d is ,

l e ss tha n t h e fi rst stim ulu s c an t h e r e lativ e d i ff e r e n c e b e i n fact , ,

t h e e ss e n tial d e t e r mi n ativ e facto r as s e t fo r th by t h e Law o f

We b e r N o w i f t wo b u t slight l y di ffe r e n t stimul i tak e e ffe ct i t
.
,

i s v e ry possibl e that t h e co n s e qu e n t e xcitatio n o f t h e id e a

“
g re at e r t o wh ich t h e brai n has b e e n e sp e cially t r ai n e d co r
, ,

r e s pon ds to t h e r ela t i ve di ff e r e n c e b e twe e n t h e stimuli We c an .

a l so u n d e rsta n d as sh o w n abov e t h at such d iscip l i n e o f t h e b r ai n

, ,

S i t z un g sb e r . d Wi
. ene r Acad . d . W .
, 1 8 75, S .
3 23 .
 S t i m u lus —S e n sa t i o n .

is fi tti ng E v e ry e stimatio n an d compariso n o f s e n sation s th e r e

.
,

fo r e al re ady i n volv e s associat iv e activity H e n c e i n t h e stric t

, .
,

s en s e we should n o t sp e ak of sen sat i o n s o f larg e r or smal l e r

,
“ ”
,

but o n ly o f s u ch i deas O f co u rs e t h e s e n satio n s th e ms e lv e s ar e

.

al r e ady di ffe r e n t i n i n t e n sity b u t w e o n ly acq u i r e an id e a o f t h i s

,

di ffe r e n c e by associatio n Th e child w h e n v e ry yo u n g al r e ady

.

has sen sat i o n s o f di fie r e n t i n t e n sity b u t as ye t n o i dea o f th e i r

'

di ffe r e n t i n t e n sity Th e l att e r is n o t grasp e d a t o n c e by t h e

.

co n scious n e ss a t all ; we o n ly acqui r e t h e abi l ity to com par e by

slow d e gr e e s .

H e n c e t h e Law o f W e b e r prov e s to b e e xpl icab l e i n fact , ,

withi n c e rtai n lim its Th e co n clusio n s t h at F e c h n e r o n t h e o n e

.

ha n d an d P l at e au o n t h e oth e r hav e draw n fr om th i s fact all ,

p r oc e e d from t h e fals e hypoth e sis that t h e i n t e n sity o f s e n satio n

c an b e asc e rtai n e d by m ath e matical c o m p u tat io n t h e sam e as

oth e r n atu ral ph e n om e n a t h a t also i n th i s cas e for e xamp l e

, , ,

S S = 2S . B ut this i s wholly u n d e m o n strat e d O n t h e c o n .

t r ar y acc u rat e i n tro s p e ctio n sh ows that i t

, is n o t t h e cas e .

Wu n d t p r opos e d 1 to d e cid e t h e co n trov e r sy co n c e r n i n g t h e

i n t e rp r e tatio n o f W e b e r s Law by t h e s o call e d
’ “
m e thod o f
av e rag e gradation s an d t h e att e m p t was m ad e accordi n gly by
,

De lboe u f an d M e rk e l T h u s fo r e xam pl e t h e at t e m p t i s m ad e
.
, ,

to s e l e c t tha t stimulus wh ich p r oduc e s a s e n satio n t h e i n t e n sity ,

o f which is j ust t h e m e a n b e tw e e n t h e se n sati o n s im pa rt e d by

two stimul i o f v e ry d i ffe r e n t i n t e n si ty T his m e an i s .

H owe v e r this s e ar ch fo r t h e m e a n s e n sat i o n is qu ite impossibl e

, ,

as o n e quickly p e r c e iv e s by t h e e mba r ra ssm e n t i n which h e fi n d s

him s e l f o n att e mp ti n g t o ca rr y o u t t h e e xp e r im e n t We hav e .

o n ly acq u i re d o ur e stim atio n of abo u t wh e r e t h e m e a n is t o b e

sought by e xp e ri e n c e an d that which a ffe cts o u r j udgm e n t ch i e fly

Be f r thi
o e al so P l ate au Ube r di e M e ssu n g psyc hi sc h e r E mpfin du n ge n
s, ,

u n d das G e se t z w e l ch e s di e S t ark e di e se r E m fin du n e n m i t de r S t ark e

' '

, p g
e rre g e n d e n U rsach e ve r kn ij pft ( P o gg An n 1 8 73 S
”
. . . .
, ,
60 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

is j ust th is e xp e ri e n c e as to t h e m ag n itud e o f stim u li A cc o r d .

i n gly t h e r e sul ts o f M e rk e l s e xp e rim e n ts show e d that t h e m e d ium

’

stimulus thus e xp e r i m e n tally d e t e rmi n e d c o rr e spo n ds n e i th e r to

, ,

t h e ari thm e tical m e a n as r e qui r e d by P lat e a u s th e ory n o r to t h e

’
, ,

g e om e t r ical m e a n as r e q ui re d by F e c h n e r s th e ory b ut l i e s
,
’

b e twe e n t h e two .M ath e m atics is n o t at o n c e applicabl e to

psychical i n t e n siti e s as i t i s to t h e v a r ious i n t e n si ti e s of an e l e c t ri c
c u rr e n t
.

L e t us n o w r e vi e w t h e ou tcom e o f ou r e xp e ri m e n ts an d
d e li be r atio n s We h av e obtai n e d two chi e f laws
.

( 1 ) Th e s e n sati o n i n c r e as e s co n sid e rably s l o we r than t h e

s tim ul us .

( )
2 T h e i n cr e as e o f sti mulus suffici e n t to impart a ba r e ly

p e rc e ptibl e g rowth o f s e n sati o n g e n e r ally sta n d s i n an appr o xi

mat e l y con sta n t r e latio n to t h e or i g i n al mag n i t u d e of t h e s timu l us .

We shall l e a rn o f m a n y l im itati o n s o f t h e la tt e r r ul e i n d e tail .

Th e n u m e r ous d e viatio n s from W e b e r s L aw r e st upo n t h e fac t

’

t h at o n t h e o n e h a n d t h e modificatio n o f t h e e xcita t io n whi l e ,

b e i n g co n d u ct e d to an d i n t h e c e r e b r al cort e x p r ob ably va ri e s
,

i n a v e ry compli cat e d way accordin g t o its i n t e n si ty ; an d that

,

o n t h e ot h e r h a n d t h e d e gr e e of p e r fe ctio n acq u i r e d by ass o cia

tiv e discip l i n e vari e s .

 C H AP TE R I V .

S E N S AT I O N s O F TAS T E S M E LL AN D T O U C H
, ,
.

WE h av e d iscuss e d of s e n sati o n s at som e l e n gt h

t he i n te n si ty ,

e sp e cially i n t h e ir r e lati o n t o t h e origi n al sti m ulus T h e s e co n d .

prop e rty o f e v e ry s e n satio n i s i t s q u ali ty t h e s e n sati o n s o f r e d ,

o f t h e to n e C o f h e at an d o f sw e e t ar e a ll d i ffe r e n t i n qu ali ty
,
.

We sha ll n o w b e c o m e acq u ai n t e d wi th th e s e qual iti e s m o r e

e xactly i n d e tai l As r e gards qua l ity we g e n e rally di sti n guish
.
, ,

acco r di n g to t h e o rga n r e c e ivi n g t h e sti m ulus fiv e chi e f gr o u p s ,

o r m od e s o f s e n s ibi l i ty s e n sati o n s o f sm e l l tast e

1
o f s e n satio n s , , ,

fe e li n g h e ari n g an d si ght We sha l l pre s e n tly l e ar n h o w e v e r

,
.
, ,

that t h e s e n s atio n s o f fe e l i n g u n do u b t e d l y r e qui r e a s ti l l fu rth e r

classifi catio n ; that t h e su rfac e o f t h e ski n co n tai n s s e v e ral q u it e
di ffe r e n t organ s capab l e o f im parti n g s e n sati o n s that ar e v e ry
,

di ffe r e n t i n qua l i ty S e n satio n s o f fe e l i n g an d h e ari n g ar e m o re

.

clos e ly r e lat e d in so far as th e y ar e cau s e d by m e c h a n ica l stim u l i ,

wh il e s e n sati o n s o f tast e sm e ll an d s ig h t ar e prod u c e d by c h e m i

, , ,

cal sti mu l i O n t h e oth e r ha n d s e n sati o n s o f fe e l i n g an d l ig h t

.
,

ar e capabl e o f v e r y e xact l o ca l izati o n ; h e n c e th e y ar e i n t i mat e l y

co n c e r n e d i n o ur p e r c e pti o n o f spac e We se e an d fe e l i n spac e .

,

b ut h o w i n e xactly we l ocal iz e a so u n d tast e o r sm e ll ! I n , ,

ge n e ral we h e a r tas t e an d sm e ll witho u t l ocalizi n g at all wh il e

, , , , ,

fe e li n g an d sight ar e pr e -e mi n e n tly t h e s e n s e s t h at r e fe r t o s pac e 2 .

l mh l t d i g at
H e o z es n es t h o se di ffe re n ce s i n q ua li ty so , t i al t h at
e s se n no

tra iti wh at v r fr m
ns on e e o o n e t o an o t h e r i s co n c e ivab l e as , m o d al iti e s ,
”
t . e .

m do f
es o i bi li ty
se n s .

9 Th e t e rm f ee li ng as u se d i n t hi s ch apte r i s t o b e u n d e rs t o o d o n l y i n i t
, ,
s

m o re re stri ct e d s e n se as o n e o f t h e fiv e se n se s w h o se o rg an c o n s i st s o f t h e so
,
62 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sycho logy .

We sha ll fi rst disc u ss t h e se n sat i o n s f

o s
t ast e . S e pa rat e o rga n

o f tast e ar e n o t ye t d e v e lop e d i n t h e E chi n od e r m ata an d th e y ,

hav e n o t ye t b e e n shown t o e xist i n t h e i n s e cts I n v e r t e b r at e s .

-
t h e y co n sist o f t h s o call e d gustatory
e b ulbs which ar e scatt e r e d
1
,

wi th compa r ativ e i r r e gularity ov e r t h e to n gu e pa l at e an d e pig l ot ,

t is an d ar e o n ly cl ust e r e d m or e th ickly i n t h e s o -ca ll e d papil l ae

,

c i r c u m vallat a e an d fo li at a
e O n ly fl uid s c an be taste d soli ds an d
.
,

g as e s must fi rst b e r e d u c e d t o a liqui d stat e b e fo r e th e y c an be

tast e d O n ly four q u aliti e s o f t ast e ar e t o b e disti n guis h e d wit h

.

c e rtai n ty so u r swee t salt an d bi t t er Wi th o u t suffici e t gr ou ds

, , ,
. n n
2
,

s om e w r it e rs add a lh ali n e an d m e t alli c to th is l ist as sp e cial qua l i

ti e s o f tast e We m igh t cit e i n oppositio n to so lim it e d a list as

.
,

t hat giv e n a bov e t h e m u l ti t u d e o f tast e s that we disti n guis h i n

,

o u r food but t o i n fe r that th e s e ar e pu r e s e n satio n s o f t ast e is

,

i n co r r e ct What we d e sign at e as tast e a sid e fr om th e s e fou r o r

“

.
,

s i x qualiti e s i s sm e l l fo r som e o f t h e food is vapouri z e d i n t h e

, ,

back pa rt o f t h e cavi ty o f t h e m outh an d th e n c e r e ach e s t h e

cavi ty o f t h e n o s e w h e r e i t is sm e ll e d T h e s e n s e of tast e th e r e
.
,

for e has b u t an e xtraordi n arily lim it e d vari e ty o f q u ali ti e s

,
Th e .

n um b e rl e ss acids of ch e m ist ry all e xcit e b u t o n e s e n s ati o n Of t ast e ,

wh ich va r i e s o n ly i n i n t e n sity Lik e wis e t h e disti n ctio n o f d if

.

fe r e n t b i t t e r substa n c e s i n sol u tio n is r e n d e r e d i m possibl e by t h e

c hoic e o f suitabl e d e gr e e s of co n c e n trati o n fo r e xamp l e a so l u ,

tio n o f qu in i n e i n t h e p r op o r tio n o f ca n n ot be d isti n

g u i sh e d from a sol u tio n o f m or phi n e i n t h e p r o po r tio n o f I :3 0 0 0 .

T h e t e r m i n atio n s o f t h e g u statory n e rv e s ar e p r obab l y o n ly s e n si

tiv e to ch e m ical ir r i tatio n stimulatio n by p re ssu r e i s v e ry doub t
fu l Th e sou r o r m e tallic s e n satio n o f tast e that is p r od u c e d
.

wh e n a galva n ic curr e n t i s pass e d th r ough t h e to n gu e do e s n o t

n e c e ssarily d e p e n d di r e ctly o n stimulatio n o f t h e n e rv e - e n ds by

e l e c t r icity but m ay b e caus e d by t h e p roducts of t h e e l e c t r olysis

, ,

c all e d g e n e r al n e rv e s o f se n sat i o n I n t hi s s e n se f ee li n g i n clud es t o uc h

.
,
the
l att e r b e i n g t h e m o re spe c ific t e rm t h e fo rm e r t h e mo re ge n e ric —T s
, .
’
.

1
Al so gustat o ry h n o bs o r fl as hs —T s .
’
.

9
L I N N E d i st i n gui sh e d e v e n t e n q ua li ti e s .
 S en s at i o n s of Tas t e, S me ll, an d To u ch . 63

p roduc e d by t h e galva n ic cu rr e n t Th e c e n t r al t e rm i n ation s of

.

t h e gustato r y fi b r e s ar e p r obably to b e sough t i n t h e G yrus hi ppo

c am pi o f t h e c e r e b r al co r t e x I t i s n o t p r obabl e that al l fou r

.

q ualiti e s of t ast e ar e r e c e iv e d an d co n duct e d to t h e c e r e b ru m by

a l l t h e n e rv e -
fibr e s i n a l ik e d e gr e e for t h e bas e o f t h e to n gu e i s
,

c hi e fly s e n sitiv e to b itt e r tast e s t h e poi n t an d l at e r al pa r t s o f t h e

,

to n gu e to t h e oth e r q u al iti e s O e h r wall 1 h as a l so fo u n d that o n

.

s timu l ati n g si n gl e papi ll a e fu n gi form e s som e o f t h e papill a , e ar e

s e n sitiv e o n ly to acids an d n o t to s u gar o r q ui n in e h e has th e r e

fo re assum e d S p e cifica ll y di ffe r e n t t e rm i n al appa r atus fo r t h e
d i ff e r e n t qualiti e s o f tast e E v e n t h e n e w-bo r n bab e p r obab l y
.

d isti n gu ish e s all fo u r qualiti e s o f tast e with com parati v e c e rt ai n ty ,

i f t he s o l utio n to b e tast e d i s su ffi c i e n t l y co n c e n t r a t e d .

F r e qu e n t att e mpts h av e b e e n m ad e t o p r o v e t h e validity O f

W e be r s Law fo r t h e s e n s e of tast e A m e thod has b e e n us e d
’
.

fo r th is pu r pos e that has fr e qu e n tly fo u n d applicatio n i n t e sti n g

,

“
t h e Law o f W e b e r . This m e th od is d e s ig n at e d as t h e m e thod
o f t h e co rr e c t an d fals e ( mistak e n ) cas e s
”
We S h all b e com e .

a cquai n t e d with i ts cha r act e r istic fe a tur e s lat e r i n t h e discu ss io n

o f s e n satio n s of p r e ssu r e . Th e app l icatio n of th is m e thod r e sult e d

i n d e m o n strati n g o n ly t h e app r oxi m at e validity O f t h e Law of
W e b e r fo r s e n satio n s o f tast e Th e m i n im u m Of stimul u s for
.

s ugar may b e e xp r e ss e d i n t h e r atio of fo r qui n i n e I : 3 3 0 0 0 ,

fo r saccha ri n e ,
fo r s t rych n i n e (V e n abl e s )
, .

T h e impo r ta n t qu e st io n as to h ow t h e s e n satio n cha n g e s wh e n

t h e sam e stimulus affe c ts m a n y adj ac e n t n e r v e - fib r e s i s o n e that ,

will con s t a n tly occupy our a tt e n tio n I s t h e i n t e n sity quality o r

.
, ,

a n y oth e r prop e r ty chan g e d I n t h e cas e o f s e e i n g an d fe e li n g

t h e a n sw e r c an b e giv e n at o n c e ; t h e fu n ctio n s o f t h e adj ac e n t

n e rve - fib r e s ar e i n g e n e ral id e n tical I f t h e stim ulatio n affe c ts a

.

l arg e n um b e r of n e r v e - fibr e s at t h e sam e tim e t h e s e n satio n r e

, ,

c e i v e s t h e spatial cha r ac t e r o f a surfac e I n t h e ca s e o f t h e s e n s e

.

o f h e ar i n g we shall fin d that v e ry ma n y qu it e id e n ti cal n e rv e

fib r e s p r obably do n o t e xist b u t t h at a l most e v e ry fi b re tr a n sm its

,

S kan di n av . Arch . f P hy i l II
. s o .
, , I , 1 8 90 .
 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i ca l P sych o logy .

a di ffe r e n t qua l i ty o f s e n sati o n N e ith e r o f th e s e charact e ri s tic s

.

app e ar i n t h e s e n s e s o f ta s t e an d sm e l l Asid e from t h e ab ov e .

m e n ti o n e d fo u r q u al iti e s o f ta s t e t h e n u mb e rl e s s gusta tory fi b r e s ,

ar e al l fu n ctio n a ll y id e n tical ; b u t i f t h e s timul u s i s dist rib u t e d

ov e r a l arg e sur fac e o f t h e t o n gu e we d o n o t r e c e i ve t h e imag e o f ,

a tasti n g s u r fac e b u t m e r e l y n o tic e an i n c re as e i n t h e i n t e n si ty o f

,

t h e s e n satio n o f tast e T h e s e n s e of tast e has n o r e fe r e n c e to t h e

.

r e l ati o n s o f spac e as hav e t h e s e n s e s o f touch an d sight t h e

,

s e n sati o n is mad e s tro n g e r o r a s we m ay say m o r e disti n ct b y

, , ,

t h e sup e rfi cial e xt e n si o n o f t h e s tim u l u s but oth e r wis e i t r em a i n s ,

u cha n ge d
n
1
Th is e xp l ai n s o u r i n ability to localiz e s e n satio n s o f
.
'

tast e accurat e ly We sho u ld p e rhaps b e whol l y u n abl e to do so ,

if s e n sat i o n s o f tast e we r e n o t a l so always accompa n i e d b y s e n sa

‘

tio n s o f touch i m part e d by t h e tast e d b o dy .

L e t us pa s s o n t o sen sa t i o n s of s mell T h e s e n s e o f sm e ll s e e m s .

to h av e b e c o m e di ffe re n tiat e d fr o m a c o mm o n s e n s o ry su rfac e i n

m uch low e r fo r m s o f a n i mal l ife th a n t h e s e n se of t as t e At an y .

rat e i t i s alr e ady w e l l d e v e l o p e d i n t h e E chi n od e rm ata A bl i n d e d

,
.

sta r-fish e v e n at som e dista n c e c an sc e n t t h e cra b which s e r v e s

, ,

as its food I n h o w far c e rtai n apparatus i n t h e fe e l e r s of i n s e c t s

.

ar e t o b e r e ga r d e d as o rga n s o f sm e ll is doubt fu l
2
May h as .

show n that c e rtai n orga n s of sm e ll e xist i n t h e ou t e r bra n ch e s of

t h e a n t e n n ul e s o f m a n y c r a b s I n v e rt e b r at e s we fin d t h e orga n s
.

o f sm e ll i n t h e r e gio Olfact o ria Of t h e n o s e Th e y c o n sist o f s o .

cal l e d n e uro-e pith e lial c e ll s wh o s e e xt e rn al proc e ss e s ar e e lo n ga

,

t e d i n to cilia u po n t h e s u rfac e o f t h e m u co u s m e m b r a n e
,
Exn e r .

co n sid e rs t h at t h e Olfac t o ry n e rv e is co n n e ct e d wi th a l l t h e e pi
t h e li al c e l l s o f t h e r e gi o O l fact o ri a ; i n fact W K r aus e has fou n d .

ve ry fin e hair s also i n t h e com mo n e pi th e lial c e lls ; Lus tig has

lik e wis e co n fi rm e d t h e r e s u l ts Obtai n e d by E x n e r .

Th e n um b e r o f qua l iti e s o f sm e l l is e xc e e di n gly larg e As t h e .

C o mp are C AM E RE R, Zt s ch r f Bi o lo g i c , xxi T b 8 S 58 0

M
. .
, a .
,
. .

AY , 0 , Di ss .
, K il
e , 1 88 7. C o mpar al
e DAH L
so V r uc h i r D ,
“
e s e ne ar

t llun g
s e de r psyc hi h sc en Vo r gan g e i n
'

den S pi Vi t lj h
nne n h f wi
.
”
er e a rs c . . ss .

P h il o s , 1 88 5 .
66 I n t r o du ct i o n to P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

s e n satio n s o f touch Exp e ri e n c e h as ta u gh t u s to s e e k t h e c aus e

.

o f a s e n satio n o f tast e i n t h e cavity o f t h e mo u t h , t h e caus e of a

s e n satio n of sm e ll i n t h e ai r th at e n t e rs t h e n os e ; m o re e xac t
loca l izatio n tha n this is i m p o ssibl e All fibr e s o f t h e o l factory
.

n e rv e ar e probab l y id e n tical i n fu ncti o n ; e ach o n e c an t r a n sm i t

e v e r y s e n satio n o f sm e l l b u t t h e s e n sati o n s t ra n s m itt e d by

,

adj ac e n t n e rv e s do n o t a rr a n ge th e ms e lv e s i n to an im ag e o f su r
fac e.

T h e so - call e d sen sa t i o n s of feeli ng i n t h e shi n an d mu co u s

me mbr an e m u s t occ u py o u r att e n ti o n c o n sid e r a b ly lo n g e r Th e .

s e n si b i l ity o f t h e ski n is t h e fi r s t s e n s e th at app e ars an d t h e o n e ,

fr om wh ich a l l oth e rs h av e pr o bab l y d e v e lop e d by a gradual p r o

c e ss o f di ffe r e ntiati o n an d s e l e cti o n S e n sibility e xists wh e r e v e r
.

a n i m al life i s to b e fo u n d l o n g b e for e an y s e parat e n e rvous

,

syst e m t h e pr e s e n c e o f whic h c an b e d e mo n strat e d has de

, ,

v e lo pe d . T h e mo n e r that cha n g e s i ts fo r m wh e n touch e d

, ,

alr e ady p o ss e s s e s s e n s ibili ty i n this s e n s e T h e a n ato m i ca l

.

-
apparatus that r e c e iv e t h e sti m ulu s ar e t h e so call e d t acti l e “

corp u s cl e s an d e n d bu l b s which app e ar i n t h e m o st va r i e d

” “ - ”
,

form s B e sid e s t h e s e fr e e e n d s o f t h e s e n s o ry n e rv e s ar e also t o

.
,

b e fo u n d i n t h e ti s su e s M e c h a n ica l e l e ctric an d ca l oric stim ul i

.
, ,

ar e t h e chi e f e xcita n ts o f t h e s e n so r y apparat u s o f t h e s ki n Th e .

c h i e f fo rm o f m e c h a n ical s tim u l us is i mpac t ; e v e n t h e s l igh t e st

touch i s im pact U n ifo r m statical pr e ss u r e is also appar e n t l y
.

e ffe ctiv e t h o ugh m u ch m o r e s e l d o m tha n o n e w o uld a t fi rs t

,

ass u m e W h e n a w e igh t s im p l y li e s at r e s t upo n t h e h a n d i t

.
,

s e e m s a s if all dy n am ic pr e s s ure is e xcl u d e d ; b u t this is n o t t h e

cas e . Th e ha n d d o e s n o t r e m ai n i mm ova b l e ; its i n v o lu n ta ry
m o ti o n s an d t h e p ul s ati o n o f t h e blood co n s tan tly imp e l t h e
s u r fac e o f t h e ski n agai n s t t h e w e igh t r e sti n g u po n i t F o r t h is .

r e aso n we s h a l l n o t be ab l e to s e parat e t h e s e n satio n s o f s ta ti c

pr e s s u re fro m th o s e o f to u ch o r dy n ami c pr e ssur e C old an d .

h e at t h e m se l ve s do n o t act dire c t l y as ca l oric stim u li b ut o n l y ,

i n d ir e ct l y by warmi n g an d coo l i n g t h e ski n b e y o n d i ts s o cal l e d

p h y s iological z e r o -poi n t T h e n um b e r o f qua l i ti e s o f s e n sa tio n
.

i mpart e d by t h e s e n si bi li ty o f t h e s ki n is compar ati v ely li m i te d .

 S en s at i o n s f
o Tas t e , S m e ll, an d To u ch . 67

We r e c o g n is e o n ly s e n sati o n s o f h e at c o l d an d touc h as po si t i vely , ,

di ffe r e n t q u aliti e s o f s e n sati o n r e c e iv e d b y t h e s e n s e O f fe e l i n g .

T h e di ffe r e n c e s i n t h e l o ca l e xt e n sio n i n t e n s ity an d d u rati o n o f , ,

th e s e q u ali ti e s o f s e n satio n ar e pro b ab l y t h e con ditio n s that d e t e r

m i n e thos e fin e n ua n c e s o f tact u al s e n satio n which we d e sig n at e
as smo o t h r o ug h slippe ry s t i cky velvety e t c B u t we m u st als o
, , , , ,
.

c o n sid e r t h at a ft e r fr e q u e n t l y app e ari n g s imultan e o u sly s e n sati o n s ,

O f touch m ay b l e n d with o n e a n o t h e r o r wi t h t h o s e o f t e mp e rat u r e

i n t o a S e n sati o n that t o t h e c o n sci o u s i n divid u al has b u t a si ng le
, ,

q u a l ity .

S i n c e t h e e xp e ri m e n ts o f M ag n us B l ix 1
i t has b e c o m e v e ry ,

d o u bt ful wh e t h e r e ach n e r v e -fibr e c an r e c e i v e an d tra n sm i t t o t h e

b rai n all qua l iti e s o f s e n sati o n o f fe e l i n g (i e touch i n cludi n g . .
,

pr e ss u r e h e at an d c o ld ) i n t h e sam e d e gr e e T h i s e xp e rim e n t e r
, , .

h as sh o w n o n t h e co n trary t h at u p o n o n e spot o n t h e ski n o n ly

cold i s p e r c e iv e d u p o n a n oth e r o n l y h e a t an d upo n a t h ird o n ly
, ,

touch We c an e asi l y c o n v i n c e o u rs e lv e s o f t h i s fac t by applyi n g

.

a c o ld poi n t o f s t e e l h e re an d th e re u p o n t h e for e - a r m by thi s

m e a n s we e asily disc o v e r r e gi o n s o n t h e s ki n havi n g an ar e a Of
ab o u t o n e s q u ar e c e n tim e t e r that r e c e iv e n o s e n satio n of c o l d
from t h e poi nt o f st e e l a l tho u gh s e n sa ti o n s of h e at o r t o u ch
,

app e a r at o n c e if we apply t h e pro p e r sti mulus B u t cl o se .

b e sid e t h e sp o t th u s t e st e d w e fin d poi n t s that ar e i n t e n s e ly

s e n si tiv e t o cold tho u gh n o s e n sati o n s o f warm t h o r touch c an
,

be p e r c e i v e d th e r e Th e r e ar e th e r e fo re s e parat e spot s fo r h e at
.
,

cold an d touch an d e ach n e rv e -fibr e tra n s m its b u t o n e s e n sati o n

, ,
.

A spot fo r e it h e r h e at c o ld or t o uch e v id e n t l y c o rr e s po n d s t o
, ,

e ac h t e rm i n ati o n o f t h e n e rv e - fibr e s Th e st ro n g e r stimuli o f .

pr e s s ur e how e v e r im part s l igh t s e n satio n s a ls o o u t s id e Of t h e

, ,

s o ca l l e d
- pre s s u r e -sp o t s b u t we may j u stly a s sum e i n this
“

cas e that t h e m e cha n ica l s timulu s is tra n s m i tt e d t o t h e n e x t

n e i g h b o u ri n g -
pr e ssur e s p o t s G o ld sch e id e r t o whom we ar e
2 H
.
,

1
MA G N U S Bl ,
“
E x pe r . Be i t r . z. L os u g de r
n F rag e ii be r di e spe c .

En e rgi d Ha t r
e . u ne ven . Zt sc h r .
f . B i o log i c , 20 an d 2 1 .

9
Ar hiv f P h y i
c . . s o lo g , 1 88 5 .
 I P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy
’
68 n t r o a uc t z o n to .

i n d e b t e d fo r s o m e e xc e ll e n t i n v e stigatio n s i n this fi e ld as s u m e s ,

a n oth e r di ffus e d gen er al sen se of fee li ng as Op e rati n g b e tw e e n t h e

d i ffe re n t poi n ts o f p r e ssur e H is hypoth e sis do e s n o t s e e m to
.

b e w e l l g r ou n d e d El e ct r ical stim ulatio n e sp e c ially that o f

.
,

farad ic e l e ctricity acts upo n all poi n ts o f s e n satio n wh e th e r Of

'

, ,

t e mp e rat u r e o r p r e ssur e ; b u t i t im parts o n ly s e n satio n s of co l d

-
at t h e cold s p o ts o n ly s e n satio n s o f h e at at t h e h e at -spots
“ ”
,
“
,

an d o n ly s e n satio n s o f to u ch at oth e r poi n ts Accordi n g t o .

Go ldsch e id e r a s t r o ng m e cha n ical stimulus appl i e d to t h e spots

,

fo r t e m p e r at u r e i m parts a co rr e sp o n di n g fe e li n g of t em p e r at u r e .

I t mus t a l so b e m e n tio n e d that th e r e is still c o n sid e r abl e d o u bt

as t o wh at t h e r e a l activ e e l e m e n t i s i n t h e cas e o f caloric
,

S tim uli E H W e b e r thi n ks that ir ri tatio n i s p r oduc e d b y t h e

. . .

ris e an d fall of t h e t e mp e r at ur e of t h e ski n Vi e r o r dt th i n ks i t i s

p ro d uc e d by t h e di r e ctio n o f t h e cur r e n t o f h e at passi n g thro u gh
t h e ski n ; H e r i n g ascrib e s i t to t h e absol u t e d e viatio n o f t h e
t e m p e r atu re o f t h e cu ta n e ous n e rv e -apparat u s i ts e lf from a phy s io
l o gical z e r o -poi n t o f t e m p e r atu re at wh ich n e ith e r wa r m n o r c o ld
is p e rc e iv e d I t has n o t ye t b e e n d e t e r m i n e d as to wh e r e t h e
.

c e n t r al t e rm i n atio n s o f t h e s e n so ry fibr e s of fe e l i n g ar e to be
fo u n d . At o n e tim e t h e G y r us fo r n i c at us was d e sign at e d as t h e
cort ical c e n t r e fo r s e n satio n s of fe e l i n g ; th e n i t was tho u ght th at
this cortica l c e n tr e coi n cid e s with t h e s o — ca l l e d m o t o r r e gi o n i n
wh ich t h e path fo r t h e co n d u ctio n of vo lu n ta ry moto r im puls e s
o rigi n at e s .

B u t t h e S ki n is n o t t h e o n ly orga n co n tai n i n g s e n sory n e rv e

e n ds. We fin d th e m also scatt e r e d th r ough all t h e orga n s o f t h e
h uma n body Th e s e s o ca l l e d orga n i c s e n satio n s ar e dis
.
“ ”

t i n gu i sh e d by gr e at i n de fin i t e n e ss an d sligh t i n t e n si ty u n d e r
n ormal co n diti o n s O n ly o n e m or e gr oup of t h e m ore d e e ply
.

s e at e d s e n so ry n e rv e s d e s e rv e s m e n tio n as b e i n g of sp e ci al i m .

po r ta n c e ; i t is that g r ou p o f n e r v e s whos e t e r mi n ation s hav e

b e e n show n t o p e n e trat e t h e sy n ovial d u plicat ure s o f t h e j oi n ts ,

t h e ligam e n ts, t e n do n s an d m uscl e s , By m e a n s of t h e s e n so r y

.

n e rv e s o f t h e ligam e n ts an d m uscl e s fo r e xam pl e ,

we p e rc e i v e
,

t h e co n d itio n o f t h e m uscl e s th e i r co n tr actio n an d r e laxatio n

,
.
 S e n sat i o n s o f Tas t e , S me ll, an d To u ch . 69

Th e s e n sory n e rv e s o f t h e j oi n ts tra n sm it to u s thos e p e c u liar

s e n satio n s which app e ar wh e n t h e e n d s Of t h e b o n e s fo r mi n g t h e

j oi n t ar e p re ss e d agai n st e ach oth e r o r wh e n t h e i r s urfac e s glid e

o v e r e ach oth e r du r i n g m oti o n C o n sid e r e d apart fr o m th e i r
.

c o n n e ctio n wi th t h e fu n ctio n s o f t h e b ody th e s e s e n satio n s h av e

,

b ut sligh t i m po rta n c e ; tak e n toge th e r how e v e r th e y co n stitut e

, ,

t h os e com pl e x s e n satio n s by wh ich we p e rc e iv e t h e po s itio n o f

o u r l imbs an d which we th e r e fo r e ca ll se n sa t i o n s of posi t i o n
“ ”
, .

If we cl o s e o u r e y e s fo r e xamp l e an d d ir e c t o u r att e n tio n to t h e

, ,

p o siti o n o f t h e clos e d r igh t h a n d t h e n e rv e s i n t h e j oi n t s i n fo r m

,

u s as t o h ow far th e ir surfac e s t o u ch e ach oth e r ; t h e n e rv e s of

t h e t e n d o n s i n form u s t h at t h e e xt e n so r s o f t h e fi n g e r s ar e r e l ax e d ,

t h e fl e xo r s c o n tra ct e d an d sho rt e n e d S e n s ati o n s o f touc h u po n

.

t h e ski n als o a s sis t v e ry co n sid e rably i n pr o d u ci n g th e s e s e n sa

ti o n s o f p ositio n fo r i n t h e cas e j u st c it e d t h e s e n s o ry n e rv e s Of
,

t h e ski n i n fo rm us that t h e tip s O f t h e fi n g e rs to u ch t h e pal m o f

t h e ha n d . L e t us n o w imagi n e a co n ti n u o us s e ri e s of th e s e
s e n satio n s of positi o n g r adua ll y passi n g fro m o n e to t h e o th e r
, .

Accordi n g l y le t t h e clos e d ha n d o p e n by s l ow d e gr e e s t h e se n
sat i o n s o f posi ti o n that fo llo w i n r e gular s u cc e s s i o n i n fo rm us as
“
t o t h e m ov e m e n t o f t h e ha n d I n this m a n n e r
. t he se n sa t i o n s of
mo t i o n ” 1
ar e produc e d We di s ti n guish passi ve an d act i ve s e n sa
.

tio n s of m otio n accord i n g to wh e th e r o u r fi n g e rs ar e m ov e d by

a n oth e r p e rs o n o r by o u r s e lv e s G o ldsch e id e r s m or e r e c e n t i n
.
’

v e s t i at i o n s fu rth e rm or e hav e mad e i t pr o b a b l e that t h e s e n s atio n

g , ,

o f pas s iv e m oti o n d e p e n d s l e ss up o n t h e succ e ssi v e s e n satio n s

i mpart e d by d i ffe r e n t p o siti o n s o f t h e limb at r e st tha n u p o n ,

s e n satio n s o f pr e s s ur e o r frictio n i n t h e j oi n ts d ir e ctly im part e d,

by t h e m o tio n its e lf Accordi n g t o t h i s t h e s e n si b i l ity of t h e

.

j o i n ts wo ul d be al m o st t he o n ly e s s e n tial fact o r i n t h e productio n

o f s e n s ati o n s o f pas s i v e m oti o n ; whil e i n t h e pr o d u cti o n o f t h e

s e n satio n s o f activ e m o tio n t h e s e n s ati o n s o f po s i tio n ar e a l s o o f

1
A m u ch l e ss fam ili ar b u t v e ry fi tt i n g syn o n ym fo r m o t o r s e n sat i o n
,
is
ki n ae sth e tic se n sat i o n Ki n ae sth es i s i s t h e pe rc e ptio n att e n dan t u po n
.
”
the

m o v e m e n t s o f t h e m u scl e s o n l y “
K i n ae s t h e t i c s e n sat i o n i s t h e re fo re l
”
. e ss

c o m pre h e n s iv e t h an m o t o r s e n sati o n i n i t s g e n e ra l appli cat i o n

”
.
 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i ca l P sych o logy .

v ry gr e at imp o rta n c e
e I n tr o s p e cti o n sh o ws that th e re is s ti ll
.

a n oth e r d i ffe r e n c e apart fr o m t h e s e n sati o n o f touch p r o d u c e d

,

by co n tac t with t he ski n o f a n oth e r p e rs o n d u ri n g pas siv e m oti o n .

I n t h e proc e ss o f th o ugh t t h e id e as t h a t ca u s e t h e activ e m oti o n

,

pr e c e d e t h e s e n satio n s o f activ e m otio n whi l e such id e as do n o t ,

pre c e d e t h e s e n satio n s o f pass i v e m oti o n T h e r e i s n o imm e diat e

.

r e as o n fo r ass u m i n g sp e cial s e n sati o n s Of i n n e rv atio n that

1 “ ”

i n str u c t u s d u ri n g an activ e m oti o n as to t h e a m o u n t o f i n n e rva

tio n e m ploy e d Th e capacity fo r s e n sati o n s o f posi ti o n an d
.

moti o n has b e e n e xpr e ss e d by t h e c o ll e cti v e t e rm muscula r

T h e t e rm is n o t v e ry w e ll cho s e n for t h e s e n sib i l ity of
”
sen se .
,

t h e m u scl e s i s o f t h e l e ast i m porta n c e i n t h e prod ucti o n o f such

s e n sati o n s T h e c o m bi n atio n of s e n sati o n s of m oti o n with se n

.

sat i o n s o f tou ch r e c e i v e d fro m t h e sam e o bj e ct is o f sp e cial

imp o rta n c e By m o vi n g t h e ha nd ov e r t h e s u r fac e s of an obj e ct
.
,

we i n form our s e lv e s as t o i ts fo r m T h i s s u cc e s s i o n o f co m b i n e d
.

s e n satio n s o f touch an d m o tio n i s d e sig n at e d as s e n satio n o f

act i ve 2 touch .

Th e n u mb e r o f su ch com pl e x s e n s atio n s is e xc e e di n gly l ar g e ,

as m ay b e e asily re aliz e d by ca ll i n g t o m i n d t h e p e c ul ia r com

pl e x e s o f s e n sati o n prod u c e d by l i fti n g w e ights o r by c o llid i n g
with som e o b struc tio n How e v e r t h e m os t importa n t c l ass e s o f
.
,

th e s e s e n sati o n s o f fe e li n g ar e t h e fo u r j ust d e scrib e d

I .S e n sati o n s of posi ti o n .

2 .S e n sati o n s o f activ e m otio n .

3 S e n sati o n s o f passiv e m o t i o n
. .

4 S e n satio n s o f active to u ch
. .

1
Th e liv l y
e at i o n s wh ich c r i ppl e s cl ai m st ill t o pe rce iv e i n t h e mai m e d
se n s

part s o f t h e b o d y w h e n t h e y try t o m o v e t h e m gave s pe c ial o ccas i o n fo r t h e

assum pt i o n o f part i cul ar se n sat i o n s o f i n n e rvat i o n We sh all re tur n t o t hi s
.

q ue s t i o n l at e r .

3
Act i v e t o uch i s t o b e di s ti n gui s h e d fro m pas si ve t o uch i n t h e sa me w ay
’

t h at acti ve m o ti o n i s d i st i n gu i sh e d fro m pass ive m o t i o n v i z b y t h e pre ce d e n c e

, .

o f m o t o r id e as I n fac t t h e re i s a m o to r e l e m e n t i n ac t ive t o u c h i n t his se n s e

.
,

o n l y ar e t h e t w o e x pre s s i o n s t o b e di s t i n g u i s h e d i n t h i s w o rk As so o n as a
.

m o t o r e l e m e n t appe ars i n t h o u gh t t h e s e n sat i o n b e co m es o n e o f ac ti ve t o uc h

’
Tas t c mp
/i n dn ng ) T s .
 S e n s at i o n s o f Tas t e , S m e ll ,
an d To u ch .
7 1

Acc o rdi n g t o m o r e r e c e n t path o l o gi cal e xp e ri e n c e s we m ay ,

proba b l y l o cat e t h e c e n tra l t e r m i n atio n s o f t h e s e n so ry paths

c o mm u n icati n g with t h e t e n d o n s m u sc l e s an d j oi n ts i n t h e , , ,

c o rt e x o f t h e u pp e r pari e tal l o b e .

I t was wh il e i n v e stigati n g t h e s e n si b i l ity o f t h e ski n i n fact , ,

that E H W e b e r fi rst discov e r e d t h e fu n dam e n tal r e latio n

. .

e xpr e ss e d i n t h e Law o f W e b e r S i n c e t h e n t h e s e e xp e r im e n ts .

h av e b e e n o ft e n r e p e at e d Th e mi n im um o f stim u l u s p rov e s t o
.

b e v e r y di ffe r e n t fo r s e para t e r e gio n s o f t h e ski n i n t h e case o f ,

c o m m o n s e n sati o n s o f t o u c h o r pr e ssu r e O n t h e fo r e h e ad t h e .
,

pr e s s u r e o f e v e n a w e igh t o f 0 0 0 2 g i s p e rc e iv e d b u t o n t h e .
,

a b d o m e n o n l y th at o f a w e igh t o f 0 0 0 5 g Acc o rdi n g t o t h e

,
.

gr e at e r o r sma ll e r ar e a touch e d by t h e sam e w e igh t sti ll oth e r ,

d i ffe r e n c e s also app e a r Th e “

discri m i n ativ e s e n sibi l i ty
.
” 1
in
t h e cas e o f stim u l i o f p r e ssur e h as b e e n i n v e s tigat e d si n c e E H
i

. .
,

We b e r s tim e by Bi e d e rma n n an d L O wi t an d by D o h rn an d
’
,

M e rk e l 2 Th e bar e ly n otic e abl e di ffe r e n c e accordi n g to t h e

.
,

i n v e stiga t io n s o f M e rk e l for e xam pl e for a pr e vious w e ight of

, ,

1 g . 0 3 2 g .

5 n

10

20

1 00

50 0 n

81
‘

I O O O

56
‘

40 0 0 1

Th e r e fo r e i f a w e igh t O f g pr e s s up o n a fi n ge r of t h e .
3

ha n d whil e r e s ti n g upo n a s u pp o r t ful ly 1 56 g m ust b e add e d t o ,

.

i t i n ord e r that an y di ffe r e n c e i n w e igh t what e v e r can b e pe rc e iv e d .

We sh all n o w t e st th e se n u mb e rs m or e e xactly an d s e e if the y

1
U n t e r s c h i e dse mpfin dli c h ke i t — T
’
s .

2
P hil o s o ph S tu d V S 2
. .
, , . .

3
Th e c o n sta n t are a o f c o n tac t i n t hi s part i c u l ar s e ri es o f e x pe r i me n t s
a mo u n te d t o 1 s q m m Wi t h a gre ate r are a o f co n tact t h e dis cr i m i n ati v e
. .

s e n s i b i li ty i s m o re li m it e d .
72 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

ag re e w ith t h e Law o f W e b e r Th e lat t e r stat e s that n o t t h e

.

a bsolut e bu t t h e r e lativ e d iffe r e n c e s of sti muli ar e d e t e r mi n ativ e ,

t e t h e in cr e as e o f stimulus r e q u isit e to e fl e c t a p e rc e p tibl e di ffe r

’

. .

e n c e i n s e n satio n is always t h e sam e fr actio n al pa r t of t h e

o r igi n al s tim u l u s I f t h e origi n al stimul us is E an d t h e i n c r e as e
.

dE
o f s t i m ul u s dE , th e n
E
15 con stan t w i thout re ga r d to t he

m agn i t u d e of E L e t us d e t e r mi n e th is fr actio n for e ach

. of the

abov e p airs o f n umb e rs .

Th u s we se e tha t t h e a b ov e -m e n tio n e d fractio n r e mai n s ap

proximat e ly co n sta n t o n l y wh e n t h e ori g i n a l w e igh t s li e b e tw e e n
1 0 0 g an d 1 0 0 0 g
. O n l y wi thi n th e s e limits m u s t t h e i n c r e as e
.

of stim ul us r e ach t h e sam e fractio n a l part o f t h e primary sti m u l u s

i n o r d e r to b e j ust obs e rvabl e T h e re fo r e W e b e r s Law is v ali d ’
.

o n ly wh e n t h e stim u li ar e o f m e di u m i n t e n sity t h e r e l ativ e

s e n sibi l ity to di ffe r e n c e is small e r i n t h e c as e o f v e ry sma ll s timu l i
an d gr e at e r i n t h e cas e o f v e ry l arg e stimul i t h a n t h e Law Of

W e b e r r e qui r e s This fact is d e sig n at e d as t h e u p p e r an d l ow e r

.

d e vi ati o n o f W e b e r s Law Th e d iscri mi n ativ e s e n sib i l ity th e re

” ’
.
,

fo r e i n cr e as e s i n proporti o n as i n t e n si ty o f sti m ul atio n i s gr e at e r

, .

Th e di s crimi n ativ e s e n s ibi l i ty p r o v e s to b e e ss e n ti al l y gr e at e r

wh e n t h e w e ights ar e n o t p l ac e d u p o n t h e h a n d at re st bu t wh e n ,

we e x e c u t e t h e m otio n s o f l i fti n g t h e w e ights wh i l e t h e y li e o n t h e

ha n d I n t h e latt e r cas e o f co u rs e t h e s e n s ati o n is m u ch m o r e
.
, ,

c omplicat e d ; s e n sati o n s o f po s itio n an d m o ti o n ar e ass o ciat e d

with thos e Of pr e ssur e We ar e als o assist e d by b e i n g abl e t o
.

c o m pa re t h e s e n sibl e e ffe cts o f t h e sam e sti mu l us i n d i ffe r e n t

74 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i ca l P sych o logy .

the sam e an d t h e p r o b a b ili ty o f a c o rr e c t j u dgm e n t o r discrim i n a

,

tio n o f th i s d i ffe r e n c e i s co n s ta n t i f t h e r at i o o f t h e sti m uli r e

m ai n s u n cha n g e d T h e s e ar e t h e e ss e n tial fe a tur e s o f F e c h n e r s
.
’

i n t e r e sti n g m e th o d ; i n its practical applicati o n an d t h e e mp l oy

m e n t Of t h e n umb e r s o f co ur s e m a n y di ffi c ul ti e s an d d o u b ts sti l l
, ,

aris e that com p l icat e o n e s proc e dur e 1

I n t h e m o st fav o u rabl e
’
.

cas e a r e lat iv e diffe r e n c e o f 3 1 is still p e r c e p ti bl e

'

Also i n t h e
6
.

cas e o f s e n sati o n s o f pr e ssur e t h e r e for e t h e Law o f W e b e r i s , ,

v e rifiabl e o n ly withi n c e rtai n l i m i t s o f stim u la ti o n .

G oldsch e id e r h as also r e c e n t l y d e t e r m i n e d t h e m i n imu m o f

sti m u latio n at l e ast i n t h e ca se o f si n g l e s e n satio n s o f pa ssiv e
,

m oti o n I t app e ars fo r e xam pl e that a swi n g o f t h e arm

.
, ,

amou n ti n g t o i s s e n sibly p e rc e iv e d i n t h e S hould e r

j oi n t E xp e rim e n ts w e r e a l so m ad e fo r t h e purp os e of e stab l is h
.

i n g t h e m i n imum v e l ocity n e c e ssary to ca u s e s e n sati o n s o f passiv e

motio n Th is m i n i m u m v e l o city fo r t h e sho u ld e r j oi n t am o u n ts
.

to i n a s e co n d O f tim e I t i s co n c e ivab l e t h at a .

m i n imu m v e locity o f stim u latio n c an b e d e t e rm i n e d also fo r

s e n satio n s of passiv e m o ti o n fo r th e y ar e n o t i m part e d by
,

s e n satio n s of static pr e ssur e bu t ch i e fl y by s l igh t s e n sati o n s o f

,

dy n a m ic p r e ss u r e withi n t h e j o i n ts an d v e l o city o f co ur s e is , ,

an e ss e n tial fact o r i n t h e s e n sib l e e ffe c ts p rod u c e d by im pac t .

'
I t is r e m a rkab l e th at i n t h e cas e o f a swi n g e x e cut e d by som e
m e m b e r o f t h e b ody t h e m i n im u m o f e xc itatio n i s b u t v e ry l i ttle
,

sma ll e r fo r t h e s e n satio n s of act i ve m o ti o n tha n fo r s e n satio n s o f

s i ve m o ti o n
p a s .

Fi n a ll y th e r e r e mai n t h e s e n sati o n s of h e at an d cold I n how

, .

fa r t h e L aw o f W e b e r i s val id fo r th e s e s e n sati o n s has n o t ye t

b e e n e sta b l ish e d with c e rtai n ty U n d e r t h e m ost fav o u r abl e
.

circum sta n c e s t h e thr e shold o f disti n ctio n app e ars to am o u n t t o

0 2
°
C . I t is p o ssi bl e tha t t h e m i n imu m o f s tim u l us fo r s e n sa
2

tio n s o f warm th li e s s o m e w h at high e r t h a n for s e n satio n s o f cold .

1
id F C HN
Be s esEl m E ER e en et P syc h o phys ik
de r an d
“
Re vi i s on e i n ig e r
H au pt p k t d P y h phy ik
un e er s c o s co m par e e s pe ci a ll y G . E . M ULL E R, Zur
G ru dl gu g d
n eP ych phy ik
n er s o s .

9
A rd i g t G O L D S C H I D
cc o n o E E R, c o n trary t o EU L NBU
E R G .
 S e nsat io n s of Tas t e , S m e ll, an d To u ch .
75

E xp e ri m e n ts r e n d e r e d m o r e d i ffi c ul t by t h e c o n sta n t c h a n ge
ar e

i n t h e t e m p e ratur e o f t h e sk i n i ts e lf t o w h ic h t h e p h ysio l o gi ca l,

-
z e r o p o i n t o f t h e ski n s e e ms a s o t o adap t i ts lf
l e
1
.

We sho u ld h e r e call att e n ti o n to t h e fac t s ti l l fu rth e r that , ,

c e rtai n s e n satio n s c an b e m i sj u dg e d I f t h e ski n o n t h e n ap e o f .

t h e n e ck is fi rst l igh tly t o u c h e d wi th a sma l l bru s h th e n warm e d ,

by a match that h as b e e n lig h t e d n e ar i t we ar e o ft e n u n a b l e t o ,

di s ti n g u i sh wh e th e r h e at o r t o u c h acts u p o n t h e s ki n Ob v io usly .

t h e quality o f v e ry w e ak s e n sati o n s i s o ft e n t o o i n disti n ct o r i n

su f fi ci e n t l y p ro n o u n c e d to r e ca ll t h e id e as an d w o rds t h at w e r e
pr e vious l y a ss o ciat e d with t h e pro n o u n c e d s e n s at i o n I t is al so .

i n t e r e s ti n g t o n o t e tha t co l d w e ight s app e ar t o b e h e avi e r tha n

warm w e ig h t s o f t h e sam e va l u e .

L e t us n o w co n s id e r t h e q u e s tio n o n c e m or e as to h o w t h o s e
s e n sati o n s of pr e s s u r e an d t e m p e rat u r e v ary t h a t ar e produc e d b y
t h e s e parat e irri tati o n o f d iffe r e n t n e rv e - fibr e s o r by t h e sim u l
t an e o us i rrita tio n o f m a n y n e rv e - fib r e s T h e a n sw e r fo r s e n s ati o n s
.

of h e at an d c o l d i s i n part si m ila r to tha t for s e n satio n s of tast e .

If t h e sam e caloric s tim u l u s i rri ta t e s a la r ge n u mb e r of n e rv e

e n d s i e i f t h e stim ul us spr e ads ov e r a larg e ar e a of t h e s ki n
, . . ,

n e it h e r t h e qua l ity of t h e s e n s ati o n cha n g e s n o r do e s it s su pe r ,

fic i al ch aract e r 2 b e com e e s s e n tia l ly mor e pr o n o u n c e d ; but t h e

i n t e n sity of t h e s e n satio n s o f h e at an d cold a u gm e n ts I t is .

di ffe r e n t i n t h e cas e of s e n satio n s Of pr e ss u r e I f t h e sa me .

s timu lu s o f p r e ss u r e ac t fir s t upo n a c e rtai n sp o t o n t h e ski n o f

t h e thigh an d th e n upo n a c e rtai n sp o t O f t h e sam e siz e o n t h e

s ki n o f t h e ch e e k b t h e e x e r ci s e o f su ffi ci e n t att e n ti o n we c an
y ,

ob s e rv e a sligh t di ffe r e n c e i n q u al ity that is i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e

di ffe r e n c e i n localizatio n d e spit e t h e id e n ti ty o f t h e e xt e r n al
,

stim u lus i n e ach cas e .

I t is ha r dly t o b e assum e d th at t h e n e rv e -fibr e s wh ich r e c e iv e

t h e sti m u l u s i n t h e ski n o f t h e fo r e h e ad ar e e ss e n tial l y d i ffe r e n t
from thos e i n t h e ski n o f t h e abdom e n b u t t h e e xt e rn al stimul u s
1
H ER IN G , S i t z u n gsb e r . d Wi
. ene r Ak L X X V I I I Ab t h
.
, . .

9
Furth r i v t i gat i
e n es o ns by G O L DSC H E I D E R h av e al so d e t e r mi n e d t h e
c apa i ty f l cali i g
c or o s n se n s at i o ns o f t e m pe rat u re : Archiv f P hys i o l 1 885
. .
, .
76 I n t r o duct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

d o e s n o t r e ach t h e n e rv e -e n ds d i re ctly I t is variously m odi fi e d

.

by t h e str u ctu r e o f t h e ski n ( i n cludi n g its ha i rs ) wh ich i n t e rv e n e s

b e tw e e n t h e n e rv e - e n ds an d t h e ac ti n g s tim u l us T h e sam e .

e xt e r n al stimul u s w ill th e r e fo r e b e m odifi e d o n t h e way t o t h e

t e r mi n atio n s o f t h e n e rv e s acco r di n g to t h e locality of t h e skin

u po n w h i ch it acts an d will h e n c e p rov e to b e e v e rywh e re s o m e
,
.

what di ffe r e n t T h e co n s ti tution of t h e n e r v e -e n ds r e c e ivi n g t h e

.

stim u lus m ay also chan g e som e what accordi n g to t h e ex te n t o f

t h e n e rv e - tr acts H e n c e t h e st r uctur e of both ski n an d n e rv e
.

e n ds giv e s t h e s e n sati o n s o f pr e ssu r e t h e i r s o ca l l e d

- “ ”
local stam p .

L e t u s ci t e o n e o f t h e ro u gh e r b u t m os t st r iki n g e xam pl e s o f
, ,

th is fac t I f we touch t h e ski n of t h e ch e e k t h e s e n sat io n o f

.
,

p re ssur e h as a v e ry charact e ristic stam p wh ich is e sp e cial l y c o n

‘

di t i o n e d by t h e a b s e n c e of a fi r m subst r uc t ur e t h e fl ac c i di t y of ,

t h e ski n an d t h e i n s e r ti o n i n t h e ski n o f t h e m uscula r fib r e s

, .

By m e an s o f th e s e charac t e ri s tics we ar e abl e to d isti n gu ish t h e

s e n sat ion o f p r e ss ur e o n t h e ski n o f t h e ch e e k i n q u ality fr om
S im i l a r s e n satio n s of pre s su r e o n oth e r parts of t h e b ody I n .

“ ”
accorda n c e with L o t z e s pr e c e d e n t th e s e lo cal st a mps ch ar
’
,

ac t e r i s t i c o f s e n satio n s o f p r e s s u r e ar e a l so d e sig n at e d as
“
loca l
” “
s ig n s
. I n fact th e s e l o cal sig n s m at e rially facilitat e t h e l o cal
i z at io n o f s e n sati o n s o f pr e ss u r e H e n c e if t h e sam e sti m ul u s o f
.

p r e ss u r e ac t u p o n d i ffe r e n t n e r v e-fibr e s s e parat e l y som e di ffe r e n c e ,

i n qua l ity tho u gh sm a l l i n fact i s alr e ady p e rc e ptibl e

, ,
But i n .

d e p e n d e n t o f th e s e local sig n s we ar e also ab l e to l o cal iz e a t

,

o n c e an d with comparativ e c e rtai n ty an y s e n satio n o f t o u ch

, ,

what e v e r . I n so doi n g o f co u rs e we comm it a c e rtai n s o -

, ,
call e d
e rr o r i n local izatio n whi ch has a co n sta n t valu e for e ach r e gi o n
Of t h e ski n This e r r or is v e ry g r e at fo r e xam pl e wh e n w e at
.
, ,

t e m pt t o local iz e s e n sation s fe l t i n t h e le g an d to e s C e rtai n i n .

di v i du als poss e ss e d o f h e al t h y n e rv e s b u t u n practis e d i n s e l f ,

obs e rvatio n hav e b e e n k n ow n to m is tak e t h e s e co n d t o e fo r t h e

,

third o r t h e th ird fo r t h e fou r th i n att e m p ti n g t o lo ca l iz e s e n s a

,

tio n s o f touch B ut wh e n c e aris e s this fac u lty of loca l i za tio n

.

H o w do we k n ow i n sta n tly that i n o n e ca s e t h e le g i n a n oth e r ,

cas e t h e foot i s touch e d , al though ex act ly t he sa me s ti mul u s acts

 S e n sat i o n s o f Tas t e , S m e ll, an d To u ch .
77

u po n both an d produc e s s e n satio n s th at ar e b u t l ittl e di ffe re n t i n

quality ? Th e s e n satio n its e lf do e s n o t fu rn ish th is localizati o n ;
it o n ly assists us som e what to loca l iz e by m e a n s o f i t s l ocal sign .

Th e localizatio n is r ath e r an ach i e v e m e n t o f associatio n Th e .

s e n s atio n of touch i n t h e foot i s ass o ciat e d wi th n um e r ous id e as

o f t h e foot e sp e cially wi th id e as o f sigh t m otio n an d sp e e ch

, ,
.

T his pr o c e ss of associatio n tak e s plac e i n a m a n n e r which we

shall discuss m o r e th oroughly i n t h e fu tu r e I f t h e fo ot i s
.

touc h e d th e s e id e as ar e awak e n e d wi th t h e sp e e d of ligh t n i n g ;

t h e form an d mot io n s of t h e fo ot an d t h e word
“
foot o cc u r t o us
an d th e s e i mag e s of m e m o ry a l s o guid e t h e h a n d i n p oi n ti n g out

t h e r e gio n to u ch e d wh e n we ar e r e q u e st e d to d o so E sp e cially .

t h is m otio n e x e cut e d i n i n d icati n g t h e sp o t t o uch e d is cl o s e ly

associat e d by practic e with t h e s e n satio n of to u ch i n e ach r e gi on
o f t h e ski n Th e usual loca l i zatio n of t h e s e n sati o n s o f pr e ssu r e
.

do e s n o t co n s ist at all i n t h e p ro j e ctio n of t h e s e n s atio n s i n t o

abstract s pac e b u t r ath e r i n th e ir ass o ciati o n wi th d e fi n i t e id e as
,

o f sight ,
m otio n an d sp e e ch H e n c e we c an u n d e rsta n d m ore
.

r e adi l y why locali zatio n i n g e n e r al b e com e s more acc u rat e as t h e

i n t e n si ty o f t h e stim u l us i n c re as e s -
T h e s o call e d
.
“
e cc e n tric

proj e ctio n i s also o n ly to b e u n d e rstood as t h e r e s ul t o f th e s e

”

a s sociatio n s B y e cc e n tric proj e c tio n we u n d e r sta n d t h e fact

.
”

t h at a s e n satio n p r oduc e d by t h e stim ulatio n o f t h e n e rv e - tr u n k

i n st e ad o f t h e n e r v e - e n ds is r e gularly attribut e d t o i rri tatio n of

t h e p e r iph e r al r am ificati o n s o f t he n e rv e I t is k n ow n fo r e x
.
,

am pl e that p e rso n s who hav e los t a foot may stil l fe e l pai n s i n

,

t h e am pu tat e d m e mb e r I n this ca s e t h e old fam ilia r associatio n s

.
,

hav e n o t ye t re c e iv e d su ffi c i e n t cor r e ct i o n r e n d e r e d n e c e ssa r y by

,

t h e am puta tio n We shall r e t urn t o this s u bj e ct i n co n n e ctio n

.

- “
with t h e th e ory of t h e s o call e d i n tuiti o n o f spac e ”
.

T h e first part o f o u r qu e stio n is n o w a n sw e r e d H ow d o t h e .

s e n satio n s o f p r e ssu r e d i ffe r wh e n t h e stimu l us acts u p o n di ffe r e n t

n e r ve - e n ds s e parat e ly T h e s e co n d part of t h e q u e stio n r e mai n s

t o be a n sw e r e d I f t h e sam e stim ulus r e ach e s ma n y adj ac e n t
.

n e rv e - e n ds at t h e sa m e t im e th u s act i n g u po n a larg e r ar e a o f
,

t h e ski n wha t i s t h e sum o f t h e s e n sat io n s thus im pa r t e d ?

, In
78 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

g e n e r al we fin d n e it h e r an i n cr e as e i n t h e i n t e n sity of s e n satio n
n actual s u mmati o n ) n o r a cha n g e i n i ts qua l ity b u t t h e m a n y
( i
. e . a , ,

s e n sati o n s a r ra n g e th e m s e l v e s i n t o a fo rm o r i m ag e wi th w h ich we
a r e n o t ye t fam i l iar Thi s i mag e is a fo r m o f spatial e xt e n si o n
.

k n o w n as s u r fac e . H e r e we co n fro n t o n e o f t h e gr e at e st p u zz l e s
o f psyc h o l o gy L e t us pr e s e n t cl e ar l y to m i n d t h e p e c ul i ar asp e ct
.

O f t he fac ts i n ha n d S u ppos e that . e xci tatio n s proc e e d i n g

,

fr o m n e rv e -e n ds i n a giv e n ar e a o f t h e ski n that h as b e e n

t o uch e d r e ach t h e c e r e b r al cort e x an d im part

,
s e n satio n s .

T wo q u e s ti o n s n o w aris e ( 1
) H o w a r e t wo s e n sati o n s that w e r e

produc e d b y t h e e xci tatio n of n eigh bo u r i ng n e rv e — e n ds comb i n e d

i n t o an image Of spac e ? (2 ) H o w c an we accou n t fo r t h e o r igin

o f this r e m arkab l e ar r a n g e m e n t at all ? T h e s e co n d q u e s tio n
ca n n o t be a n sw e r e d at a ll by physi o l ogical psych ol o gy We h e re .

c o n fr o n t o n e o f t h os e psyc h o l o gica l facts t h at ar e as ye t i n c o m

pr e h e n s ibl e i n t h e l igh t o f physiol o gical p sych o l ogy an d t h a t will ,

p e rhaps always r e m ai n so A gr e at d e al o f pa i n s has oft e n b e e n

.

tak e n to e xp l ai n t h e d e v e l op m e n t o f o ur i n tuiti o n of spac e i n a

p u r e l y g e n e tic way e ith e r by t h e l o ca l s ig n s o r by t h e com b i n a
,

ti o n o f id e as o f pr e ssur e wi th t h o s e o f m o tio n We shall n o t .

tro u b l e ours e l v e s wi th th e s e att e m pts at e xpla n ati o n wh ich hav e , ,

i n fact b e e n fr u itl e ss
,
We p r oj e c t a ll o u r s e n satio n s i n t o spac e
.
,

e v e n t h e to n e h e ard an d t h e tast e r e c e iv e d upo n t h e to n gu e .

P h ysi o logical psy chology m u st acc e pt this fact withou t b e i n g a bl e

t o e x plai n i t . At fi r st this proj e ctio n is q u i t e i n d e fi n it e ; t h e
s e n s e s o f h e a r i n g tast e an d sm e l l s t i ll i l lust r at e this fi rst stag e
, ,

o f s pac e - p e rc e pti o n i n which t h e l o calizatio n is qu i t e i n di s ti n ct

, .

T h e s e n sibi l ity o f t h e ski n sh o ws us t h e n e x t high e r stag e o f spac e

pe rc e ptio n ; t h e l ocalizati o n is a l r e ady m o r e d e fi n i t e Fo r .

e xam pl e ,
i f we c l os e t h e e y e s an d le t a v e ry small pi e c e o f
b o ard o f u n k n ow n dim e n si o n s b e p l ac e d upo n t h e ha n d by an o th e r
p e rs o n we ar e a bl e to t e ll abo u t what plac e u po n t h e ha n d i s
,

t o u c h e d an d a l s o to stat e appro xi m at e l y t h e b o u n da ri e s o f t h e
,

s u r fac e th us t o u ch e d I f we co m par e t h e capaci ty o f t h e s e n s e

.

o f t o u ch fo r l o ca l izatio n wi th that o f t h e s e n s e o f sigh t t he ,

d e fici en cy o f t h e fo r m e r b e com e s cl e ar ly appar e n t o n t h e oth e r

 S e n s at i o n s of Tas t e ,
S m e ll, an d To u ch .
79

ha n d t h e localizatio n o f t h e vis u al s e n s e app e ars u n iq u e t o us

b e cau se i n fact we c an mak e n o c o m paris o n with a n o th e r s e n s e
, ,

i n which t h e ability to l o caliz e i s s ti ll m o r e h igh l y d e v e lop e d

“

L e t us co n sid e r t h e proc e ss o f this s up e rfic ial loca l izati o n i n t h e

ca se o f t h e s e n s ibility o f t h e Ski n s om e what m o r e e xactly (fig .

H an d I I
’
re pr e s e n t t h e c r o ss -s e cti o n o f s o m e ar e a of t h e ski n ,

o n t h e ha n d fo r e xam pl e ; a b c an d d ar e n e rv e -
, , , ,
e n ds Traci n g .

t h e n e rv e -
fibr e s a l o n g th e ir e n tir e cou r s e to th e ir c e r e b r al cort e x ,

we fin d th e m t e rmi n ati n g i n t h e ga n g l i o n c e ll s a b c d wh ich

- ' ' ’ ’
, , , ,

a ll pr o bab l y c o n n e ct e d with o n e a n ot h e r I t i s fu rth e rmor e

.

p o ssibl e th o u gh i mpr o babl e that t h e succ e ssio n of t h e n e rv e

, ,

fib r e s at th e ir p e ri p h e ral t e r m i n ati o n s i s r e ta i n e d u n dist u rb e d

d u ri n g th e i r l o n g co u rs e thro u gh t h e spi n al ch o rd an d c e re b e l lu m ,

d e spi t e fr e q u e n t i n t e rv e n i e n t i n t e rrupti o n i n t h e ga n g l io n -
c e ll s an d ,

that t h u s e xact l y t h e sam e o rd e r r e c urs i n t h e c o rte x o f t h e c e r e b ru m .

I n t h e ill u s trati o n , th e r e fore i t is as s um e d that t h e succ e ss i o n

,

h as be e n al te r e d ; d i s n o w adj ac e n t t o b wh ich t e r mi n at e s t h e
' '

s e ri e s N o w le t a homog e n e o u s o bj e c t wh ich we sha l l at fi r s t

.
,

co n c e iv e of as h avi n g o n l y l e n gt h t o u ch t h e ski n an d i r ritat e t h e

,

fo u r t e r mi n ati o n s Of t h e n e rv e s Fo ur e xcitati o n s a l m o s t a b s o lu t e l y
.
,

id e n ti cal i n q u ality will th e n b e tra n smi tt e d to t h e brai n ; h e r e

,
80 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i ca l P sycho lo
gy .

l ik e e xcitatio n s will occur i n t h e fou r ga n glio n c e l ls an d impa r t

fo u r lik e s e n satio n s o f p re ssur e At fi r st we ar e n o t co n sci o us o f .

a n yth i n g m or e tha n th e s e s e n sati o n s which i f t h e r e is an y d e fi n it e , ,

succ e ssion at al l ar e giv e n i n t h e ord e r a c d b We furth e r

,
' ' ’ '
, , ,
.

mo re acc e p t as a fact t h e p r oj e c tio n o f t h e fo ur s e n sati o n s i n to

, ,

spac e B u t n o w what caus e s us to corr e ct t h e o r d e r o f t h e s e r i e s

.

to a c e r tai n e xt e n t an d to so proj e ct t h e fo ur s e n satio n s a c a

,
' ’
, ,
"
,

b i n t o spac e that th e i r ord e r b e c o m e s a b c d th u s c o r r e sp o n d

' ’ ’ ’ ’
, , , ,

i n g to t h e o r d e r o f t h e n e rv e -
e n ds to u ch e d an d of t h e poi n ts o n ,

t h e stimulati n g Obj e ct ? Th e caus e l i e s i n t h e i d e as o f m oti o n

wh ich ar e associat e d wi th e ach o n e o f t h e ga n gl io n -c e lls F o r .

e xam pl e if we m ov e t h e surfac e o f t h e ski n r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e

,

i l lust r atio n a sho r t d istan c e t h e p oi n t a is fi rst b rough t i n co n t ac t

,

with an o bj e ct at x (fig 7) a s o m e what g r e at e r m ov e m e n t b r i n gs

.

t h e poi n t b to x an d so o n u n til fi n ally t h e gr e at e s t m ov e m e n t

,

plac e s t h e p oi n t d i n c o n tact wi th x O n t h e oth e r h a n d we .

,

migh t hav e plac e d t h e obj e ct a l s o a t x i n wh ich cas e t h e ’

,

sligh t e st m ov e m e n t woul d h av e p r oduc e d co n tact with d t h e ,

gr e at e s t m ov e m e n t co n tact wi th a I n e i th e r cas e t h e o r d e r o f .

t h e n e rv e - e n d s wh e th e r a b c d o r d c b a is co n sta n t i n so far
, , , , , , , ,

as t h e e xt e n t of t h e m otio n s r e quisit e t o bri n g t h e fou r n e rv e - e n ds

i n co n tact with a giv e n obj e ct is co c e r e dn n

1
Th e e xp e r i e n c e as
,
.

abov e d e s crib e d is r e p e at e d n u mb e r l e ss t im e s d uri n g t h e life ti m e

o f t h e i n dividual u n til i t fi n ally b e com e s fi x e d i n m e m ory
,
A .

m e mory o r id e a of a m otio n h avi n g a d e fi n it e mag n it u d e i s associ

at e d with t h e s e n satio n r e c e iv e d fr om e ach n e r v e -e n d For .

e xam pl e le t us suppos e th is id e a o f m oti o n to be 1 m fo r a 2 m

, ,

fo r b 3 m fo r c an d 4 m fo r d
, ,
N o w i f an Obj e ct touch a b c .
, ,

an d d at t h e sam e tim e t h e s e n satio n p r oduc e d by t h e e xci t a tio n

—
,
'
a a u n it e s wi th t h e id e a O f m otio n 1 m

t h e s e n satio n bb wi th t h e id e a o f m o ti on 2 m
’

3m
’
cc

4 m
’
dd .

1
Th e i m po rta n c e o f c o n ce ivi n
g o f the l t by m a
e e me n s , e ns o fw hi h w
c e pe r
c e i ve sp ace , as a rie s
se , an d t h e po ss i bility f i v rti g i t
o n e n s o r d e r w e re fi r s t
,

e mp h a i d by H
s ze e rbart P sych o l o gi e l Wi
a s h aft
sse n sc
82 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

en tir e su bj e c t o f spac e -i n t u i tio n i n g e n e ral At pr e s e n t o n l y o n e

.

mor e c o n clusio n i s t o b e m e n tio n e d as a dir e ct r e s u lt of t h e

pr e c e di n g Th e ab ility t o d isti n guish two s e n satio n s th at a ris e
.

i n n e ighbouri n g n e rv e -e n ds c an b e co n sid e rably cultiva t e d by

,

p r actic e si n c e i t is also chi e fly d e p e n d e n t o n acc o m pa n yi n g id e as

,

of m otio n I f we plac e t h e two poi n ts o f a c o m pass u p o n t h e

.

thigh at a dista n c e of 6 cm fr o m e ach oth e r we g e n e ral l y pe r

.
,

c e i ve b u t o n e to u ch ; we ar e abl e to p e r c e iv e t wo touch e s o n ly

wh e n t h e dista n c e b e tw e e n t h e p oi n ts o f t h e compass amo u n ts

to 7 cm . Th is small e st d ista n c e w ithi n which two s e n satio n s
may still b e d isti n guish e d fro m e ach oth e r is d e sig n at e d as t h e
“ ”1 “
m i n imu m of spac e that c an be p e rc e iv e d or t h e j ust pe r
c e i vable am o u n t o f S pac e an d t h e r e gio n of t h e ski n wi thi n
”
,

which we still fe e l t wo s e n satio n s as o n e i s d e sig n at e d as t h e

“
s e n satio n ci r cl e i n acco r dan c e with t h e pr e c e d e n t e stablish e d
- ”

by E H W e b e r
. . .
-
Withi n t h e ar e a o f a s i n gl e s e n satio n ci r cl e ”
,

th e r e fo r e t h e local sig n s an d t h e associat e d id e as of m otio n ar e

,

n o t s u ffi ci e n t to r e n d e r t wo s e n satio n s d isti n g u i sh abl e wh e n th e y

ar e ca u s e d by l ik e s tim u li T h us we c an a l s o e asi l y u n d e rstan d

w h y t h e s e n satio n -circl e s ar e v e ry larg e i n th os e r e gi o n s o f t h e
ski n wh ich hav e v e ry fe w n e rv e s an d ar e littl e u s e d i n activ e
to u ch as t h e t r u n k thigh e t c I t is a fact of gr e a t im po r tan c e
, , , .

that two poi n ts o f co n tact m ay be also fe l t as o n e wh e n both ar e

at pr e ssu r e - spots s e pa rat e d by o n e o r m o r e ot h e r pr e ssu r e -spo t s .

I t app e a r s th e r e for e that t h e dist r i b utio n o f pr e s su r e s po t s i s by

n o m e a n s t h e o n ly fac t o r d e t e rm i n i n g t h e abil i ty fo r l o ca l izat io n ,

b u t that t h e local sig n s an d pa r tic u larly t h e acco m pa n yi n g id e as

of motio n e x e rt t h e chi e f i n flu e n c e The partitio n o f t h e s e n si
.

b i li t y o f t h e ski n i n to pr e ssu r e - spots o n l y r e n d e rs possi b l e t h e

s e parat e app e ara n c e o f t wo l ik e c o rtical e xcitati o n s i n di ff e r e n t
co r tic al e l e m e n ts but t h e disti n ctio n o f two s e n satio n s do e s n o t
d e p e n d o n this sim pl e fact o f a n atom ical s e parati o n We may .

h e r e mak e t h e paradoxi cal stat e m e n t tha t i f a l l t h e n e rv e s O f

t h e ski n an d th e i r cortical t e rm i n atio n s w e r e a n at o m ica l ly qu it e

1
G e r m R a u msch we l/e =space -
. t re s h h o ld —T s
.
‘
.
 S en sat i o n s of Tas t e , S m ell, an d To u ch . 83

id e n tica l an d if a ll w e r e irritat e d b y t h e sam e stimu lu s at t h e

,

sam e tim e o nl y a si n gl e s e n satio n would app e ar Th e dist i n c

,
.

tio n o f n e igh bouri n g s e n sati o n s fr om o n e a n ot h e r i s o n ly possibl e

by m e a n s of local sig n s an d id e as of m otio n That t h e s e n satio n
.

c i rcl e b e com e s small e r wh e n j ust two pr ess u r e -spots ar e touch e d

may b e partly e xplai n e d by t h e fact that t h e i n t e n s ity o f t h e
s e n sati o n s is gr e at e r o n t h e pre ss ur e - spot s t h an e ls e wh ere ; an d
wi thi n c e rtai n lim its at l e ast t h e disti n ctio n o f s e n satio n b e com e s
,

e asi e r t h e g r e at e r t h e i n t e n sity o f t h e s e n satio n

, .

A fur th e r e xp l a n atio n may b e so u gh t i n t h e fact that a S i n gl e ,

isolat e d “
l o ca l stam p ”
or colori n g an d a si n g l e iso l at e d
”
,

compl e x o f m oto r id e as app e ar o n l y o n i r r itatio n o f a pr e ssure

spot ; if a poi n t bet w ee n two pr e ss ure -spots b e i rritat e d t h e ,

stim u l u s acts upo n s e v e ral s u ch spots ; t h e s e n sati o n i s th e r e for e

ass o ciat e d wi th seve r al l o cal s ig n s an d c o m pl e x e s of m oto r id e as ,

an d t h e di ffe r e n c e s b e tw e e n s e n s ati o n s ar e thus dir e ctly o b li t e r

at e d . I n r e gio n s t h at poss e ss an ab u n da n c e of n e r v e s t h e
s e n satio n -ci r c l e s ar e sma l l e r A gr e at e r abu n da n c e of n e rv e s
.

r e n d e r s possibl e a gr e at e r vari e ty an d sp e e di e r cha n g e o f t h e

local sig n s an d a m o r e e xt e n siv e as sociati o n with s e parat e c o m
pl e x e s o f m oto r id e as .

I n co n cl u sio n o n e fac t must s e e m r e m arkabl e to us We h av e .

succ e e d e d i n e xplai n i n g h o w t h e s e pa rat e s e n satio n s of pre ss ur e

ar e d iscr e t e ly proj e ct e d i n to spac e i n a d e fi n i t e o r d e r ; i n so
doi n g h o w e v e r we hav e sim ply obtai n e d a r e g ula r co n tig u i ty of
, ,

n u m b e r l e ss di scr e t e s e n satio n s B u t wh e n c e a r is e s t h e c o n
.

t i n u i t y o f t h e i mpr e ssio n pr o duc e d b y an obj e ct t o uch i n g t h e

s ki n ? We do n o t fe e l n umb e rl e ss poi n t s but a co n ti n uous su r

,

fac e T his fact may be e xplai n e d as fo ll o ws : I t is tru e th at t h e

.

p re ssu r e -spots ar e d isc r e t e ; b u t we hav e alr e ady d e mo n st r at e d

at som e l e n gt h that strictly co n sid e r e d t h e sam e stim ul us acti n g
, ,

upo n di ffe r e n t n e ighbou r i n g pr e ssu r e -sp ots c an imp ar t but a ,

s i n le di ff us e d s e n satio n t h e l o calizati o n o f wh ich is q u it e i a

g ,

d e fi n i t e som e what as i n t h e cas e o f sou n d O u r s e n satio n s o f

,
.

touch ar e o n ly s e pa rat e d spatially an d arra n g e d so as to p r oduc e

a surfac e by th e i r associatio n wi th l ocal sign s an d id e as o f
84 I n t r o du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i ca l P sych o logy
,

moti o n B ut t h e loca l sig n s an d id e as o f m o ti o n ar e r e gu l ar l y

.

g rad e d an d th e r e for e fo rm a c o n ti n uous s e ri e s H e n c e we c an

.

e asi l y u n d e rsta n d al s o t h at t h e s e paratio n o f t h e ta ct u al s e n s a

ti o n s an d th e ir ar r a n g e m e n t i n a s urfac e has th is c o n ti n u o u s
c h aract e r Wh e n t h e c o n ti n u o us gradatio n o f t h e l o ca l sign s
.

an d id e as o f m oti o n is w an ti n g t h e s e n satio n s do n o t b l e n d i n t o
,

an i mag e o f surfac e I f we p l ac e thr e e n e e d l e -

. poi n ts fo r
,

e xamp l e at a dista n c e of 2 cm fr o m e ach o th e r u po n t h e ha n d

,
.
,

t h e thr e e s e n sati o n s will n e v e r bl e n d i n to an imag e o f su rface .

We h av e n o w fi n ish e d t h e disc u ssio n o f th at m o d e o f s e n si

bili t y from whi ch a ll t h e o th e r s e n s e s hav e p r o b ably d e v e l o pe d ,

t h e s e n si b ility i n t h e n arr o w e r s e n s e o f t h e t e r m We s h a ll n e x t
.

t ur n to t h e hi gh e s t s e n s e s h e ari n g an d sight
,
.
86 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

tio n s tak e s plac e i n a s e co n d of tim e Th e s e p e riodic vibratio n s .

m ay b e r e g u lar i e t h e fo r m an d n umb e r o f t h e vibrati o n s r e

,
. .

m ai n co n sta n t S u ch v i b r atio n s i mpa r t s e n satio n s o f m usical

.

sou n d ; t h e acc o m pan yi n g e xt e r n al stimulus i s d e sig n at e d as a

mu si cal so u n d O n t h e oth e r ha n d t h e p e riod ic vib r atio n s m ay
.
,

b e i rr e gula r ; 1 for m an d du r atio n o f t h e v i b ratio n ch a n g e In .

this cas e s e n satio n s o f n ois e ar e produc e d an d t h e accomp an yi n g

e xt e r n al stim u lus is d e sig n at e d as a n o i se .

Fig 9 I r e p re s e n ts t h e wav e li n e o f a to n e ; fig 9 I I t h e wav e

.
,
- 2
.
,

li n e o f a n ois e .

FIG .
9 .

A si n gl e wav e r e ach e s from a to [7 ( fi g 9 I ) T h is dista n c e . .

c o r r e sp o n ds to t h e l e n gth o f tim e r e qui r e d fo r t h e v i brati o n o f

o n e particl e T h e c u rv e s ab bc cd e t c (fig 9 I ) a l l r e pr e s e n t
.
, , , , . .
,

a si n g l e vibratio n o f t h e particl e o f ai r l ik e wi s e a b b c c d i n
'
'' ' ’
,
’
,
’
,

t h e s e co n d c u r ve (fig 9 I I ) T h e gr e at e st br e adth o f displac e

. .

m e n t o f a vibrati n g partic l e is ca l l e d t h e am plitu d e o f v ib r atio n .

T h e l e n gt h s o f t h e s traigh t li n e s ab a b bc b c e t c r e p r e s e n t t h e
'' ''
.
, , , , ,

d u r atio n o f e ach vi b r atio n We se e at o n c e that i n t h e fi rs t cu rv e d

.

li n e b o th t h e fo rm an d d u ratio n o f t h e si n g l e vibratio n s i s al ways

Th r gh ut t h tir ch apt r t h r ad r h uld b ar i m i d th at h

1
ou o e en e e e e e s o e n n t e

auth r h r m ak a p uliar b t i m p rt t di ti ti b tw
o e e es ec g l ly u o an s nc on e e en r e u ar

—
, ,

p ri
e di od i g l
c an l
y p ri di c
rr evi b ratiu ar T e o ons s.

I thi h apt r t h t rm t wh d w i th t m difi cati i t b

9 “ ”
n s c e e e one, e n u se ou o on, s o e

und r t d i i r tr i t d
e s oo n ts d ig at i g l y a i mpl t
es c e t a
se n s e as es n n on s e one,
”
no

mp i t t
co os m u i cal
e one u d —T ”
or s so n .
” ’
s.
 S e n s at i o n s o f H e a r i ng . 87

t he sam e Thi s i s charact e ristic Of t h e ton e O n t h e c on tra ry

. .

t h e form an d duratio n o f t h e vibratio n s i n t h e s e co n d curv e d li n e

ar e co n sta n tly cha n gi n g as i s charact e ristic o f a n ois e

,
Th e .

r u stli n g o f t h e l e av e s is a n ois e if we strik e t h e ke y of a p ia n o ,

w e produc e a musical sou n d ; both ar e com p l e x products as we ,

s hall soo n 56 6 . B oth musi cal so u n ds an d n o i ses may b e r e duc e d to

s imp l e aco u stic e l e m e n ts o r to n e s by m ath e mati cal c o mputatio n
, ,

( co n st r uctio n ) o r by t h e u s e o f sp e cial i n st r um e n ts t h e s o -
call e d ,
“
re s o n a tor s Both n oi se an d m usical sou n d co n sist o f a s e r i e s
”
.

o f simp l e t o n e s .Th e wav e- li n e o f b o th t h e n ois e an d mu s ical

s o u n d m ay b e graphically r e pr e s e n t e d as t h e produc t o f s e v e r al

wav e - l i n e s o f e sp e cial simp l icity viz t h e so -ca l l e d si n usoids o r

, .

FIG . 1 0.

cu r v e s of S i n e s E xp r e ss e d i n t h e la n guag e o f physics a l l t h e
.
,

r e gula r p e ri o dic m oti o n s of musica l sou n d an d all t h e irr e g u la r

,

p e ri o dic m o ti o n s o f n o is e m ay be r e duc e d t o a c e r tai n n umb e r of

r e gula r p e ri o dic m otio n s o f e xc e e di n g sim p l ici ty T h e s e c o m .

po n e n t vi b ratio n s to wh ich both a m usica l so u n d an d a n oise

,

m ay b e r e duc e d all ha v e t h e sam e g e n e ral fo rm o f vibratio n t h e

, ,

s i n us o id as r e pr e s e n t e d i n fig 1 0
, . .

T h e v i b ratio n s ar e to b e disti n g u i sh e d from o n e a n oth e r m e r e l y

b y th e i r durati o n o r i n oth e r word s by t h e n u mb e r o f vi bratio n s
, , ,

pe r s e co n d . We m ay th e r e fo re e xp re ss th is g e n e r al p r opositio n
as fo llows E ach s o u n d wh e th e r m u sical sou n d o r n ois e m ay b e
, ,

r e d u c e d t o a s e ri e s o f s imp l e com p o n e n t to n e s wh ic h i rr e sp e ctiv e , ,

o f th e i r i n t e n s i ty ar e t o b e d isti n gui s h e d fr o m o n e a n o t h e r m e r e l y
,

b y t h e n um b e r o f vibrati o n s M u s ical sou n d an d n o i s e ar e d i f

.

fe r e n t i n tha t t h e n umb e rs o f vibrati o n s prod u c i n g t h e c o mpo n e n t

 88 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sy ch o logy .

to n e s o latt e r c o n fo rm t o n o d e fi n it e l aw o f proporti o n whi l e

f the ,

t h e n u mb e rs o f vib r atio n s produci n g t h e various co m p o n e n t to n e s

o f a m usical s o u n d sta n d i n a v e ry sim p l e n um e rical r e latio n t o

e ach oth e r .For e xam pl e i f tha t c o m p o n e n t to n e (o r partial t o n e )

,

of a m u sical s o u n d which has t h e sm all e s t n um b e r o f vi b rati o n s ,

poss e ss e s n vibratio n s pe r s e co n d th e n all t h e o th e r c o mpo n e n t

,

t o n e s o f t h e sam e m usical s o u n d hav e a n umb e r o f vi brati o n s

which is j us t s u ffi ci e n t to pro duc e an e xact m u l tip l e o f n t h e
n umb e r s o f th e i r vibratio n s th e r e fo r e amou n ts t o 2n 3 n or 4 n , , ,

e tc . Also wh e n t h e low e s t t o n e has a n umb e r o f v ibrati o n s e q u a l

to 4n an d t h e fo ll o wi n g to n e s hav e n u m b e rs e qual t o 5n 6n e t c
, , ,
.
,

t h e fo rm o f vibratio n sti l l r e m ai n s r e gu l arly p e riodi c I t is o n ly .

e ss e n tial tha t t h e r e latio n s b e t we e n t h e n u mb e rs o f vi b ratio n s fo r

e ach compo n e n t to n e ar e e xpr e ss e d b y whol e n um b e rs t h at ar e

n o t t o o la rg e O n ly t o n e s whos e n umb e rs o f vibratio n s s ta n d i n

.

such a simpl e n um e rica l r e l ati o n as t h e o n e abov e c it e d tog e th e r ,

c o m pos e a musical sou n d .

Th e r e fo r e to r e capitu l at e b ri e fly t h e sp e cific p h ysica l sti m ul us

, ,

fo r t h e orga n o f h e ari n g c o n sists o f simp l e sou n d - wav e s that u n i t e

som e tim e s as m u sica l s o u n d — wav e s s o m e tim e s as s o u n d -wav e s of
n ois e .

I t is di ffi cu l t to d e t e rm i n e e xac t l y wh e r e orga n s o f h e ari n g fir s t

ap pe a r i n t h e a n imal s e ri e s Wi th o u t d oubt h ow e v e r such org an s
.
, ,

ar e a l r e ady p r e s e n t i n t h e Art h ropoda I t i s Oft e n partic ul ar l y

.

d i ffi c u l t to d e t e r mi n e wh e th e r t h e so — call e d ot o li th s of t h e C t e n o
phora an d o th e r sim ilar a n imals ar e orga n s of h e ar i n g or o rga n s
tha t s e rv e to k e e p t h e body i n b ala n c e T h e orga n o f h e ari n g .

has b e e n d e v e lop e d i n to a v e ry c o mpl icat e d st r uct ur e A p e ri .

h e r a l apparatus wh ich i n c l u d e s t h e e xt e r n al m e atus t h e m e m

p , ,

bra n a tym pa n i an d t he auditory b o n e s s e r v e s e sp e cial l y to k e e p

,

back all stim ul i from t h e n e rv e-t e r m i n atio n s e xc e pt t h e ad e quat e ,

s tim ul i o f s o u n d T h e s e l att e r th e y tra n smi t to t h e n e rve -e n d s i n

.

t h e m ost suitabl e fo rm p o s s ibl e Th e fi n al t e rm i n atio n s o f t h e

.

aud itory n e rv e li e part l y i n t h e o rga n o f C o rti i n t h e c o c h l e a ,

partly i n t h e am p ul l ae o f t h e s e micirc u la r ca n als ; i n both t h e y

—
com e i n co n n e ctio n wi th t h e so call e d hai r c e lls
“ - ”
T h e par t o f t h e
.
90 I n t r o du ct i o n to P /zys i o log i cal P sycno log y .

o ffe rd by physio l ogy an d a n at o my L e t us n o w a n aly se t h e

e .

s e n satio n s o f s o u n d psycho l ogically We shall fi rs t s e e k t h e i r .

d i ffe r e n t qu ali t i es From t h e b e gi n n i n g we m ay b e allow e d t o

.

e xc l ud e that larg e class o f s e n satio n s k n ow n as n o is e s th e y com

p o s e an e sp e cial gr o u p o f s e n sati o n s that ar e hardly acc e s s ibl e
t o i n v e stigatio n We shall occupy o ur s e l v e s o n ly with t h e sim pl e
.

s e n sati o n s o f t o n e s an d t h e s e n satio n s o f musical so u n ds We .

hav e a l r e ady h e a r d th at t h e s o - call e d to n e s o f t h e pia n o ar e n o t

simpl e b ut c o m pl e x ; th e y m ay b e m o r e co r r e ct l y d e sig n at e d as
,

m usical sou n ds S impl e to n e s ar e produ c e d m ost e asi l y by strik

.

i n g a tu n i n g - fork t h e fl ut e also giv e s c o m pa r ativ e l y si m pl e ton e s .

Th e o n l y di ffe r e n c e i n t h e q u a l ity o f all si mple to n e s l i e s i n t h e

p i n k t o wh ich t h e n u mb e r of vibratio n s pe r s e co n d i n t h e st i mu
,

lati n g m e dium c o rr e spo n ds We p e rc e iv e a to n e t o b e high e r t h e

.

gr e ate r t h e n u m b e r o f its v ibration s Th e low e st audibl e to n e h as .

si xt e e n vi b r ati o s t h e h igh e s t ab o ut
n
l
,
vibratio n s pe r s e co n d .

But t h e vario u s s e n sati o n o f p itch ar e n o t i r r e gu l a rl y distri b u t e d

b e tw e e n su b -c o n tra c an d t h e e ig h t-tim e s -m ark e d 5 (e s) as i s t h e ,

cas e fo r e xam pl e with t h e d i ffe r e n t quali ti e s o f t h e s e n s e of sm e ll ;

, ,

o n t h e co n trary t h e s e n s ati o n s o f pitch co n stit u t e a co n ti n u ous

,

s e ri e s whi ch c o rr e spon ds t o t h e c o n s ta n t i n cre as e i n t h e n u mb e r

o f vi b ratio n s o f t h e ac o ustic stimuli
,
Wi t h o u t t h e o m issio n of o n e
.

i n t e rval we c an asc e n d from sub -c o n t r a c t o e8 by a r e g u lar s c al e

,

of s im p l e t o n e s S trict l y sp e aki n g h ow e v e r th e r e ar e n u mb e rl e ss
.
, ,

t o n e s b e tw e e n t h e low e st an d hig h e st to n e s F o r r e aso n s wh ich .

we sha l l l e ar n to u n d e rsta n d m or e ful ly lat e r we d isti n g u ish o n l y ,

a v e ry l im i t e d n u m b e r o f to n e -pitch e s Fo r e xam p l e i n t h e i n t e rval.

,

b e tw e e n t h e t o n e o f 2 56 vibrati o n s an d t h e to n e o f vibra
tio n s (c3 ) th e r e ar e o n l y 1 4 wh ol e to n e s i n cludi n g t h e low e r to n e
, ,

c
l
. Th e ch i e f facto r s that d e t e rmi n e d t h e hist o rical d e v e l o pm e n t
o f th is sca l e w e r e ae st h e tic All th o s e to n e s that di r e ctly o r i n
.

d ir e ctly harm o n iz e d with c w e r e so u gh t a

l
n d t h -
e abov m e n t i o n e d
e

1 4 t o n e s w e r e t h e r e su l t A m or e th o r o ugh a n a l ysis o f th is d e v e lo p
.

m e n t do e s n o t fall withi n t h e provi n c e o f this d i s cussio n E spe c i .

WU N D T c l a i m s t o h av e h ard v
e e en e igh t vi b rat i o ns pe r sec o n d .
 S e n sa t i o n s o f H ea r i ng .
91

l
a lly t h e to n e havi n g twic e as ma n y vibrati o n s as a t o n e o f 51 2 c , or

vibratio n s pe r s e c o n d prod u c e s a v e ry harm o n io u s acc o rd with c

,
‘
.

Lik e wis e to n e s that hav e t h r e e an d fo u r t im e s as m a n y vibrati o n s ,

0
3
, c
4
,
e tc har m o n iz e with c r e m ar kab l y w e l l B e tw e e n c an d
.
,
1 1
.

ar e six i n t e rm e diat e t o n e s o f harm o n i o u s c h ar

2 2 3
c , c an d c e tc ,
.
,

act e r C w ith t h e six fo l lowi n g t o n e s w e r e e mb rac e d i n o n e so

.
1

c a ll e d o ctav e —l ik e wis e c2 an d t h e s ix fo llowi n g to n e s e t c We

, ,
.

h av e th u s ob tai n e d a div isi o n o f t h e l o n g s e ri e s o f ton e -s e n sati o n s

wh ich was d e t e rm i n e d by ae sth e tic factors Th e s e ri e s o f to n e s .

i s d ivid e d i n to o ctav e s an d e ach octav e i n t o s e v e n n ot e s

,
We .

a r e acq u ai n t e d with t h e s e v e n n o t e s i n th e i r vari o us octav e s as

'
a e f, g a 5
, ,
N e xt t h e o ctav e was c o m pl e t e d by a s e ri e s o f
, , .

i n t e rv e n i n g t o n e s (c sharp a sharp f sharp w h ich w e r e als o

,
’
, ,

d e t e rm i n e d by ae s th e tic r e as o n s Thus t h e scal e o f sim pl e m usical .

t o n e s has b e e n d e v e l o p e d fro m t h e n atu r a l s e r i e s o f n umb e r l e ss

s imp l e t o n e s This classifi catio n o f t h e s e n satio n s o f pitch was
.

fi rst d e v e lop e d h istorical l y Fo r th i s r e as o n t h e d e m arcatio n o f .

t h e o ctav e s an d t h e n u mb e r o f to n e s w ithi n t h e octav e l o n g

v ari e d .

I n cal l i n g to m i n d t h e m u sical scal e t h e though t r e adily o ccurs ,

t o us t o t e st o r e s tab l i s h o u r s e n si b ility to d i ffe r e n c e s of pitch .

H o w d o e s t h e s e n s atio n o f t h e pi tch o f to n e s i n c r e as e o r m or e ,

pr o p e rly va r y wh e n t h e n umb e r of vib r atio n s cha n g e s ? This

,

u e ti n h as fr e qu e n t l y b e e n co n c e iv e d o f as a sp e cial cas e fo r
q s o

t h e app l icatio n o f t h e Law o f W e b e r I t is o b vi o u s that th e r e .

a r e n o gr o u n ds wh at e v e r t o wa rr a n t su ch an app l icati o n
; the
Law o f W e b e r com par e s t h e i n t e n si ty o f stimu l us wi th t h e i n t en si ty
o f s e n satio n We shal l pr e s e n tly app l y t h e Law o f W e be r to s e n
.

s at i o n s o f s o u n d i n a n sw e r t o t h e qu e sti o n as t o h o w t h e i n t e n sity

o f ac o ustic s e n sati o n s i n c r e a s e s i n proportio n t o t h e i n cr e a s e o f

t h e aco u stic stim ulu s i e i n pr o p o rtio n to t h e i n cr e as e i n t h e i n

, . .

t e n sity o f t h e s o u n d Th e q u e sti o n oc cupyi n g u s at pr e s e n t h o w

.
,

e ve r , is quit e di fl e r e n t -H o w do e s t h e s e n satio n o f t h e pi tch

o f a t o n e cha n g e wh e n t h e n u mbe r o f its v i b ratio n s cha n g e s ?

N e ith e r h as t h e s e n sati o n o f pitch a n y th i n g t o d o with t h e i n

t e n sity o f t h e s e n satio n n o r t h e n umb e r of vi b ratio n s a n yth i n g
,
92 I n t r o du ct i o n to P /zys i o log i cal P syclz o logy .

to do with t h e i n t e n sity o f t h e ac o u stic stim u l u s O n t h e c o n .

t r ar y a s e n satio n o f pi tc h d e p e n d s m e r e ly upo n t h e q u a l i ty o f
,

s e n satio n an d t h e i n t e n si ty o f t h e aco u sti c stim u l u s u po n t h e

am plitud e o f vi b rati o n H e n c e t h e Law o f W e b e r has n o d ir e ct
.

co n n e cti o n wi th t h e qu e sti o n I n a fo rm e r chap t e r w e s o ugh t t h e

.

t r u e n atu re o f W e b e r s Law i n an act o f a s s o ciati o n an d t h e

’

i n citati o n o f t h e id e a large r o r s m a ll e r
“ ”
T h e c o m pa ris o n .

“ ”
o f t o n e s o f d i ffe r e n t pi tch wi t h t h e i n citatio n o f t h e id e a high e r
or
“
l o we r is o f co u rs e som e wha t a n a l og o u s to t h e ab o v e cas e
, , .

Fo r thi s r e aso n it is c o n c e i vab l e th at if t h e Law o f W e b e r i s

val id i n t h e o n e cas e Withi n c e rtai n limi ts s im i l ar m ath e matica l ,

r e lati o n s m ay a l s o b e val id i n t h e ot h e r cas e A larg e n u m b e r .

o f e xp e r im e n tal i n v e s tigati o n s hav e b e e n e m pl o y e d i n t h is li n e ,

the m o st r e liabl e o f wh ich w e r e m ad e b y E Luft 1

T h e r e sul t . .

o f th e s e i n v e stigati o n s s h ows that t h e r e l ativ e di s crim i n ati v e se n

s i b i li t y is n o t q u i t e co n sta n t as r e q u ir e d b y t h e Law o f W e b e r
,
.

I f we s o u n d a to n e o f 1 2 0 vibra tio n s an d th e n o n e o f 1 2 0 % vibra

tio n s pe r s e c o n d we c an d i s ti n g u ish t h e p itch o f b o th t o n e s
,

cl e ar l y H e n c e at a pitch o f 1 2 0 v ibratio n s a di fl e r e n c e o f at o f
'

.
, ,

vibratio n is r e q u ir e d to r e n d e r t wo t o n e s di s t i n g u isha b l e or t h e ,

ba re ly p e r c e ptibl e di fl e r e n c e am o u n ts to g
'

, o f a vibratio n
p e r

s e co n d I f w e n o w ch o os e as t h e b e gi n n i n g to n e o n e wi th fo u r
.

t im e s t h e n u m b e r of vi b ratio n s i e with 4 8 0 vi b ratio n s pe r ,

. .

s e co n d t h e bar e l y n o tic e a b l e di ffe r e n c e acc o rdi n g to W e be r s

, ,
’

Law s h ould als o b e fo u r ti m e s as gr e a t Th u s t h e two to n e s

,
.

sho u ld o n l y b e disti n g u is h abl e w h e n w e i n cr e a se t h e n um b e r o f

vi b ratio n s by t h e additi o n o f 4 x g o r g o f a vibratio n pe r s e co n d .

This is n o t t he fac t h ow e v e r O n t h e co n tra r y e xp e rim e n t pro v e s

.
,

t h at t h e add itio n o f o n l y o f a v i b r ati o n i s s u fli c i e n t fo r t h e

disti n ctio n o f both t o n e s I f we s e l e c t a n o t h e r pitch t wic e as

.

high as t h e last an d b e gi n wi th a to n e produc e d by 9 60 vib r a

tio n s i t app e ars that a t o n e o f 9 60 % v i b rati o n s c an b e cl e arly
,

d ist i n guish e d from t h e first t o n e o f 9 60 vibrati o n s w h il e accord ,

i n g to t h e Law o f W e b e r an i n cr e as e o f pi tc h s h ould o n ly b e

P h i l o so ph . St ud .
, Bd I V, S
. .
4 .
 94 I n t r o du ct i o n to P /zys i o log i cal P syclz o logy .

si n gl e vibratio n s e v e ry ch a n g e o f w h ich is fo ll o w e d by a corr e

,

s po n di n g cha n g e i n t h e s e n satio n with r e m arkabl e pr e cisi o n .

B ut t h e q u a l iti e s o f t h e s e n s e o f h e ari n g how e v e r ar e n o t e x , ,

h au s t e d w ith t h e simpl e to n e s e v e n th o ugh we e xclud e n ois e s , ,

as w e h av e al re ady don e Apart fro m t h e scal e of com pa rativ e ly

.

sim pl e to n e s such as t h e fl ut e prod uc e s we furth e r disti n g u i s h

, ,

a larg e n u mb e r of q u a l i ti e s th at b e l o n g t o s e n satio n s o f so un d .

Th e e 1 o f t h e pia n o sou n ds v e ry di ffe r e n t from t h e pu r e c1 o f t h e

tu n i n g fo r k o r fl u t e d e sp it e t h e sam e n e ss o f pi tch an d t h e e 1 o f
,

t h e violi n i s disti n guish e d fr o m b oth o f t h e oth e r s Or i f t h e .

,

‘
huma n voic e si n g a vow e l at t h e pi tch o f c we c an di s ti n ,

gu ish th is also from t h e c o f t h e t u n i n g fo r k p ia n o an d violi n

1
, ,
.

Furth e r m o r e t h e huma n v o ic e c an si n g t h e vow e ls a o e i u

, , , , , ,

e t c , to t h e sam e n ot e
. All th e s e d i ffe r e n c e s i n t h e q u al ity o f
.

ac o u s tic s e n satio n s that ar e d isti n g u is h a bl e e v e n wh e n t h e pitch

r e m ai n s t h e sam e ar e i n c l ud e d u n d e r o n e co n c e p tion — t i nz br e
, ,

o r c o lour- to n e T h e sam e to n e u po n e ach i n strum e n t an d e ach

.

vow e l o f t h e h um a n voic e has its sp e cial timb r e H e lmh o l tz 1 .

first showe d what physical di ffe r e n c e s i n t h e stimulus co n ditio n

th is di fl e r e n c e i n t h e qua l ity o f t h e s e n sati o n s of so u n d wh e n t h e
'

pi tch r e mai n s t h e sam e As a l r e ady bri e fly m e n tio n e d t h e s o

.
,

call e d to n e s o f t h e vio l i n pia n o h o r n an d hum a n voic e ar e i n

, , ,

fact n o t simpl e to n e s at a l l At m o st o n ly t h e to n e s o f t h e t u n i n g
.
,

fo r k an d fl u t e m ay b e co n sid e r e d s imp l e T h e to n e s o f a l l oth e r .

i n strum e n ts an d o f t h e h u m a n lary n x ar e compos e d o f s e v e ral ,

o ft e n o f n um e ro u s simpl e to n e s S i n c e t h e n umb e r s o f vi b r a
, .

tio n s p r oduci n g t h e com po n e n t to n e s sta n d i n v e r y s impl e r e l a

t io n s to o n e a n oth e r (th e y ar e i n g e n e r al m u l tipl e s o f t h e sam e
n umb e r
) th e i r combi n e d e ffe c t sh o u ld t h e r e fo r e be de s ig n at e d
‘

m o re p ro pe r l y as a m usical so u n d T hus fo r e xam pl e i f we .

, ,

st ri k e c upo
l
n t h e pia o six mor e t o n e s s o u n d with i t c
n ,
g e
g c e
’ ’
, , , , ,

1
e tc. Th e musical sou n d c o n t h e pia n o is th e r e for e compos e d
o f s e v e n sim pl e comp o n e n t to n e s o r as i t is also e xpr e ss e d of
, , , ,

o n e fu n dam e n tal t o n e an d six ov e rto n e s T h e fu n dam e n tal to n e .

1
L e hr e vo n de n To n e mpfin du n ge n .
 S f
e n s at i o n s o H ea r i ng .
95

is loud e st t h e i n t e n si ty o f t h e ov e r-to n e s dim i n ish e s as t h e pitc h

,

i n c r e as e s L e t u s n o w com par e th is wi th c1 o f t h e vio l i n I n

.
.

this cas e also ov e r-t o n e s sou n d i n harm o n y wi th t h e fu n dam e n tal

to n e ; i n fact we fin d n o t o n l y t h e ov e r to n e s c g c
,
- 2 s 3 e3 e t c
, , , ,
.
,

agai n bu t also fr om four to fiv e m or e tha n b e fo r e

,
H e n ce t h e .

i n t e n sity o f t h e hig h e r ov e r-to n e s o n t h e violi n i s e ss e n tially

gr e at e r than up o n t h e pia n o ; by t h is m e a n s t h e v ioli n r e c e iv e s
t h e p e c ul iar ti m b r e c h aract e ristic o f all st r i n g e d i n str u m e n ts Th e .

c o mpo n e n t to n e s o f t h e h u ma n v o ic e hav e lik e wis e b e e n r e c e n t l y

d e t e rm i n e d by H e lmholtz H e r ma n n an d oth e rs
, , .

T h e physical basis fo r t h e di ffe r e n c e s i n t imb r e th e r e for e , ,

d e p e n ds upo n t h e d i ffe r e n c e i n t h e n u mb e r an d i n t e n sity o f t h e

ov e rto n e s b l e n d i n g wi th t h e fu n dam e n tal to n e of t h e m usical
sou n d T h is a n alysis o f t h e m usica l s o u n ds o f i n st ru m e n ts i n t o
.

th e i r com posit e to n e s c an be accom plish e d by m e a n s o f sp e cial

re so n ato rs B ut t h e m u sicia n an d aft e r som e practic e e v e n o n e
.
,

who is n o t m usical i s abl e to d isti n guish by t h e s e n s e of h e ari n g

,

witho u t r e so n ato r s a t l e ast t h e lo we r ov e rto n e s of cl st ruck o n

, ,

t h e pia n o from t h e fu n dam e n tal to n e

, Th e th e ory o f pa rt ial
.

to n e s o r o v e r to n e s is o f t h e gre at e st im po rt a n c e i n m usical
a e st h e tic s .

Amo n g t h e v ar ious quali ti e s o f t h e s e n satio n s of n ois e t h e ,

most imp o rta n t ar e thos e tha t ar e pr o duc e d b y t h e co n so n a n ts

o f t h e h u ma n voic e A physical a n alysis d e mo n s t r at e s tha t t h e
.

c o n so n a n ts ar e e ss e n tial l y n ois e s t e th e y ar e compos e d of

, . .

s im pl e t o n e s t h e n um b e rs of whos e vibrati o n s d o n o t s ta n d i n
,

s impl e n u m e rical r e l atio n s t o o n e a n ot h e r .

This fi n ish e s t h e co n sid e rati o n of t h e va r ious q u ali t i es b e l o n gi n g

t o so u n d . I t i s obvious that t h e i n t e n s i ty o f acous t ic s e n satio n s
i n c r e a se s with t h e st re n gth o f t h e sou n d Th e l att e r may be su b.

j e c t e d to a still m or e e xact physical a n alysis Th e i n t e n sity of a .

s ou n d i s i n fac t dir e ct l y d e p e n d e n t o n t h e ampli tud e o f t h e

vib r atio n s prod u c e d i n t h e sou n di n g body T h e prop e r formula .

i s m o r e e xact l y stat e d as fo llows : i is proportio n al to (1 2722 .

The r e fo r e t h e i n t e n sity (1) o f t h e sou n d gr ows i n proportio n as .

t h e squa r e o f t h e ampl itud e (a ) it b e i n g u n d e rstood o f cour se

,
96 I n t r o du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P syclz o logy .

th at t h e n u mb e r o f v i bratio n s (n ) o r i n o t h e r w o rds t h e pitch , , , ,

r e mai n s t h e sam e N o w is t h e Law o f W e b e r val id i n t h e cas e o f

.

s e n sati o n s o f s o u n d ? I s t h e abs o l u t e “
thr e s h o l d o f disti n ctio n
i n c o n sta n t dir e c t proportio n t o t h e prim a ry o r b e gi n n i n g
,

s tim ulu s ? I n t h e i n v e stigati o n s that w e r e u n d e rtak e n for t h e

purp o s e o f sol v i n g this qu e sti o n g re at di ffi cul ty ar o s e i n prod uc
,

i n g an y d e si r ab l e gradatio n o f t h e i n t e n siti e s o f sou n d R e c e n tly .

m e tal o r ivory b a l l s t h at ar e all o w e d to fa l l u p o n an e b o n y o r

,

i ro n plat e hav e b e e n appl i e d with gr e at adva n tag e I n t h e s e

,
.

e xp e rim e n ts t h e t imbr e ch a n g e s b u t v e ry s l igh t l y 1

with t h e
c h a n g e i n t h e h e igh t o f fa ll i n g an d i n t h e w e igh t O n t h e oth e r .

ha n d t h e i n t e n sity o f t h e s o u n d is wi thi n c e rtai n l imits p r o

, , ,

p o rtio n al to t h e h e igh t o f fa ll i n g t h e w e ight b e i n g c o n sta n t or

, ,

to t h e w e igh t t h e h e igh t o f fa ll i n g b e i n g c o n sta n t H e n c e by

,
.
,

s e l e cti n g ba l ls o f di ffe r e n t w e igh ts o r b alt e ri n g t h e h e igh t o f

y
fa ll i n g o n e c an vary t h e obj e ctiv e i n t e n si ty o f t h e s o u n d at
,

pl e as ur e Th e r e s ul ts hav e shown that W e b e r s Law is val id an d

.
’

c o m parativ e ly e xact fo r t h e i n t e n si ty of ac o u stic s e n satio ns A .

s o ca l l e d
- l ow e r d e viation is m e t wi th i n th is cas e a l s o alt h o u g h
“
,

i t m ay p o ssi b l y b e ca u s e d by c o n comi t a n t n ois e s wh ich ar e n e v e r

who ll y avoid a bl e T h e av e rag e r e lativ e th re sho l d of disti n cti o n i s
.

a b o u t o n e- third T h e m i n im u m o f stimu l us o r t h e l e ast am o u n t

.
,

o f ac o u s tic stim ulus that i m parts an y s e n satio n at a ll h as n o t ye t ,

be e n d e t e rm i n e d wi th s u ffi ci e n t pr e cisi o n 2 T h e fol l owi n g s e r i e s .

o f e xp e r im e n ts -
by M e r k e l i s i n t e r e s ti n g H e p e rmitt e d t h e pe r .

s o n o n wh om h e was e xp e rim e n ti n g t o h e a r two s tim ul i o f s o u n d ,

a l ik e i n qua l ity bu t di ffe r e n t i n i n t e n sity an d th e n r e q u e st e d h im ,

to d e t e r mi n e an acoustic s timulus that s h o u ld imp ar t a s e n satio n

ly i n g d ir e ctly m idway b e tw e e n t h e fi rst t wo s e n sati o n s T h is .

m e thod o f m e a n g r adatio n s sho we d tha t t h e stim ulus o f sou n d

”

wh ich p r od u c e d t h e m e a n s e n satio n r e sult e d i n t h e approximat e

a rith m e tica l b u t n o t g e o m e trical m e a n b e tw e e n t h e two b e gi n n i n g
, ,

S T R E, A K P h i l o s o ph . ud
St Bd . V ,
H . l . M K L P hil
ER E , o so h
p . S tu d
.
,

Bd V, H 4
. . .

3 ’
N 61 11 s val ue s appe ar t o be to o h igh (Z i t e sc h r . f Bi l
. o o gi e ,
98 I n t r odu ct i o n t o P ly/ s i o log i cal P syc/z o logy .

ki n d of e xci tatio n Accordi n g l y a d isti n ct spati al co n tiguity i n

.

t h e a rr a n g e m e n t o f s e v e r a l to n e s h e ard a t t h e sam e tim e is n e v e r

d e v e l o p e d All s e n satio n s o f so u n d ar e d iffe r e n t i n qual ity but
.

t h e favourabl e co n ditio n fo r t h e d e v e lopm e n t of t h e spatial char

act e r o f ou r s e n sati o n s is t he si m u lta n e ous e xist e n c e o f s e v e ral
s e n satio n s ali ke i n qu ali ty Lik e all s e n sati o n s t h e s e n sati on s o f
.
,

h e a ri n g ar e proj e ct e d o ut i n t o spac e ; but this proj e ctio n is

e xt r ao r di n a r ily i n e xact I t is o f e sp e cia l imp o rtan c e that t h e
.

s e n sation s p r oduc e d by t h e e xcitat io n o f di ffe r e n t n e rv e -e n ds m ay

be p r oj e ct e d to about o n e an d t h e sam e plac e For e xam pl e .
,

som e o n e strik e s a chord o n t h e p ia n o i n whi ch p e rh aps e igh t e e n

.
,

simpl e to n e s ar e co n tai n e d At l e ast e ight e e n d i ff e r e n t n e rv e -e n ds

.

ar e i rr it at e d i n e ach audito r y n e rv e an d s till w e do n o t proj e c t

,

t h e s e n s atio n s p r oduc e d by t h e s e e xcitatio n s i n to spac e e ith e r

s e pa r at e d o r sid e by sid e b u t altog e th e r to ab o u t t h e plac e from

,

which t h e to n e s e e m s to p ro c e e d This fact ca n n o t be s u fli

.

c i e n t ly e xplai n e d by t h e h ighly d e v e l o p e d di ffe r e n ti atio n of t h e

audito ry fib re s an d th e i r adaptatio n to t h e n um e rous qua l iti e s o f

soun d fo r t h e s e pa r at e p r o j e c ti o n of t h e s e n satio n s i n to sp ac e is
co n c e ivabl e e v e n though th e y ar e wholly di ffe r e n t i n q u ali ty I n
, .

this co n n e ctio n we must co n sid e r that associat io n wi th s e n satio n s

an d id e as of m otio n which is so e ss e n tial fo r t h e d e v e lopm e n t o f
,

spac e - pe r c e ptio n i n t he cas e of touch is v e ry i n compl e t e i n t h e

,

cas e of t h e s e n s e of h e a ri n g We ca n n ot le t t h e e n ds o f t h e
.

audito r y n e r v e glid e ov e r a so u n di n g b o dy as ou r ha n ds d id ov e r
,

an obj e c t, n o r co n st ruct an imag e o f spac e fr om t h e succ e ssiv e

1

imp re ssio n s r e c e i v e d by s e n satio n s of i n cr e asi n g motio n We .

c an , it is t r u e tu rn t h e h e ad from o r t o wa r d t h e sou n d i n g b ody

,

we c an approach i t o r r e c e d e fr o m i t b u t i n so doi n g n o oth e r

n e rv e - e n ds ar e b r ough t i n co n tact wi t h t h e st imul u s O n t he
“

co n t r a ry t h e sam e n e r v e -e n d s ar e i rri tat e d an d o n ly t h e i n t e n si t y

, ,

d fi it
e n e pitc h ; e ac h n e r v e fib r e t hu s b e co me s t o a ce rtai n e x te n t accust o m e d
-
an d e spe c ia lly s e n sit iv e t o a ce rta i n
pi t c h .

1
O t h e rwi se t h e fo r mat i o n o f an i mage o f s pace fro m se n sat i o n s o f h e ar i n g i s
n o t q ui t e i n co n ce i v abl e .
 S e n sat i o n s o f H e a r i ng .

of t h e st i m ulu s i n c r e as e s i n t h e o n e cas e an d d e c r e a s e s i n t h e
~

o th e r . A p e r so n with o n e e ar an d without t h e ab ility o f m o v i n g

,

from plac e to p l ac e o r o f t ur n i n g t h e h e ad would proj e ct a ll ,

to n e s i n to spac e q u it e i n d e fi n it e ly an d wi th out r e gard t o t h e

di r e ctio n fr om whi ch th e y cam e Of cou r s e t h e local iza ti o n o f .

s e n satio n s of sou n d by t h e n ormal h u ma n b e i n g i s s o m e what

mo r e d e fi n it e si n c e h e is abl e t o obs e rv e how t h e i n t e n si ty of a
,

sou n d va r i e s o n t u rn i n g t h e h e ad o r m o v i n g fr om o n e plac e t o
an oth e r an d c an t h e r e fo r e fo r m som e co n cl usio n as to t h e dirc e
,

tio n o f t h e s ou n d Wh e n t h e h e ad i s h e ld at r e s t we ar e o ft e n
.
,

mistak e n i n j udgi n g o f t h e dir e cti o n o f a sou n d e xcha n gi n g befo r e ,

fo r be h i n d abo v ,
e fo r b e lo w e t c
1
S light co n com ita n t s e n satio n s o f
, .

touc h o n t h e ski n app e ari n g i n di ffe re n t localit i e s acco r di n g to

,

t h e dir ectio n of t h e sou n d ar e p r oduc e d by d e licat e sym path e tic

,

vib r atio n s o f t h e hai r s i n t h e co n cha an d possib l y als o by vib r atio n s ,

o f t he bo n e s (c r a n io-tympa n al co n d uctio n ) Th e s e s e n satio n s .

oft e n r e n d e r at l e ast an appr o xim at e j udgm e n t possibl e S ou n ds .

comi n g from t h e r ight an d l e ft ar e al s o d i ffi cult to d ist in guish wh e n

t h e h e ad is m otio n l e ss I n thi s cas e we ar e aid e d i n disti n gu ish
.

i n g t h e di r e ctio n from wh ich a sou n d proc e e ds by ou r k n owl e dg e

o f t h e fact that a sou n d comi n g fr o m t h e r igh t i s physically com

p e lle d to p r oduc e a s t r o n g e r e xci t a tio n i n t h e r ight e ar tha n i n t h e

l e ft I n this cas e th e r e fo r e i n vi e w of t h e fact that m ost of t he

.
, ,

audito r y fib r e s p r oc e e di n g fr om o n e e ar c r oss to t h e opposi t e sid e

o f t h e b r ai n t h e co r tical e xcitatio n is also gr e at e r i n t h e l e ft

,

t e mpo r o-sph e n oidal lob e tha n i n t h e r ight C o n v e r s e ly i n .

,

r e spo n s e to a s o u n d com i n g fr om t h e l e ft t h e co r ti cal e xcitatio n ,

i s gr e at e r i n t h e r igh t t e mpo r o - sph e n oidal lo b e This fac t re n d e rs .

t h e disti n ctio n o f di r e c tio n possibl e to a c e r t ai n e xt e n t fo r i t is , ,

v e ry p r obabl e that t h e acoustic fi e lds of t h e two h e m isph e re s h av e ,

fo r purpos e s of associatio n v e ry d i ffe r e n t c o n n e ctio n s, Bu t a .

sligh t tu r n i n g of t h e h e ad still r e mai n s t h e m os t importa n t an d

1P R E Y E R (Arch f d ge s P h ys i o l Bd X L ) h as re ce n t l y ascri be d
. . . . .
, .
the
fun cti o n o f l o cali z i n g t h e aco ust ic i mpre ssi o n s t o t h e se m i -ci rcul ar ca n al s , bu t
a ppare n t l y w i t h o u t su fi ci e n t gro u n d s .
1 00 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

n atu ral m e an s for d e t e r mi n i n g t h e di re ctio n of sou n d Fi n ally ,

t h e localizatio n o f o u r i m p r e ssio n s o f sou n d is qui t e u n c e rt a in as

r e gar ds t h e dista n c e to which we p r oj e ct s e n sation s Th e s e n sa .

tio n s of touch o n t h e ski n ar e r e fe rr e d di r e ctly to t h e su rfac e o f

t h e ski n b e caus e e xp e r i e n c e t e ach e s t hat o n ly m e ch an ical stim u li
p r oduc e s e n satio n s of touch by d i r e ct con tact As r e gards t h e .

s e n sation s o f sou n d we lik e wi s e p e r m it ou r s e lv e s to b e guid e d i n

,

g e n e r al by e xp e r i e n c e w e ak e r s e n sat ion s of sou n d ar e proj e ct e d

to a poin t r e mot e fr om us s tr o n g e r s e n satio n s to o n e n e ar e r us
, .

I n such cas e s we ar e assis t e d by an e xp e r i e n tial k n owl e dg e of t h e

s t re n gth which t h e sou n ds of c e rt ai n thi n gs hav e at a c e rtai n
distan c e p re viously e stim at e d by t h e e ye ; h e n c e aft e r h av i n g
acqui re d th is e x pe r i e n c e we ar e also abl e t o d e t e r m i n e with clos e d
e y e s wh e th e r a dista n c e i s g r e a t e r o r l e ss by t h e gr e at e r o r l e ss

i n t e n sity o f a sou n d .

We se e that t h e localizatio n o f t h e s e n satio n s of h e a r i n g i s

d e t e rmi n e d i n p ar t at l e as t by p roc e ss e s that ar e e ss e n tially
associa t iv e an d to som e e xt e n t comparativ e ly complicat e d Th e .

acoustic s e n satio n s h av e n o di r e ct S patial r e latio n s such as we

fou n d fo r t h e s e n satio n s o f touch o r such as we shall fin d m ost
highly d e v e lop e d fo r t h e s e n sati o n s of sigh t which ar e p re s e n tly
to b e co n sid e r e d Th e s e n s e of h e a r i n g is n o t i n fact a s e n s e
.
, ,

t ha t b r i n gs us i n c los e r e latio n s with spac e We may d e sig n at e i t .

b ri e fly as a pu r e ly qualitativ e s e n s e b ut by vi r tu e of t h e e xt r e m e ly
d e licat e gr adatio n an d t e e xc e e di n gly r apid p e r c e ptio n o f t h e
h 1

qualiti e s of stimulatio n t h e s e n s e of h e ar i n g i s fi tt e d to r e c e iv e
,

t h e b e st m e a n s of c o m mu n ica t io n e m ploy e d by m an ki n d t h e ,

spok e n lan gu ag e .

1
E v en e i gh t ee n v i brati o n s ar e s u ffi i
c en t fo r t h e r e co gn iti o n of the p itc h or

q ual ity o f a t one.

 02 I n t r o duc t i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

su r fac e o f t h e post e r io r wall o f t h e e ye - ball is d e sig n at e d as t h e

,

“
lay e r o f rods an d co n e s ”
H e r e n um e r ous struc tur e s pa r t i n t h e
.
,

form o f r ods part i n t h e fo rm o f co n e s ar e a rr a n g e d m osaic al l y

, , ,

th e ir ba s e s t u r n e d toward t h e i n n e r part o f t h e e ye Th e s e r ods .

an d co n e s ar e co n n e ct e d wi th t h e t e r m i n atio n s of t h e opti cal n e r v e ,

but i t i s n o t p r obabl e tha t a fibr e o f this n e r v e i s al l ott e d to e ac h

o n e o f t h e rod s an d e ach o n e o f t h e co n e s T h e mos t fam ili ar
p igm e n t o f t h e r e ti n a is t h e visual pu r pl e discov e r e d by Boll
“
,

wh ich sp e e dily bl e ach e s wh e n e xpos e d to ligh t This vis u a l .

pu r pl e how e v e r is o n ly p r e s e n t i n t h e r ods Th e c o n e s wh ich

, ,
.
,

ar e fa r m or e n um e rous i n that pa r t o f t h e r e ti n a wh ich is o f s e rvic e

i n sharp st e ady sigh t c o n tai n n o vis u a l purp l e

, ,
I t is also e n ti re ly
.

wa n ti n g fo r e xam pl e i n t h e e ye o f t h e s n ak e B e sid e s t h e vi sua l

, ,
.

pu r pl e t h e s o -
,
call e d pigm e n t-e pith e lium o f t h e r e ti n a should b e
tak e n in to co n sid e ratio n althoug h we ca n n ot u n d e rtak e t h e e x pla
,

n at io n o i i ts a n atom ical ar r a n g e m e n t h e r e Th e p r oc e ss of an
.

act o f sight i s as fo llows — Th e vibration s o f e th e r havi n g r e ach e d ,

t h e r e ti n a d e com pos e its s o -

,
call e d photo -ch e m ica l o r vis u al s u b
sta n c e s wh i ch ar e s e n sitiv e t o ligh t (Th e r e ar e n u m e ro u s
,
.

a n alogi e s to this d e composi n g actio n of ligh t ) By m e a n s of thi s .

d e com positio n t h e n e rv e - , e n ds lad e n with visual substa n c e s ar e

se t i n commotio n T h e fi br e s o f t h e opti c n e r v e th e n co n duc t

.

thi s e xci tatio n to t h e occipi tal lob e of t h e c e re b ru m O n th e i r .

way to t h e b r ai n pa r t of t h e optical fib re s of t h e two n e rv e s

,

cross part r e m ai n o n t h e sam e sid e

,
H e n c e all t h e impr e ssio n s
.

from t h e r ight ha l f o f t h e spac e vi e w e d also r e ach t h e l e ft h e m i

s ph e r e all t h e i mp r e ssio n s fr om t h e l e ft half o f t h e fi e ld o f visio n
,

also r e ach t h e righ t h e m isph e r e so that all imp r e ssio n s ar e t e

,

c e i v e d by both h e m isph e r e s .

We m ay h e r e at o n c e obs e rv e that b e si d e s t h e ad e q uat e stim ulus

,

fur n ish e d by t h e vibrati on s o f e th e r t h e u n iv e r sal n e r v e-

,
stimu l i
n ical an d e l e ct r ical
( m e cha ) c an also i mp art s e n satio n s of l igh t .

I f we p r e ss agai n st t h e e y e ball a n ywh e re alo n g t h e e dg e of t h e

o rbi t an im p r e ssio n of light i s p r oduc e d which i s kn o wn as a
,

“ ”
phosph e n e T h e caus e of t h is ph e n om e n o n is obv iously
.

m e cha n ical stimulatio n Wh e n o n accou n t of b e i n g g e n e ra l ly

.
,
 Th e S e n sa t i o n s o f S ig h t . 03

dis e as e d t h e e y e ball is e xti rpat e d an d t h e op tic n e rv e s e v e re d

, ,

t h e pati e n t o n whom t h e o p e rati o n i s p e r fo rm e d s e e s g r e at mass e s

o f ligh t duri n g t h e m om e n t i n w h ich t h e n e r ve i s b e i n g cut .

Volta was t h e fi rst o n e to e sta b l ish t h e e l e ct ri c e x citabili ty of t h e

orga n o f sigh t I t h as b e e n ob s e r v e d that a fl ash o f ligh t app e ars
.

b o th o n op e n i n g an d shut ti n g t h e galva n ic cu rr e n t i t is suffi ci e n t

t o p l ac e an e l e ctrod e up o n e ach t e m p l e .

Aft e r th e s e pr e limi n ary obs e rvati o n s we c an n o w u n d e rtak e t h e

psychological a n alysis of t h e s e n sati o n s o f sigh t We a t o n c e .

m e e t with n um e r ous qu a li t i es o f visual s e n sation wh ich we de sig ,

n at e as co l o u r i n t h e b road e st s e n s e T h e r e ar e n o oth e r q u al i ti e s
.

e xc e pt th o s e o f colo ur ; th e s e w e s hal l n o w con sid e r m o r e

thor o ugh l y i n th e ir r e l atio n to t h e p h ysic al stimulus A lo n g .

s e r i e s o f colo u r— s e n sation s is dir e ctly p r oduc e d b y t h e so - call e d

“
colou r s of t h e sp e c t r um wh ich i n c l ud e viol e t blu e g re e n
”
, , , ,

y e ll ow ora n g e an d r e d Th e s e s e n satio n s o f col ou r corr e

, , .

spo n di n g to t h e sp e ct r al colou r s com po s e a s e ri e s similar to tha t

prod u c e d by t h e di fl e r e n t s e n satio n s o f p itc h R e d which h as

'

,
.

t h e l e ast n umb e r o f v ibratio n s w o u ld co rr e s po n d to t h e l ow e st

,

to n e s ; viol e t havi n g t he g r e at e s t n um b e r wo u ld co rr e spo n d to t h e

, ,

high e st to n e s B e low t h e followi n g li n e t h e s e ri e s o f sp e c t r al

.

col o u rs i s a r ra n g e d i n o rd e r .

R e d—ora n g e —y e l l w—gr e e
o n —blu e —v iol e t .

Th e red r ays both h av e the g r e at e st wav e -l e n gth an d ar e l e ast

r e fr a n gibl e.

O f cours e we a t o n c e o b s e rv e a di ffe re n c e b e tw e en t h e s e ri e s o f
s e n sati o n s o f sp e ctral colour an d t h e s e r i e s o f to n e -
s e n satio n s I n .

co n sid e ri n g t h e latt e r we d isc o v e r e d c e r tai n harm o n ious r e latio n s ,

t h e n atur e o f which we sha l l i n v e stigat e lat e r G uid e d by th e s e .

re latio n s an d proc e e di n g from an y give n to n e we foun d i t pos ,

sibl e to discov e r all thos e oth e r to n e s which s t a n d i n c e rtai n

ha r m o n iou s r e latio n s t o t h e fi r st to n e I n th i s ma n n e r we ob tai n e d
.

a limi t e d scal e wh os e ton e s ar e s e pa r at e d by d e fi n it e in t e rv als ,

1 04 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

i n st e ad o f an u n li mi te d u n i n t e rr upt e d s e ri e s of to n e s I t i s
, .

d i ffe r e n t wi th t h e s e r i e s of s e n s atio n s p rod u c e d by t h e colou r s of

t h e sp e ctr um . I n this cas e th e re ar e n o suc h harmo n ious r e la
tio n s an d h e n c e th e re is n o colou r-scal e We c an o n ly s e l e ct .

sp e cial colo ur s th at s e e m to us to b e pa r ticula rly s tr iki n g o r ,

that we fin d occu rr i n g v e r y fr e q u e n t l y t h e i n t e r vals b e t we e n th e m ,

b e i n g thus d e t e rm i n e d qui t e a rb it r a r ily Fo r th is r e aso n t h e .

d e sign atio n o f colou r s am o n g t h e a n ci e n ts was v e r y i n d e fi n i t e .

Accordi n g to H e lmholtz fo r e xam pl e t h e Gre e ks app e ar to hav e

1
, ,

d e sig n at e d t h e e n ti r e s e ri e s of colou r s from gold e n y e llow to

bluish g re e n by t h e t e r m xa n t h os
“
T h e c o lo ur o f t h e
sky d e r iv e d its d e sig n atio n c ae r ule ti s or c e r ul e a n fr o m t h e t e rm
, , ,

m e a n i n g sky , coz lu i n I n a similar m an n e r t h e G e r ma n wo rd

.

“
b l a u (b l u e ) r e lat e d to t h e E n glish wo r d
”
,
blow (G e r m .

blase n ) was d e riv e d fr om t h e colou r of t h e a i r o r that which

, ,

mov e s wh e n t h e wi n d blows O n e c an o f co u rs e co n st ru ct a .
,

scal e o f colo u rs si mi l a r to t h e scal e of to n e s acco r di n g to t h e

, ,

r e latio n s which t h e n um b e r s of vibratio n s b e a r to e ach oth e r .

This h as b e e n do n e by N e wto n a n d l at e r e sp e cially by Dr o b i s c h

,
2
, .

T h e arra n g e m e n t of t h e s e v e n chi e f colou rs o f t h e sp e ctrum ,

sti ll i n u se (viol e t i n dig o blu e g r e e n y e l l o w o r a n g e r e d) was

, , , , , , ,

first us e d by N e wto n simp l y i n a a ogy t o t h e m u sical scal e

n l 3
.

But th e s e ar e m e re ly t h e th e o r e tical figm e n t s o f physics tha t

h av e n o fou n dation what e v e r i n t h e s e n ti e n t life S o fa r as .

s e n satio n is co n c e r n e d t h e s e r i e s of sp e ctral c o lou r s is quit e

,

co n tin uous ; i t is n o t d ivid e d i n to a scal e o f va r i o us shad e s of

colou r .

I n o ur fu tu r e co n sid e r atio n s w e shall n otic e m a n y m o r e di ffe r

e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e s e n satio n s o f pitch an d thos e of colou r L et .

u s n e xt ask if th e re ar e n o t still oth e r s e n sat io n s that ar e n o t pro

du c e d b y t h e colou r s co n tai n e d i n t h e sp e c t r um b e sid e s thos e of ,

1 P hys i o l o gi sch e O pt ik .

P o c o n n n o n r s An n al e n Bd 8 8
’
, . .

3 Thus t h e b re ad th o f t h e s pe ctru m was d i vi d d i e n pro po rt i o ns an al ago u s t o

t he w h o l e t o n e s o f an o ctav e .
 I 06 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o logi cal Psycho logy .

satio n t h e sam e as t h e s e n satio n s o f t h e sp e ct ra l c o l o u rs Now

,
.

w h at physical stim ul u s p r od u c e s th e s e s e n sati o n s

L e t us b e gi n with t h e s e n satio n of purpl e Th e s e n sati o n o f.

u r le i n i ts di ffe r e n t grad e s i s produc e d by m i x i n g tho s e simp l e

p p
colou r s that s ta n d n e ar t h e e n ds o f t h e sp e ct ru m ; e sp e cial l y by
m ixi n g r e d an d vi o l e t o r also o ra n g e an d blu e By a s u itab l e
, .

choic e o f t h e propo r t i o n s i n which t h e e l e m e n ta r y colou rs ar e

m ix e d a c o n ti n uous grad e d s e r i e s o f pu r pl e co l ou r s m ay b e
,

p ro d u c e d b e tw e e n vio l e t an d r e d Th e r e fo r e whil e t h e s e ri e s o f
.
,

physical sp e ct r al c o lours th e m s e lv e s i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a s tr aig h t

,

l i n e t h e s e r i e s o f corr e sp o n di n g colou r-s e n satio n s m ay b e r e p t e

,

s e n t e d as a circ l e by t h e additio n o f t h e s e n satio n of pu rpl e (fig .

FIG . 1 1 .

Th e qu e stion as to t h e physical s t im ulu s fo r t h e sen sat i o n of

blach has alr e ady b e e n a n sw e r e d abov e I n th is cas e vib r atio n s
.
,

o f e th e r that com e to t h e e ye from wi thou t an d r e ach t h e t e rm i n ,

at i o n s o f t h e optic n e rv e ar e wholly wa n ti n g
, Fo r th is r e as o n .
,

t h e s e n satio n o f black must b e p r oduc e d by thos e ch e m ical

e xci tatio n s wh ich accompa n y r e st an d t h e r e stora t io n of t h e

,

pr e viously d e compos e d visual subs t an c e s o r t h e pr e vious l y i rri ,

t at e d t e r m i n atio n s o f t h e Optic n e rv e Th e re for e t h e s e n sati o n

.

o f black is j ust as positiv e as t h e s e n satio n of an y colour an d ,

co rr e spo n d s t o t h e e xt e r n al st i mulu s E = 0 This fact co n sti

, .

t u t e s a fu rth e r im po r tan t di ff e r e n c e b e tw e e n s e n satio n s of sight

an d thos e o f sou n d .
 Th e S e n sat i o n s of S ig h t .
7

Th e f
s en sat i o n o i s always p roduc e d b y t h
w hi t e
e combi n ed

actio n o f s e v e r al sp e ctral colo ur s I t is prod u c e d .

,

1 B y t h e u n ion o f t h e rays o f all t h e colo u rs o f t h e sp e ctrum

. .

Th is tak e s plac e fo r e xam p l e w h e n t h e colo u rs of t h e sp e ct rum

, , ,

artificia l ly produc e d by a n a l y s is ar e agai n u n it e d by a prism 1 ,

.

2 By t h e u n io n o f two d e fi n i t e sp e ct r al colours E ach colour

. .

o f t h e sp e ctr um havi n g a c e rtai n wav e - l e n gth o f vi bratio n wh e n

, ,

combi n e d with o n l y on e o th e r co l our o f t h e sp e ctrum produc e s ,

t h e s e n satio n o f wh it e T hus fo r e xamp l e r e d an d gr e e n ish .

, ,

bl u e y e llow a d i n dig o b l u e e t c ar e colo u rs w h ic h t o g e th e r giv e

,
n - 2
,
.
,

t h e s e n satio n o f whit e an d ar e th e r e fo r e d e s ig n at e d as c o m ple m e n

“
,

tary colou r s ”
C o n sid e r e d strictly i n t h e l igh t of physic s t wo c o m
. ,

ple m e n t ar y colou rs hav e n o e sp e cial r e lati o n to o n e a n ot h e r ; th e y

o n ly b e com e compl e m e n tary i n o u r s e n satio n s Th e r e i s n o si mple .

spect r al c o l o u r which will giv e t h e s e n satio n of wh it e wh e n com

b in e d with p u r e gr e e n O n t h e oth e r ha n d pu rple prov e s to b e

.
,

t h e com pl e m e n ta r y s e n satio n fo r gr e e n I t wo u ld s e e m n at ural t o .

compa r e whi t e to a com pl e x to n e o r to an accord An e ss e n ti al .

d i ffe re n c e e xists b e tw e e n t h e two h owe v e r By t h e s e n s e o f , .

h e ar i n g we c an d isti n guish t h e si n g l e to n e s of a chord wi th

g re a t e r o r l e ss e as e ; t h e o rga n o f h e a r i n g a n alys e s i t O n t h e .

con t ra r y t h e s e n satio n o f whit e c o n tai n s n othi n g of t h e s e n satio n s

,

o f th os e colou r s wh ich com p o s e t h e physical stim ul u s of wh i t e i n

an y giv e n cas e Th e physical stimulus of t h e s e n satio n of whi t e

.

is compl e x t h e s e n satio n of wh it e its e lf how e v e r is sim pl e We , ,

.

ar e accustom e d t o ascrib e a sp e cial c e n t r al posi tio n to t h e s e n sa

t ion of wh it e s e tti n g i t i n opposi ti o n t o all o th e r s e n satio n s o f

,

colou r (fig Th is is j ustifi e d by t h e fac t that an y two com

.

ple me n t ary colours toge th e r giv e t h e s e n sati o n of wh it e B u t in .

1
Whi t l ur d bj t
e -
co t h w hich r fl ct ll t h ray f l igh t
o e o ec s ar e o se e e a e s o , un

ab so rb dd ed c mp d
an un e o o se .

Th arti t f rmul a ad pt d b y G
3
t h al acc rdi g t w hich y ll w
’
e s s o , o e oe e so ,
o n o e o

an d bl m ix d pr duc gr
ue m yb
e ff r d i pp i t i
o t t hi tat m t
e een , a e o e e n o os on o s s e en .

i fa t c rr ct i t h ca f t h arti t c l ur b t i t a il y ’
It i s, n c , o e b n e se o e s s o o s, u c an e e s

pr v d t h at i m ix i g m t i l
o e nl ur add it i f l u r d li gh t uch
n a er a co o s an on o co o e , s as

w d ir
e des t tak pl ac
e, o es n o e e.
I 08 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

o ur e stim atio n of t h e s e n satio n o f wh it e we ar e i n cl i n e d to go ,

s till fu r th e r an d id e n ti fy i t dir e ctly with a hyp o th e tical s e n sation

o f colourl e ss ligh t We i m agi n e tha t ligh t i n i ts e l f is wh i t e wh it e
.
,

b e i n g th e r e fo re syn on ym ous w ith light n e ss I n so doi n g we ar e .

,

c hi e fly i n flu e n c e d by t h e fac t tha t ou r m ost pow e rful sou r c e of

ligh t t h e su n impa r ts app r oximat e ly wh it e light

, , We t h e n .

com e to t h e fu r th e r con clusio n that whi t e , as a s e n satio n of ligh t ,

is i n its e lf t h e absolu t e an d o n ly a n tith e sis of b lack t h e s e n sation ,

o f t h e abs e n c e of all ligh t B ut i n fact t h e abov e co n clusio n s d o .

, ,

n o t r e pr e s e n t t h e t r u e r e latio n s i n t h e cas e We p e r c e iv e ligh t .

n e ss i n a r oom also th at is light e d by t h e h om og e n e ous y e llow

ligh t of n at r iu m I t m ay b e dazzli n gly b righ t i n a r oom that
.

do e s n o t co n tai n a si n gl e w h i t e obj e ct wi th o n ly t h e blu e sky ,

b e for e t h e wi n dow H e n c e whit e an d light n e ss ar e n o t id e n tica l

. .

Ligh t n e s s i s an attribut e o f a l l s e n s atio n s o f light t h e s e n satio n s ,

o f sp e ctral c o l o u r a s w e ll as t h e s e n satio n s o f whi t e o r p u r pl e

,
.

Wh it e simply p r e s e n ts a m ix tu r e of sp e ctr al colou r s e sp e cially ,

importa n t to ma n ki n d I n th i s co n n e ctio n i t is p articula r ly

,

n e c e ssary to co n sid e r that t h e s u n e m its whi t e l ight ; c o lou r e d

b odi e s ar e cha r act e riz e d by absorb i n g a pa r t of t h e r ays c o n

t ai n e d i n t h e whit e ligh t an d by r e fl e cti n g o n ly t h e r e m ai n i n g ,

part t o t h e e ye Th e y ar e thus colou r e d but w e ak e r i n l ight

.
,
.

S i n c e t h e whit e bodi e s o f our s un - l it s ur rou n di n gs i n n atu r e

r e fl e ct al l t h e r ays o f l igh t th e y ar e also always bright e st o r , ,

stro n ge st i n ligh t Th u s aris e s t h e e rr o r o f supp osi n g th at whi t e

.

an d l igh t n e ss ar e id e n t ica l
1
But if a d e fi n i t e i n t e n sity of li ght .

n e ss b e lo n gs to e ach s e n satio n of sp e ctral colou r as w e ll as t o t h e

s e n satio n of whit e i t is also fals e to r e ga r d t h e s e n satio n of

,

black m e r e ly as t h e opposit e o f t h e s e nsatio n of whit e T h e .

1
O h t al h av r c ur t t h fact t h at i f t h i t i ty f t h li gh t
ne mig so e e o se o e , e n en s o e

o fth p ctru m i r a
e s e t a c rta i d gr ll c l u r fi all y pa i t w h it
nc e se o e n e ee, a o o s n ss n o e .

I f h w v r th h m g
, o e e u ligh t f atriu m b c m
, e o i to t eneo
p s o n e o e s so n e n s e as o a

p ar w hi t
e it m y b d m trat d b y t h p ctr c p th at t h riginall y
e, a e e o ns e e s e os o e e o

y ll w li g h t h
e o gi v pl ac t a c mpl t
as
p ctru m enTh r f r t h phy ical e o o e e s e . e e o e e s

s t i mulu h al ch a g d d t m r l y t h
s as so ati nW h a ll r t ur t
e an no e e e se n s on . e s e n o

t hi ubj ct pr
s s t ly
e e se n .
1 10 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

a ll fi n ally pass i n to black We c an p r oduc e a graphi c r e p r e s e m

.

t at i o n o f th e s e tra n sitio n s b y u n i ti n g (fig 1 2 ) by s t r aigh t li n e s a

, .

p oi n t r e pr e s e n t i n g b l ack situat e d i n t h e axis of t h e circl e of

,

sp e ctral colo u rs with t h e d iffe r e n t p oi n ts o f t h e circl e drawn

,

abov e i t T h e s e co n n e cti n g li n e s th e n r e p re s e n t t h e di ffe r e n t

.

t ra n sitio n s of t h e si n gl e colours o f t h e sp e ctrum to black o n ,

r e duci n g t h e i n t e n sity of ligh t I t is w e ll w o rthy of n otic e i n .

,

c o n n e ctio n with t h e colou r- s e n s e that a d e c r e as e o f t h e i n t e n sity ,

o f t h e physical stim ul u s p r oduc e s n o t o n ly a d e c r e as e o f t h e

i n t e n si ty o f t h e s e n satio n b u t also a m odificatio n of its q u ali gz

,
.

This ag r e e s wi th t h e fact j ust m e n tio n e d that t h e i n t e n sity o f ,

l igh t 0 do e s n o t produc e a s e n satio n of t h e i n t e n sity 0 ; tha t is

, , ,

n o s e n satio n at a l l b ut a posit iv e s e n satio n t h e s e n satio n of

, ,

black w h ich m or e ov e r is j ust as posi tiv e p sychol ogical l y as t h e

, , ,

s e n satio n o f wh it e I f we obs e r v e a r e d su r fac e at a co n sta n tly

.

i n c r e asi n g d istan c e o r i n ot h e r wo rds i n a ligh t tha t is co n sta n tly

, , ,

di m i n ishi n g i n i n t e n sity t h e i n t e n sity of t h e s e n satio n also cha n g e s

,

i n fact bu t t h e cha n g e o f q u ali ty is pa r ticularly n o t ic e ab l e Th e r e

, .

is n o t r ue scal e o f i n t e n si ti e s fo r t h e s e n sat io n s o f light corr e ,

s po n di n g to t h e scal e of i n t e n si ti e s fo r s e n satio n s o f sou n d Thi s .

t ra n sitio n to b l ack howe v e r i s n o t charact e r istic o f sp e ctral

, ,

c olou r s al o n e , b u t also o f a l l m ix e d colo u rs i n cl u di n g e sp e cially ,

whit e We h av e alr e ady b e com e acquai n t e d wi th t h e t r an sitio n s

.

o f t h e latt e r to b l ack as t h e s e n satio n of g re y i n i ts va rious

,

g r adatio n s .

B u t aft e r havi n g add e d to t h e s e n satio n s of t h e sp e ct r al colo u rs

t h e s e n satio n s of black wh it e purpl e gr e y b r ow n g r e y -
, blu e e t c
, , , , , .
,

we hav e n o t ye t e xh aust e d all t h e qualiti e s o f t h e s e n satio n s o f

colour l t is vai n to s e e k s impl e sp e ctral colou r s fo r t h e colou r
.

s e n satio n s of sky - blu e pal e gr e e n fl e sh -colour an d r os e

blu e s e a- , , , , .

This last gr oup of col o u r-s e n satio n s is e ss e n tially ch ar act e r iz e d by

'

co lo u r -
“
t h e partial abs e n c e of that wh ich we d e sig n at e as s at u r a

Th e physical stimulus th at p r oduc e s th e s e s e n satio n s of l e ss

”
t i on .

s atu r at e d colou r co n sists of a m i x tu r e of an y giv e n sp e ctr al colou r

with whit e or a m ixtur e of t wo suitably chos e n sp e ct r al c olou rs

,

t h at ar e n o t com pl e m e n t a ry I n t h e sam e way witho u t t h e ad .

,
 Th e S e n sat i o n s f S ig h t
o . 1 1

m ixt ur e of wh it e e ach sp e ctral co l ou r b e com e s ligh t e r or i n

, , ,

o th e r words l e ss saturat e d wh e n t h e i n t e n sity o f l igh t is i n cr e as e d

, .

I f o n e gr adua l ly adds m or e whit e to t h e m ixtu r e o r i n cr e as e s t h e

,

i n t e n sity o f ligh t e a ch o n e of t h e sp e ct r a l c o lours fi n ally b e co m e s

,

FI G . 13 .

wh ich an y gi v e n sp e ctral colou r app e a r s Thus r e d g r ad ually

.

pass e s th r ough fl e sh -
colou r, blu e th r ough sky-blu e pu r pl e th r ough,
 1 12 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

r os ei n to whit e I f we wish to r e p r e s e n t th e s e colou r s also to

.
.

g e th e r with whit e i n t h e illust r atio n we m us t pl ac e whit e i n t h e

,

c e n t r e o f t h e pla n e o f t h e circl e r e p r e s e n ti n g t h e colours of t h e

sp e ctrum (fig . T h e r adii of t h e c i r cl e th e n re p r e s e n t t h e
gradatio n s b e tw e e n compl e t e satu r ation an d whit e Wi th th e s e .

colour-s e n satio n s p r oduc e d by t h e admixtu r e o f whit e t h e quali ,

ti e s of s e n satio n s of ligh t ar e e xh aust e d By m ixi n g t h e qu al iti e s

.

thus obtai n e d n o oth e r n e w colo ur s ar e p r oduc e d o n ly t h e ol d

,

colou r s ar e r e p r od u c e d acco r di n g t o fi x e d laws We ar e i n d e bt e d .

t o N e wto n fo r t h e m os t impo r ta n t of th e s e laws o f m ixtu re .

As a bri e f sum m ary we m ay stat e that t h e q ual iti e s of t h e se n

,

s at i o n s o f ligh t do n o t p r e s e n t a sim pl e s e r i e s as do thos e of t h e

s e n satio n s o f to n e b u t c an o n ly b e r e p r e s e n t e d by a s t r uctu r e o f
,

t h r ee dim e n sio n s (fig .

We ar e n o w co n fr o n t e d by th e q u e stio n : I n t h e c as e of t h e
s e n s e o f sigh t is e ach n e r v e -e n d t rai n e d to a c e r tai n pitch i e t o
, , . .

v ib ratio n s h avi n g a c e rt ai n d e fi n it e wav e - l e n gth as is t h e cas e i n ,

t h e s e n s e o f h e ari n g ? We an sw e r this qu e stio n d e cid e dly i n t h e

n e gativ e . I n t h e cas e o f t h e m e m b r an e o f C o r ti i t is i n d e e d t ru e
that e ach o n e o f i ts n um e r ous fib r e s tra n sm its e ss e n tial l y bu t o n e
‘

shad e o f s e n sation O n t h e oth e r ha n d t h e sim pl e st obs e rva t io n

.
,

sh ows that i n g e n e ral e v e ry spot upon t h e r e ti n a i s s e n sitiv e to a l l

shad e s o f colour O n ly thos e pa r ts o f t h e r e tin a that li e n ear t h e
.
‘

p e r iph e ry ar e charact e riz e d by i n s e n sibili ty to gr e e n t h e o u t er mo st ,

parts by i n s e n sibi l ity t o r e d an d g r e e n I t app e a rs b e yo n d doub t

.

that all t e rm i n ati o n s o f t h e n e r v e -fibr e s i n t h e c e n tr al par ts of t h e

re ti n a m u st be v e ry s e n si tive t o ma n y if n o t all colou r-s timul i .

To-day physiologists i n g e n e ral assum e that o n ly th re e di ffe r e n t

photo-ch e m ical sub sta n c e s ar e to h e fou n d a t t h e t e r mi n atio n s o f
t h e optic n e r v e All r ays of light act o n ly upo n th e s e th r e e sub
.

sta n c e s Th e r e d r ay s de com pos e p e rhaps o n ly o n e substa n ce

.
,

t h e y e l l ow r ays p e rh aps o n ly h alf o f o n e an d ha l f o f a n oth e r —t he

o r an g e - c o lo u r e d r ays half o f t h e fi r st o n e third o f t h e s e co n d an d

o n e—
, ,

sixth o f t h e th ird visual substa n c e e t c I n sho r t t h e actio n, .

,

of e ach r ay o f co l ou r e d ligh t is u n doub t e d l y l imit e d an d dis ,

t i n gu i sh e d fr om all oth e r s i n that i t d e com pos e s a d e fi n it e r e lativ e

1 14 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sycho logy .

gi n n i n g of t h e fo u rt h y e ar T h is m ay b e e x plai n e d b y t h e fac t
.

tha t t h e acti o n o f blu e an d gre e n ray s o f lig h t o n t h e ch i l d s e ye ’

i s w e ak e n e d by p u r e l y p h ysiol o gical circ u msta n c e s We s h o u l d .

fu r th e rm o r e c o n s id e r that t h e re m ay be p o ssi bl e di ffe r e n c e s i n t h e

abi l ity t o di s cri m i n at e b e t we e n t h e vario us si n gl e s e n sati o n s o f
co l o u r as r e gards q u a l ity .

P ath o l o gical d e fe ctiv e n e ss i n t h e q u al iti e s o f visual s e n satio n i s

g e n e ra ll y de sig n at e d as c o l o u r-bli n d n e s s T otal co l o u r-b l i n d n e ss
.

h as be e n o bs e r v e d i n rar e cas e s t h e i n divid u al s p e rc e i ve d som e

di ffe r e n c e i n b rig h t n e ss b u t n o di fl e r e n c e i n q u al ity o r co l o u r All
,
.

n atur e th e r e for e wit h its gr e at vari e ty o f c o l o ur s app e ars to th e s e

, , ,

i n divid ual s as a s o r t o f si lh o u e tt e havi n g o n l y di ffe r e n t s h ad e s

,
.

So- ca ll e d vi o l e t-bl i n d n e s s is so m e what m o r e fr e q u e n t I t m a y b e .

artifici al l y an d t e mp o r ari l y prod u c e d i n a hum a n b e i n g b y t h e u s e

of sa n to n i n Vi o l e t an d y e ll o w app e ar to b e alik e t o p e rs o n s
.

that ar e e i th e r c o l o ur-b l i n d to vi o l e t o r u n d e r t h e i n fl u e n c e o f
,

sa n to n i n S til l m or e fr e q u e n t ar e r e d b l i n d n e ss an d gr e e n
“ - ” “

bli n d n e ss or ca s e s of c o l o u r-b l i n d n e s s , i n w h ich r e d an d gr e e n

,

ca n n ot b e d i s ti n g u ish e d Th o s e wh o ar e col o u r-b l i n d t o r e d s e e

.

b u t t wo c h i e f c o l o u r s i n t h e sp e ct r u m wh ic h t h e y g e n e ra ll y de
,

sig n at e as b l ue an d y e ll o w r e d ora n g e an d gr e e n a pp e ar t o th e m
,

l ik e th e ir y e llo w viol e t lik e th e i r b l u e I n t h e s am e way t h os e

, .

wh o ar e col o u r- b l i n d to gr e e n d isti n g u i s h t wo q u a l i ti e s o f c o l o ur
,

which th e y d e sig n at e as bl u e an d r e d I t has b e e n c l aim e d that.

c o l o u r-bli n d n e s s e xist e d at c e rtai n stag e s i n t h e c ul t u ral d e v e l o p

m e n t o f n atio n s an d t h at i t sti l l e xi s t s am o n g c e rtai n p e o p l e s t h at
,

hav e fa ll e n b e hi n d i n c u l t u re O n t h e oth e r h a n d w e fin d u n
.
,

dou b t e d cas e s o f t h e di s ti n ctio n o f co l o ur e v e n i n i n s e cts I n .

1 8 58 t h e t h e n you t h ful E n g l i s h s tat e sma n Gl adsto n e claim e d , ,

t h at t h e G re e ks w e r e colo u r -bl i n d to b l ue H e bas e d h is clai m s

.

c h i e fl y u p o n t h e fact t h at H o m e r h ad n o pro p e r t e rm s fo r blu e .

T h e fact that i n d e scribi n g t h e col o u r s of t h e rai n b o w som e of

, ,

t h e co l o u r s we r e e n tire l y o m itt e d an d o th e rs e xc h a n ge d has b e e n

c it e d i n fav o u r o f t h e e xi s t e n c e o f partial co l o ur - b l i n d n e ss am o n g
a n ci e n t p e o pl e s I t h as h o we v e r b e e n s h o wn that a d e d ucti o n
.
, ,

ca n n ot be m ad e with c e rtai n ty fro m t h e d i ffe re n t d e sig n ati o n s o f

 Th e S e n s at i o n s f S
o ig h t . I 15

co l ou r that app e a r i n t h e l it e rat u r e o f a la n g u ag e A r e fe r e n c e t o .

t h e pag e s -o f som e o f o ur m o s t m o d e r n p o e ts will b r i n g t o ligh t

som e of t h e m ost n o n s e n s ica l d e s ig n ati o n s fo r co l o u rs (as o n e

au tho r ity h as show n by actual c o u n t ) wh ich m igh t lik e wi s e sug ,

g e st t h e diag n o s i s o f c o l o u r- bl i n d n e ss I t app e ar s to b e a fact .

,

h o we v e r that s e n si b ility t o c o lo u rs pr o d u c e d by s h o rt wav e

,

l e n gths o f vibratio n (fo r e xam p l e gre e n an d bl u e ) is n o tic e ably , ,

s ligh t i n a n ci e n t p e op l e s i n m o d e r n p e op l e s l i v i n g i n a stat e o f
,

n atur e an d w e m ay als o add i n t h e n e w-

,
b o r n ch i l d Th e r e for e
, .

j u st th e se c o l o urs ar e o ft e n i n s u ffi ci e n t l y d e sig n at e d i n a la n g u ag e

an d t h e abili ty t o di s ti n g u ish th e m I s d e fi c i e n t .

T h e B o n go n e gro e s i n C e n tra l Africa s e e m to hav e o n l y t h e

w o rd r e d fo r al l c o l o u rs pr o duc e d b y l o n g wave s o f v i b r atio n
”

“
b l ack fo r a l l t h o s e pr o d u c e d by sh ort wav e s
”
an d t h e word .

Th e r e c an b e n o d o u b t t h at ou r co l o u r-s e n s e h as d e v e lop e d
g r a d u a lly W e. ar e a l s o a ll colo u r b l i n d i n t h e p e riph e ral pa r ts o f
-
t h e r e ti n a an d ar e plac e d i n a c o n ditio n sim i l ar t o t h a t o f col o u r
,

b l i n d n e ss wh e n t h e c o l o ur e d obj e cts ar e v e ry fa r d ista n t fr o m u s .

All obj e cts th e n app e ar t o u s to b e m o r e an d mor e l ik e black i n

proporti o n as t h e i n t e n sity of ligh t d e cre a se s I n a sim ila r .

m a n n e r t h e gre at e st i n cr e a s e i n t h e i n t e n s ity o f l igh t ca u s e s t h e

appar e n t u l ti mat e tra n s i ti o n o f e ach s e n s ati o n o f col o ur t o a se n
satio n o f whit e ; i n o th e r wo r ds t h e abi l ity to d isti n g u is h qua l i ty ,

is e ti r e ly r e mov e d
n
1
.

I n a m a n n e r sim ila r to that e m pl o y e d i n t h e last chapt e r fo r

s e n satio n s o f to n e we sha ll n o w d e t e r m i n e t h e s e n s ibi l i ty t o
,

di ffe r e n c e s i n c o l o u r-q u a l iti e s i n t h e cas e o f s e n s ati o n s o f col our

p e rc e iv e d by t h e n o rma l e ye s o fi x e d that o bj e c t s ar e i m ag e d
u p o n t h e c e n t re o f t h e re ti n a We sha ll lim it o urs e l v e s to t h e .

s e ri e s o f s p e c tra l c o l o urs H e r e we fin d 2 t h a t we p e rc e i v e s ligh t

.

di ff e r e n c e s i n c o l o u r -to n e b e s t i n t he y e ll o w an d b l u e o f t h e
“ ”

1
S ee furth e r on , h o we v e r .

2
K0N 1 0 an d Dm r a arc r An n , . ( 1 . P hys . u . C h em .
, 1 8 84 . B RO DH U N,

Ve r h d phy i l rli n 1 88 5— H T H O FF Du BO l S -
R E YM O N D S
’
. . s o . G es . zu Be ,
86 . U ,

Arc h .
, 1 88 9 .
 I 16 I n t r o duc t i o n to P hys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

sp e ctrum . A c h a n ge i n t h e wav e -l e n gt h a m o u n ti n g to mi lli o n t h

mi lli me t er is s u fli c i e n t t o caus e a di ffe r e n c e i n t h e s e n sati o n of
bl u e (o r gr e e n is h -b l u e ) Th e s e n s i b i l ity t o di ffe r e n c e s i n qua l ity
.

is c o n sid e ra b l y l e ss i n t h e cas e o f t h e oth e r sp e ctral co l ou r s Fo r .

som e dista n c e a t t h e e n ds o f t h e sp e ctr u m we r e cog n is e n o cha n g e

of c o l o u r-t o n e a t a l l b u t o n ly cha n g e s of b rig h t n e ss
, .

We hav e n o w fi n ish e d t h e co n sid e ratio n o f t h e qu ali t i es o f

vis u al s e n sati o n i e t h e s e n s ati o n s o f col o u r we t u r n n e xt to t h e
,
. .

th e ory o f t h e i n t e n si ty o f c olou r-s e n satio n s I n t e n sity o r b right .

n e ss ob v iously d e p e n d o n t h e am p l itud e o f v i b ratio n ; t h e s am e

as t h e i n t e n s i ty o f s e n sati o n s o f to n e We h av e a l r e ady m e n .

t i o n e d ab o v e h ow e v e r th at s e n sati o n s o f ligh t ca n n ot be r e
,
.
,

gard e d as h avi n g a prop e r i n t e n s i ty A disti n ct p o si tiv e s e n sa .

t io n b lack c o rr e s p o n d s to t h e i n t e n s i ty o f l igh t 0
, ,
H e re o f .
,

cours e i t i s i mpossib l e that all stim u l u s is wa n ti n g ; we m u st

,

ass u m e c h e m ical pr o c e ss e s charact e ristic o f t h e r e ti n a a t r e st

, ,

which c o n ti n ua l ly irritat e t h e e n ds o f t h e o pti c n e rv e thus impart ,

i n g a s e n sati o n o f black I f we n o w p e rm i t t h e l igh t o f a sp e ctra l

.

c ol o u r r e d fo r e xam pl e t o act with grad u a ll y i n cr e asi n g i n t e n si ty

, , ,

up o n t h e r e ti n a p re vio u sly at r e st b o th t h e i n t e n si ty an d t h e ,

q u a l ity o f s e n s atio n cha n g e at t h e s am e ti m e We p e rc e iv e at .

fi r st a v e ry dark r e dd ish -br o w n t h e n a l ig h t e r r e ddi s h -b ro wn , ,

an d fi n a ll y a c o m pl e t e r e d Th is cha n g e is du e to t h e fact that

.

t h e s e n sati o n o f b lack pr o d u c e d by a co n dit i o n o f r e s t i n t h e

r e t i n a i s mi n gl e d wi th t h e s e n satio n o f r e d pr o d u c e d by t h e i rr i
,

ta fi o n o f t h e re ti n a i n c o n s ta n t l y d e cr e asi n g p roportio n s I f
,
.

v e ry w e ak r e d ray s r e ach t h e r e ti n a t h e s e n s atio n o f black wh e n , ,

m i n g l e d wi t h t h e w e ak s e n satio n o f r e d s ti ll r e tai n s n e arly i ts ,

c o m p l e t e n ormal i n t e n s ity ; t h e s e n satio n o f dark r e ddish - b r ow n

is th u s pr o d u c e d B l ack b e c o m e s l e s s an d l e ss a fact o r i n t h e
.

p r o d u ctio n o f t h e s e n sati o n i n prop o rti o n as t h e r e d rays ar e

i n t e n sifi e d an d t h e r e ti n a m ore s e v e re ly irri tat e d u n til fi n al l y a
, ,

s e n sati o n o f sat u rat e d r e d i s p r o duc e d O n acc o u n t of this c o n .

sta n t com m i n g l i n g o f t h e s e n satio n s o f b l ack with thos e o f r e d ,

we ar e w h o l ly u n ab l e t o a rra n g e a scal e o f t h e s e n sati o n s of r e d ,

b e gi n n i n g with t h e i n t e n sity 0 an d asc e n di n g withou t ch a n ge of

,
1 1 8 I n t r o du c t i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

o f i n t e n s iti e s ri s i n g from satu r atio n to whit e i s a l so an i m po ss i

,

b i li t y fo r t h e q u a l i ty c h a n g e s i n propo r tio n as t h e s h ad e s o f colou r

,

grad u al l y approach wh it e .

Fo r t h e r e as o n s j u s t giv e n t h e t e sti n g o f W e b e r s Law wi l l

’
,

always b e m or e o r l e ss u n c e rtai n wh e n t h e law is appli e d to t h e

i n t e n si ty o f vi s u al s e n s ati o n s Th e app r oximat e v alidity o f thi s
.

law is o f c o u rs e at o n c e appa r e n t As w e h av e alre ady l e ar n e d

, , .
,

t h e Law o f W e b e r stat e s t h at w e di s ti n gu ish b e twe e n i n t e n si ti e s

o f ligh t by v irt u e o f th e ir r e lat iv e bu t n o t th e i r ab s ol u t e d i ffe r

, ,

e n ce . A simpl e d e m o n stratio n o f this m ay be o b tai n e d by t h e

u se of Ma s s o n s disks (fig ’
A brok e n black li n e o f a
.

F ro . 14 .

d e fi n it e br e adth is d raw n i n t h e path o f a radiu s u po n a wh it e

ci r cular sur fac e I f t h e di s k is r ap idly r e volv e d e ach com po n e n t
.
,

li n e bl e n ds wi th t h e wh it e b e lo n gi n g to t h e sam e ri n g o f t h e
cir cl e i n to a g re y r i n g Th e i n n e rmost gr e y ri n g i s dark e s t an d
, .

t h e oth e r gr e y ri n gs ar e ligh t e r i n pr o portio n t o th e ir n e ar n e s s t o

t h e p e ri p h e ry b e ca u s e e ach o n e o f t h e succ e ssi v e com p o n e n ts o f
,

t h e b r o k e n li n e o cc u pi e s a s o m uch small e r p art o f t h e r i n g i n

wh ich i t li e s an d is co n s e qu e n tly bl e n d e d with so m u ch m or e

,

wh it e t h e n e ar e r i t i s to t h e circum fe r e n c e of t h e d i s k L e t u s .

n e xt assum e that t h e di s k i s illum i n at e d by t h e ligh t o f o n e ca n dl e ,

an d tha t t h e gr e y ri n g alr e ady p r oduc e d b

y t h e b l ack c o m po n e n t
li n e 4 is so l igh t th at w e ca n n ot d isti n gu ish i t from t h e whit e
back-g r o u n d We n o w ligh t si x ca n dl e s i n st e ad o f o n e an d fin d
.
,

to ou r asto n ish m e n t th at d e spit e t h e gr e at cha n ge i n t h e absolut e

 Th e S e n s at i o n s o f S ig h t . 1 19

i n t e n s ity o f l igh t t h e g r e y ri n g N o 4 is sti l l t h e o n e t h at ca n n o t

,
.
,

be “
j u st disti n g u ish e d fr o m t h e w h it e b ack -
”
gr o u n d I t is .

o b vi o us th at i n t h is e xp e rim e n t t h e abs o lu t e di ffe r e n c e i n brigh t

n e ss was c o m pl e t e ly c h a n g e d whi l e t h e r e l ativ e di ff e r e n c e r e

,

mai n e d t h e s am e H e n c e i n accorda n c e wit h t h e Law o f W e b e r

.
, ,

t h e discrim i n ati v e s e n si b ili ty als o r e m ai n e d u n cha n g e d .

F e ch n e r t h e fo u n d e r o f p syc h o -p h ysics h as ca ll e d att e n tio n

, ,

t o a v e ry s triki n g e xam p l e o f t h e appr o ximat e validity o f W e b e r s

’

Law wh e n ap p l i e d to s e n satio n s o f ligh t I t h as alr e ady b e e n .

stat e d that thi s law m ay a l s o be fo rm u lat e d as fo l l o w s : T h e

i n t e n si ty o f s e n sati o n i n cr e as e s i n an arit h m e tica l rati o wh i l e t h e
i n t e n si ty o f s tim u l u s i n cr e as e s i n g e o m e trical r atio Fo r ag e s .

t h e a s tr o n o m e rs h av e c l a ss ifi e d t h e stars acc o rdi n g t o t h e i n

t e n s ity o f t h e s e n sati o n s o f lig h t w h ich t h e s tars pr o d u c e i n t h e

e ye o f t h e o b s e rv e r O n thi s ba s is th e y d isti n guish sta r s o f t h e
.

first mag n i tud e star s o f t h e s e co n d m ag n i t u d e e t c S i n c e th i s

, , .

c l assificati o n was fi rst m ad e o n t h e basi s o f s ubj e ctiv e im pr e ssio n s ,

we h av e s u cc e e d e d i n d e t e rm i n i n g t h e o bj e ctiv e brigh t n e ss o f
t h e s e star s b y t h e h e l p o f phot o -ch e m i s try As a r e s ul t i t h as .

b e e n sh o w n th at t h e appar e n t (s u bj e ctiv e ) brigh t n e s s i n cr e as e s i n

arith m e tical r atio w hi l e t h e r e al (o bj e ctiv e ) brigh t n e ss i n c re as e s
,

i n g e om e trical ratio T h e m ost r e c e n t th o r ough e xp e r im e n ts

.
,

u p o n t h e i n t e n sity o f s e n sati o n s o f lig h t h av e b e e n mad e by

M e rk e l K on ig an d B r o dh u n 2 T h e r e sult o f th e ir e xpe r i
,
1
.

m e n ts d e m o n s trat e s t h at t h e r e lativ e d iscrim i n ativ e s e n sib i l ity i n ,

t h e cas e o f l igh t stim ul i havi n g a m e d i u m i n t e n sity i s appr o x i ,

m at e l y c o n s ta n t an d corr e s po n ds t o t h e Law o f W e b e r D e via .

tio n s occ u r w h e n t h e sti m ul i ar e v e ry w e ak o r v e ry stro n g as i n ,

t h e ca s e o f t h e o th e r s e n s e s T h e s o ca ll e d low e r d e v iatio n
“
.

“
i s du e i n part to t h e fact th at t h e r e ti n a has a ligh t o f its o wn
( E i ge n li c h t
) T.h e w e ak s e n sati o n s o f l igh t ar e d i s t u rb e d b
y
s l ig h t i rritat e d c o n d itio n s o f t h e r e ti n a th at c an n e v e r be wh o ll y
r e m o v e d Th e y app e ar fo r e xam pl e as a sp ott e d glim m e r i n t h e
.
, ,

1
P hil o so ph . St udi en .
, I V, H .
4 .

2
S i t z u n gs be r . d ko
. ni
gl p . re u ss A k ad
. . d . i
\V s s .
,
1 8 88 .
1 20 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i ca l P sy ch o lo
gy
.

fi e ld o f visi o n wh e n t h e e y e s ar e clos e d This l igh t which is i n .

t h e r e ti n a i ts e l f a l s o r e n d e rs i t al most im poss ibl e to d e t e rmi n e

,

acc u rat e ly t h e m i n imu m o f s ti m ul us fo r s e n sati o n s o f lig h t 1 .

T h e thr e sh o l d o f disti n cti o n app e ars t o av e rag e ab o u t Tfi

fo r stim ul i o f wh i t e l igh t I t i s l arg e r fo r v e ry w e ak an d v e r y
.

st ro n g s ti mu l i e sp e cial l y fo r w e ak r ays o f sp e ctral r e d L e t u s

, .

re m e mb e r that we should n o t r e ly t o o imp l ici t l y u p o n th e s e

m e asur e m e n ts o f i n t e n s ity e sp e cia l ly i n t h e c as e O f gr e at or
,

s ligh t i n t e n siti e s Of l ig h t As r e gards t h e m e diu m i n t e n s iti e s o f

.

l ight an d t h e i r variatio n s wi th wh ich we ar e daily fam i l iar i t can

, ,

e asily b e co n c e iv e d that i n t h e c o u rs e O f d e v e l o pm e n t b y n at ur al

s e l e ctio n t h e se n s e of sig h t was trai n e d t o p e rc e iv e c h i e fly t h e

r e lativ e di ffe r e n c e s o f b right n e ss an d t o ig n or e t h e a b s o l u t e .

I f t h e law O f W e b e r did n o t h av e a t l e a s t an appr o xim at e

v al idity an d t h e a b s o lut e di ffe re n c e s o f b r igh t n e ss w e r e pe r
,

c e i ve d v e ry vividly at e v e ry fl as h o f su n light an d e v e ry ti m e t h e
,

s un was co n c e a l e d b e h i n d a cloud al l t h e shad e s o f o u r e n viro n

,

m e n t wo u ld b e s o d i s t o rt e d as t o r e n d e r an acc u rat e an d c l e ar
p e r c e ptio n o f t h e proj e cti o n s an d d e pr e s si o n s o f obj e cts e xc e e d
i n gly di fli c ult . T h e acc u racy with wh ich we for m o u r c o n c e ptio n s
o f t h e o bj e cts o f t h e w o rld as s o l i d b o di e s i s e s s e n t i a ll y d e p e n
,

d e n t up o n t h e co n sta n cy o f t h e r e l ativ e t h r e s h o l d of d isti n c ti o n

for a m e dium i n t e n sity o f lig h t .

Fi n ally we ag ai n rais e t h e im porta n t q u e s ti o n H o w is t h e .

s e n satio n a ffe ct e d wh e n n o t o n e b u t s e v e ral fi b r e s o f t h e o pti c

n e r v e ar e s i mul ta n e o u sly i rr i tat e d by t h e sam e s ti m u l u s Of l igh t ?

We hav e al r e ady s e e n th at t h e fi br e s Of t h e o p tic n e rv e ar e i n ,

g e n e ral of e q u al valu e i e e ach t e rmi n ati o n o f t h e Optic n e rv e

, ,
. .

r e c e ive s a sti mul u s o f an y wave -l e n gth what e v e r E v e n i f we .

acc e pt t h e assum ptio n Of H e l mh o l tz t hat th e r e ar e th re e diffe re n t

,

t e rmi n ati o n s fo r e ach n e rv e- fib r e i n e ach e l e m e n t o f t h e r e ti n a ,

we m ust sti l l r e me m be r t h at th is tri ad i s r e p e at e d i n all p arts of

1
Th e m o re re ce n t e x pe ri m e n t s o f E B ERT S ’
ar e v y wo rth y O f
er no t i ce .

W I E DE M AN N S An n al e n
’
1 88 8 an d L AN G L E Y
, , , E n e rgy an d Vi s i o n ,
”
Am .

Jo u r n o f S c XX X V I
. .
, .
1 22 I n t r o du c t i o n to P hys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

r e m ai n s t h e sam e as i n t h e r e ti n a We k n o w i n fact that t h e

.
, ,

fibr e s o f t h e Op tic n e r v e fro m t h e r e ti n a O f t h e l e ft e ye fo r ,

e xam p l e t e rmi n at e partly i n t h e c o r t e x o f t h e l e ft h e mi s ph e r e

,

an d partly i n t h e c o rt e x o f t h e r igh t h e m isph e r e of t h e c e r e br u m .

N o w h o w do e s i t happ e n tha t i n spit e o f t h is c h a n g e i n t h e ord e r

o f t h e fi b r e s t h e s e n satio n s wh ich th e y co n d u ct t o t h e cort e x ar e
,

arra n g e d so as to cor r e sp o n d t o t h e ord e r o f t h e fi br e s i n t h e

r e ti n a an d h e n c e also to t h e ord e r o f t h e v i s ual stim ul i an d O f
, ,

t h e o bj e cts th at ar e s e e n ? A v e r y accom modati n g b ut u n t e n abl e , ,

th e ory i s t h e s o -ca l l e d n at i vi st i c th e o ry wh ich assum e s that a ,

d e fi n it e poi n t i n spac e is allott e d to e ach o n e o f t h e re ti n al poin ts

fr o m birth ; bu t t h e th e ory is n o t at all i n ha r mo n y with t h e

F 10 . 1 5 .

em pirical data o f p hysi o lo gi cal o ptics We sh all th e r e fo r e pro .

c e e d fr o m t h e g en et i c sta n dp o i n t an d att e m pt to show what d ata

,

fur n ish e d by t h e phy s iol o gy Of t h e b rai n throw an y ligh t u pon

t h e arra n g e m e n t o f t h e spatial poi n ts o r up o n t h e ch aract e r is t i c
,

fe atur e s by wh ic h t h e y ar e d isti n g u i sh e d S u pp o s e 0 to b e an .

approximat e ly p o i n t - l ik e Obj e c t si tuat e d i n t h e upp e r pa r t o f t h e

,

fi e ld Of visio n fr o m which rays o f ligh t ar e s e n t to t h e r e ti n a

,

RR
’
.
T h e s e r ays ar e u n it e d at o n e p oi n t i n t h e r e tin a by m e a n s
o f t h e p e culiar str u ct ur e o f t h e e ye T h is poi n t m ay b e fou n d
.

by drawi n g a st r aigh t l i n e from 0 to X t h e p o i n t i n t h e vitr e ous ,

h u m o u r a t wh ich t h e rays i n t e r s e ct an d by prod u ci n g th is li n e

,

u n til i t r e ach e s t h e r e ti n a Th e Obj e c t 0 (fig 1 5) t h e r e for e

. .
 Th e S e n s a t i o n s f
o S i
gh t . 1 23

s e n ds al l i t s rays t o d an d irr itat e s t h e e n ds o f t h e n e rv e -

,
fibr e s
sit u at e d at that p o i n t L e t u s n o w m ov e t h e e ye fo r t h e p u rpos e
.

o f fi xi n g t h e e sp e cia ll y s e n s i tiv e c e n tral poi n t o f t h e r e ti n a at a ,

t h e Mac u la lut e a up o n t h e Obj e ct 0 so as to o b tai n a m or e

,

disti n c t imag e O f t h e l att e r I n s o doi n g t h e r e ti n a l imag e pass e s

.

from d o v e r t h e p oi n ts c an d b t o a O n m o v i n g t h e e ye a .

c e rtai n d ista n c e it r e ac h e s c a som e what gr e at e r di s ta n c e b an d

, , ,

a sti ll gr e at e r d ista n c e a A s t h e e ye is tur n e d an d t h e r e ti n a l

.
,

imag e o f t h e o bj e ct pass e s from d to a we ha v e a co n ti n u o u s ,

s ri Of m o t o r s e n sati o n s
e e s 1
A m ot o r s e n sati o n h avi n g a d e fi n it e
.
,

mag n i tud e is ass o ciat e d wi th e ach t e rmi n ati o n o f t h e n e rv e -fibr e s

, ,

an d t h e i n t e n s i ti e s Of th e s e s e n s ati o n s o f m oti o n for m a co n sta n t

s e ri e s O n e r e ti n al p o i n t si t u at e d b e tw e e n t wo o th e rs is c o n
.
, ,

s t an t l
y ass o ciat e d with a s e n sati o n o f m otio n wh o s e m ag n i t u d e
l i e s b e tw e e n t h e m ag n i tud e s of t h e s e n satio n s O f m otio n w ith
whic h t h e t wo adj ac e n t p o i n ts ar e assoc iat e d I n t h is ass o ciat e d .

s e n sati o n o f m oti o n e ach t e rm i n ati o n of t h e n e rv e -fib r e s poss e ss e s

,

to a c e rtai n e xt e n t an acq u ir e d l o cal sig n By r e p e at e dly passi n g .

ov e r a l l l i n e s o f t h e r e ti n a n umb e rl e ss tim e s b o th from a an d

t o ward a e a ch r e ti n al p o i n t is associat e d with a d e fi n it e m ag n i
,

tud e i n t h e syst e m o f m o t o r id e as Th us a fo u n datio n i s Obtai n e d .

fo r t h e local i zatio n o f s e n sati o n s I f a l arg e r Obj e ct 0 0 irritat e ’

.

t h e fo u r r e ti n al p o i n t s a b c d simu l ta n e o u s l y fo u r e xcita tio n s

, , , , , , ,

d a b c wi l l app e ar i n t h e c e r e b r al cort e x fo l l o w e d by t h e
’ ’ ’ '
, , , ,

corre s p o n di n g s e n sat io n s T h e l o calizatio n o f th e s e s e n sati o n s

.

i n spac e tak e s p l ac e n e i th e r i n com p l e t e c o n fu si o n i e acc o rdi n g , . .

t o an arbitrary ar r a n g e m e n t n o r acc o rd i n g t o t h e succ e s s i o n o f

,

t h e ga n g l i o n c e ll s d a b c
- ' ' ’ ’
, , O n t h e c o n trary we lo c al iz e t h e
, , .
,

s e n sati o n s o f l ight acc o rdi n g t o t h e s ca l e o f s e n satio n s o r id e as

o f m oti o n a s s o ci at e d wi t h th e m I n th i s way e ach s e n sati o n is .

r e fe rr e d t o i ts d e fi n i t e plac e T h e o rd e r o f s e n satio n s acco r d .

i n gly c o rr e s p o n d s t o t h e o rd e r o f t h e p o i n t s o n t h e r e ti n a an d ,

h e n c e als o t o t h e o rd e r o f t h e p o i n ts o n t h e obj e c t I t is cl e ar .

that an i n fi n it e ad v a n tag e was gai n e d i n t h e strugg l e fo r e xist e n c e

1
Th e c h i f f atur
e e es o f the th e o ry h e re pre se n t e d o ri g i n ate d w i t h L O TZ E .
1 24 I n t r o du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

by t hefi rst a n imal that l o ca l i z e d i ts s e n sati o n s i n this way I f .

t h e protist wi th i ts pigm e n t-spots s e n sit iv e t o ligh t has an y

, ,

s e n satio n s o f spac e wh at e v e r i t m u s t l o ca l iz e th e m a l most who ll y

,

witho u t r e gard t o o rd e r At l e ast t h o s e p r o ti sts i n which t h e

.

dir e ctio n Of t h e rays o f ligh t d e t e r mi n e s t h e di r e c tio n of lo c o m o

ti o n (P hototaxi s S t r assburg e r ) by t h e ass o ciati o n o f t h e s e n satio n
,

o f l ig h t i n o n e cas e w it h t h e motio n s o f fl ig h t i n a n o th e r ca s e ,

with t h e m otio n s Of ap proach hav e o b tai n e d som e basis fo r t h e ,

d i s ti n ctio n o f two dir e cti o n s an d for t h e localizatio n o f impr e s

s io n s i n t wo d ir e ctio n s I n t h e co ur s e o f t h e phylog e n e ti c
.

d e v e l opm e n t o f t h e a n imal s e r i e s that capacity to locali z e v is u al

s e n satio n s was fi rst d e v e l op e d which m ad e t h e e ye a p rop e r orga n
for t h e p e rc e pti o n o f spac e We fin d t h e w o n d e r fu l r api dity .
,

with whi ch th is arra n g e m e n t o f t h e s e n satio n s is acc o m plish e d ,

i n c o n c e ivab l e ; at o n c e an d wi t h o ut a m om e n t s tho u gh t t h e ’

i mag e i s b e for e us w e ll arra n g e d an d u n ma r r e d by t h e s l ight e s t

,

e rro r .T o b e s u r e a proc e ss o f e v o lu ti o n e xt e n d i n g thr o u g h

,

a l m os t e n dl e ss ag e s was n e c e ssary to prod u c e an d trai n a cort ica l

appa r atus o f visio n that c an r e ac t w i th such fi t n e s s Th e n e w .

b o r n a n imal 0 1 c h ild i n h e rits t h i s apparatus 1 E ach si n g l e i h .

d ividual d o e s n o t n e e d to acqu ire i t agai n labo r io u sly bu t o n l y ,

t o l e ar n to u se i t A p e rs o n wh o i s b o r n bl i n d an d r e c e i v e s h i s
.

e y e sigh t by an op e rati o n lat e r i n life a t fi rs t s e e s o n l y c olo u r e d ,

s p o ts floati n g b e fo r e hi s e y e s H e r e c o g n is e s a circl e or a squar e

.

o n l y with difficu l ty I t i s o n l y by d e gr e e s th a t h e l e ar n s to u s e
.

h is co r tica l apparatus an d to associat e t h e s e n s ati o n s of sigh t

,

with id e as O f m oti o n an d to u ch .

I n c o n cludi n g th e s e i n v e s tigati o n s we c an agai n r e n d e r t h e

de v e l o pm e n t o f spatia l locali zati o n c l e a r by com paris o n L et us .

ca l l to m i n d t h e posi tio n o f a m u s ica l c o n d u ctor who l e ads an

orc h e stra fo r t h e fi rst tim e N u m e rous s o u n ds fro m a larg e .

n u m b e r of i n st r um e n ts ar e p o u r e d i n t o h i s e ars at t h e sam e

1 M k un
’
re ce n t i n v e st i gat i o n s pe rh aps t h ro w so me li gh t o n t h e
s m o re , ,

ph ys i o l o g i ca l an d a n at o m i cal s tr u c t u re o f t hi s c o rt i c a l a pparat u s S i t z u n gs .

h e r ( 1 kO n igl pre u ss Ak ad d Wi s s 1 8 9 0
. . . . . . .
, .
1 26 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

fo r t h e c o n ti n u ity o f s e n satio n s O f sig h t h o we v e r m u st b e sough t , ,

c h i e fly i n t h e c o n ti n u ity o f t h e a s sociat e d i de as o f m ot io n .

T h e followi n g facts i n t h e sph e re O f vi s u a l p e rc e pti o n s ar e still

to b e i n v e stigat e d an d e xplai n e d i n d e tail F i r s t t h e r e ti n a l .
,

i mag e i n t h e e ye o f t h e v e r t e b rat e s is i n v e rt e d ; tha t which is o n

t he r igh t an d abov e i n t h e r e al O bj e c t i s o n t h e l e ft an d b e l o w ,

i n t h e r e ti n al i mag e an d vi ce- ve r sé S ti ll we do n o t s e e t h e
,
.

Obj e c t i n v e rt e d corre s po n di n g to t h e imag e o n t h e r e ti n a b u t

, ,

r igh t sid e up corr e spo n di n g to t h e Obj e c t i ts e lf H o w c an we

,
.

e xplai n t h e fact tha t t h e r e ti n a l i ma g e is t h u s fit t i n gly r e - i n v e rt e d ?

I n r e p l y we m ay fi rst o bs e rv e that t h e spati al succ e ssio n i n w h ich
t h e visual s e n satio n s ar e proj e ct e d is n o t alt e r e d at a l l ; i t i s

s imply a qu e s tio n Of p r oj e cti o n i n its t o t ali t S o far as t h e pr o

y .

j e c t i o n as a w h o l e is co n c e r n e d t h e r e -i n v e rsi o n O f t h e r e ti n a l
,

i m ag e is d e t e rm i n e d an d co n tr o l l e d by s e n satio n s of t o uch I n .

g e n e ra l we p ro j e ct o u r s e n satio n s of s igh t s o that th e y agr e e with

t h e tactual s e n satio n s b y which we ar e g u id e d t o a c e rtai n e xt e n t .

Th i s capacity has a l s o b e e n acqu ire d phyl o g e n e tica ll y an d n o t

o n t o g e n e tica l ly We shou l d h e r e ca ll att e n ti o n to t h e fac t that
.

t h e i n v e rsio n o f t h e i m ag e o n t h e r e ti n a wh ich n e c e ssitat e s to

a c e rtai n e xt e n t a s e co n d psyc h ica l i n v e rsi o n is s p e cifi c a ll y ,

charact e ristic o f t h e e ye o f ver t ebr a t es Th e c o m posit e imag e i n .

t h e compou n d e ye Of t h e gl o w- worm fo r e xampl e i s n o t an , ,

i n v e rt e d b u t an u pright r e t i n al i mag e T h e g l o w-w o r m o r fir e -fl y

, .

c an th e r e fo r e p r o j e c t i ts s e n sati o n s o f sigh t e xactly i n t h e positio n

i n d icat e d by t h e r e ti n al e xcitati o n s 1 .

A s e co n d q u e stio n is s u gg e st e d by t h e fact t h at we s e e wit h t wo

e y e s h e n c e a d o u b l e r e ti n a l i mag e i s produc e d b y t h e m aj o ri ty of
,

t h e Obj e cts s e e n H o w is i t that n o twi th s ta n di n g this fact an

.
, ,

Obj e c t g e n e ra ll y app e ars si n g l e to u s ? Why d o e s i t app e ar

do u bl e o n l y i n v e ry rar e ca se s — fo r e xamp l e wh e n w e push o n , ,

i t
s s em a ne rvo s o ,
”
1 88 5 ; an d FL ac n s ro , Arc h . f
. P h ys i o lo g .
( Du B o rs
R rav MO N D) ,
1 8 89 .

1
S e e EX N R E ,
“
Das N e t z h autb ild de s I n se c t e n au ge s . S i t z u n gs b e r . d .

Wi en . Ak a d . d Wi . ss .
, 1 8 89 .
 Th e S e n sat i o n s o] S ig h t . 1 27

t he sid e o f t h e e ye -b a l l with a fi n g e r whi l e gazi n g fix e dly at an

Obj e ct ? T hi s q u e s ti o n has g iv e n ris e t o n umb e rl e ss physi o logica l
an d psychological i n v e stigatio n s an d di s cussio n s I t is su ffici e n t .

h e r e to n otic e that physi o log i cally t h e u n i o n o f t h e two r e ti n a l

, ,

i mages is alr e ady accou n t e d for b y t h e p e c ul ia r p a r tial cro s si n g o f

t h e opti c n e r v e - fibr e s By thi s m e a n s t h e e xci tatio n s produc e d i n
.

t h e l e ft half of b oth r e ti n as ar e co n duct e d t og e t h e r to t h e righ t

h e m isph e r e of t h e brai n an d vi ce-ver sé Th e b l e n di n g of t h e t wo

, .

imag e s is provid e d fo r psych ologi cally b y t h e a s s o ciatio n of l ik e

id e as Of m oti o n i n g e n e ral wi th th o s e p oi n ts t h at ar e si t u at e d
, ,

a l ik e i n t h e two r e ti n as I t i s for physi o l ogi cal Optics to d e cid e

.

h o w far th e s e two fact o r s su fli c e i n a s i n gl e cas e t o e xplai n t h e , ,

b l e n di n g of t h e t wo imag e s .

Th e fi n al q u e s t io n is sugg e st e d by t h e fact that t h e r e ti n al

imag e s ar e s u p e rfi cial o r p l a n ifo rm I t a sks Wh e n c e do o u r .
,

v i s u al s e n s atio n s r e c e i v e t h e i r s t e r e o m e tri c c h aract e r ? We s e e

s o l ids an d n o t p l a n e su rfac e s I n th i s ca s e als o i t i s obvi o us l y a
.

q u e s ti o n o f as s ociatio n wi th id e as of m oti o n an d t o u ch I t is at .

l e ast v e ry d o u b tfu l wh e th e r t h e two e y e s r e m ai n i n g whol l y at ,

r e s t co ul d e v e r achi e v e t h e co n structi o n o f a st e r e o m e tric imag e

,

o f s pac e
1
Bu t o u r e y e s ar e m o v e d th e r e i s a co n sta n t p l ay o f
.
,

t h e m u scl e s of accom m o datio n (t h e ciliary m u scl e an d t h e r e ct i

i n t e r n i ) t h e h e ad i s tur n e d t h e e n t ire b ody i s mo v e d fo rward

, , ,

t h e s e n satio n s of sigh t ar e c o n tr o l l e d by t h e s e n s e o f to u ch In .

t h i s way a l arg e n umb e r o f n e w as s ociat e d id e as o f m o tio n an d

.

t o u ch is acq u ir e d I t i s o n ly by ass o ciati o n with th e s e id e as that

.

o u r vis u a l p e rc e pti o n r e c e i v e s its st e r e o m e tric ch aract e r S tri ctly .

c o n s id e r e d t h i s p e rc e pti o n i n i t s e lf has n e ith e r a pla n im e tr ic n o r

,

a st e r e om e tric c h a r act e r s i n c e o ur s e n sati o n s ar e a t fi rst pr o j e ct e d

,

m e r e ly i n a d e fi n it e d ire ctio n l e avi n g i t qui t e i n d e fi n it e as t o h ow

,

far fro m u s i n tha t d ir e cti o n t h e o bj e ct l i e s Fo r e xam pl e a .

,

p e r so n t h at i s bli n d fr o m b irth an d r e c e iv e s hi s e y e sigh t l at e r i n

l ife c o n c e iv e s all Obj e cts to be d ir e ct l y i n c o n tac t with t h e o ut e r
,

1
As to i l
po s s b e p hy i l g i a l
s o o c co n di ti o n s a l s o co n ce rn e d
, in t hi s cas e , se e

H ER ING ,
lc , H E
. . LM H O LT Z l , . c .
, an d o t h e rs .
 1 28 I n t r o du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i ca l P sych o logy .

sur fac e o f t h e e y e ball H e o n ly l e ar n s by d e gr e e s to pro j e c t h is

.

s e n sati o n s o f sigh t acc u rat e l y al s o as r e gards dista n c e an d h e n c e

as r e gards st e r e om e tric r e l atio n s .

I t i s s e lf-e vid e n t th at e xp e rim e n ts appli e d fo r t h e p ur pos e o f

,

asc e rtai n i n g t h e d e gre e o f c e rtai n ty wi th which sight-impr e s s io n s

ar e localiz e d an d disti n guish e d i n spac e m ay also b e e mpl oy e d ,

i n t h e cas e o f visio n i n accorda n c e w ith t h e Law o f We b e r S u ch .

e xp e rim e n ts h av e sh o w n that i n g e n e ra l an obj e c t c an be n o

, ,

lo n g e r r e cog n is e d e v e n b y d ir e ct visi o n wh e n t h e vi s u a l a n g l e i n
, ,

wh ic h i t app e ars b e com e s l e ss tha n o n e m i n ut e As r e gard s t h e .

e stimati o n Of m ag n it u d e s o f e xt e n si o n i t has als o b e e n d e m o n ,

s t r at e d that t h e Law o f W e b e r is o n l y vali d fo r t h e medi u m d is

ta n c e s (e g li n e s ) I t app e ars fo r e xam p l e that i n att e mp ti n g to

. . .
, ,

de t e rm i n e o n e d i s tan c e that wi ll e q u a l a n o th e r giv e n dista n c e ,

t h e av e r ag e e rr o r i s abo u t i n pr o p o rti o n to t h e m ag n it u d e o f t h e
di s ta n c e 1
. I f t h e d ista n ce s that ar e to b e e stim at e d b e c o m e v e ry
larg e o r v e ry sm a ll t h e r e lativ e thr e sh o l d o f di s ti n ctio n s e e ms
“
,

t o b e n o l o n g e r co n s ta n t F u rth e rm or e i n t h e abov e e xp e rim e n t

.
,

t h e i n di v id u al variati o n s ar e v e ry gre at .

We h av e n o w e ss e n tia ll y c o m p l e t e d o ur i n v e stigatio n s of visual

s e n s ati o n s Th e s e n s e s o f h e ari n g an d sigh t r e pr e s e n t t h e
.

c u lmi n ati n g poi n ts o f s e n ti e n t l i fe I n futur e chapt e r s we sha l l

.

a l s o fi n d t h at hig h e r i n t e ll e ct u a l p r o c e ss e s ar e ch i e fly d e p e n d e n t

upo n t h e s e n sati o n s Of sigh t an d h e ari n g .

1 Thi s me t h d i d ig
o s es n ate d as the met h d
o of t he av e rage or m e an e rro r .
1 I n t r o du c t i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sych o logy
30 .

by d e cid e d fe e li n gs o f pl e asur e We t h e r e for e sp e ak Of t he cho r d

.

as harmo n i o us O n t h e oth e r ha n d if we strik e c an d d tog e th e r

.
, ,

t h e s e n satio n Of h e ari n g is accompa n i e d by a l iv e ly fe e li n g o f

displ e as u re ; i n this cas e we sp e ak o f a d isco rd T h e fe e li n gs o f .

pl e asu r e ar e d e sig n at e d as positiv e t h e fe e l i n gs O f pai n o r d is

,

pl e asu r e as n e gativ e to n e s o i fe e l i n g T h e s e c o n c o m i ta n t fe e l i n gs
.

o f pl e as u r e an d pai n vary g r e atly i n i n t e n si ty T h e ch o rd c- tD -

.
g ,

t h e so - cal l e d m i n or cho rd also prod u c e s a s e n s atio n o f h e ari n g

,

that is accom pa n i e d by a fe e li n g o f pl e asu r e ; b u t t h e latt e r is

con sid e rably l e ss i n t e n s e tha n i n t h e cas e o f t h e maj or ch o rd c-e g ~
.

A sol u tio n o f qui n i n e has a m or e o r l e ss u n pl e asa n t tast e acc o rd ,

i n g to t h e d e gr e e o f co n c e n tra ti o n Fi n a ll y th e r e is a l o n g s e ri e s
.
,

o f s e n satio n s that t o a c e rtai n e xt e n t occupy a n e utral positi o n as

r e gards t h e ton e o f fe e li n g ; that is th e y ar e accom pa n i e d n e ith e r

,

by a disti n ct fe e li n g o f p l e asur e n o r by a di s ti n ct fe e li n g of di s
pl e asur e o r pai n To this class b e lo n gs by far t h e g r e at e r pa r t o f
.

t h e s e n sati o n s r e c e iv e d through t h e high e st s e n s e s H o w m any .

visual im ag e s musical sou n ds and n ois e s daily thro n g o ur c o n

,

s d o u s n e ss ! H ow fe w o f th e m ar e associat e d wi th an y fe e l i n g
what e v e r Th e fe w that do giv e us p o sitiv e fe e l i n gs o f pl e as u r e
o r pai n do n o t p o ss e ss t h is e moti o n al e ffe ct i n t h e m e r e s e n sati o n

i ts e lf .Th e e m o tio n al e ffe ct is fo r t h e m o s t part a r e s u lt o f t h e

id e as with wh ich t h e s e n satio n s ar e associat e d as i n t h e a bo v e ,

cas e wh e n o n e s e e s a fr i e n d T h e e m o ti o n al t o n e o r t o n e of
,
.
,

fe e li n g is th e r e for e by n o m e a n s a n e c e ssary prop e rty of s e n satio n

,
.

B e tw e e n t h e scal e o f pl e as u rabl e fe e li n gs an d that o f p ai n fu l

fe e l i n gs th e r e is a z e r o- p o i n t o r poi n t o f i n diffe r e n c e O n ly a .

l im i t e d n u mb e r o f s e n satio n s ris e s ab o ve o r fa l ls b e low this poi n t

as r e ga r ds t h e e motio n a l to n e .

L e t us n o w ask : O n what do e s t h e e m o ti o n a l to n e o f a
s e n satio n d e p e n d ? Th e t o n e of fe e li n g obviously d e p e n ds
m ain ly o n t h e i n t e n s i ty o f t h e stim u l u s o r m or e sp e cifically o n
, , ,

t h e i n t e n sity o f t h e s e n satio n A simpl e t o n e l ight l y struck

.
, ,

g e n e r ally l e av e s u s i n di fl e r e n t F e e li n gs o f pl e asu r e app e a r an d

'

i n cr e as e slowly i n proportio n to t h e grad u al sw e ll i n g o f t h e

,

t o n e Th e pl e asu r ab l e i mpr e ssi o n o f t h e p u re to n e has r e ac h e d

.
 To n e F e e li ng an d S u cce s s i o n f S e n sat i o n s
f
o o . 1 31

i ts absolut e h e ight as soo n as t h e s e n satio n h as attai n e d a m e dium

i n t e n sity I f t h e i n te n sity o f t h e to n e is fu rth e r i n c r e as e d t h e
.
,

fe e l i n g Of pl e asu re dimi n ish e s rapidly an d fi n ally pass e s i n t o a

fe e li n g Of pai n I f t h e t o n e r e ach e s t h e m aximum of stim ul us
.

t h e pi e rci n g s e n satio n o f s o u n d is accompa n i e d by an i n t e n s e

fe e li n g o f t h e gr e at e st pai n an d d i sp l e as ur e S imi l ar e fl e c t s can

.

also be produc e d i n t h e cas e Of an y o n e o f t h e ot h e r s e n s e s ,

Th e i n t e n s e light that bli n ds u s is u n pl e asa n t light O f a m e dium

i n t e n si ty imparts t h e m ost p l e as u rab l e s e n satio n s We c an als o .

e xpr e ss this d e p e n d e n c e Of t h e e motio n al t o n e o n t h e i n t e n sity o f

7770 1 3

FIG 6 . 1 .

t he s e n sati o n ,
diag ammatica ll y b y a c urv
r e T h e u n br o k e n l i n e s
.

Of t h e abov e drawi n g (fig . ar e a lr e ady fam i l iar t o u s

T h e y re pr e s e n t t h e re lati o n o f t h e i n t e n si ty of s e n sati o n to t h e
i n t e n sity of sti m u latio n T h e i n t e n si ti e s o f sti mulati o n ar e t e
.

p re s e n t e d by t h e axi s o f abscissas E E — mi n d e sig n at e s t h e

, . .

m i n imum an d E -max t h e m axim u m o f stim u lati o n T h e u n

, . .

br o k e n cu r v e i n dicat e s t h e path d e scrib e d by t h e i n cr e as i n g i n

t e n sity o f s e n satio n fo l l o wi n g t h e i n c re as e i n t h e i n t e n sity o f
,

s timulatio n . Th e i n t e n si ty of t h e e motio n al to n e accom pa n y i n g

t h e s e n satio n is d e sig n at e d by a dott e d cu rv e That part o f t h e
.

dott e d cu r v e lyi n g abov e t h e axis o f abscissas d e sig n at e s a

 I n t r o du ct o n i to P hys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

po s i tiv e fe e li n g o r a fe e li n g of pl e as u r e ; t h e part lyi n g b e low

,

t h e axis i n dicat e s a n e gativ e fe e l i n g o r a fe e li n g of pai n We se e .

t hat at t h e m i n imum o f e xcitatio n or upo n t h e app e ara n c e of

a bar e ly n otic e ab l e s e n sa t io n t h e cu r v e Of fe e li n g r is e s abov e ,

t h e axis Of abscissas I t r e ach e s its h e igh t at t h e m e di u m

.

i n t e n sity Of s e n satio n Th e n c e t h e fe e l in g of pl e as u r e d e c r e as e s
.

r apid l y an d cha n ge s to a n i n c r e asin g fe e li n g o f p ai n ; t h e cu rv e

falls ab r uptly an d si ks b e lo w t h e axis of abscissas
n
1
.

I n c e r tai n m e nt al dis e as e s t h e to n e of fe e l i n g is v e ry charac

t e r i st i c ally cha n g e d Th u s for e xampl e m e la n cholia i s cha r ac
.
, ,

t e r i z e d by a s u dd e n co n v e r sio n o f t h e fe e l i n g of pl e as u r e to o n e

o f pai n e v e n i n r e spo n s e to m uch s l ight e r i n t e n siti e s of s e n satio n

, .

Fi n a ll y t h e dis e as e r e ach e s a stag e i n which t h e curv e o f fe e l i n g

n o lo n g e r r i s e s abov e t h e axis at a l l a fe e li n g of pai n is co u pl e d
with t h e slight e st s e n sati o n E v e rythi n g that is p e r c e iv e d is.

accom pa n i e d by pai n ful fe e li n gs .

T h e d e p e n d e n c e of t h e e moti o n al t o n e o n t h e gu ali br O f
s e n satio n is m o re complicat e d Amon g t h e s e n satio n s o f tast e .

t h e quality O f sw e e t i s d e cid e dly m o r e clos e ly ass o ciat e d wi th

s e n satio n s o f p l e as u r e an d t h e q ualiti e s Of sour sal t an d , ,

e sp e cial l y b itt e r ar e mo r e clos e ly associ at e d wi th s e n satio n s o f

pai n or disp l e as u r e Mo r e accu rat e Obs e rvatio n s h owe v e r s h ow

.
, ,

that i n this cas e als o t h e i n t e n si ty chi e fly d e t e r m i n e s wh e th e r t h e

s e n sati o n s ar e pl e asurab l e o r pai n ful We lik e o ur food a litt l e .

salty an d we fin d a s l ight tast e o f bitt e r o r so u r pl e asan t wh i l e

, ,

o n t h e oth e r ha n d t h e most co n c e n trat e d soluti o n s O f sw e e t ar e

d istast e fu l t o us Thus pl e asurabl e fe e li n gs ar e coupl e d with t h e

.

1
H h l g i h A al y I I
O RW I C Z (P syc S o o mph a i sc e v ral n se n , ,
2, . e s z es se e

no t u j u t bj
n ti s t t hi pr
O ectat i w hi ch h
o ns b o t i all y adapt d
s e se n o n, as een e sse n e

fr m VV D H al mpha i (wi t h B N K ) that v ry w ak at i

o UN T . e so e s z es E E E e e se n s ons

t
ar e n o ld m a iat d wi t h f li g f pai H
se o sso c t h cu rv
e f f li g ee n s o n. e n ce e e o ee n ,

b f r r i i g at ll ab v t h li
e o e s n at t h r -
a p i t w uld fi r t i k b
o e e at h i t a
ne e ze o o n , o s s n ene

sh rt di ta c at l a t i t h ca f rtai quali ti f at i —A
o s n e, e s n e se o ce n es o se n s on . h

a c ptab l y p i f t h app rti t li t rat r i t b f u d i C CA

c e e s no s s O e e nen e u e s o e o n n ES ,

“
Di L h re ed N atu r d
e G f i hl
vo n Vi t lj h f i w i
er P hi l er e t e .
”
er e sc r . t r ss .
,

8 86 X C m par al am Zt h X I 0 K il Th ri “
1 , . i th o e so Z n e s e sc r .
, ,
. L P E, ur eo e

d i l i h G f i hl
e r s nn c en e t e .
”
 1 34 I n t r o du c t i o n to P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

Of a sha r p i n st r um e n t we ar e fi n ally co n vi n c e d that we fe e l o n l y ,

pai n i e we p e r c e iv e t h e to n e of fe e li n g q u it e apart from t h e

, . .

s e n satio n O n this accou n t som e authoriti e s h av e Oft e n de s ig

.

n at e d t h e s e n satio n of pai n as an e sp e cial q u ali t y o f t h e d e rm al

s e n sati o n s 1
But n e i th e r sp e cial pai n -
. sp o ts o n t h e sk i n n o r a ,

stimu l us e sp e cially adap t e d i n quality to caus e s e n satio n s of pai n

have b e e n show n t o e xist I t c an b e v e ry e asi l y u n d e r stood als o .
,

why o n accou n t o f v e ry i n t e n s e stimulatio n t h e fe e l i n g o f pai n

, ,

has s u ch an asc e n da n cy o n l y i n t h e cas e o f d e rmal s e n sati o n s .

As we shall fin d lat e r t h e volu n tary actio n followi n g a s e n satio n ,

is e ss e n tiall y d e p e n d e n t o n t h e accompa n yi n g to n e of fe e li n g as ,

r e gards both i ts cha r act e r an d t h e rapidity with whi ch i t is e xe

cu re d T h e m o r e disagr e e abl e a s e n satio n j ust so m u ch m or e
.
,

sp e e dily an d e n e rg e tica ll y do we s e e k to r e m ov e i t ; we e ith e r

fl e e o r d e fe n d o u rs e lv e s N o w i n t h e d e v e lopm e n t o f t h e an i mal .

s e r i e s, t h e e arli e st gr e at e st m ost fr e qu e n t an d m ost dire ct

, , ,

da n g e rs to t h e a n imal o rga n ism co n sist of m e ch a n ical an d calori c

stimuli Th e a n im al organ ism m ust b e abl e to accom modat e i t
.

s e lf to th e s e stim u l i to r e sp o n d with e xtra o rdi n ary rapidity by t h e

,

e x e cutio n Of m o tio n s i n d e fe n c e or fl igh t S u ch r e acti o n i s i n .

fac t m ost fit t i n gly attai n e d by t h e associatio n o f a fe e li n g of dis

pl e asu re so compl e t e ly dom i n a n t as that O f pai n wi th a ll s e n sa
, ,

ti o n s p roduc e d by i n t e n s e m e cha n ical an d caloric stimulatio n .

T h e claim has also b e e n adva n c e d that t h e s e n satio n of pai n i s

e sp e cial l y p r oduc e d by i rr itati n g som e part o f t h e n e r v e - t r u n k or
o n e of its ch i e f b r an ch e s i n st e ad o f t h e n e r v e - e n ds This c l aim .
,

is su ffi c i e n tly accou n t e d fo r by t h e fact that i mi t ation of t h e n e r v e

t ru n k of cou r s e a ffe cts a m uch la rg e r n u mb e r o f fibr e s I t h as .

also b e e n thoug h t that s e pa r at e paths of c o n ductio n must be

assu m e d i n t h e spi n al cord fo r s e n satio n s o f touch an d tho s e O f

1
R ICH T E ,
“
Re c h rch
i bi l ité G O L D C H I D R Arch D
e es su r la se n s S E E U

BO I S-
.
,

R YM O N D 88 5 S 9
E Th r mark ab l tat m t f t h l att r th at
, 1 , . 0 . e e e s e en o e e ,

ev t h i t cal ri c t i mul at i f h at-p t d ld -p t pr du b

en e n e n se o s on o e s o s an co s o s o ce s ut

a r l at iv l y l igh t pai (at l a t c id rab l y li gh t r t ha th at pr du d

e e s n e s ons e s e n o ce

by t h ti mul ati
e s f t h c tic l b tw t m p ratu r -p t ) ti ll r q i r
on o e u e e een e e e s o s , s e u es e x

pl a atin d c fi r mat i
o n an on on .
 To n e o f F ee li ng an d S u cce ss i o n f S e n sat i o n s
o . I 35

pai n Th e r e aso n s fo r t h is ass u m ptio n ar e two fo ld : ( 1 ) S ch i ff

.

h as obs e rv e d is o l at e d a n a l ge si a (i n s e n sibi l ity to pai n ) i n a n ima l s

a ft e r havi n g s e v e r e d t h e gr e y substan c e of t h e c o rd t h e r e m o va l ,

of t h e s e n si b i l ity to pai n b e i n g acco m p l ish e d wi th o u t disturb i n g

t h e s e n sibility to touc h ; ( 2 ) i n c e rtai n dis e a s e s s u ch as ta b e s , ,

a n a l ge sia o cc u rs without a n ae sth e sia i e without t h e l o ss of ,

. .

s e n sibi l ity t o touch I n fact i t fr e q u e n t l y happ e n s i n t h e cas e o f

.

tab e s t h at t h e pati e n t o n b e i n g p r ick e d wi th a sharp i n str u m e n t

, ,

fi r st re ports a s e n satio n Of touch an d a fe w s e co n ds lat e r o n e o f

pai n S chi ff s e xp e rim e n t s i n thi s li n e how e v e r ar e by n o m e a n s
.
’
, ,

fr e e fro m all Obj e ctio n s an d i t is po ss ib l e t o e xp l ai n a l l t h e ot h e r

,

p h e n om e n a j ust quot e d wi tho u t a s sumi n g that th e r e ar e s e parat e

paths o f co n d u ctio n i n t h e spi n a l co r d fo r s e n satio n s of touch an d
s e n s ati o n s o f pai n I t is s u ffi ci e n t to assum e t h at i n t h e cas e o f
.
,

tab e s fo r e xamp l e t h e n e rv e -fib r e s ar e som e t im e s a l t e r e d by t h e

,

pat h o l o gica l proc e ss so th at th e y c an s till r e c e ive t h e w e ak sti m ul i

an d co n d u ct t h e e xcitatio n to t h e c e r e bral c o r t e x although u n ab l e ,

to tra n s m i t t h e mor e i n t e n s e stimuli If t h e l at t e r pr o d u c e an y

.

e ffe ct what e v e r th e y ar e e ith e r fi r st w e ak e n e d b e for e t ra n sm issi o n

, ,

or t e gr e at e r part is co duc t e d m ore lowly

h n s
1
S i n c e we ar e .

almost e n tire l y ig n o r a n t o f t h e n ature of t h e path o l ogi cal cha n ge s

a ffe cti n g t h e co n ductivity o f t h e s e n sory paths howe v e r it is , ,

di fli c u lt to se e why this assum ptio n should b e r e j e c t e d a pr i o r i .

I t i s su fli c i e n t to e xplai n b o th a n alg e sia wi tho u t a n ae st h e s ia

“ ”

an d t h e s e parati o n O f a s e n satio n i n to t wo succ e ssi v e s e n s atio n s ,

vi z a w e ak pai n l e ss s e n satio n an d a st ro n g pai n fu l o n e As a

.
, , .

r e sult o f th e s e co n sid e r atio n s we fin d that th e r e is n o gr ou n d

what e v e r fo r r e gardi n g pai n as a sp e cial q u ali ty o f d e r mal s e n satio n .

O n t h e co n trary we d e fi n e that i t is m e r e ly t h e str o n g feeli ng o f

,

pai n accom pa n yi n g t h e d e r mal s e n satio n s .

Th e t o n e o f fe e li n g tha t accom pa n i e s s e n satio n s of simpl e to n e s

1
Th e m o re rec e n t i n ve st i gati o n s b y G O L G I RA M O N Y C AJ A L an d KO LL I
,

K E R s h o uld b e co n s id e re d i n co n n e c t i o n w i th t hi s q u e sti o n Acco rdi n g t o .

t h e s e t h e s e n so ry fi bre s h av i n g e n t e re d t h e spi n a l co rd divid e an d al so se n d

, ,

o ff i n n u m e rab l e co ll at e ra l pr o c es se s fu rt h e r o n .
I 36 I n t r o du ct i on to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

havi n g a m e dium i n t e n sity i s n o t v e ry st ro n gly m ar k e d Th e r e .

is a larg e n umb e r o f qualiti e s that e x e r t n o i n fl u e n c e what e v e r

upo n t h e to n e o f fe e l i n g O n ly v e ry high o r v e ry lo w to n e s ar e
.

g e n e ral l y m o r e lik e ly (cet er i s pa r i bu s) t o b e accom pa n i e d by

n e gativ e to n e s o f fe e li n g Th e i n fl u e n c e wh ich is e x e r t e d by t h e
.

quality o f a to n e -s e n satio n i s much mor e n otic e abl e i n t h e cas e of

s e n satio n s of n ois e o r musical so u n d i e i n t h e ca s e o f ac o ustic
, . .

s e n satio n s that ar e p ro duc e d by t h e combi n atio n Of s e v e ral simpl e

to n e s Th e most im po r ta n t fact fo r o u r co n sid e r ation is that t h e
.

i rr e gula rly p e r iodic vib r atio n s ch ar act e r istic o f n ois e s ar e i n , ,

ge n e ral n o t accompan i e d by posi tiv e to n e s o f fe e li n g ; o n ly t h e

,

r e gu l arly p e r iodi c vib r atio n s o f musical sou n ds c an imp ar t a posi

tiv e e m otio n a l to n e As we hav e a lr e ady m e n tio n e d wh e n a
.
,

ke y is struck o n t h e pian o we r e a l ly h e a r n o t a sim pl e ton e but ,

a m u sical sou n d that is we h e a r a ch o rd with v e ry disti n ct ov e r

,

ton e s which d e cr e as e i n i n t e n sity i n proportio n to th e ir di s ta n c e

,

from t h e fu n dam e n tal to n e an d t h e n u m b e r s Of whos e vibratio n s

sta n d i n a simpl e n um e rica l r e latio n t o e ach o th e r E ach pu r e .

to n e of t h e pia n o g e n e ra ll y impart s a s l ight fe e li n g Of pl e as u r e ,

an d is i n fact as we alr e ady k n o w p roduc e d b y t h e r eg u la r ly

, , ,

p e r iodic vibratio n s o f t h e particl e s o f air B u t we als o k n ow that .

c e rtai n com b i n atio n s both o f si mpl e to n e s an d of m us ica l s o u n ds

,

( e chords o f a pian o fo r e xam pl e ) poss e s s a co n so n a n c e i n

t h
com pa r ably m or e pl e asa n t tha n that o f e ith e r t h e sim pl e to n e or
t h e simpl e m usic al sou n d Th e s e ar e t h e so -call e d co n so n a n t
.

cho r ds I t is o n e Of t h e most i n t e r e sti n g an d di ffi cult p r obl e ms

.

t o d e t e r mi n e u n d e r what g e n e r al co n di ti o n s a comb i n atio n o f

to n e s is co n so n a n t o r disso n a n t i e impa r ts a positiv e o r
, . .

n e gativ e to n e of fe e li n g To b e gin with i t i s c o n c e ivabl e i n fact

.
, ,

obvious tha t t h e co n so n a n t cho r ds (fo r e xam p l e t h e com m o n

, ,

C- m aj o r ch o rd c- e-
g)
,
must co n sist Of to nes t h e n u m b ers Of ,

wh os e vib r atio n s sta n d i n a s impl e re l atio n to e ach oth e r For .

we k n ow i t is o n ly wh e n this co n ditio n is fulfi l l e d tha t a cho r d

c an be p r oduc e d by a r e gul ar ly p e riodic fo r m o f vib r atio n A .

r e gular ly p e riodic form of vi bratio n is t h e co n di tio si n e qua n o n

o f st r o n g positiv e e motio n al to n e s I n fact t h e n umb e r s of vib r a
.
1 38 I n t r o du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i ca l P sy ch o logy .

that wh e n t wo to n e s h av i n g bu t sligh tly di ff e r e n t n u mb e rs o f

’

vi brati o n s o u n d sim u l ta n e ous l y n um e rous s o ca l l e d b e ats

,
” 1
or

thr o bs c an b e disti n guish e d ; that i s t h e i n t e n s ity O f t h e sou n d ,

a l t e r n at e l y sw e lls an d dim i n ish e s T h e n um b e r o f th e s e b e at s

.

pe r s e co n d corr e spo n d s e xact l y t o t h e diffe r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e

n u m b e rs o f vib r atio n Th e s e b e ats ar e a l s o v e ry u n pl e asa n t
“ ”
.

t o t h e e ar e sp e cia l ly wh e n som e tw e n ty t o fo r ty o f th e m o ccu r i n

,

a s e c o n d T h e cho r d r e c e iv e s by m e a n s o f th e s e b e ats a pe c u
.

liar ly r ough charact e r I t c an a l so be show n tha t t h e chord

.

c- e- pr o duc e s n o u n pl e asa n t b e a ts but th at t h e chord c -d

g ,

p ro d u c e s v e ry u n pl e asa n t b e ats I n o rd e r to e stabl ish t h is s e par

.

at e ly fo r e ach ch o rd i n e ach octav e i t is n e c e ssary to tak e i n to ,

c o n s id e rati o n m or e e xactly t h e o v e rto n e s m i n gl e d i n t h e chord ,

an d al s o —
t h e s o ca l l e d
“
s u m m atio n to n e s
- ” “ -
diffe r e n c e to n e s
,
”
,

“ ”
an d th os e t o n e s w h ich K O n i d e sig n at e s as S t o s st O n e By
g .

this m e a n s a t l e ast H e l mholtz thoug h t to r e d u c e t h e d i sso n a n c e

, ,

o f discords withou t e xc e p ti o n t o t h e pr o d u cti o n Of u n pl e asa n t

“
b e ats.
”
I t i s probab l e how e v e r that sti ll oth e r e l e m e n ts ac t
, ,

i n co n n e cti o n wi th th e s e b e ats to r e n d e r o n e ch o r d co n s o n an t ,

a n oth e r diss o n a n t t o t h e e ar P e rh aps fo r e xam pl e t h e fact

.
, ,

s h o ul d also b e c o n sid e r e d tha t i n diss o n a n t chords t h e n u m b e rs

Of vibrati o n s ar e g e n e rally i n a m o r e com plicat e d r e latio n
an d tha t th e r e for e t h e so cal l e d
- p e r io d o f t h e wav e
“
or 8

is co n sid e r ably l e n gth e n e d I n cas e o f t h e c o mbi n ati o n Of musi

.

cal to n e s i n to co n so n a n t ch o rds i t is possibl e that t h e agr e e abl e

,

charact e r of t h e latt e r i s d e t e rmi n e d i n pa r t by a n u mb e r of

partial t o n e s comm o n to a l l t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e c h ord as urg e d ,

by Wu n d t .

Th e sim pl e v isual s e n satio n s havi n g a m e di u m i n t e n sity ar e

accompa n i e d o n ly by a v e r y sligh t positiv e to n e o f fe e l i n g Ev e n .

o ur j oy i n b e h oldi n g t h e bl u e sky do e s n o t b e lo n g to t h e m e r e

s e n satio n Associat e d i d e as — such as t h e id e a Of t h e i n fi n ity o f

.

t h e blu e vaul t abov e us e t c — accom pa n i e d b y t he i r t o n e s o f

,

fe e l i n g ar e also ac tiv e t o a gr e at e xt e n t Th e r e for e t h e quali ty .

1
Th e acce pt e d t e rm in aco ust i cs is “
be at .
-
T
’
s .
 To n e f
o F e e li ng an d S u cce s s i o n f S e n sa t i o n s
o . 1 39

o f t h e visual s e n sati o n s colo u r h as a l most n o sig n ifi ca n c e fo r t h e

, ,

to n e o f fe e l i n g I t is t r u e that o l d e r p syc h ol o gist s s u ch as

.
,

G e o rg e att e mp t e d to c o m par e e ach co lo u r with a d e fin it e taste

,

by thi s m e a n s th e y h op e d t o b e ab l e to ascrib e a d e fi n it e to n e O f
fe e li n g to e ach co l o u r T hus r e d was to c o rr e sp o n d to salt y e ll o w
.
,

to sou r blu e to b itt e r an d wh it e to sw e e t

,
T h e s e ar e h owe ve r .
, ,

m e r e subj e ctiv e c o mparis o n s s u gg e st e d by a s s o ci at e d id e as (fo r

e xampl e
“
wh it e
,
” “
swe e t ” “
,
m ilk O n t h e o t h e r ha n d G o e t h e
, ,

disti n guish e d a p l us an d a mi n u s sid e i n t h e s e ri e s o f sp e ctra l

colou r s R e d an d y e ll o w w e r e t o c o n stit u t e t h e p l u s -s id e an d act
.

as e xcitativ e b l u e an d viol e t t h e m i n u s -sid e acti n g as d e pr e s s i v e

,
.

G re e n was to be t h e tra n sitio n b e tw e e n t h e t wo s id e s I n vi e w .

o f th is c l a s sifi catio n I ta l ia n p syc h iat e r s ha v e pr o p o se d t o bri n g

i n d ividua l s aflfi c t e d with m e l a n ch o l ia i n t o a r o om c o n tai n i n g r e d

light an d th o s e affl ict e d wit h m a ia i n t o a r o o m c o n tai n i n g bl u e
,
n 1

light for t h e purp o s e Of dam p e n i n g t h e m orbid i n cli n ati o n t o

,

e xt r e m e ab n orm al t o n e s o f fe e l i n g I t i s o b v i o u s that th e s e
.

vi e ws ar e du e t o t h e as so ciati o n o f c e rtai n c o l o u r s wit h c e rtai n

i d e as an d th e i r to n e s o f fe e l i n g R e d r e mi n d s u s O f fla m i n g
.

fir e ; y e llow of t h e l i fe - givi n g ligh t e t c H e n c e i n th e se ca s e s

, .

t h e to n e o f fe e li n g do e s n o t accom pa n y a s e n sat i o n b u t a n

id e a . At m o s t we m ay stat e p e rhaps that t h e qu al iti e s o f

s e n sati o n produc e d by dark c o l o u rs e s p e cia ll y by t h o s e t h at r e ,

pr e s e n t t h e tra n sitio n s o f t h e s p e ctral co l o u rs to b l ack s u ch as ,

r e d- br o w n ar e l e ss e asi l y u n it e d o r a s so ciat e d with p o s i ti v e to n e s

,

O f fe e li n g Th e t e n d e n cy o f b l ack i ts e lf t o pro d u c e a n e gativ e

.

to n e o f fe e l i n g is du e i n pa r t at l e ast t o t h e id e a o f som e th i n g
, ,

dism al an d da n g e r ous with which i t is as s ociat e d .

Th e re ar e n o “
c o lo u r-acc o rd s i n t h e sam e s e n s e tha t th e r e

1
Th e re ad e r sh o uld b e ar i n m i n d t h at t h e t e rm man i a i s use d b y
G e rman psyc h iat e rs i n a m uc h m o re re s tr i c t e d se n se t h a n b y E n gli s h
p yc h iat r er a ali i st i lud e s u n d e r t h e te rm m an i a o n ly
“ ”
s e s T . h e G m n e n n c

t h o se m e n tal d i se as e s t h at ar e ch aracte ri z e d by t h e pre se n ce o f mo rb id gay ,

e mo t i o n s . I t i s t o be u n d e rs to o d i n t hi s se n se o f co u rse i n t hi s t r a ns l at i o n
S e e al so C h apt e r X I I —T s
.

’
. .
 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

ar e musical cho r ds M ixtu re s o f colou r p r oduc e s e n satio n s o f

.

colou r that ar e j ust as sim pl e as thos e pr oduc e d by simpl e colou r s .

We ar e u n abl e to a n alyz e t h e s e n sation s p r oduc e d by m ixe d

colou r s Th e re fo re t h e co n so n a n c e s o r disso n a n c e s of di ff e re n t
.

colo ur qualiti e s m ust b e sough t o n ly i n th e i r spatial a r ra n g e m e n t .

I n fact a compa r iso n o f t h e pai n ti n gs by t h e b e s t m as t e r s o f t h e

,

I tal ia n school shows b e yon d a doub t that c e r tai n comb i n atio n s

o f co l o u rs ar e d e cid e dly p re fe rr e d Thus H e lmhol tz call s
.

att e n tio n to t h e triad — r e d gr e e n an d vi ol e t that ar e i n fact

, , ,

combi n e d i n so m a n y pictu re s wi th wo n d e rfu l e ffe ct H ow e v e r .

we k n ow n othi n g as ye t co n c e r n i n g t h e co n sta n cy an d t h e e xact

co n d itio n s o f this co n so n a n c e o f c e rtai n c o lours .

B e sid e s i n t e n sity an d q u ality t h e spat i al ar r angemen t of t h e

,

s e n satio n s is an e ss e n tial fact o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e accompa n yi n g

to n e o f fe e li n g I n this co n n e ctio n we shall co n sid e r o n ly s e n sa
.

tio n s of t ouch an d s e n satio n s o f sigh t as p r oducts o f thos e s e n s e s

t h at ar e charac t e r iz e d by t h e m ost highly d e v e l o pe d an d p e rfe c t
r e latio n s t o spac e As r e gards t h e form e r i t i s suffi ci e n t to m e n
.
,

ti o n that i n g e n e r al t h e p o si tiv e to n e s o f fe e li n g accompa n yi n g

se n sa t i o n s Of touch prod u c e d b y e xt e n d e d co n tact with a su rfac e ,

ar e i n p r opo r tio n t o t h e co n sta n cy an d r e gu l ar ity of t h e su r fac e .

Th e u n pl e asa n t s e n sati o n s o f a r ough su r fac e ar e p r oduc e d

particula rly wh e n t h e tact u a l s e n satio n s arisi n g fr om e xt e n d e d
co n tact with a s ur fac e ar e irr e gular l y dist r ibu t e d an d of u n e qual
i n t e n sity ; wh e n s o m e fe w u n ir r itat e d n e rv e -
e n ds always i n t e r v e n e

b e tw e e n t h e i r ritat e d n e r v e -e n ds T h e sp atial a rran g e m e n t of

.

t h e vi s u al s e n satio n s i s of m u ch m o r e im po r ta n c e fo r t h e to n e of

fe e li n g . L e t us obs e r v e a straig h t li n e fo r t h e purp os e Of de si g

n ati n g som e poi n t upo n i t that s e e ms to u s to d ivid e t h e li n e i n to

pl e asi n g p ro p o rtio n s F e c h n e r put this qu e stio n to a l arg e n u m

.

b e r Of p e r so n s As a r e sul t i t app e ar e d that b e sid e s t h e poi n t

.
,

b is e cti n g t h e li n e i n to h alv e s o n e oth e r poi n t was e sp e cially pr e

,

fe rre d viz t h e poi n t that divid e s a l i n e approxi mat e ly i n t h e e x

,
.

tre m e an d m e a n r atio o r t h e gold e n s e ctio n

,
”
I t is also e xc e e d
.

i n gly i n st r uctiv e to study t h e I talia n wo r ks of a r chit e ctu r e of

Old e r tim e s ; t h e i r wo n d e rful e fl e c t i s due almo s t wholly to th e i r
’
1 42 I n t r o du c t i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

stat e m e n t as u n co n diti o n al l y va l id O n t h e co n trary t h e stat e .

,

m e n t that t h e d u ratio n o f s e n sati o n c o r r e spo n ds to t h e duratio n

Of i rr itatio n is n o t q u it e corr e ct as r e ga r ds t h e e xcitati o n a t t h e
p e r iph e ry Ep
, A s an e xampl e tak e n fro m t h e sph e r e of vi s ual
.

s e n sati o n s le t u s ca l l t o m i n d t h e so ca l l e d
- -
“ ”
,
aft e r im ag e s that
app e a r i n colo ur s l ik e o r com pl e m e n tary to t h e colo ur o f t h e
, ,

p r im ar y imag e I f we Obs e rv e a brigh t r e d disk an d th e n c l o s e

.

t h e e y e s w e O ft e n s e e a r e d o r ligh t-
, co l o ur e d a ft e r-imag e w h ich
l asts som e s e co n ds aft e r t h e e xt e rn a l stim ulu s has va n ish e d .

T his aft e r-im ag e th e n app e ars i n bl u e -gr e e n t h e colour compl e ,

m e n tary to r e d an d is oft e n v e ry i n t e n s e This ph e n om e n o n i s

, .

produc e d as we k n ow by t h e a ft e r-
, ,
e ffe cts of stimula ti o n upo n t h e

r e ti n a ; t h e e xt e r n al s tim ulus E th e r e fo r e was shut Off by cl os in g

t h e e y e s b u t n o t t h e p e riph e ra l r e ti n al e xc i tati o n Ep
,
Fo r this .

re aso n t h e s e n satio n last e d l o n g e r m e r e ly as t h e r e sul t o f a

physi o l o gica l ph e n om e n o n .

L e t u s n o w ask fi rst I n what r e l ati o n d o e s t h e i n t e n sity o f a

,

s e n satio n sta n d to t h e o r igi n al s ti m u latio n wh e n t h e l att e r c o n

t i n u e s fo r som e tim e ? We c an e asi l y e mploy an e xp e ri m e n t to

a n sw e r th is qu e sti o n by list e n i n g to t h e app r oximat e ly co n sta n t
rushi n g o f wat e r through t h e fauc e t o f a wat e r-pip e I f we .

watch o u r s e n satio n s att e n t iv e ly we obs e rv e that s o m e s e co n ds

,

pass b e fore th e y r e ach th e i r gr e at e st i n t e n sity ; th e n th e y r e tai n

this maxim u m i n t e n sity fo r som e tim e with b u t v e ry i n sign ifi ca n t
d e viatio n s aft e r which th e y v e ry gradu a l ly b u t n o t alt o ge di e r
,

co n sta n tly los e th e i r i n t e n sity Th e co n sta n t i n cr e as e n otic e ab l e

.

a t t h e outstart o f t h e e xp e rim e n t is o b v i o u s l y to b e e xplai n e d by

physiologic al adaptati o n e sp e cia ll y i n t h e p e riph e ral o rga n s
,
.

T 0 som e e xt e n t t h e e ar m us t fi rst be plac e d i n a positio n favo u r

abl e to stim ulatio n T h e quit e u n imp o r ta n t variatio n s i n i n
°

t e n sity du r i n g t h e m aximum o f s e n satio n plai n ly hav e an ap

p roximat e ly r hythm ica l c h aract e r Acc o r di n g t o t h e e x pe r i
.

m e n ts o f La n g e t h e i n t e n si ty of s e n satio n sw e l l s r e g u lar ly
1

o n ce i n a b o u t e v e ry — se co n d s
4 T h e l e n gth of th e s e p e ri o ds
.

1
P hil o so ph . St ud .
,
IV .
 To n e o f F e e li ng an d S u cces s i o n f S e n sat i o n s
o . 1 43

app e ars t o di ffe r for diffe r e n t s e n s atio n s We c an p e rc e iv e t h e .

fact m ost e asi l y ou r s e lv e s by h oldi n g a watch a t such a d i s ta n c e

from t h e e ar as to r e n d e r i ts ticki n g bar e l y audibl e By this .

m e a n s we ar e abl e to fo l l o w b e s t t h e sw e ll i n g an d e bb i n g o f s e n
satio n I t is v e ry pr o bab l e that th e s e p e ri o dic variati o n s i n i n t e n
.

s i t y ar e d e p e n d e n t o n v ariatio n s i n t h e e xcita b i l ity o f t h e a u di t o r y

path fr o m t h e l abyri n th t o t h e auditory c e n tr e i n t h e t e m p o ro

sph e n o ida l l ob e O th e r s l igh t variati o n s ar e proba bly du e t o t h e
.

fact tha t we ca n n ot always r e g ul arly e xclud e oth e r i n t e r curr e n t

s e n satio n s an d id e as T h e u ltimat e d e fi n i t e d e cr e as e i n t h e i n
.

t e n sity o f s e n sati o n i s u n doub t e d l y du e t o a physi o l o gica l fatig u e

that b e gi n s to be fe l t a l o n g t h e e n tir e cours e o f t h e s e n s ory pat h s
to t h e c e r e bra l c o rt e x an d t o t h e sim ul ta n e o u s app e ara n c e o f
,

o th e r id e as w h ich c o n sta n t l y b e c o m e m o r e an d m o r e i n t e n s e .

A furth e r qu e sti o n i s as fol l ows : H o w l o n g m u s t s tim u latio n

last at l e ast i n ord e r to impart a s e n sa ti o n ? A t fi rs t i t wou l d
app e a r that i n g e n e r a l an imm e asurably bri e f d u rati o n i s
, ,

su ffici e n t to produc e a s e n satio n Th e i n t e n s i ty Of st imulatio n

.
,

how e v e r an d i n t h e cas e o f Op tic s timu l i t h e m ag n it u d e o f t h e

,

spatial i mag e a l s o ar e o f gr e at i m p o rta n c e

,
I t app e a r s fu rth e r .

mor e that stim ul i o f v e ry sh o rt d u ratio n impart s e n s atio n s that ar e

n o mor e disti n ct i n quality tha n s e n sati o n s produc e d b v ry
y e

w e ak stimuli At l e ast w h e n t h e cha n g e o f s ti m ul i i s t o o rap id i t

.
, ,

is i mpossibl e fo r us to r e ca ll corr e ctly by as s o ciati o n t h e quali ty o f

, ,

a s e n sation (wh e th e r col o ur p itc h ta s t e e t c ) aft e r i t has tak e n

, , ,
.

plac e . T h e qua l ity was too i n dis ti n c t to awak e n t h e r e l at e d

i mag e o f m e mo ry o r i n o th e r w o rds t h e t e rm d e sig n ati n g t h e
, , ,

co l ou r t h e pitch o f t h e t o n e e t c
, , .

Thus at l e ast e ight e e n vibratio n s ar e n e c e ssa ry i n o rd e r that

t h e p itch o f a c e rtai n to n e m ay b e r e cog n is e d S i n c e this law .

app e a r s to b e va l id with approximat e u n i form ity fo r high an d lo w

to n e s t h e abs o lut e d u ratio n Of stimu l atio n i n t h e cas e o f t h e
, ,

s e n s e o f h e ari n g is o f l e ss importa n c e i n t h e r e cog n itio n of a to n e

,

tha n t h e absolut e n umb e r o f vib r atio n s I t is v e ry d i ffi cult t o .

d e cid e e xp e ri m e n ta l ly t h e d e gr e e o f s e n sibility to di ffe r e n c e s i n

t i m e as i n t h e c as e Of acou stic imp r e s s io n s I t i s wort h y O f
, .
1 44 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sych o /0g .

m e n tio n how e v e r tha t Mach fou n d t h e di ffe r e n c e n otic e abl e

, ,
1

wh e n a to n e l asti n g 3 o f a s e co n d i s compar e d wi th o n e fl L G o f a
1
,

s e co n d lo n g e r As fa r as th e s e e xp e rim e n ts h av e b e e n ca rr i e d
.

at p re s e n t t h e Law o f W e b e r do e s n o t app e a r to b e valid i n t h e

,

abov e cas e .

T wo o r mo r e s e n satio n s that follow o n e aft e r t h e oth e r at v e ry

short i n t e r vals bl e n d i n to a s e r i e s o f s e n satio n s i n ti m e i n a
m a n n e r v e r y si milar to t h e way i n which s e n satio n s p r oduc e d by
adj ac e n t stimuli i n spac e bl e n d i n to a l i n e Th e i n t e r val o f tim e .

that m ust e lap s e i n ord e r that two s e n satio n s m ay b e p e rc e iv e d as

s e pa r at e i n tim e va r i e s e xc e e di n gly acco r di n g to t h e qua l ity of ,

t h e s e n sation Fo r t h e e ye an i n t e rval o f at l e ast 5 1 of a s e co n d

.
6

i s r e quisit e wh il e o n ly an i n t e rval of
, o f a s e co n d suffic e s

fo r t h e e ar This bl e n di n g o f s e n satio n s that fol l ow o n e aft e r

.

t h e oth e r v e r y clos e ly is p r obably du e to physiological ca u s e s

,
.

O n t h e oth e r ha n d h ow e v e r le t us call att e n tio n e x p r e ssly t o

, ,

t h e fact th at t h e proj e ctio n an d ar r a n g e m e n t of ou r s e n sati o n s

with r e fe r e n c e t o tim e t h e sam e as wi th r e fe r e n c e t o spac e c an

, ,

n o t b e e xplai n e d psycho - physiologically ; we m ust sim p l y acc e pt

t h e fact fo r t h e pr e s e n t al th o ugh w e sha l l to u ch upo n t h e qu e stio n
,

agai n at t h e clos e of th e s e l e ctur e s I n this co n n e ctio n le t u s .

call att e n tion to an e ss e n tial di ffe r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e p e r c e pti o n

Of spac e an d t h e p e rc e ptio n of tim e We pr o j e c t our s e n satio n s .

i n t o a s pac e o f t h r ee dim e n sio n s wh il e n o t o n ly ou r s e n satio n s ,

but also th e i r m e n tal imag e s t h e id e as ar e a rr a n g e d wi th r e fe r

, ,

e n ce to tim e i n b u t o n e dim e n sio n .

We c an n o w i n t r o d uc e t h e qu e stio n as to how m a n y s e n satio n s

we c an h av e i n g e n e ral at t h e sam e tim e T h e n u mb e r o f s e n sa .

ti o n s possibl e from o n e s e n s e at t h e sam e tim e i s alm ost u n limit e d .

We hav e a l re ady s e e n th at c o -e xist e n t s e n satio n s o f sigh t an d

fe e l i n g ar e arra n g e d t o g e t h e r so as t o p r oduc e an imag e o f spac e
an d that c o - e xist e n t s e n s atio n s o f h e a r i n g ar e bl e n d e d to a compl e x

o f sou n d . B u t i t i s m uch mor e do u b tfu l wh e t h e r we c an p e r c e iv e

a s e n satio n of sigh t an d o n e O f h e ari n g t e two o r mo r e s e n sa , . .

1
S i t z un gs b e r . d . \V e n i . Ak ad .
,
B d 51
. .
 I n t r o du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

ar e e sp e cially acc e n t e d o r i n t e n s e an d all t o g e th e r h av e a d e fi n it e

,

duratio n 1 I n thi s co n n e ctio n it is n o t n e c e ssary to co n sid e r that

.

two qua r t e r-n ot e s o r a t r ipl e t c an tak e t h e plac e Of a hal f-n ot e ,

e tc . o r tha t two sho r t sylla b l e s m ay b e substitut e d for o n e l o n g

, ,

o r two u n acc e n t e d fo r o n e acc e n t e d sho r t sylla b l e S uch u n i .

form ity which we g e n e r ally d e sig n at e as t e m po o r v e rs e is

, ,

con s t a n tly r e p e at e d with b u t sligh t cha n g e At all e v e n ts t h e .

,

to t al du r atio n of t h e s e n sa t io n s o f s o u n d an d t h e arra n ge m e n t o f
acc e n tuatio n is co n sta n t fo r e ach n e w t e mpo o r k i n d o f v e r s e .

Th e q ualiti e s o f sou n d i e t h e n ot e s an d w o rds cha n g e bu t t h e

, . .
, ,

i n t e n siti e s of to n e t h e acc e n tuatio n s an d d im i n utio n s co n sta n tly

, ,

re cu r at d e fi n it e i n t e rvals o r p e r i o dical l y I n po e try t h e clos e Of .

such r hythm ical p e r i o ds c an Oft e n b e e m phatically ma rk e d by

choosi n g v e ry simila r to n e s w ith which to cl o s e t h e p e ri ods I n .

this fo r m of e m phasis li e s t h e importa n c e o f t h e r hy me .

As r e ga r ds t h e succ e ssio n of s e n satio n s th e re fo r e a r e gula r , ,

p e r iodicity is t h e chi e f co n ditio n fo r t h e app e ara n c e o f fe e li n gs O f

pl e asur e I t is n o t m e re ch a n c e that m a n iacs an d thos e a fflict e d
.

with e mo t io n al para n oia oft e n sp e ak i n r hyt h m an d r hym e S uch .

ph e n om e n a ha r mo n iz e rath e r with t h e m o r b id positiv e e motio n al ,

s tat e s cha r act e r izi n g th e s e fo r ms o f psych o sis .

F r o m t h e p re c e di n g co n sid e r atio n s we co n clud e that t h e ap

pe ar an ce O f positiv e o r n e gativ e to n e s o f fe e li n g d e p e n d s o n v e ry
d i ffe r e n t c o n ditio n s This co n clusio n b r i n gs us t o a p r obl e m
.

that is j ust as i n t e re sti n g as i t is di fli c u lt to solv e I t is t h e .

qu e stio n as to wh e th e r th e s e va r i ou s co n dition s m ay be com

p r e h e n d e d u n d e r o n e com m o n poi n t Of vi e w — t h e p r ob l e m as to ,

t h e n atur e of th e s e to n e s I n a n sw e r i n g this qu e stio n i t m ust b e

.

tak e n i n to co n sid e r atio n that as m e n tio n e d i n t h e b e gi n n i n g

, ,

n o t o n ly t h e s e n satio n s but also wi tho u t d o u b t t h e id e as hav e

, ,

th e i r e m otion al to n e s Th e r e fo r e we c an fi rst pu t t h e qu e stio n

.

a s t o wh e th e r t h e id e as borrow th e i r t o n e of fe e li n g from t h e

1
Th e tyl e O f m e trical co mpo si t i o n
o ld s l
p ace s m o re we igh t o n t he du rat i o n ,

t he n e w s tyl e m o re u po n t h e acce n t u at i o n . Th e A e l x an d ri n e re gards me re ly

t he n u mb e r o f se n sat i o n s o f so u n d .
 To n e o f F e e li ng an d S uccess i o n f
o S en s a t i o n s . 1 47

s e n satio n s i e wh e th e r th e y hav e sim ply r e c e iv e d t h e to n e s o f

,
. .

fe e li n g b e lo n gi n g t o th os e s e n sation s o f which th e y ar e t h e
i mag e s o f m e m ory T h is s u pposition is u n do u bt e dly to b e
.

”
gra n t e d i n ma n y cas e s T h e i dea e n e my an d t h e id e a hat e
.
,

th e re for e ar e o n ly as s ociat e d with fe e li n gs o f d i spl e as u r e b e c aus e

,

we hav e oft e n f elt t h e attacks of fo e s an d t h e e ffe cts o f e n m ity

to b e u n pl e asa n t B ut o n t h e oth e r ha n d i t can n ot b e d e n i e d
.
, ,

that t h e r e v e rs e i s also t r u e I d e as oft e n t r a n sm it th e i r to n e s

.

O f fe e li n g t o t h e s e n satio n s Thus as ch ild re n or p e rhaps lat e r

.
, ,

we h av e h e ard a c e rtai n m usical comb i n atio n p r oduc e d fre qu e n tly

i n co n n e cti o n with a c e r tai n m o u m fu l so n g Th e succ e ssio n o f .

to n e s i n t h e ch o rd as s e n satio n d o e s n o t pa rtak e o f a m o u m fu l
, ,

charact e r but b e caus e m o u m ful i d e as c o n ta i n e d i n t h e word s

so oft e n acc o m pa n i e d i t t h e n e gativ e e motio n al to n e gradual l y
,

b e com e s as s ociat e d also with t h e s e n satio n s of sou n d fi n a l ly t h e

chord i ts e lf is suffi ci e n t t o p roduc e a n e gativ e ch a n g e i n o ur to n e
o f fe e l i n g that is quit e i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e m o u m ful word s All .

att e mp t s to assign c e r tai n co n sta n t t o n e s Of fe e l i n g t o d e fi n i t e

ch o r ds r e s t u po n j u st such a tr an s m iss i o n of t h e to n e o f fe e l i n g
,

from t h e id e a t o t h e s e n satio n wi th which t h e i d e a is as so ciat e d 1 .

Th e s e n sati o n o f black as m e n tio n e d p r obably p ro duc e s a fe e l

, ,

i n g of displ e asu r e t h e m o r e e asily b ec aus e t h e id e a of som e th i n g

di s mal o r da n g e rous is as s ociat e d with d ark n e s s H e n ce .
,

although t h e m e r e s e n satio n o f black is n o t n e c e ssarily c o n n e ct e d

with n e gativ e e m otio n al to n e s t h e colou r o f b lack has b e c o m e t h e
,

symbo l Of m o ur n i n g amo n g occ id e n tal p e opl e s .

I t is probabl e tha t t h e quality o f s e n satio n s i n ge n e r al , ,

o r ig i n ally i n fl u e n c e s t h e to n e o f fe e li n g o n ly i n this i n dir e ct way

by m e a n s of th e i r associat io n with pl e as u rabl e o r pai n fu l id e as ,

an d that th e r e fo r e o n ly t h e i n t e n si ty of t h e s e n sati o n s an d th e i r

su cc e ssio n i n tim e an d spac e h av e an y d ir e c t e ff e ct upo n th e i r

1
As r e gard s c h o rd s E T A H OFF M AN N h as pro babl y tak e n t h e mo st
,
. . .

ex tre me s tan d po i n t s i n ce h e b e li e v e d t h at h e w as ab l e t o ch aract e r i z e e ac h

,

c h o r d b y a spe c i a l s tat e O f fe e li n g -fo r e xam pl e t h e c h o rd o f B - m aj o r w as

t o e x pre s s h arm l e ss j o y ; C - m aj o r wi ld d e s ire A- fl at m i n o r l o n g i n g
, , .
1 48 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sy c h o logy .

to n e o f fe e li n g A u n i ve r sal r u l e has n o t ye t b e e n fo u n d wh ic h s ha l l
.

stat e j ust w h at i n t e n sity an d w h at a rra n g e m e n t i n spac e an d tim e

roduc e fe e l i n gs o f p l e as ur e o r fe e li n gs o f pai n ; an d si n c e t h e
p
‘

i n flu e n c e o f th e s e facto r s has b e e n d e v e l o p e d phyl o g e n e tica l ly an d

will co n ti n u e t o so d e v e lop n o such rul e c an e v e r b e form u lat e d
, .

As t o t h e n atur e of e m o ti o n a l to n e s it i s O b vi o u s t h at th e y ar e t o
,

be r e gard e d as q u ali t at i ve charact e ri s tics o f t h e s e n sati o n s H e n c e .

a n oth e r qual ity a fe e l i n g o f e i th e r pl e as u r e o r pai n i s o ft e n to be

, ,

add e d to t h e q u a l iti e s o f s e n sati o n alr e ady discuss e d This n e w .

quality t h e t o n e o f fe e li n g i s capabl e of i n c r e as e i n i n t e n s i ty
, ,

qui t e t h e sam e as t h e oth e r q u a l i ti e s o f s e n satio n To mak e u se .

o f an e xplan at ory c o m pariso n wh ich i s how e v e r som e wh at i n e xact

, , ,

as to pa r ticula r s e ach s e n satio n m ay b e r e gard e d as m ix e d wit h

,

a c e rtai n p roporti o n o f bl ack o r wh it e T h e t o n e of fe e l i n g r e .

pr e s e n ts as i t w e r e a sixth s e n s e which has o n l y two qua l i ti e s

, , ,

fe e li n gs o f p l e as u r e an d fe e li n gs Of pai n or d i s pl e a s u r e O n e o f .

th e s e t wo q u a l i ti e s i s u n it e d with im pr e ssio n s r e c e iv e d fr o m t h e
oth e r s e n s e s an d u n d e r c e rtai n co n di ti o n s also wi th t h e id e as
, , ,

t h e e m o tio n al fe e li n gs n e v e r occu r whol l y i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f se n

s at i o n s or id e a s B ut apar t from th e i r d e p e n d e n cy o n oth e r
.
,

psych ical stat e s an d th e ir r e latio n t o id e as t h e s e e m oti o n a l fe e l

, ,

i n gs ar e e ss e n tia l ly disti n gu ish e d i n stil l a n o th e r i m porta n t r e sp e c t

fr om t h e p r op e r s e n satio n s Th e commo n qual ity o f s e n sati o n i s
.

d e t e rm i n e d ( 1 ) by t h e n at ure o f t h e e xt e r n a l stim ul u s E an d ( 2 ) ,

by t h e st r uct u r e o f t h e s e n so r y ap paratus (i n c lu di n g from t h e

p e r iph e r al s e n so ry o rga n t o t h e cortical c e n tr e ) that r e c e iv e s t h e
stimulus an d co n v e rts t h e E fi rst i n t o an Ep an d fi n a ll y i n to an
E c T h e simp l e st i ll ust r ati o n o f thi s is fu r n i s h e d b y t h e me c h an i
.

cal stim ul u s wh ich imparts a s e n sati o n o f p r e ss u r e wh e n app l i e d

,

to t h e ski n an d a s e n sati o n O f ligh t wh e n ap p l i e d to t h e r e ti n a .

I n n u m e r abl e qua l iti e s o f s e n satio n co rr e spo n d to t h e i n n u m e rab l e

q ual iti e s Of stimulus B u t t h e t o n e o f fe e li n g has i n g e n e ral o n l y
.

two qualiti e s — t h e fe e l i n g o f pl e asu r e an d t h e fe e li n g o f di sple a

,

su r e o r pai n Th e e m oti o n al quali ty of s e n satio n is also d e p e n

.

de n t O u t h e e xt e r n a l stim u li an d t h e s e n so ry appa r at u s bu t o n l y
t h e t wo e motio n al qualiti e s of pl e as ur abl e an d pai n fu l fe e li n gs i n ,
 1 50 I n t r o du ct i o n to P hys i o log i cal P sycho logy .

pai n Oft e n accom pa n y situa tio n s i n which a n im al l ife i s e n

da n g e r e d Accordi n gly t h e s t imul i of t h e fi rs t class g e n e r ally
.

i n ci t e app r oach t o t h e stim ulus thos e o f t h e s e co n d c l ass u rg e

,

wi thd r awal o r fligh t I t i s quit e possibl e that th is p e cul i a r

.

p r op e rty O f t h e c e r e b r al co r t e x whi ch e n a b l e s i t t o r e ac t u po n
stim ul i that ar e e ith e r g e n e r ally i n j u r ious o r us e ful with an e n ti r e ly
n e w psychical p r oc e ss o r i n oth e r words to add t h e s o -
, , ,
ca ll e d
to n e of fe e l i n g to t h e comm on s e n sati on has b e e n d e v e lop e d
,

phylog e n e tically to a h igh e r d e g re e O f e xc e ll e n c e from th e s e

m otio n s o f fl ight or appro ach I n t h e l ow e st stag e of d e v e lop
.

m e n t t h e s e n satio n d i r e c tly im parts a m oti o n that i s g e n e r ally

fi t t i n g ; i n t h e high e st stag e t h e to n e o f fe e li n g i s i n troduc e d
b e tw e e n s e n satio n an d m otio n Thi s to n e o f fe e li n g as we shal l
.
,

se e , is o f t h e gr e at e st im por ta n c e i n volu n tary ac ti o n I t is O f.

gr e a t adva n tag e to us to p o ss e ss t h e capaci ty fo r e motio n a l

t o n e s fo r t h e s e n sation its e l f g e n e r ally fur n ish e s t h e app rop r iat e
,

wa rn i n g o r allu r e m e n t but a t t h e sam e t im e by postpo n i n g t h e

, ,

ac t o f fl igh t o r app r oach tim e i s gai n e d for t h e associat io n o f

,

id e as an d t h e play o f m otiv e s Th e s e c o n clusio n s w ill b e com e

.

m o r e i n t e lligibl e as s oo n as we h av e i n v e stigat e d t h e i n fl ue n c e
'

of t h e e m otio n s upo n t h e associa t io n o f id e as an d t h e mot io n s o f

e xp r e ssio n .
 C H A P T E R VI I I .

S ENSA T I O N — I DPI A— CO N C E PTI O N .

I N t he pr e c e d i n g ch apt e rs we h av e fol l ow e d i n d e tail t h e d e v e lop

m e n t o f s e n sati o n from e xt e rn al stim u latio n N ow , w h at h e .

com e s O f t h e s e n satio n s which h av e app e are d c o rre spo n di n g t o

t h e e xcita tio n s of t h e c e r e b r al co r t e x i n t h e m a n n e r d e sc rib e d ,

an d which n o w b e c o m e facto r s i n t h e activity o f ass o ci atio n ?

L e t us at fi r s t ass u m e o n e o f t h e sim p l e st cas e s .

Th e com p l e x s e n sa ti o n o f a r os e fo r e xampl e app e ars fo r t h e

, ,

s t t i me as t h e psych ical corr e la tiv e o f an e xcitatio n i n t h e c e r e

fi r
s

bral cort e x T his s e n satio n i s fo ll ow e d a t o n c e by t h e c o n sciou s

.

play O f m oti v e s o r t h e a s soci at i o n of id e as Bu t at t h e sam e .

tim e an imag e O f t h e ros e s e e n is d e posit e d i n t h e m e mo r y o r , ,

e xp r e ss e d i n t h e la n g u ag e o f physiology a trac e o f t h e cortical ,

e xcitatio n that h as tak e n plac e i s l e ft i n t h e c e re b r al co r t e x

,
We .

ar e com p e l l e d t o c o m e to this l as t co n clusi o n by t h e fact that

we r e cog n i s e t h e ros e wh e n we se e i t agai n that we ar e abl e t o ,

r e m e mb e r it an d tha t we c an r e p r od u c e i ts imag e i n m e m o ry
,
.

This i mage of me mo ry o r me nt al i mag e that is d e posi t e d by e a ch

1
s e n satio n we hav e d e s i g n at e d as an i dea Wha t ar e t h e p sycho .

logical e l e m e n ts O f th i s imag e o f m e m ory an d by wha t e xcitatio n ,

o f t h e c e r e b ra l cort e x i s it pr o d u c e d ? T h e Old e r psych ology

pro n ou n c e d t h e id e as to be o n ly copi e s of t h e imp r e ssio n s or
s e n sati o n s an d to h e o n ly disti n g u ishab l e fr om t h e s e n satio n s by
,

1
Th e u se o f t he G e r ma n w o r d Vo rs t ellu ng in this m o re res tri ct e d se n se

was fir t i
s tro duce d by H e ge l an d h i s sc e s
n di i pl . I t h as i
s n ce be e n u di
se n the
sam e s e n s e e spe c i a lly b y L O T Z E
, .

(Acco rdi n g t o t h e stan d po i n t o f t h e au t h o r as , e x pr e s se di n h is i n tro duc tio n ,

t h e co rre s po n d i n g E n g li s h w o r d i s id e a
“
.

1 5!
 1 52 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sych o lo
gy .

t h e i r sligh t e r v ivacity T h is v i e w was e m p h asiz e d m o s t forcib l y

.

by Hum e , whos e n ot e d T r e atis e O f H u m a n Natur e ca n n ot b e

t o o w e ll r e comm e n d e d as a pr o pmde u t i c c o u rs e i n psycho l o gy .

O n t h e co n trary h o w e v e r we m u st n o w e m p h a s iz e that i m ag e s
, ,

o f m e m o ry o r id e as are qui t e di ffe r e n t from t h e s e n s ati o n s t h e m

s e l v e s T he i dea O f t h e s u n wh ich i s m e r e ly r e ca l l e d t o m e m o ry
.
, ,

has n o th i n g o f t h e b r ight n e s s o r spl e n d o u r o f co l o u rs which

ch arac t e riz e t h e r eal sun o r t h e su n w h e n s e e n T h e id e a of t h e
,
.

s u n is th e r e for e by n o m e a n s m e r e ly a fad e d su n i n this r e s p e c t

t h e gr e at E n glish philosop h e r i s m istak e n I t i s n o t a diffe r e n c e .

i n i n t e n si ty b e tw e e n t h e id e a an d t h e s e n sati o n b u t a b o v e a ll a ,

qua l i tativ e d i ffe r e c en

1
Th e sen s u al v i vacity c h ara ct e ri s tic Of
.
,

e v e ry s e n s atio n do e s n o t b e l o n g a t a ll t o t h e i d e a n o t e v e n i n a
, ,

dimi n ish e d i n t e n s ity T h e i deas o f t h e sl ig h t e s t r u stli n g an d O f

.

t h e l o u d e s t th u n d e r th e r e fo r e e x h i b i t n o di ffe r e n c e i n i n t e n sity
, ,

what e v e r i n fact all s e n s u a l vivacity i s wa n ti n g i n b oth H e n c e

,
.

w e co n clud e t h at t h e d i ffe r e n t i n t e n siti e s c h arac t e ri s tic O f t h u n

de r an d r ustli n g as s e n satio n s ar e lost i n t h e id e as We m ay .

e asily hav e an id e a o f t h e gr e at e r i n t e n sity o f o n e s e n sati o n b u t ,

t h e id e a i ts e lf i s n o m o r e i n t e n s e o n that acc o u n t I f we try t o .

i m agi n e t h u n d e r e v e r so vivid l y we do n o t h e ar t h e s l ig h t e st
rol l i n g . B u t i n wha t d o e s t h e qu a l i tativ e di ffe r e n c e b e twe e n
s e n satio n an d id e a co n s ist ? O r t o p u t t h e qu e s ti o n i n a n o th e r ,

fo r m what pr o c e ss tak e s plac e wh e n a s e n satio n d i s app e ars an d

,

its imag e is d e p o sit e d i n m e mory ? Apart from t h e rar e ph e

n o me n a o f
“
a ft e r imag e s t h e s e n s ati o n ge n e ra ll y disapp e a rs
- ”

a l m o st i n sta n tly u po n t h e r e m oval O f t h e sti m u l u s B u t wi th thi s .

r e m o va l o f t h e stimulus t h e cortica l e xci tat i o n i s n o t who lly

obli t e rat e d fo r t h e c e re b r al cort e x n e v e r fu l ly r e t u r n s to i t s
,

pr e vious c o n ditio n ; som e sort o f mat e rial c h a n g e sti ll r e mai n s

as a t rac e a sig n (m ur de r ) as P lat o ca ll s i t 2 T his s o -
, ,
cal l e d .

1
A l so B AI N (
“
Th e S e n se s an d the I t
n e ll e ct ,
”
3 rd e d ) e n e s t he
. d i q uali ta
t ive di ff r
e e n ce b e twe e n t h e se ns at i o n an d i ts i '
mage i n m e m o ry H is . vi e ws
ar e n o t b as e d on s uffi ci en t g ro u n d s h o we v e r
, .

11
BE N K E E (
“
L ehrb . de r P syc h o l o g i e als N at ur w is se n sc h .
, 2n d cd .
,
1 8 4 5,
1 54 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

ill u st r at e th is by compa r i n g t h e ga n gl io n -c e lls to t h e wh e e l s s tars , ,

m o n og ram s an d o th e r fig u r e s form e d o u t Of gas- p ip e s a s we s e e

,

th e m us e d i n i l l u m i n atio n s U n l it th e y re s e mbl e t h e s o -cal l e d

.
,

l at e n t im ag e s o f m e m o ry t h e d isposit ion is alre ady th e re i n t h e

fo r m s t ructu r e e t c B u t a spark m us t fi r st ligh t t h e gas that
, , .

e scap e s from t h e i n n um e rabl e hol e s o f t h e pip e s i n o rd e r that,

t h e l at e n t form m ay b e com e a l ivi n g r e ali ty . I t ca n n o t b e t o o

urg e n tly e m ph asiz e d that t h e s e n sat io n i n t h e psych ical sph e r e
c o rre sp o n ds to t h e e xcitatio n o f t h e c e re b r al cort e x i mpa r t e d b y
t h e stim ul us b u t th at n o t h i ng o f a p sych ical n atur e c o r r e spo n ds
,

t o t h e r e sidu e o f this m at e r ial e xci tat io n . T h e d e s ig n ati o n

“
l at e n t i mag e o f m e m o ry i s v e ry co n v e n i e n t b u t i t co n tai n s a
,

co n t r ad ictio n O n ly e ith e r a n e w an d s im ila r s e n sat io n o r t h e

.

associ atio n of id e as c an so ch an g e th is r e sid u e o f t h e m at e r ial

e xcitatio n as to prod u c e a co n comi ta n t psychical p r oc e ss a c o n ,

scio u s i mag e o f m e mory o r an id e a I n t h e futur e we sh all Oft e n

.

d e sig n at e th e s e m at e rial t r ac e s o r disposit io n s s imply as imag e s

of m e mory b u t o n l y fo r t h e sak e o f b r e vi ty , an d a l ways wi th t h e
,

r e st r icti o n j ust m e n tion e d .

L e t us n o w follow t h e sam e p r oc e ss a l so physiologica l ly O n .

s e e i n g a r os e i n n u m e r a b l e n e r v e -e n ds o f t h e r e ti n a ar e irritat e d
, ,

an d i n n u m e r abl e fi b r e s O f t h e opti c n e rv e tra n smi t t h e e xcitatio n

to t h e visual c e n tr e i n t h e occipital lo b e of t h e c e r e b r um I t is .

v e ry p r obabl e that t h e r e lati o n s o f t h e r e ti n a ar e t o a c e rtai n e x

t e n t r e p r oduc e d i n t h e visual c e n tr e so th at t h e s u p e rior m argi n
,

o f t h e r e ti n a fo r e xam pl e
, c o rr e spo n ds t o t h e a n t e rior m argi n of
,

t h e v isual c e n tr e e t c ,
Wh e n t h e r os e is s e e n n umb e rl e ss gan
.
,

g l i o n -c e lls ar e e xci t e d i n de fi n it e r e gio n s o f t h e visual c e n t r e that

co rr e spo n d to t h e ir r itat e d portio n s of t h e r e ti n a T o t h is e xci ta
.

t io n o f n u m e ro u s ga n gl io n -c e lls co r r e spo n ds t h e vis u al s e n sa tio n .

B u t n o w wh e r e i s t h e m e n tal imag e o f th is s e n sa tio n of sight

d e posit e d ? I n t h e s am e e l e m e n ts wh o s e e xcitatio n p r od u c e d
t h e s e n satio n ? P hysiol o gical p sych ol o gy c an a fford t o qui e tly
awai t t h e a n sw e r o f physi o logy an d pa th o logy to thi s q u e s ti o n ;
i ts co n cl usi o n s harm o n i z e j ust a s w e ll wi th t h e suppositio n that
s e n satio n an d id e a ar e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e s am e corti cal e l e m e n ts
 S e n s at i o n —I de a C o n ce pt i o n . 1 55

as with t h e con t ra r y suppositio n N e v e rth e l e ss for t h e sak e of

.
,

cl e a rn e ss i t is advi sabl e to adopt o n e o r t h e oth e r o f th e s e t wo

,

supposition s as a basis i n t h e fo l lowi n g r e s e arch e s Th e r e fo r e i f .

,

we assum e i n t h e futu r e that s e n satio n an d id e a d e p e n d u po n

def e r en t c o r ti c al e l e m e n ts 1 i t i s b e ca u s e th is s u pp o sitio n s e e m s
'

t o co rr e spo n d b e tt e r to t h e physiological an d pathologica l sci e n c e

of t o day For e xam pl e i t h as b e e n show n that t h e e xt irpatio n

.
,

o f a d e fi n it e p o r tio n o f t h e vis u al c e n tr e o f a do g o r also t h e

.
,

dis e as e o f d e fi n i t e pa r ts o f t h e hum a n o ccipita l l o be pr o duc e s t h e

c o n ditio n o f s o -c al l e d m e n tal bli n d n e ss i n oth e r w o rds t h e
a n im al o n which t he a b o v e -m e n tio n e d o p e ratio n i s p e rform e d
an d t h e d is e a s e d h u m a n b e i n g stil l c o n t i n u e to see as app e a r s ,

from t h e fact that th e y fol l o w o bj e cts h e ld b e fore th e m wi th t h e

e y e s an d avo id Obstacl e s p l ac e d i n t h e way ; b u t th e y n o lo n g e r
,

r eco n i se w h at th e y se e
g T h e d og n o lo n g e r cr o uch e s b e fo r e t h e
.

th re at e n i n g wh ip n o r dodg e s t h e sto n e t hr o w n a t h i m ; t h e m an
,

sta r e s at t h e m ost fam i l i a r o bj e cts o f h is e n viro n m e n t as i f th e y

w e re wh ol l y u n k n ow n to hi m an d r e cog n is e s th e m o n ly wh e n h e
t o u ch e s th e m T his co di ti o n o m e tal l i d e ss witho u t
. n f n b n n
2

physical bli n d n e ss as a ls o t h e a n a l ogo u s co n ditio n of m e n tal

,

d e afn e ss wi thou t physical d e a fn e ss m us t i n fact be e xplai n e d by

,

t h e assum ptio n that t h e s e n satio n s an d t h e im ag e s o f m e m o ry ar e

d e p e n d e n t o n s e pa ra t e e l e m e n t s o f t h e cort e x Th o s e wh o wish .

to i n v e stigat e this v e ry i n t e r e sti n g q u e stio n m o r e partic ul ar l y c an

r e fe r t o t h e com p e t e n t tr e at is e s Of M u n k Ma u th n e r N oth n ag e l , , ,

Wi lb r an d an d o th e r s 3 .

1
Th e an t i quate d id e a O f S C H RO E D ER VO N DER KO LK w hich h as re ce n t ly ,

be e n ad o pt e d agai n b y t h e s ch o o l o f M e y n e rt (Vi e n n a ) d o e s n o t pl ace t h e se at

,

o f se n sat i o n i n t h e ce r e b ra l c o r t e x o r at l e as t o n l y
, partl y I t s ub s tit u t e s fo r t h e
.

l atte r e i th e r e x c lu s ive l y o r i n part t h e c o rpo ra q uadr ige m i n a Th e fi rs t o f

, , .

t h e se t w o su ppo s i t i o n s i s wh o lly i n c o m pat i b l e w i t h m o re re c e n t pat h o l o gi ca l

e x pe r i e n ce s ; t h e s e co n d can o n l y b e m ad e t o agre e w i t h t h e m w i t h di fficul ty

(co m pare a l so C h apt e rs I an d I I ) .

9
Th e case s o f t h e l o ss O f vi sua l ph an tasy d e sc ri b e d b y C HA RCO T ar e al so
, ,

wo rt h y o f m e n t i o n .

3
M U N K U e be r di e F u n ct i o n e n de r G r o ssh i r n ri n de Be rli n 1 8 8 1
M
, , ,

AU I H N E R,
’ ‘
Wi en . me d . Wo c h e n sch r .
, 1 880 ; WI L B RAN D , Di e S ee l en
1 56 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sycho logy .

We ass u m e th e r e fo r e that ,
s e n satio n O f t h e ros e is p r o
, the

duc e d i n c e r tai n ga n glio n - c e l ls an d t h at th e s e n u m e ro us se n so ry ,

cells tra n sm i t th e ir e xcitatio n fu rth e r t o o n e oth e r ga n g l io n - ce l l a ,

m e mo ry- ce ll
1
H e n c e i f a b c d e f r e p r e s e n t ga n g l i o n -c e lls o f
.
, , , , ,

t h e vi s u a l c e n tr e to which t h e fibr e s o f t h e Optic n e r v e l e ad an d ,

i f t h e r o s e fo r e xampl e e xc it e s o n ly thos e fi br e s o f t h e Optic

, ,

n e rv e which l e ad t o t h e ga n gli o n - c e ll s b c d t h e visual s e n sa ti o n , , ,

o f t h e r o s e corr e spo n ds t o t h e ac tua l m at e rial e xci ta tio n of t h e

a n g l io n -
ce l l s b c d As soo n as t h e r o s e disa pp e ars t h e
g , , .
,

m at e ri a l e xcitati o n Of t h e c e lls b c d i s e xti n g u ish e d an d a t t h e , ,

s am e tim e t h e co n com ita n t s e n s atio n va n ish e s O n ly a p ar t o f .

t h e m at e r i al e x c i t at i o n s o f b c an d d i s s e cur e d i n t h e dista n t ,

g a n g l io n c e l l I w h e r e i t l e av e s a m e r e ly m at e rial trac e o r cha n ge

-
,

t h e i mag e o f m e mory I n a m a n n e r whi ch we sh a l l d e scrib e lat e r

.

mor e e xact l y thi s i m ag e o f m e mory b e com e s p sych ica ll y activ e

,

o n ly wh e n we s e e t h e ro s e agai n o r wh e n i t is r e prod uc e d by t h e ,

as s o ciati o n o f id e as L e t u s r e m e m be r tha t thi s sc h e m e i s by n o

.

m e a n s t h e o n l y o n e c o n c e i v ab l e b u t i t is t h e o n e m o s t i n h a r ,

m o n y with p r e s e n t sci e n tific k n o w l e dg e We shal l ours e l v e s b e .

abl e t o ap p l y all t h e fol l o wi n g disc u ssi o n s wi th o u t diffi c u l ty to

an y o th e r sch e m e fo r th e y ar e e s s e n tially i n d e p e n d e n t o f th i s or
,

a n y o t h e r physio l ogica l h yp o t h e s i s .

L e t u s n o w co n ti n u e o u r disc u ssi o n s til l r e tai n i n g s o m e de :

fi n it e s e n sib l e Obj e c t such as t h e r o s e fo r e xampl e from wh ich to

, , ,

proc e e d Th e r o s e n o t o n ly prod u c e s a s e n satio n o f sigh t an d i t s

.

pro p e r imag e o f m em o ry t h e vi s u al id e a b u t its fragra n c e als o , ,

prod u c e s a s e n sati o n O f sm e ll an d i t s s o ft l e av e s produc e a se n ,

s atio n o f t o u c h T h e s e s e n satio n s a l s o l e av e imag e s o f m e m ory

.
,

a n id e a o f sm e ll an d an id e a o f t o u ch ,
H e n c e at l e ast th re e .
,

i mag e s o f t h e r o s e d i ffe r e n t i n qua l ity ar e d e p o sit e d i n m e mory

, , ,

c o rr e sp o n di n g t o t h e n u m b e r o f se n sual orga n s upo n wh ich t h e

b li dh i t als H e r de r s c h e i n un g ,
”
\Vi e s b ade n , 1 88 7 ; N OT H NA G L E Vo rtrag
r M
n e , .

auf de m VI . C o n
g re ss
e di c i n ft i r i
R E IN HA R D Arc h f P s ychi atr i c
nne e , . . ,

X VI I an d X VI I I L I S S A U E R Arch f P sychi atri e X X I ,

. .
,
.

1 x r
Th e e p e s s i o n
“
m e mo ry-ce ll s s o far as we k n o w o rigi n ate s w i t h , ,

H O RW I C Z P s ych o lo g An al yse n I S 2 8 7 ff
,
. , ,
. .
 1 58 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sych o lo
gy .

frqu e n t si multa n e o u s app e ara n c e o f t h e th re e com po n e n t imag e s

e ,

i f b is e xcit e d a an d c ar e a l so always e xcit e d sym path e tically

, .

W h e n w e disc u ss t h e laws o f associati o n i n a fut u r e chapt e r (I X ) we ,

s h a l l l e ar n why o n l y t h e c e lls a an d c ar e sympath e tical l y e xcit e d

b y b with wh ich th e y hav e oft e n b e e n simul ta n e o usly activ e ,

alth ough b c an b e sh o w n to be co n n e c t e d by associativ e fi b re s

with m a n y oth e r ga n g l io n -c e lls Fo r t h e pr e s e n t i t is su fl i c i e n t t o .
‘

k n ow that t h e compo n e n t id e as o f an o bj e ct o f s e n s e ar e d e posit e d

i n d i ffe r e n t pa r ts o f t h e brai n t h a t th e s e co m po n e n t id e as ar e ,

1
co n e ct e d with o
n n e a oth e r by associativ e fibr e s an d that th e r e
n ,

fo r e i f o n e o f th e s e c o m po n e n t i d e as app e a r s t h e o t h e rs ar e
, ,

call e d i n to ac ti o n by associatio n Th e totality o f t h e com po n e n t .

id e as thus associat e d wit h o n e a n o t h e r co n stitut e s t h e i d e a o f t h e

o bj e ct Th e id e a
.
“
r os e th e re for e i s n o t simpl e b u t com pl e x
, , ,

i t s u n ity d e p e n di n g m e r e ly o n t h e r e cip r o cal ass o ciatio n o f i ts

com po n e n t parts B u t la n guag e fur n ish e s u s with a n o th e r u n ity
.

for th e s e compl e x i d e as o f s e n sua l Obj e cts Th us far t h e i d e as .

wi th which we hav e b e c om e acquai n t e d ar e e n tir e ly i n d e p e n d e n t

o f la n guag e an d th e r e for e pr o bably b e l o n g als o
, to t h e l ow e r
a n ima l s B ut m an n am e s his id e as ; we a rt ic ul at e t h e wo r d
.

“
ros e i n co n n e ctio n with t h e c o mpl e x id e a a b ov e d e sc r ib e d
”
.

I n oth e r wo r ds we e x e c u t e a p e culia r combi n atio n o f m otio n s o f

,

t h e la r y n x , lips t o n gu e an d palat e with t h e r e sult that a n oth e r

, ,

p e r so n h e a r s us articulat e t h e wo r d “
r os e We hav e alre ady
”
.

b e com e acquai n t e d with an id e a of m ot io n as t h e caus e of e v e ry

v o lu n ta ry actio n Fo r e xampl e t h e i d e a O f a m otio n us e d i n
.
,

gr asp i n g t h e pe n com e s i n to t h e m i n d an d wi tho u t fu rth e r impuls e

we s e i z e t h e pe n I n a sim ila r m an n e r we m us t co n c e iv e
.

o f t h e i deas of articulatio n as t h e caus e o f t h e motio n s of

sp e e ch Th e s e id e as o f a r tic u l atio n ar e m e n tal i mag e s t ha t hav e

.

b e e n labo r iously acqui r e d by t h e r e p e titio n o f t h e m o tio n s n e c e s

sa r y fo r sp e e ch 2 This assum pti o n has r e c e iv e d a v e ry d e cid e d
.

1
B A T d ig at th i a ciat iv c
H ER R es n es s sso e onne ct i o n o f co mpo n e n t id e as
, im
part d b y di ff r t m pli cat i
”
e e en se n s e s , as co on .

T h c tradicti
11
t h at
e m t on b c on se e s o e on ta i n e d in t hi s state me n t w ill be
ex pl ai d i a ub q u t ch apt r (XII I )
ne n s se en e .
 S e n s at i o n —I d a C e o n ce pt i o n . 1 59

c o n fi r matio n from pathology I f t h e p o rti o n o f t h e b r ai n r e pr e

.

s e n t e d by t h e hatch e d spo t i n t h e drawi n g is d e st r oy e d we ,

Obs e rv e a r e markabl e ph e n o m e n o n T h e p e r so n t h us a fflict e d .

still r e tai n s com ma n d of al l his s e n s u a l id e as ; h e sti l l u n d e r sta n d s

w h a t we say t o him ; h e m o v e s t h e t o n gu e t h e l ary n x t h e l ips , , ,

an d t h e p a l at e t h e sam e as b e fo r e t h e app e ara n c e Of t h e d is e as e .

B ut h e has ir r e t r i e vably lost t h e d e l icat e com b i n atio n o f m ov e

m e n ts p e r form e d by t h e to n gu e lary n x l ips an d pa l at e n e c e ssa ry, , , ,

fo r t h e a r t icu l atio n O f an y word — “

ros e ”
fo r e xam pl e Th e ,
.

m e n ta l i mag e s o r id e as O f his m oti o n s o f articulati o n hav e b e e n

d e s tr o y e d .

T h e s e id e as of a r ticulatio n wh ich c an b e s h own to b e d e posit e d

,

i n t h e post e ri o r i n fe rio r part of t h e fr o n ta l co n v o lutio n (at d fig

, ,
.

ar e co n n e ct e d with t h e com p o n e n t id e as of an o bj e ct of

s e n s e by t h e associat iv e fibr e s T hu s fo r e xam pl e as t h e ac c o m

.
,

pa n yi n g illustratio n shows u s t h e ga n g l io n -c e lls a b c i n which , , , ,

t h e c o m p o n e n t id e as o r i mag e s o f m e m o ry
, o f t h e fr ag r a n c e , ,

co l our an d form of t h e r o s e ar e d e posi t e d ar e n o t o n l y co n n e ct e d

,
1
,

wi th o n e a n oth e r by paths b u t also w ith a si n gl e ga n glio n -

,
c e ll o r
compl e x o f ga n g l io n -c e l l s sit u at e d i n t he fr o n tal l o b e an d c o n
tai n i n g t h e com plicat e d id e a of m otio n n e c e s s a r y fo r t h e ar ticu l a ,

ti o n o f t h e wo r d r o s e ”
I n t h e d rawi n g we d isti n g u ish all t h e
.

co r tica l e l e m e n ts that sta n d i n r e latio n to s p e e ch by t h e shadi n g .

T h e sam e fac ts that charact e riz e d t h e com p o n e n t id e as a b c i n , ,

th e i r r e latio n s to o n e a n oth e r al so charact e riz e t h e id e a o f ar t ic u

l atio n d i n i t s r e lati o n s to a b an d e A s s o o n as a b o r c appe ar s
, .
, ,

d t h e word fo r t h e thi n g s e e n s m e l t o r fe l t o ccu r s t o us an d

, , ,

vi ce ver sa Th e id e a o f artic ul ati o n d is e s p e c ia ll y adapt e d to b e

.

a h igh e r u n ity fo r t h e th re e com po n e n t id e a s b e caus e i t is ,

u n ifo r mly an d di re ctly co n n e ct e d with th e s e th re e id e as witho u t ,

be i n g its e lf a comp o n e n t id e a imm e d iat e ly d e p e n d e n t o n a sp e ci al

o bj e ct o f s e n s e H e n c e its g e n e ral charac t e r
. .

But t h e id e a o f a r ticulatio n d do e s n o t co n stitut e t h e su m total

1
I n the case o f an O act i n g al so u po n o u r se n se s o f
bj e c t h e ari n g an d tast e ,

o f co ur se , t wo mo re c o mpo n e n t id e as wo u ld b e add e d .
 1 60 I n t r o du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

o f all t h e e l e m e n ts o f sp e e c h r e lat e d t o t h e wh o l e id e a r o s e “
.

W h e n we h ear t h e word r o se we u n d e rsta n d what t h e w o rd

,
”

m e a n s an d t h e col o u r fo rm an d fragra n c e o f t h e r o s e o cc u r t o u s
’

, , .

T h e r e fo re an im ag e O f t h i s s e n sati o n o f h ear i ng t h e word which

w e h av e h e ard sp o k e n by a n oth e r m u st e xist i n t h e c e r e b ra l
c o rt e x an d b e i n c o n n e cti o n wit h a b c an d d I t is o b v i o u s tha t
, , .

t h is “
acoustic im ag e o f t h e w o rd r o s e o r t h e id e a o f t h e
” “
,

s p o k e n w o rd r o s e which we h a v e h ear d i s t o b e so u gh t i n t h e
,

a u ditory c e n tr e i n t h e t e m poro -sph e n o ida l lo be I n fac t th e r e i s .

q u it e a d e fi n it e r e gi o n i n t h e s u p e rior t e mp o r al co n v o lu ti o n a t c ,

t h e d e str u ctio n o f wh ich b y dis e a s e l e av e s a ll t h e fu n cti o n s o f

t h e h u m a n b rai n i n cl u di n g sp e aki n g an d h e ari n g i n tact with t h e
, ,

e xc e p ti o n t h at t h e abi l ity t o co mpr e h e n d w o r ds is r e m o v e d A .

p e rs o n i n w h o m t h e r e gi o n a t c has b e com e d is e a s e d s till h e ars

w o rds that ar e spok e n t o h im v e ry w e l l b u t do e s n o t u n d e r s t a n d
,

w h at h e h e ars O n c e fam i l iar word s sou n d t o h i m as i f th e y

.

b e lo n g e d t o a fo re ig n la n g u ag e ; b u t i f h e s e e s t h e sam e w o rd s
writt e n h e k n o ws at o n c e what th e y m e a n Evid e n t l y t h is i n
,
.

d ividual has l o s t t h e aco u stic imag e s o f m e m ory that o n c e gav e

h im t h e pow e r o f r e cog n i s i n g w o rds i n t h e la n guag e O f a n at o my ,

y c e ll s bu t r e tai n e d t h e aco u s tic

he has lo s t t h e ac o ustic m e m o r -
,

s en sat i o n -c e ll s h e i s me n t ally d e af t o words H e n c e t h e com p l e x

.

id e a r os e i s sti l l fu rth e r a id e d by t h e id e a o f t h e sp o k e n w o rd
“ ” “

as h e ard ( e) t h e l att e r id e a i s c o n n e ct e d wi th a b c an d d an d , , ,

also co n tribut e s towa r ds e stablish i n g a u n ity fo r th e s e partia l

id e as Thi s e xp l a n atio n c an be ca rr i e d sti l l fu rth e r t h e e du ca t e d
.

p e r so n h as a vi s u al id e a (f) of t h e word which h e has r e ad t h e ,

a n atom ical locati o n O f w h ich is also com pa r ativ e ly w e ll e stabl ish e d ,

an d an i d e a (g ) o f t h e m o ti o n us e d i n w r i ti n g t h e w o r d B o th o f .

th e s e id e as m u st b e tak e n i n to co n sid e r ati o n H owe v e r i t i s n o t

.
,

n e c e ssary h e r e t o co n ti n u e t h e d iscussio n o f th e s e com po n e n t

id e as fu r th e r fo r a n alogo u s d e d u ctio n s c an be mad e i n e ac h cas e

,

wi thout di ffic ul ty .

We c an s u m u p t h e for e goi n g d e l i b e ratio n s as foll o ws — The

i d e a r os e c o n sists o f th r e e partia l o r com po n e n t id e as co rr e
“ ”
,

s po n di n g to t h e sam e n u mb e r o f qual itativ e ly di fl e r e n t s e n satio n s

'
1 62 I n t r o du c t i o n to P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

frag r a n c e e t c but wi th diffe r e n t s urr o u n di n gs T h e s e r e p e at e d

,
.
,
.

e xp e r i e n c e s ar e s u fli c i e n t to prod u c e a s om e wh at m o r e g e n e r a l

co n c e pti o n o f t h e r ose i n t h e c e r e bral corte x an d t o ass o ciat e i t

with a word o r m o r e co rr e ct l y with id e as Of la n guag e A m u ch
"

.
, ,

gre at e r g e n e rali zatio n is r e quisit e fo r t h e d e p o sitio n o f t h e far

m o r e g e n e ral co n c e ptio n plan t i n t h e c e r e b ral c o rt e x a
“ ”
n d its

ass o ciati o n with id e as of sp e e ch Th e most of th e s e m or e

.

g e n e r al co n c e p tion s ar e p r o d u c e d i n t h e fo ll o wi n g m a n n e r .

Exp e ri e n c e fur n ish e s t h e c e r e bral c o rt e x with n u m e ro u s co n cr e t e

i n divid ual co n c e ptio n s co n si s ti n g o f s e v e r al com po n e n t id e as fo r ,

e xampl e t h e co n cr e t e co n c e pti o n s o f tulip r o s e o ak e t c

,
D e sp ite
, , ,
.

g r e at di ffe re n c e s som e o f t h e p artial i d e as o f th e s e si n gl e c o n c e p

,

ti o n s e ith e r poss e ss c e r tai n simila r iti e s o r th e y ar e e n ti r e l y al ik e

,
.

Th e r e fo r e acc o rd i n g t o a law O f ass o ci atio n with wh ich we shall

,

b e com e m or e e xactly acq u ai n t e d l at e r th e s e sim i l ar id e as b e com e

,

ass o ciat e d with o n e a n o th e r Fo r e xam pl e a l l h av e t h e gr e e n

.
,

c o lo u r o f t h e l e av e s i n com m o n T h e re fo re wh il e t h e c o m po n e n t
.
,

i d e as o f t h e ros e t o ge th e r co n s t it u t e a v e ry c o m pact comp l e x wi th

which t h e w o rd r os e is associat e d t h e totality o f t h e c o n c r e t e
”
,

co n c e ptio n s o f r os e t ul ip Oak an d n um b e rl e ss oth e r p l an ts

, , , ,

c o n stit u t e s a far m o re c o mpr e h e n siv e b u t l e ss compact o r d e fi n it e

“
c ompl e x wi th which t h e word pla n t i s associat e d Th e .

app e ara n c e o f t h e co n c e p tio n p l a n t i n co n scious n e s s i s a l s o

“ ”

a ccompa n i e d ( 1 ) by t h e ap p e a r a n c e of t h e li n g u istic id e as of t h e

word p l a n t both as spok e n an d h e ard (2 ) b y t h e sy m path e ti c

“ ”
,

e xcitatio n o f t h e i n n um e rabl e com p o n e n t id e as b e lo n gi n g to t h e

c o n cr e t e id e as o f al l si n gl e pla n ts o r as i t has oft e n b e e n e x

,

pr e ss e d b y th e i r sym path e tic vi bratio n

,
“ ”
F o r th is r e as o n t h e
.

m o re g e n e ra l c o n cr e t e c o n c e p ti o n s ar e n o t so sim pl e as has b e e n
p r e s u m e d o n t h e co n t rary t h e m o r e g e n e ral a c o n cr e t e c o n c e p
,

t i o n is t h e gr e at e r is t h e n u mb e r o f lo o s e ly as s ociat e d si n g l e
, ,

id e as which i t sympath e tica ll y e xci t e s wh e n e v e r i t app e a rs i n

co n sci o u s n e ss an d h e n c e t h e gr e at e r i s i ts com pl e xity
,
An .

appa r e n t u n ity is o n ly fu r n ish e d by t h e id e a Of t h e o n e wo r d w ith

wh ich all t h e s e i n divid u a l id e as ar e associ at e d H e n c e wh e n we .

thi n k O f pla n t an d apar t from t h e word e n d e avou r to d e fi n e

“ ”
, , ,
 S e n s at i o n — I de a C n c pt i o n
o e . 1 63

t he c o n t e n t o f th is co n c e pti o n mor e acc u rat e l y d e fi n it e i n di v id u a l

,

pla n t s app e ar b e fo r e t h e m i n d s e ye at o n c e t h o u gh s o m e w h at
’

i n di s ti n ct l y Th e s e ar e i n fact th o se v e ry i n divid u al id e as t h at
.

w e r e sym pat h e tica ll y e xcit e d by t h e app e ara n c e o f t h e c o n c e pti o n ,

an d e sp e cia ll y th o s e that we h av e m e t with m o st fr e q u e n t l y an d ,

whic h th e r e fo r e act m o s t forcib l y H e n c e a phy s io l ogica l pr o c e ss

.

that e xt e n ds ov e r a l m o st t h e e n tir e c e r e bral c o rt e x c o rr e spo n ds t o

t h e act o f t h i n ki n g a c o n cr e t e g e n e ra l c o n c e pti o n ; t h e e xt e n t O f

thi s phy s i o l o gica l pr o c e s s is m u c h g re at e r t h a n t h at acc o mpa n yi n g

t h e th o u gh t o f a co n cr e t e i n di v id u al c o n c e pti o n Fo r t h i s r e as o n
.

t h e id e as O f w o rd s b o th as artic ul at e d an d h e ard ar e o f g r e at e r
, ,

imp o rta n c e t o t h e m o r e g e n e ral c o n c e pti o n s tha n to t h e m ore

s p e ci fi c c o n c e p ti o n s .T h e l o o s e c o m p l e x o f id e as co n stit u ti n g
t h e fo rm e r wo ul d n o t h o ld t o g e t h e r with o u t t h e c o m m o n b o n d o f

c o n n e ct io n b e twe e n t h e c o m po n e n t id e a s w h ich is fu r n i s h e d by
t h e id e a o f t h e w o rd T h e m a n n e r i n which we acq u ir e c o n cr e t e
.

g e n e ral c o n c e ptio n s g o e s far t o wards pr o vi n g t h is pr e s e n tati o n .

As ch ild r e n we o ft e n s e e a r o s e a t ul ip o r an oak ; at t h e s am e
,

tim e we h e ar t h e word pla n t pr o n o u n c e d an d we r e p e at it

“
, .

T hus b o th a m o tor an d an aco u stic id e a o f s p e e ch ar e fo r me d

an d associat e d with n u m e ro u s c o n cr e t e i n d i v idual id e as al l o f
wh ich hav e a c e rtai n simi l arity to o n e a n oth e r d e spit e al l di ff e r
e n ce s. Th e e n tir e sy s t e m Of t h e s e as s ociati o n s o f c o n cr e t e
i n d ivid u al c o n c e pti o n s with t h e id e a o f t h e o n e w o rd appl i e d to
,

al l co n stit ut e s t h e ge n er al co n cr e t e c o n c e pti o n pla n t

, .

A n ot h e r particu l a r ki n d o f c o n cr e t e c o n c e ptio n s c o n sists o f

thos e wh ich ar e pr o d u c e d by associati n g t h e id e a o f a si n gl e
word with a s e ri e s o f succ e s siv e co n cr e t e id e as To t h e s e h e .

l o n g s t h e c o n cre t e c o n c e pti o n thu n d e rstorm fo r e xampl e ; i t

“ ”
,

c o m pre h e n ds a s e ri e s o f vis u al an d acou s tic id e a s r e pr e se n ti n g

e v e n t s that do n o t a ll o cc u r sim u l ta n e o u sly b u t i n p art succ e s
,

s i ve ly
.

As we hav e s e e n c o n cr e t e co n c e ptio n s co n sist e i th e r of com

,

pl e x e s o f id e a s o r o f a succ e ssio n o f s u ch com p l e x e s that ar e

,

ass o ciat e d with an i d e a o f sp e e ch T h e s e com pl e x e s of id e as ar e

.

all di re ct l y d e riv e d fr o m c e r tai n s e n satio n s ; for e xa m p l e t h e ,

1 64 I n t r o du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i ca l Psych o logy .

co n cr e t e co n c e pti o n o f a th u n d e r s to r m m ay b e r e duc e d to a
succ e ssi o n of id e atio n al com pl e x e s —d ark- gre y cl o u d s r ai n light , ,

n ing ,
th u n d e r e t c A l l o f th e s e id e ati o n al comp l e x e s fu rth e r
,
.

co n sist Of id e as produc e d d i r e ct l y by s e n sati o n s fo r e xam pl e t h e ,

com pl e x rai n c o n sists o f t h e com po n e n t ac o u stic id e a acqui r e d

“ ”
,

by h avi n g h e ard t h e patt e ri n g o f t h e rai n an d t h e vis u a l id e a , ,

acqui r e d by h avi n g s e e n t h e fa ll i n g drops .

I n t h e co n cr e t e co n c e p ti o n s with which we hav e th u s far h e

com e acq u ai n t e d a l l t h e c o m p o n e n t id e as r e fe r d ir e ct l y t o t h e
s e n sati o n s. Al l c o n c e p ti o n s also tha t e xp r e ss t h e r e l atio n s O f
c o n cr e t e obj e cts to o n e a n oth e r m ay b e d ir e ct l y r e fe rr e d t o se n
s at i o n s a n d ar e th e r e for e to b e c o n sid e r e d as co n cr e t e c o n c e p
‘

t i o n s i n t h e s e n s e u n d e r s to o d by us h e r e L e t u s tak e t h e c o n
.

c e t io n
p sim i l arity ”
f o r e xa m p l e O n i n n u m e rabl e occasio n s
.
,

wh e n t h e c h i l d s e e s two o r m o r e s imi l a r Obj e ct s i t b e ar s t h e ,

word s imi l a r pro n o u n c e d p e r h ap s at firs t wit h r e fe r e n c e t o t wo

“
,

sim ilar play-th i n gs I n t h e b e gi n n i n g t h e child h as s im i l ar

.

s e n s atio n s fro m both obj e cts b u t as ye t k n o ws n ot h i n g ab o u t t h is

,

sim ilarity o f i ts s e n sati o n s T h e n i t h e ar s t h e word simi l ar i n

.
“ ”

r e fe r e n c e t o t h e two pl ayth i n gs fo r t h e fi r st tim e T h e w o rd .

“ ” “
similar at fi r s t sign i fi e s t o t h e ch ild o n ly th os e t wo d e fi n it e
s im ilar p l ayt h i n g s B ut t h e ch ild h e ars t h e w o rd si m ila r
” “
.

fr e q u e n t l y o n oth e r occasi o n s ; i t h e ars t wo sim i l ar tr e e s two ,

sim i l ar h o us e s e t c d e s ig n at e d as sim ilar I n o th e r w o rd s t h e

,
.
,
.
,

c h i l d s id e a o f t h e w o r d
’ “
si mi l ar b e co m e s a s s o ci at e d wi t h
”

i n n u m e rab l e pai r s o f sim ilar co n cr e t e imag e s o f m e m o ry Th e .

s i m i l arity t h at o rigi n al l y sig n i fi e s t o t h e

”
id e a o f t h e w o rd ,

ch i l d t wo d e fi n i t e si m i l a r p l ayt h i n gs gradua ll y cha n g e s as m or e

“
,

an d m o r e o f th e s e di fl e r e n t p airs o f sim ilar id e as ar e associat e d

wi t h i t Th e u l timat e r e s ul t is t h e id e a O f a word t h a t i s as so ci
.

at e d with n um e r o us pairs o f simila r id e as wh o s e sp e ci fic co n t e n t

( p l ayt h i n g s tr e e s e t c
, , ) i t h as e
. n tir e l y lo s t T h e c o n t e n t of t h e
.

id e a sim i l ar t h u s fi n al l y d e p e n d s m e r e l y u po n t h e fac t t h a t
”

c e rtai n pairs o f i d e as ar e simi l a r S uch c o n cr e t e c o n c e p ti o n s w e

.

s h a ll d e sig n at e as co n cr e t e co n cept i o n s cf r elat i o n We h av e j u st .

s e e n h o w t h e chi l d t h e i n d ivid u al acqui r e s t h e s e co n cr e t e c o n c e p

, ,
 1 66 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

e xp e ri e n c e d an d which produc e d t h e id e as I n fac t t h e combi .

,

n atio n o f i d e as is m e r e l y a co n s e q u e n c e o f t h e com b i n ati o n o f

s e n satio n s B u t o u r id e as ar e n o t o n l y produc e d w h e n awak e n e d

.

by s e n sati o n s ; t h e y ar e als o pro d u c e d wh e n t h e r e i s c o mpl e t e

ab s e n c e o f s e n satio n wh e n e y e s e ars an d a l l t h e oth e r o rga n s o f
, ,

s e n s e ar e at r e st o u r i m agi n ati o n o r th o ugh t m ay sti l l b e activ e

,
.

Thus i n a ma n n e r w e l l k n o w n to us t h e c o m po n e n t id e as that
, ,

hav e b e e n d e r iv e d from t h e s e n satio n s ar e brough t i n to n e w com

bi n at i o n s o r compl e x e s w h ich do n o t occur a t all am o n g t h e
s e n sati o n s T h e s e n e w c o mbi n ati o n s o f com p o n e n t id e as we sha l l
.

d e sig n at e as i mag i n a t i ve i deas or r eflect i ve i deas I f w e imagi n e .

a gard e n , i t may i n d e e d b e som e d e fi n it e gard e n that we hav e

, ,

o ft e n s e e n t h e partia l id e as that ar e r e pr o duc e d ar e chos e n an d

combi n e d i n e xact l y t h e same ma n n e r i n which t h e s e n sati o n s
we re O ft e n actual l y produc e d by that d e fi n i t e gard e n B ut t h e .

associatio n o f id e as which i n t h e sp e c ia l cas e ab o ut t o b e c o n

,

s i de r e d we ar e wo n t to d e sig n at e as fa n tasy or t h e fac ul ty o f

”
imagi n ati o n c an s e l e ct an d com b i n e t h e com p o n e n t id e a s t r e e
, ,

“
be d,
” “
r o s e e t c i n a n e w com pl e x d i ffe re n t from an y that
”
,
.
,

e v e r r e a ll y occurr e d with t h e s e n satio n s T h e n we h av e t h e id e a

.

of an imagi n ativ e gard e n tha t w e hav e n e v e r act u al l y s e e n .

Th e s e i magi n ativ e o r r e fl e ctiv e id e as do n o t origi n at e d ir e c t l y

from t h e s e n sati o n s i n ot h e r w o rds th e y do n o t r e fe r d ir e ctly to
,

an e xt e r n al obj e ct T h e imagi n ati v e id e as a l s o occ u r succ e ssiv e ly

.

o r i n s e ri e s t h e sam e as t h e co n cr e t e c o n c e pti o n s that ar e d e riv e d

,

di r e ctly fr o m t h e s e n sati o n s Of s till gr e at e r importa n c e is t h e

.

fact that th e s e id e as o f t h e imagi n atio n m ay als o b e g e n e ra l iz e d

t h e sam e as t h e co n c r e t e co n c e ptio n s an d that e v e n t h e m ost
,

g e n e ral co n cr e t e co n c e p tio n s may b e n e wly com bi n e d i n th o u gh t .

By th is m e a n s we al s o fo rm g e n e ra l c o n c e pti o n s an d w o rds tha t

hav e n o di re c t r e latio n t o an y obj e c t o u tsid e o f ou r c o n sci o us n e s s .

S uch co n c e ptio n s w e m ay d e sig n at e as ab s trac t i n cas e we d e sir e ,

to e mp l o y this t e r m wh ich i s n o t how e v e r e n tir e ly sui t abl e

, ,
.

H e r e we s h al l paus e .

I t is s u ffici e n t to ha v e e s ta blish e d t h e m a n n e r i n wh ich t h e

stimulus pro d u c e s t h e s e n sa tio n to hav e show n h o w t h e latt e r
,
 S e n s at i o n —I a e a Co n c pt i 1 67
’
e on .

l e ave s i ts id e a o r imag e i n m e m o ry an d h ow t h e id e a b e com e s a

co n cr e t e co n c e ptio n thr o u g h its associati o n with id e as O f sp e e ch
as h e ard an d s pok e n thus r e achi n g t h e fir s t d e gr e e o f g e n e raliza
,

tio n Th e co n cr e t e co n c e pti o n m ay th e n be m o r e an d mor e i n

.

vo l v e d i n g e n e ra l izati o n o r i t m ay a l s o e xp r e ss r e l atio n s b u t i t ,

alway s re fe rs dir e ct l y e ith e r to s e n sati o n s o f co n cr e t e o bj e ct s o r

to t h e id e as origi n ati n g i n th e s e s e n sa ti o n s T h e abstract c o n .

c e pt i o n s r e pr e s e n t comb i n atio n s of id e a s t o which a n alog o u s c o m

hi mati o n s o f s e n sati o n s h av e n e v e r c o rr e s po n d e d We se e that t h e .

p re c e di n g co n c l u sio n s hav e pr e par e d t h e way for a n e w c lassi fic a

tio n o f o u r psychica l proc e ss e s T h i s fu rt h e r a n a l ysi s o f t h e da ta
.

with whic h we ar e fur n ish e d t h e s e n s ati o n s id e as an d c o n cr e t e

, , ,

an d abstract c o n c e pt io n s r e q u ir e s t h e as s u m ptio n of two para l l e l

,

worlds — t h e w o rl d o f physical ph e n o m e n a an d t h e w o r l d Of

psychical ph e n om e n a to t h e latt e r of which b e lo n g t h e s e n satio n s

,

that shou l d b e co n s id e r e d as t h e e ffe ct s Of t h e phy s ical p h e n om e n a .

T h i s classificati o n o f ph e n om e n a i s furt h e r warra n t e d by t h e

o bs e rvatio n o f o u r fe ll o w - b e i n gs wh o giv e us o ral i n formati o n as
,

t o th e ir i n n e r co n s cious l ife . Th e furth e r c o n ti n uatio n o f th is

su bj e ct an d e sp e cial l y t h e q u e stio n as t o wh e th e r this divisio n o f
,

ph e n om e n a c an b e j u stifi e d o r n o t we m u st l e av e to quit e a n oth e r

,

sci e n c e n a m e l y epi s t e mology

, ,
.

Th e more e xact d e d u cti o n s o f this sci e n c e w o ul d n e c e s s a ri l y

d e p e n d to a gre at e xt e n t upo n that c o n c e pti o n o f r e lati o n w h ich
we d e sig n at e as ca u s e o r causal ity Fo r t h e pur p o s e s o f phy s i o
.

logical psych o l o gy i t is su ffi ci e n t t o acc e pt both s e ri e s as giv e n ;

th is sci e n c e m e r e l y b o rd e rs o n t h e pr o bl e m s of e pist e m o l o gy i n
t h e d e d u cti o n o f t h e abstrac t c o n c e ptio n s .

L e t u s n o w r e tu r n to t h e ima ge s o f m e mory o r id e as havi n g a

co n cr e t e co n t e n t . We r e m e m b e r t h at i n co n n e c ti o n with t h e
th e ory o f s e n sati o n w e disti n g u i s h e d thr e e prop e rti e s o f s e n s ati o n ,

( )
1 quality ,( )
2 i n t e n s i ty
(3 )
,
to n e o f fe e l i n g o r e m otio n al to n e .

T o th e s e w e r e also add e d u n d e r c e rtai n circums t a n c e s th o s e p r o ,

pe r t i e s of s e n sati o n that r e fe r to spac e an d tim e N o w c an we .

disti n g u ish sim i l a r pro p e rti e s als o i n t h e m e n tal imag e o f t h e

s e n satio n i n t h e id e a ?
,
T h e simp l e s t d e l ib e rat io n d e m o n strat e s
1 68 I n t r o du c t i o n to P hys i o log i cal P sycho log .

that id e as d iffe r fro m o n e a n oth e r fi r s t as to th e i r co n t en t or as ,

we may also e xpr e ss it as to th e i r s ig n ificat i o n or me an i ng

, Fo r .

e xam pl e t h e id e as,
“
ki n g an d pla n t hav e v e r y di ffe r e n t c o n
” “ ”

t e n ts A seco n d diffe r e n c e li e si n t h e vi vaci ty o r di st i n ct n ess of t h e

.

id e as F o r e xam pl e we hav e a v e ry liv e ly o r cl e ar id e a Of a

.
,

“
r os e ”
We have e xp e r i e n c e d t h e com pl e x o f s e n sat io n s i m
.

pa r t e d by t h e r os e so ma n y tim e s that t h e i mag e of m e m o ry o r ,

t h e id e a ros e i s v e ry v ivid an d disti n ct O ur id e a Of a rh o d o .

d e n dro n s bloss o m is p r obably m uch l e ss disti n c t an d vivid Th e

’
.

r e aso n is obvious t h e com pl e x o f s e n satio n s produc e d by t h e

,

bloss o m of a r hod o d e n dro n has b e e n m uch l e ss fr e q u e n tly e x

pe r i e n c e d by us B ut t h e v ivid n e ss o f t h e id e a va r i e s als o wh e n
‘

t h e co n t e n t r e mai n s t h e sam e ; t h e bota n i s t o r t h e gard e n e r h as

a m uch m or e vi v id id e a Of t h e flow e r o f a r h odod e n d r o n tha n o n e

n o t sc h ool e d i n b ota n y I n fact o u r o wn id e a o f t h e rh o d o
.
,

d e n dro n s fl owe r cha n g e s i n t h e d e gr e e o f vivid n e ss an d disti n c t

’

n e ss . I f we s e e t h e blossom o f this plan t to-day, p e rhaps fo r t h e

fi r st tim e t o day an d t o -m orrow its id e a o r imag e i n m e m ory
,

re mai n s v e ry vivid Aft e r a fe w days t h e d isti n ct n e ss of t h e

.
1

imag e i s s e e n to h av e dimi n ish e d s o m e what ; i n cas e we do n O t

s e e t h e fl o w e r agai n t h e laps e o f a y e ar will su ffic e to r e mov e bot h
,

cl e ar n e ss an d vivid n e ss al most compl e t e ly .

A t h i r d prop e r ty o f t h e id e as b e sid e s co n t e n t an d vi vacity i s

, ,

th e i r e mot i o n al t o n e Th e id e a of t h i s m an is accom pa n i e d by a
.

pl e asa n t to n e of fe e li n g t h e id e a o f t h at m an by an u n pl e asa n t ,

ton e o f fe e l i n g ; i n oth e r w o rds t h e g e n e r al id e a fri e n d is

“
,
”

1
Th e i n v e st i gat i o n s o f P AN ET H (C e n t r albl f P h ys i o l 1 89 0 N o 3 ) i s v e ry
. . .
, , .

n t e re st i n
g Ac. co r di n
g t o t h e se i n v e st i gat i o n s i t m ay b e as su m e d t h at t h e

m e n tal i mage d o e s n o t di m i n i sh pe rce pt i b l y i n s h ar pn e ss at all du r i n g t h e fi rs t

fiv e m i n u t e s a fte r t h e s e n sat i o n h as v a n i s h e d I t t h e n b e g i n s t o l o s e i t s s h arp
.

n e ss s l o wl y Thi s grad ua l l o ss o f t h e po we r o f d ist i n ct re co ll e cti o n is by n o

.

m e a n s m e re l y a di m i n i sh i n g o f t he i n t e n s i ty At t h e s ame t i me th at t h e
.

l atte r d e cre as e s a pe culiar co n stan t c h an ge tak e s pl ace i n t h e q u ality o f t h e

,

i mage Thi s ch an ge i s h ardly t o b e d e scri be d b ut i s g e n e rally d e s ig n ate d by

. ,

u s as t h e fad i n o f t h e i m a g e fr o m m e m o ry ; i t i s id e n ti ca l w i t h t h at w hi ch w e
g
d e si gnate as t h e l o ss o f d istin ctn e ss o r sh arpn e ss .
1 70 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

id e as o f th e s e two ki n ds wo ul d r e c e iv e a v e ry di ffe re n t co n t e n t
,

accordi n g to wh e th e r t h e p ood l e or t h e gre yho u n d had b e e n s e e n

m or e fre qu e n t l y T h e id e a w o u l d i n fact b e ar a d e cid e dly
.

gr e at e r r e s e mb l a n c e to t h e a n im a l tha t had b e e n m or e fr e q u e n tly

s e e n Th e r e fo r e n o t o n ly t h e q u al ity b u t a l s o t h e fr e q u e n cy o f
.
,

t h e o r igi n al s e n sat i o n s d e t e rm i n e s t h e co n t e n t o f t h e id e as — at ,

l e ast t h e co n t e n t of t h e m or e g e n e ral id e as Th e v ivaci ty o f t h e

.

id e as pr e s e n ts a sim ilar ca s e T h e i n t e n sity o f t h e o r igi n al s e n

.

satio n is i n d e e d a v e r y e ss e n tial factor i n d e t e rmi n i n g t h e vi vi d

n e ss of t h e m e n tal imag e A n i n t e n s e fl ash O f chai n -l igh t ni n g
.

wi l l g e n e r a l ly l e av e a m o r e vivid i m age i n m e mory t h a n fai n t

sh e e t -lig h t n i ng B u t oth e r factors ar e j us t as impo r ta n t fo r t h e
.

vivid n e ss o f t h e im ag e s I n this cas e t h e fr e qu e n cy wi t h w h ich

.
.

t h e compl e x o f origi n a l s e n sa t i o n s has b e e n e xp e ri e n c e d is O f ,

e sp e cial i mpo r ta n c e I f w e oft en se e a c e rtai n m an t h e lat e n t

.
,

m at e rial trac e o f this c o mp l e x o f s e n sati o n s is m o r e d e e p l y i m

p r i n t e d O u t h e e l e m e n ts o f t h e c e r e bral cort e x tha n wh e n we se e
him b u t ra re l y We c an r e cal l t h e i d e a o f this m an m or e e asily
.

an d m or e vi vi dly i f w e hav e s e e n h i m Oft e n As ab ov e m e n

.

t i o n e d we m ust imagi n e th is m at e ria l t r ac e E l wh ich we de s i g

, ,

n at e d co n d i ti o n a ll y as a lat e n t i mag e o f m e mory t o b e i n r e a l i ty ,

a d e fi n it e sp atial arra n g e m e n t an d a d e fi n it e co n sti t u ti o n o f t h e

m o l e cu l e s O rigi n a l ly this arra n g e m e n t is v e ry u n stab l e ; n o t
.

u n t il aft e r t h e sam e s e n sati o n has b e e n v e ry fr e q u e n t l y e x

e r i e n c e d do e s t h e mo l e c ul ar arra n g e m e n t whi ch i t cr e at e s an d
p
l e av e s b e c o m e stabl e
,
O n l y aft e r t h e ga n g l io n -c e l l h as acq u ire d
.

i n th is m an n e r a v e r y d e fi n i t e an d fi x e d dispositio n o f i ts m ol e
cul e s c an a vi vi d id e a h e awak e n e d fr o m th is disp o sitio n by
associati o n A t t h e sam e tim e t h e id e a is m o re e asi l y awak e n e d
.

by ass o ciati o n t h e m or e fix e d t h e ar r a n g e m e n t o f m o l e cu l e s E l
, ,
.

B u t t h e r e i s a n o th e r fact o r which afl e c t s t h e v ivacity o f id e as

b es id e s t h e d e gr e e o f stab ili ty w ith wh ich a lat e n t imag e is fix e d
i n m e m ory . T h e vivid n e ss o f t h e actual id e as va r i e s acc o r d i n g
to t h e e n e rgy o f t h e imp u ls e wh ich t h e gan g l i o n -c e l l c o n tai n i n g
t h e dispo s iti o n E l r e c e i v e s fr o m t h e as s ociati o n o f id e as
,
I f we .

se e rai n - clo u ds o n a h ot day fo r e xamp l e t h e as soci atio n O f id e as

, ,
 S e n s at i o n — I de n —Co n cept i o n . 1 71

i m m e diat e l y fo ll o wi n g t h e vis u al s e n satio n giv e s an i m p ul s e t o ,

t wo id e as t h e id e a t h a t o u r p e rs o n wi ll b e dr e n ch e d an d t h e id e a
,

O f t h e c o o l r e fr e shi n g air t h at i s t o b e e xp e ct e d I n th is ca s e .

t h e fo rm e r id e a wi l l pr o b a b l y r e c e iv e t h e str o n g e r i mp ul s e an d ,

wi ll th e r e fo r e app e ar m ost vi v id l y i n c o n sci o u s n e ss H e n c e t h e .

v ivid n e ss o f an id e a by n o m e a n s d e p e n d s a l o n e o n t h e i n t e n s ity
o f t h e o rigi n al se n satio n s b u t a l s o o n a n u m b e r Of o th e r fact o rs
,
.

We c an ad v a n tag e o u sly d isti n g u ish t wo k i n ds o f vivaci ty d e p e n

d e n t o u di ffe r e n t fact o rs : ( 1 ) T hat vi v acity o f i d e a s wh ic h de
p e n ds u po n t h e m o r e o r l e s s com p l e t e stabi l ity o f E l an d is ,

accordi n g l y i n timat e ly c o n c e r n e d i n t h e q u a l itativ e disti n ct n e s s

o f t h e c o n t e n t o f an i d e a
( )
2 t h at v ivacity o f id e as wh ic h d e p e n ds

o n t h e e n e rgy o f t h e im p ul s e th at ch a n g e s E l t o an act u a l id e a

o r t h e lat e n t i mag e o f m e m o ry to an activ e im ag e Of m e m o ry .

P sycho l o gica ll y t h e t wo k i n d s o f vi v id n e s s ar e b y n o m e a n s
wh o ll y id e n tica l Vivid n e s s as d e p e n d e n t o n t h e fi rst factor m ay
.

be d e sig n at e d sp e cifi ca l ly as di s t i n ct n ess 1 tha t d e p e n d e n t o n t h e

,

s e co n d facto r as t h e en e rgy o f an id e a .

Fi n al l y we c an draw o n e mor e simpl e co n cl u si o n with r e fe r e n c e

,

to t h e lat e n t im ag e s Of m e m o ry I f th e s e ar e i n fact o n l y m at e ri al
.

disp o sitio n s t h e mat e rial ch a n g e i n t h e ga n g l io n -c e ll wi l l n o t be

,

with o u t i n fl u e n c e up o n th is m ol e cular disposi ti o n I n o th e r .

words i f n e w an d m o r e o r l e ss simila r s e n sati o n s do n o t agai n

,

r e n e w this di sp o sitio n i n t h e c o urs e o f tim e i t wil l im p e rc e ptibly

,

l os e i ts s tabi l ity an d b e fi n a ll y o bl i t e rat e d T h e simp l e s t i n t r o

.

s pe c t i o n ag r e e s with th is s ta t e m e n t This l o o s e n i n g an d fi n a l
.

d e s t ru cti o n o f t h e l at e n t m e n ta l i mag e s i s n oth i n g m o re tha n that

whic h we ca ll fo rg e tfu l n e s s ; we fo rg e t id e a s that ar e n o t c o n
s t an t ly an d r e p e at e d l y r e -
e xcit e d b y s i m ila r o r l ik e s e n satio n s .

With t h e a bov e we hav e e s se n t ia ll y compl e t e d o u r th e ory o f t h e

id e a o r imag e of m e mory an d ar e acquai n t e d with t h e e n tire m at e
,

rial Of w h ich t h e associati o n o f id e as m ak e s u se We m u s t n o w .

i n v e s tigat e t h e n at u r e an d l aws o f t h e a s s o ciati o n of id e as its e l f .

1
I t is ob vi t h at t hi s “ di s t i n c tn e ss s trict l y c o n s id e r e d i s a q uali tat ive
o us , ,

pro pe rty o f t h e id e a i t e xpre sse s t h e e xact n e ss w i t h whi c h E l co rre spo n d s t o

.

t h e o rig i n a l s e n sat i o n s .
 C H A P TE R IX .

TH E ASS O C I A TI O N O F I D EAS .

TH E associatio n of id e as is accom plish e d by t h e u se o f two ki n ds

o f e l e m e n ts n e w s e n satio n s ar e r e c e iv e d fr om t h e e xt e r n al wo r ld
‘

an d t h e m e n tal im ag e s o f fo rm e r s e n satio n s ar e alr e ady a t ha n d

i n t h e c e r e b r al cort e x T h e s e lat e n t id e as ar e co n stan tly cal l e d

‘

u p i n c o n sciousn e ss an d associat e d with t h e n e w s e n satio n s We .

s e e a dark cloud , i e a s timula ti o n E c (cloud ) has b e e n t r a n s

. .
,

m i t t e d fr om t h e r e ti n a to t h e s e n s o ry c e lls of t h e c e r e bral co rt e x .

Th e psychical co rr e lat e o f th is m at e ri a l e xc ita tio n o f t h e co r t e x

is t h e visual s e n sati o n o f t h e da r k cloud A s e ri e s of r e lat e d .

id e as ar e co n n e ct e d with this s e n sation by associati o n —fo r ,

e xam pl e a m o n g oth e rs t h e id e a o f r ai n
, , T h e m at e r ial e xcitatio n
.
,

E i (r ai n ) i n t h e m e m o ry- c e ll s o f t h e c o rt e x co r r e sp o n ds to thi s
id e a o f rai n which i s associat e d wi th t h e v isual s e n satio n of t h e
,

cloud T his m at e rial e xci tatio n E i (rai n ) did n o t e xist b e fo re

.
,

o n ly t h e m at e rial dispositi o n E l (rai n ) was alr e ady at ha n d i n t h e

m e mory-c e lls w h e r e it h ad b e e n d e p osi t e d by o n e or m or e form e r

visual s e n sation s of rai n P r e vio u s to its e xci tat io n n o psychical
.

p r oc e ss corr e spo n d e d to th is - E l i t was m e r e l y a m at e r i al t r ac e

a lat en t imag e of m e m o ry O n ly aft e r t h e association o f id e as
.

h as chan g e d t h e E l i n to E i do e s a psych ical ph e n o m e n on t h e ,

id e a o f r ai n also app e a r as t h e co rr e l ativ e o f E i I n t h e sam e

, .

ma n n e r th is o n e id e a i s follow e d by n u m e ro u s oth e rs lat e n t

imag e s o f m e m o ry ar e co n sta n tly call e d up abov e t h e th r e shold o f
c o n sci o u s n e ss o r as i t is o ft e n e xpr e s s e d r epr odu ced
, ,
I t is j ust
, .

this proc e ss o f r e productio n that we d e sig n a t e as t h e associat io n

o f id e as o r id e atio n . We must h ow e v e r g u a r d agai n st v i e wi n g
, ,
1 74 I n t r o du ct i o n to P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

i n st e ad o f t h e o n e d e p o sit e d at B s im ply b e ca u se t h e r e sista n c e

,

to co n ducti o n happ e n s to b e l e a s t i n t h e paths l e ad i n g to (1 .

N o w le t u s s u pp o s e t h at a r ai n - c l o ud ap p e ars i n t h e vis u a l fi e l d
fo r t h e s e co n d tim e .Th e psych o l o gical p r o c e ss is cl e a r w h e n
t he clo u d is s e e n agai n t h e m e n tal imag e Of t h e clo u d that we
,

form e rly saw occur s to us agai n B u t what is t h e physiologi cal

.

b asis o f this p r o c e ss L e t us ass u m e that upo n s e e i n g t h e rai n

c l o u d fo r t h e s e c o n d tim e c e r tai n o th e r s e n s ati o n -c e l ls as g h i
, , , , ,

fo r e xa m pl e ar e e xcit e d
,
H o w do e s i t happ e n th at u p o n s e e i n g
.

F ro . 18 .

a cl o u d fo r t h e s e con d tim e t h e m e n tal imag e o f t h e fi r s t cl oud is

re cal l e d o r i n ot h e r words t h at t h e e xcitatio n o f t h e s e n satio n -
, , ,
c e ll s
h i i s tra n smitt e d di r e ct l y t o a an d n o t to o n e of t h e ot h e r
g, , ,
.

m e mo ry-c e l l s c o n n e ct e d with g h i as 8 fo r e xampl e ? Th e e x

, , , ,

pla n atio n o f t h i s fact is as fo ll o ws Th e ga n gl io n -c e l l a an d t h e, ,

ath s o f co n ducti o n l e adi n g t o i t h av e b e e n d e fi n it e ly t r ai n e d o r

‘

p ,

as we may say t u n e d by t h e fi rst e xci tatio n that is si n c e th e y

“
,
”
,

w e r e first stimulat e d th e y hav e b e e n m u ch m or e s e n sitiv e to e v e ry

s i m i lar e xcitatio n an d m uch l e ss s e n sitiv e to e v e r y dissimi l a r
 Th e A ss o c i at i o n of I de as . 1 75

e xcitati o n . Th is s si tiv en a d e fi n i t e e xcitation is in

en es s to

di c at e d i n e th i l lustratio
n b y cros s- l i n i n g t h e pat h s b a c a an d ,

T h e s pe c i fic s e n s itiv e n e s s h ow e v e r is n o t r e strict e d t o a
'

d a etc
, .

an d t h e pa th s b a c a d a that w e r e dir e ctly s t im ul at e d wh e n t h e o b

, , ,

u l a —a a
j e c t was fi rst s e e n b t e xt e n d,
s a so t o all paths l e adi n g t o , ,

e a f a
, g a h a i a x a y a z (1 e t c
, , , ,
H e n c e if we s e e a c l o u d fo r
, , , .

t h e s e c o n d tim e an d t h e s e n so ry c e ll s g h i ar e th e r e by s t i m u , , ,

l at e d t h e e xci tatio n o f g h i fi n ds n u m e ro u s paths o p e n by way

, , ,

o f w h ich i t may b e c o n d u ct e d to vari o us m e m ory - c e ll s —to a B , ,

o r y fo r e xampl e B u t s i n c e t h e cl o u d was first s e e n c e rt ai n of

.
,

th e s e n u m e ro u s p aths (v iz tho se l e adi n g to a — g a h a an d i a )

.
, , , ,

hav e b e e n m u c h m or e d e fi n i t e l y tu n e d o r highly s e n siti v e to

“ ”

that s p e cia l e xcitatio n which p ro d u c e s t h e i mag e o f t h e cl o u d .

Fo r th i s r e as o n t h e s e e i n g o f t h e cl o ud i s t h e o n l y vis u a l s e n sati o n
that ca ll s u p j u st t h e m e n ta l i mage o f t h e clo u d fro m b u t t h e
o ne m e m o ry - c e ll an d n o oth e r n o m att e r w h at s e n sati o n -c e ll s may
,

b e e xcit e d Th e r e fo r e i n a c e rtai n s e n s e a s e l e cti o n is m ad e fr o m

.

t h e paths that ar e o p e n to t h e fu rth e r tra n s m issio n o f t h e e x

c itati o n a ft e r i t h as a r riv e d i n t h e c e r e bra l cort e x .

I n t h e ab o v e paragraph we hav e att e m pt e d t o e xplai n i n b r i e f

what phy s io l o gical proc e ss e s m ay o c c u r i n t h e c e r e bral c ort e x
d uri n g an act o f r e c o g n itio n L e t u s ca l l att e n tio n h o w e v e r
.
, ,

t o t h e fact that i n v i e w of o u r li m it e d k n o wl e d ge co n c e r n i n g t h e
,

proc e s s e s o f e xci tatio n i n t h e c e re bral c o rt e x t h i s e xpla n ati o n is ,

wh o l ly hyp o th e tica l as t o particu l ar s ; i t c an th e r e fo r e b e ab so

lu t e ly c o rr e c t o n l y i n its fu n da m e n ta l fe atur e s We have alr e ady .

m e n tio n e d i n a p r e vio u s chapt e r t h at t h e l o cal s e pa r ati o n of t h e

s e n s o ry e l e m e n t s from t h e m e m o ry e l e m e n t s has n o t
ye t b e e n
d e m o n strat e d al th o ugh i t is c o mparativ e l y pr o ba bl e W ith v e ry
, .

litt l e tr o u bl e we c an t r a n s fo rm t h e pr e s e n tatio n giv e n abo v e s o

that it wi l l h armo n iz e wit h t h e a s s u m ptio n t h at s e n satio n an d
m e m o ry d e p e n d u po n o n e an d t h e sam e m at e rial su bstratum .

We hav e fu rth e rmo r e always sp o k e n Of s e n s o ry cells as t h e s u b

st r ata o f t h e s e n sati o n s an d m e mo ry -ce lls as t h e substrata o f t h e
m e n tal i mag e s ; but th i s is als o hy po th e tical I t may b e th at i t i s .

n o t t h e ga n glio n - cells b u t t h e n e two r k of fibr es i n t h e c e r e b ral

,
1 76 I n t r o du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

co r t e x tha t e xp e r i e n c e s t h e e xci tati o n corr e spo n di n g t o t h e s e n sa

tio n an d that acqu ir e s a c e rtai n fix e d m at e rial di s p o siti o n c o r
r e spo n di n g to t h e image s o f m e m o ry I t is also com parativ e ly .

u n e ss e n tia l wh e th e r t h e abov e m e n ti o n e d fix e d disp o s iti o n b e

~

r e ga r d e d as co n fi n e d to t h e c e l l s o r as e xt e n d i n g t o t h e pat h s o f
co n ductio n as w e ll 1 T h e e ss e n tial fe at u r e s o f t h e pro c e s s as j u s t
.

d e scri b e d r e m ai n e n ti r e l y u n touc h e d an d u n cha n ge d by th e s e

vario u s di ffe r e n t ass u m pt i o n s A c e r tai n stim u l u s cau s e s a
.

m at e rial cha n g e o r e xci tatio n E c wh os e psych ical corre l ati v e is

, ,

t h e s e n sati o n T his E c do e s n o t wholly d isapp e ar w h e n t h e

.

stim ulus va n ish e s o n t h e co n trary i t l e av e s b e h i n d a trac e o f t h e ,

e xci tatio n t h e dispositi o n E l

, I f a stim u l u s simi l ar to t h e o n e
.
,

that fi rs t produc e d t h e s e n sati o n agai n acts upo n t h e c o rti cal ,

e l e m e n ts t h e e xcitati o n thus ca u s e d fi n ds n u m b e rl e s s E l s a l r e ady

’
,

at h a n d By vi r tu e of t h e ab o v e -m e n tio n e d fi x e d an d sp e cifi c
.

disp o sitio n s ch aract e ristic o f t h e d i ffe r e n t e l e m e n ts this s e c o n d ,

s ti m ul atio n acts o n l y upo n t h at E l wh ic h was fo r m e r l y prod u c e d

by t h e sam e or sim i l ar s tim u l i an d cha n g e s i t i n t o E i ; th e r e u p o n

,

t h e latt e r i s accompa n i e d by a para ll e l psych ica l p r o c e ss t h at

was wa n ti n g i n t h e co n di ti o n E l O n ly th is o n e E l r e s p o n ds
“
.
”
,

as we m ay e xpr e ss i t B u t as s o o n as E l b e com e s E i t h e imag e

.
,

o f t h e clo u d form e rly s e e n com e s i n to t h e m i n d we r ecog n i s e t h e

cl o u d .

L e t us n o t imagi n e how e v e r that this r e cog n itio n tak e s plac e

, ,

as a sp e cial act i n t h e cas e Of e v e ry s e n sat io n that is p e rc e iv e d

'

agai n aft e r havi n g b e e n o n c e e xp e ri e n c e d C o mm o n l y we do .

n o t r e cog n i s e t h e th i n gs with wh ich we ar e a l r e ady fam i l ia r at a l l

w e simply p e rc e i v e th e m 2 T h e app e ara n c e o f t h e m e n tal i mag e

.

o f fo rm e r sim i l ar s e n s atio n s to a c e rtai n e xt e n t d e t e r m i n es o n l y

1
Th e di p i t i
s os on o f t h e m e m o ry-
ce ll s wo u ld t h e n be s i m ply id ti ca l wi th
en

El .

2
M U N ST B G ER ER , Be i trag e z .P syc h o l H 1 S 1 3 6 E R D M AN N
e x pe r i m . .
, .
,
. .
.

lc
. . T h e l att e r i s q u i t e r i g h t i n e m ph as i z i n g t h at i n t h e c as e o f re co gn i t i o n
t h e s e n sat i o n an d t h e i d e a o f fo r me r lik e s e n sat i o n s do n o t a ppe ar se parat e l y ,

b u t as a s i n g l e pro ce ss o r ph e n o me n o n ( H E R BART S “ Ve rsc h m e l z u n g

’ ”

“
ble n d i n g
 1 78 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

n ew s e n sati o n fr o m all ot h e r form e r s e n satio n s is s til l m or e r ar e

tha n a b s o lut e lik e n e ss b e twe e n a n e w an d a fo rm e r s e n sati o n .

L e t u s r e m e mb e r that ou r s e n sati o n s ar e g e n e ra ll y com pl e x an d

that th e r e for e c e rtai n simila r iti e s b e tw e e n t h e e l e m en ts t h at com
pos e both t h e fo rm e r an d t h e n e w s e n sati o n s wi l l v e ry r ar e l y be
fo u n d to b e e n t ir e ly wa n ti n g d e spit e t h e fact tha t t h e n e wly
,

e xp e r i e n c e d s e n satio n s ar e m o r e o r l e ss d isti n ctiv e ly charact e r i z e d .

Th e r e fo r e t h e i n v e stiga ti o n s that we h av e m ad e above i n co n n e c

tio n wi th t h e first cas e m ay a lso be appl i e d i n t h e s e c o n d ca s e
wh e n t h e s e n satio n is appar e n tly q u i t e n e w We m ay r e c api t u .

lat e b o t h cas e s as fo l lo ws Th e fir st i dea w h i ch i s associ at ed wi t h

t h e i n t ro du ct ory sen sa t i o n i s de t er mi n e d by i t s co mple t e li hen ess o r , ,

mo r e f r eq u e n t ly i t s s i mi la r i ty t o t h e lat t e r
,
Th e associatio n o f t h e
.

f o llo w i ng id e as o r i n t h e la n g u ag e o f p h ysi o logy t h e fur th e r pro

, ,

p ga a t i o n O f t h e e xcitatio n w ith i n t he c e r e bral cort e x i s a e c o m ,

pli sh e d accordi n g to a n o th e r law, with which we m u st n o w

b e com e accurat e l y acquai n t e d .

Th is chi e f law o f t h e a s s o ciatio n of id e as p sych o l ogica ll y e x ,

p re ss e d ru n s thus E ach i dea r epr o du ces as i t s s uccesso r e i t h e r a n

,

i dea t h at i s s i mi lar t o i t i n co n t e n t , o r an i de a w i t h w hi ch i t h as
of t en appear ed s i m ult an eo usly Associati o n o f t h e fi r s t ki n d m ay
.

b e also d e sig n at e d as i n t e r n al th at o f t h e s e co n d ki n d as ex t er n al
,

ass o ciatio n 1 Th e pri n cipl e o f e xt e rn al as s ociatio n is si m u lt an eo u s

.

n e ss or syn ch r o n i s m that o f i n t e r n al associat io n li hen ess o r

, ,

s i m i lar i ty We thi n k of a la n dscap e an d at t h e sam e ti m e t h e

.

id e a o f t h e fri e n d i n whos e com pa n y we h av e s e e n i t occ u rs t o

us This i s a cas e of e xt e r n al associati o n Ass o ciati o n s o f
. .

sim i l arity ar e co n sid e r ably l e ss fr e q u e n t Wh e n a s e n sati o n .

e n t e r s i n to t h e ass o ciatio n o f id e a s t h e fir s t id e a with whic h i t i s

,

ass o ciat e d is always r e produc e d by som e sim ilari ty b e tw e e n t h e

t wo as w e h av e s e e n abov e B u t wh e n t h e fi rst id e a has b e e n o n c e
,
.

awak e n e d by t h e s e n satio n t h e fu rth e r id e as follo w alm ost e x

,

1
Th e x t r al
e e n ass o c iat i o n co rre spo n d s a ppro x i mat e l y t o H e rb ar t s ’ “
ln
di r ct
e re pr du ti
o c on ,
”
t h e i n t e r n a l as so c i at i o n t o a c o m b i n at i o n o f t h e
“
ih
di r t ec
”
and di r e c t r e pro du c t i o n .
”
 Th e A ss o ci at i o n f
o I de as . 1 79

c lu s i v e lyaccordi n g to t h e p r i n cipl e of simul ta n e ous n e ss i e by , . .

e xt e r n al ass o ciatio n L e t u s ab o v e al l h ow e v e r gua r d agai n st

.
, ,

co n sid e ri n g t h e s o -c all e d e xt e rn al a ssociatio n as u n e ss e n tial o r

sup e rficia l an d t h e i n t e r n al associatio n as clos e r o r m or e i n
,
.

t r i n sic
. T h e co n tra ry i s tr u e Th e e n t i r e proc e ss of e d u cati o n
.

e n d e avou r s to awak e n r e lat e d id e as i n t h e child s i m u lt a n eo u sly i e , . .

to comb i n e th e m b y m e a n s o f e xt e r n al asso ciatio n s T h e ch ild .

asks W h at is tha t P an d h e is a n sw e r e d A t r e e
“
Thus t h e,
.

first e xt e r n al associatio n b e tw e e n a visual id e a an d an id e a O f

h e ari n g is e stablish e d T h e i d e as o f sigh t an d h e ari n g ar e whol l y
.

u n lik e e ach oth e r b ut by v irtu e o f c o n sta n t sim u ltan e ous app e a r

,

a n c e th e y b e com e v e r y cl o s e ly as s ociat e d We sha l l t rac e this .

i flu e n c e Of e xt e r n al associatio n e v e n as fa r as t h e l o gical pro

n
'

c e ss e s o f tho u ght O n t h e oth e r ha n d t h e i n t e r n al associatio n of

.
,

i d e as o r t h e associati o n by similarity is v e ry s u p e rfi cial wh e r e v e r

i t occu r s i n its pur e fo r m ; i t i s p r obably co n fi n e d al m ost e xcl u siv e ly
t o t h e acoustic id e as of words th a t sou n d alik e Thus fo r .
,

e xam pl e t h e ac o ustic id e a of che st c an r e p r oduc e t h e id e a g u est ;

,

t h e acoustic id e a Of pai n t h e id e a r ai n
, .

L e t us n o w s e e k som e physiological b asis fo r e xt e r n al as socia

FIG . 19 .

tio n T h e qu e stio n a r is e s fi r st : Why do e s o n e id e a r e p r oduc e

.

o n l y s o m e oth e r id e a with wh ich i t h as oft e n app e ar e d ? L e t a ,

b c (fig 1 9 ) b e thr e e ga n g l io n -
,
. c e lls i n which u n d e r t h e co n d i ,

tio n s a lre ady oft e n m e n t io n e d we co n c e iv e th r e e m e n tal imag e s

,

o r id e as to b e d e posit e d All th re e ar e c o n n e ct e d w ith o n e

.
1 80 I n t r o du c t i o n to Phys i o log i cal P syc h o logy .

a n oth e r an d wi th n u mb e rl e ss oth e r c e lls by fibr e s L e t us s u p pos e .

t h e th r e e i d e as c o r r e spo n di n g to t h e th r e e ga n glio n - c e ll s to b e
wholly di ffe r e n t fr o m o n e a n o th e r ; fu rth e rmor e le t t h e id e as a ,

an d b, o r t h e s e n satio n s corr e spo n di n g to th e m b e supp o s e d t o ,

h a v e app e ar e d v e ry oft e n sim u l ta n e ous l y but n o t a an d c n o r b ,

Wh e n e v e r a a n d b ar e s tim u la t e d a t t h e sam e tim e a

’

an d c .

sympath e tic e xcitatio n tak e s p l ac e i n all t h e paths iss u i n g fr o m a

an d b . I t i s ob v ious tha t this sym path e tic e xcitatio n is par t i c u
lar ly gr e at i n t h e path ab u n iti n g a an d b ,
I n co n s e q u e n c e Of t h e
.

m or e fr e q u e n t si mul ta n e ous e xcita tio n o f a an d b t h e path ab wi l l

b e c o m e m o re p r actis e d i e i t will acq u i r e an e n tir e l y sp e ci fic
,
. .

d i s posi tio n fi tt i n g i t fo r t h e tra n sm issio n o f an e xcitati o n taki n g

pla c e at a to b o r o f o n e taki n g p l ac e a t b to a By m e a n s o f t h i s
, , , .

fr e q u e n t sympath e tic e xc itati o n t h e r e s is ta n c e of t h e path ab to

,

co n ductio n is di m i n ish e d an d acc o rd i n gly e v e ry e xcitatio n taki n g

,

plac e i n a o r b will fol l ow t h e path ab as t h e b e s t co n d ucto r .

E xp r e ss e d i n t h e l a n guag e o f psych o l o gy — i f a giv e n id e a a is , .

p r e s e n t i n c o n sc i o u s n e ss t h i s m om e n t t h e n e x t id e a to b e assoc i
,

at e d with i t wi l l b e b wh ich has alr e ady Oft e n app e ar e d sim

,

u lt an e o u sly wi th a
1
B u t th is is n o th i n g m o r e o r l e s s t h a n t h e law
.

of e xt e r n al associatio n o f i d e as stat e d abo v e which as we hav e , ,

s e e n g o v e rn s t h e p ro c e ss of ass o ciati o n a l m ost e xcl u siv e l y

,
.

I t is u n n e c e ssary to d e duc e a similar p h ysi o logical basis fo r t h e

law o f i n t e r n al associatio n O f id e as O n t h e o n e ha n d we shou l d .

o n ly r e p e a t e ss e n t ia ll y that wh ich has alr e ady b e e n stat e d c o n

c e r n i n g t h e fi t n e ss o f paths fo r t h e associatio n o f t h e fir st i dea
with a gi v e n i n i t i al s e n sati o n ; o n t h e o th e r h a n d thi s i n t e r n a l
associati o n plays a v e ry i n sig n ific a n t pa r t i n th o u g h t The .

i n t e rn al ass o c i auo n o f id e as c an so m e tim e s pr e dom i n at e o v e r t h e

e xt e r n al i n cas e s o f m e n tal di s e as e e s p e cially wh e n e v e r t h e
,

-
so call e d
“
fl igh t o f id e as ( I de e n fl u c h t ) r u l e s T h e s e ma n iacs
”
.

at t im e s combi n e rh ym i n g wor ds i n e n tir e l y se n s e l e ss as s ociatio n s ,

— hou n d — b o u n d — sou n d fo r e xam p l e H e r e t h e sim i l arity of

,
.

1 l ti mat ly f
U e , o r
c o u se , t hi s co e xi s t e n c e o f t h e i d e as a an d b m ay be
re du d t t h c x i t
ce o e oe s e n ce o f t h e se n sat i o n s fro m w hi c h t h e y o ri g i n at e d .
1 82 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

a n oth e r accordi n g t o t h e law of sy n c h ro n ism N ow i f t h e com .

po n e n t id e as a b c d wh ich tog e th e r c o m pos e t h e id e a o f sl e e p

, , , , ,

ar e pr e s e n t i n co n scio u s n e ss d ur i n g t h e fi r st m om e n t e ac h o n e o f ,

th e s e c o mpo n e n t id e as i s capabl e o f r e produci n g i n t h e s e co n d

m om e n t a n o t h e r s e r i e s o f id e as wi th which i t has b e e n pr e vio u sly
associat e d accord i n g to t h e l aw o f sy n ch r o n ism B u t t h e com .

p o n e n t id e a c i s als o associat e d wi th e f an d g i n acc o r dan c e , ,

wi th t h e law o f si m ulta n e ous n e ss an d is th e r e fo r e abl e to r e p r o ,

duc e th e s e c o m po n e n t id e as also an d h e n c e ul timat e ly t h e id e a o f ,

d e ath H e n c e t h e pri n cipl e of si m u lta n e ous n e ss is q u it e s u ffici e n t

.

“
to e xpl ai n t h e associatio n o f two such id e as as sl e e p an d
“
E xpr e ss e d i n m o r e g e n e ral t e r ms t h e associati o n o f
”
d e ath .
,

thos e c o m pl e x id e as wh ich hav- e o n e o r m or e com po n e n t id e as i n

com m o n i s e ffe ct e d accordi n g to t h e law o f sy n chro n ism Th e s e

, .

c o m pl e x id e as o n accou n t of th e i r com m o n c o mp o n e n t id e as
, ,

ar e obvio u sly i n t e r n ally r e lat e d o r sim i l ar t o e ach oth e r ; an d

ye t as we n o w s e e th e i r associatio n is accom p l i sh e d acc o rdi n g

, ,

to t h e law o f sim ul ta n e ous n e s s an d n o t accordi n g t o t h e law o f ,

sim i l ari ty T h e fo r e g o i n g stat e m e n t s n o w e n abl e u s to full y

.

u n d e rsta n d o u r pr e vious ass e r ti o n that t h e associat io n Of id e as by

r e s e m bla n c e i s e xtr e m e ly r ar e Th e r e s e mbla n c e o f id e as d e p e n ds
.

ch i e fly upo n comm o n c o m po n e n ts an d co m pl e x i d e as th at h av e ,

comm o n compo n e n t id e as r e p r oduc e e ach oth e r m u t u ally by an

as sociati o o f co n tiguity
n
1
.

We hav e sti l l a fe w wo r ds to add wi th r e fe r e n c e to t h e pri n cipl e

of sy n chro n ism that gov e r n s t h e associatio n o f id e as to so gr e at
an e xt e n t Th is pri n cipl e i s n o t to b e u n d e rst o od as sign i fyi n g
.

that t h e sim u lta n e ous n e ss m ust b e compl e t e o r a b so lu t e ly e xact

i n e v e ry cas e O n t h e co n trary i d e as m utua l ly r e pr o d u c e o n e
.
,

a n oth e r als o wh e n th e y th e ms e lv e s o r t h e s e n sati o n s by wh ich ,

th e y w e r e produc e d follow o n e af t e r t h e o t h er i n di r ect su ccessi o n

,
.

Th e id e a o f t h e blow see n an d that o f t he blow f elt ar e , ,

e ss e n tia ll y co n n e ct e d by such an associatio n o f succ e ssio n i n

1
J . STU A T M I LL
R an d B AI N , on co n trary h ave i n vai n att e m pt e d t o
the ,

re du ce a ll asso c iati o n b y co n t i g u ity e ss e n t i all y t o as so ci at i o n b y r e se m b l an ce .

 Th e As s o ci a t i o n f
o I de as . 1 83

tim e . Th is d i re c t succ e ssio n Op e r at e s q u i t e t h e sam e as sim u l

t an e o u sn e s s ; i n th is cas e a l s o a c e rtai n path o f associati o n i s

sp e cifica ll y fi tt e d fo r co n d u c ti o n Th e w o rd co n tig u ity v e ry

“
.
”

s u itably c o mpr e h e n d s b o th id e as sim u ltan e o u s n e ss an d d ir e c t

,

s u cc e ssi o n S uch id e as as l igh t n i n g an d thu n d e r pr o duc e d

.
“ “ ”
,

by s e n satio n s tha t d o n o t fo ll o w o n e a ft e r a n oth e r i n d ir e c t

s u cc e s si o n b u t ar e se para t e d by a gr e ate r or l e s s i n t e rva l o f t i m e
, ,

o we th e ir assoc iati o n to t h e fact t h at t h e y ar e g e n e ral l y an d pr e

fe r ably c o m bi n e d i n to a co n cr e t e co n c e ptio n (th u n d e rst o r m ) i n ,

t h e m a n n e r fo r m e rly discu ss e d by m e a n s o f a c o mm o n id e a o f
,

articu l ati o n T h e id e as lig h t n i n g an d th u n d e r

.
“ ” “ ”
ar e syn

ch ro n ica l ly c o n tai n e d i n t h e co n c e ptio n o f th u n d e rst o rm t h o ugh ,

t h e s e n satio n s that li e a t t he fou n datio n o f t h e s e id e as i n r e ality

a l ways occu r s uc c e ssiv e l y .

I n o u r furt h e r d iscus s io n s we shall proc e e d e n tir e l y fr o m t h e

c h i e f law as j ust disc u s s e d t h at t h e s u cc e ssiv e m e mb e r s o f a s e ri e s
,

o f id e as ar e associat e d by sim ul ta n e o u s n e s s o r c o n tig u ity L et .

u s n o w re c o l l e c t o n c e m o r e that t h e a bo v e p r e s e n tatio n o f t h e
l aw o f ass o ciat io n by sy n chro n ism r e pre se n ts t h e simp l e s t cas e of
associatio n We c o n c e iv e d t h e simpl e id e a a pre se n t d u ri n g
.
,

t h e fi r s t m om e n t t o b e fo ll ow e d by t h e s impl e id e a b i n t h e
,

s e c o n d m o m e n t an d b o th a an d b t o be l o cat e d e ach i n o n e
,

c o rtical e l e m e n t B ut m o st of o ur id e as ar e i n fac t n o t sim pl e

.

b u t v e ry compl e x ; acc o rdi n g l y as we h av e s e e n e ach com p l e x

, ,

id e a i s n o t c o n n e c t e d wi th o n e b u t with ma ny e l e m e n t s scatt e re d
,

ov e r t h e e n tire c e r e bra l cort e x M o s t id e as ar e u n it s o n l y i n

.

so fa r as th e y a r e p sych ical ph e n o m e n a n o t a s phy s i o l o gical ,

p h e n om e n a A ccordi n gly t h e ass o ciati o n by sim ul ta n e o us n e ss

.

d o e s n o t o ccur i n re ality b e tw e e n t wo s impl e e l e m e n ts a an d b .

b u t b e tw e e n t h e n um b e r l e s s com p o n e n t id e as o r co m p o n e n t e x ,

citatio n s co n tai n e d i n a an d b W i tho u t furth e r e xp l a n ati o n w e

.

c an se e that t h e d e d u cti o n s mad e a b o v e ar e al s o e q u al l y va l id fo r

t h e m o st c o mp l ica t e d id e ati o n al c o mbi n atio n s B u t n o w le t u s .

co n sid e r that e v e ry tota l id e a as a i s n o t o n ly a ssociat e d with o n e

, ,

oth e r total id e a b bu t a l s o wi t h m a ny b c d e t c an d th at
, , , , ,
.
,

fu r th e rmor e a l l t h e c o m p o n e n t i d e as c o n tai n e d i n a (a, a2 n a , , ,

1 84 I n tro du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

partici pat e i n a larg e n u mb e r of ot h e r associatio n s i n par t ,

wit h t o ta l id e as i n part wi t h com po n e n t i d e as Th e q u e s ti o n

, .

n o w ari s e s at o n c e — which o n e o f t h e m a n y id e as associat e d with

,

a o r its c o mp o n e n ts wi ll act u a ll y follow a i n co n sci o u s n e s s ? In

o th e r wo r ds wh y is a fo llo we d b y b i n o n e cas e an d by c i n a n o th e r
, , ,

e tc . W h y i s t h e im ag e o f a fri e n d fo l l o we d i n o n e cas e by t h e
id e a o f a l a n dscap e t h at we h av e s e e n i n h is compa n y i n a n o th e r ,

cas e by t h e id e a o f t h e city i n wh ich h e n o w liv e s an d i n a th i r d ,

by t h e m otor id e a of g o i n g to h im I n a c e rtai n s e n s e th e r e i s a
c o n t e s t b e tw e e n n um e ro u s id e as for t h e n e xt plac e i n t h e m om e n t
fol l owi n g t h e app e ara n c e o f a As t h e sim pl e st s e l f-obs e rvatio n
.

t e ach e s o n ly o n e o f th e s e id e as i s victori o us ; th is o n e m ay b e
,

v e ry c o m p l e x i e n u m e rous com p o n e n t id e as m ay b e e xcit e d

, . .

sympath e tica l ly ; bu t w ith t h e e xc e ptio n o f this o n e a l l oth e r ,

i d e as r e mai n lat e n t as pu re ly physi o log i cal dispositio n s withou t a

p sych ical cor r e lativ e Th e y r e mai n E , s wi th out b e c o mi n g E i s
.
’ ’
.

N o w what d e cid e s i n favour o f o n e id e a to - day an d i n favo u r ,

o f a n ot h e r t o - morrow ? O n e th e o ry that m ay b e d e sig n at e d as

,

t h e th e o ry o f app e rc e pti o n an d w h ich i s stil l v e ry p o pu l ar i n

,

G e rm a n y ass u m e s tha t a faculty of app e r c e pti o n has c o n trol

,

ov e r t h e ass o ciati o n an d as a sup e r i o r powe r d e cid e s or ch o o s e s

, , ,

t o tur n t h e att e n tio n n o w t o thi s n o w to that id e a,

Th u s t o a .

c e rtai n e xt e n t i t co n trols t h e ass o ciati o n o f i d e as I t c an b e .

e asi l y s e e n t h a t th i s th e o r y cr e at e s a v e ry probl e matical hy p o ,

t h e tic al faculty o f t h e sou l th e r e by r e n d e ri n g a r e laps e t o t h e

‘

O l d u n s c i e n tific psych o l o gy i n e vitabl e We m u s t th e r e fo re ask

.

wh e th e r t h e e l e m e n ts c o n tai n e d i n t h e associatio n o f id e as its e l f

ar e n o t s uffi ci e n t for t h e e xpla n ati o n o f this
“
ch o ic e from a m o n g
a l arg e n u mb e r o f id e as An accurat e i n v e stigati o n sh ows h e
.

y o n d a d o u b t that this choic e m ay b e v e ry sati sfactori l y e xp l ai n e d

by fact s with w h ich we ar e al re ady fami l iar I n t h e first m om e n t .

we h av e t h e id e a a ; o f t h e id e a s b c d e e t c th at m ay b e po s
, , , , .
,

s i bly r e pr o d u c e d i n t h e s e c o n d m o m e n t s o m e ar e v e ry c l o s e l y
,

ass o ciat e d with a b e ca u s e th e y hav e v e ry O ft e n appe ar e d si m u l

t an e o u sly with it We c o ul d e asi l y co n c e iv e t h e id e a fo l l owi n g
.

a to b e alr e ady u n co n ditio n al l y d e t e rm i n e d by th is factor If .

1 86 I n t r o du ct i o n to P hys i o log i ca l Psych o logy .

s u cc e ss o rs o f a As a rul e th e s e id e a s b c d e f th e ms e l v e s
.
, , , , , , ,

ar e a s sociat e d with o n e a n oth e r by d ir e ct o r i n d ir e c t paths o f

ass o ciati o n I n t h is c o n n e ct io n we sha l l m ak e u s e o f an imp o r

.

ta n t law wh ich we d e riv e fr om t h e g e n e ral physio l o gy o f t h e

n e rv e s A stat e m e n t o f this law s u ita b l e fo r o u r p u rp o s e is as
.
, ,

fo ll o ws — I f an e xcitatio n o f a d e fi n it e i n t e n sity (m) tak e p l ac e

i n o n e cortical e l e m e n t b an d a n oth e r e xci tatio n o f a di ffe r e n t
, ,

d e fi n i t e i n t e n si ty (n ) tak e plac e a t t h e sam e tim e i n a n o t h e r c o r

tical e l e m e n t c w h ich is co n n e ct e d by a path o f c o n d u cti o n with
, ,

b t h e t wo i n t e n siti e s o f e xcitatio n m ay r e cipr o ca l ly m o dify e ac h

,

oth e r This m od ificatio n may m a n i fe st i ts e lf e i th e r by arr e s ti n g

.

o r by i n ci ti n g t h e e xcitatio n L e t u s n o w r e t u r n t o t h e lat e n t
.

id e atio n al excitatio n s b c d e f ; a l l o f wh ich i n a c e rta i n s e n s e

, , , , , , ,

d e sire to b e com e psychical I n accorda n c e with t h e l aw t h at we .

h av e j u s t c it e d th e s e lat e n t id e as which ar e at fi rs t m at e ria l e x

, ,

citatio n s a l l sta n d i n a com p l icat e d r e cipr o ca l r e lati o n ; th e y

,

m u t u ally arr e s t or i n cit e e ach oth e r 1 I n co n s e qu e n c e o f th is .

r e ciprocal l y arr e stiv e an d i n cita n t i n flu e n c e an id e a t h at i s a f ,

fe c t e d c h i e fly by arr e sts m ay b e ov e rc o m e i n t h e c o n t e s t o f id e as
d e s pit e i ts g r e at e r d isti n c t n e s s i ts m o r e v ivid e mo tio n al t o n e an d ,

i ts c l o s e r associ ati o n with t h e i n itial id e a a O n t h e c o n trary an .

,

id e a that is p e rh ap s l e s s favo u rably co n d itio n e d as r e gard s th e s e

thr e e fac tors b u t t h at i s aid e d by t h e i n ci ta n t i n fl u e n c e of o th e r
,

l at e n t id e as an d by t h e abs e n c e o f an y arre stiv e i n fl u e n c e m ay be ,

v ictoriou s that is i t m ay b e associat e d with t h e i n i tial id e a a

, ,
.

H e n c e a fo u rth fac tor which co n ditio n s t h e s u cc e s s i o n o f id e as ,

m ust a l ways b e tak e n i n to co n sid e ratio n We m ay d e sig n at e .

th is fac t o r b ri e fly as t h e groupi n g 11 o f t h e lat e n t id e as F u r

“
.

t h e r m o r e we c an e asi l y p e rc e iv e that th is gr o u pi n g is e xc e e di n g l y
,

cha n g e abl e F o r this r e as o n t h e s e ri e s o f i d e as wi ll c o n sta n t l y

.

cha n g e To— day e fo l lows a ; a t so m e o th e r t im e a wi l l be fo l

.

1
abo ve sh o uld al so b e add e d part i c ul arly t h e arre sti ve o r i n c i ta n t
To t h e
i n fl ue n ce th at i s e x e rte d u po n t h e n asc e n t id e as t o a gre at e x te n t b y th o s e pr e
de c e sso r s o f a t h at we re ac t ua l id e as s h o rt l y b e fo re a s a ppe aran c e ’

”—
.

I n t h e O r i gi n al ll i
'
2
C o n t
s e at on Ts , .
’
.
 The Asso ci a t i o n f
o I dea s . 1 87

low e d by b wh ich wi l l h av e b e e n fr e e d from i ts arr e sts i n t h e

,

m e a n tim e O n ly by this m e a n s c an we e xp l ai n t h e w o n d e rfu l l y

.

gr e at m u l tip l icity o f o u r tho u gh ts Th e sam e s e n s at io n t h e sam e .

,

id e a c an r e m i n d u s o f o n e th i n g t o — day an d o f a n o t h e r t o -m o r ,

r ow t o day i t c an r e p r oduc e t h e t h ough t o f that w h ich is n e ar e st

o u r e n viro n m e n t t o morrow t h e id e a o f that wh ich is m o s t
,

r e mot e .

Wahl e r e lat e s a v e ry b e auti fu l e xam p l e il l ustrati n g thi s i n

1

fl u e n c e of t h e gr o u pi n g of lat e n t id e as F o r a lo n g tim e h e had .

h ad n o r e coll e c ti o n s what e v e r o f V e n ic e alth o u gh t h e G o th ic ,

R at h h au s 2 of h is n a tiv e t o w n whic h h e daily pass e d wit h t h e , ,

lattic e - work o n t h e arch e s o f t h e wi n d o w s was w e ll fi tt e d to r e call ,

to h is m i n d a m e m o ry of t h e a rch e s i n t h e a r cad e s Of t h e Ve n e tia n

palac e o f t h e D og e T h e R at h h au s b r ough t h i m n umb e rl e ss
.

o th e r ass o ciati o n s bu t n e v e r o n e o f V e n ic e ,
S udd e n l y o n e day .
, ,

u p o n s e e i n g t h e R at h h au s t h e imag e o f t h e p a l ac e o f t h e D o g e ,

r e c u r r e d to h im Aft e r s o m e r e fl e cti o n h e r e m e mb e r e d that two

.
,

hours b e fo r e h e had s e e n a b rooch i n t h e fo r m o f a V e n e tia n ,

go n d o la wor n b y a lady I n th is ca s e t h e i n fl u e n c e o f t h e gro u p

, .

i n g o f lat e n t id e as is obvious .

H e rbart t h e p sych o l o gist o f K o n igsb e rg was t h e fi rst to t e ach

, ,

t h is r e ciprocally ar re s tiv e o r i n ci ta n t i n fl u e n c e o f do r m a n t id e as ,

al tho u gh h e d id so i n a n oth e r fo r m an d withou t an y k n ow l e dg e ,

o f i t s phy s i o l o gical basis H e th o u g h t i t p o ssib l e i n fac t t o e sti

.
, ,

mat e t h e e ffe c t o f an a rr e s t m ath e matica ll y His r e as o n i n g was .

a bo ut as fo ll ows : G i v e n t wo i d e as A wi th t h e i n t e n s i ty a an d B , ,

with t h e i n t e n sity b H e r ba r t n o w a s s u m e d t h at t h e t o tal arr e stiv e

.

forc e is e qual t o t h e i n t e n si ty o f t h e s tr o n g e r id e a i e e q u a l t o b ,
. .

fo r e xampl e T h i s ar r e sti v e fo rc e b i s s u stai n e d by A an d B i n

.

c o mmo n an d i n fac t i n an i n v e rs e ratio t o t h e i r i n t e n sity L e t

, , , .

A hav e a p o rti o n o f t h e arre s tiv e fo rc e e q u al to x an d B a po r ,

t io n e q u al t o y L e t us n o w c o m p u t e t h e valu e s Of x an d y
. .

1 “
h r i b g d E i t h il
B e sc e un un n e un
g de r I de e n as so c i at i o n e n . Vi e rt e lj ah r
sc h r ift f wi P hil 88 5 J h g 9
. ss . .
, 1 , a r .

hall t w -h all —T
.

1
C i ty- , or o n .
’
s.
1 88 I n t r o du ct i o n to P hys i o log i cal P sycho logy .

x +y = h
an d x t =
y b a ;
h e n ce x x +y = b b + a, or
2
5
x
a + b
ab
an dy '
a+ b
Th e r e for e A los e s by t he p r oc e ss of r e ciprocal a rr e st
b2 ab
an d B los e s '

+h b
’
a a +
O f cou rs e this calculat io n of H e r b ar t s is u n doub t e dly i n co rr e ct
’
,

chi e fly b e caus e t h e r e latio n s ar e fa r m o r e c o m p l icat e d tha n H e r

ba r t ass u m e s P a r ticularl y t h e co n t e n t o f t h e t wo id e as is by n o
.

m e a n s u n impo r ta n t i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e fo r c e O f t h e a rr e st T h e .

abov e comp u tatio n s m ay how e v e r giv e us som e appr o xim at e i d e a

, ,

o f t h e qua n tit ativ e r e latio n s that e xist b e tw e e n t h e a rr e stiv e fo r c e s

of diffe r e n t id e as .

T h e succ e ssio n o f o u r i d e as o r e xp r e ss e d physiologically t h e

, , ,

path o f e xcitati o n i n t h e c e r e bral cort e x is u n e q u iv o cal l y de ,

t e r m i n e d by th e s e fo u r facto r s — associativ e r e l atio n i n t e n sity , ,

e m o tio n al to n e an d gr o upi n g T h e proc e ss e s o f th i n k i n g ar e

.

strictly n e c e ssitat e d T h e co n di tio n of t h e c e re bral c o rt e x i n an y

.

o n e m o m e n t n e c e ssarily fo l l ows fr om i ts co n di tio n i n t h e pr e

c e d i n g m om e n t t h e id e a a cor r e spo n ds to t h e latt e r t h e i d e a b ,

to t h e fo rm e r e t c We d o n o t n e e d an y facul ty o f app e r c e ptio n

, . ,

which m ig h t b e r e ga r d e d as rul i n g ov e r t h e id e as a t wi l l for t h e ,

e xpla n atio n o f e i th e r t h e n o rm al o r t h e pathologi cal psychical

p r o c e ss e s
.

Thus we h av e b e com e fam iliar wi th t h e fu n dam e n tal fe atur e s

of t h e ass o ciati o n o f id e as as i t tak e s plac e wh e n i n tr oduc e d b y
e it h e r a s e n satio n o r an id e a T h e p r oc e ss o f associati o n th e re
.

fo re pre s e n ts a s e ri e s o f pys c h ic al p h e n om e n a wh ich we c an ,

r e n d e r e asily i n t e ll igibl e as fo l lows — S 1 —I 1 —I g — I s—I 4—1 5—I G ,

e tc . We ar e al r e ady acquai n t e d wi th t h e laws that d e t e r m i n e t h e

c h o ic e o f th e s e 1 s We ha v e n o w o n l y o n e m o r e qu e stio n to
’
.

ask I s i t a l ways n e c e ssary th at o n ly i deas fo llow t h e first s e n sa

 C H AP T E R X .

R A PI D IT Y O F TH E ASS O C I A TI O N O F I D EAS .
J U D G M EN T AN D

C O N C LU S I O N .

I N t he last b e cam e acquai n t e d wi th t h e chi e f l aw fo r

c h apt e r we
‘

t h e associatio n of i d e as I t ru n s thus : Th e id e as foll o w o n e

.

a n oth e r by associatio n i n a d e fi n i t e ord e r accord i n g to th e va r ious

,

combi n ati o n s i n which th e y h av e si m ulta n e ously occu rr e d at som e

fo r m e r tim e We sh all n o w att e mp t t o e stim at e t h e r apidity o f
.

th e s e succ e ssiv e associatio n s I n so doi n g we m ust agai n p ro

.

c e e d from t h e i n troducto r y s e n satio n S wh ich t h e s e ri e s of id e as

,

I , , etc fo ll o ws We hav e al r e ady s e e n that g e n e ral l y a

.
, .

com pl e t e r e c o g n i tio n o f S d o e s n o t tak e plac e a t a l l ; i n oth e r

wo r d s t h e id e a of lik e s e n s atio n s that hav e b e e n fo r m e r l y e x
,

pe r i e n c e d is n o t g e n e ral l y r e produc e d at all I f we se e a ros e a t .

som e d ista n c e o ur though t r e pr e s e n ts a t o n c e i ts p e r fum e ; we

,

a ssociat e t h e id e a of t h e p e r fum e of t h e r os e o r t h e word -id e a ,

“ ”
ros e di r e ctly with t h e s e n satio n of sigh t T h e id e a of v isu al
,
.

s e n satio n s fo rm e rly produc e d by d e fi n i t e simila r ros e s d o e s n o t ,

app e ar at all T h e c o m pl e t e r e cog n itio n i n v o l v e s a c o m parati v e l y

.

c o m p l icat e d j u dgm e n t ; t h e n e w s e n sat io n o f sigh t m us t b e de

t e r m i n e d as l ik e o r simila r to a s e r i e s of fo r m e r s e n s atio n s of

sigh t H e n c e t h e m e thod of r e cog n itio n is b u t li tt l e fi tt e d fo r

.

e xp e r im e n ts i n m e as u ri n g t h e av e r ag e v e locity of as s o ciatio n It .

is m u ch m or e e xp e di e n t to m e asur e t h e tim e that i n t e rv e n e s b e

t we e n o n e s e n sati o n an d t h e fi rs t n e w id e a fo llowi n g i t Various .

appa r atus o ft e n v e r y i n g e n io u sly co n st r uc t e d hav e b e e n us e d fo r

, ,

th is pu r p o s e I n a l l o f th e m t h e sch e m e is e ss e n tia l ly t h e fo ll o w
.

i n g ( 1 ) T h e m om e n t at which t h e s e n sibl e s tim ul u s tak e s e ffe c t

l ao
 R apidi ty f
o t he Asso ci a t i o n 0] I dea s . 19 1

i s mark e d u p o n a rotati n g dr u m ; (2 ) Th e p e rs o n u po n wh o m
t h e e xp e rim e n t is b e i n g m ad e gi v e s a sig n a l - m oti o n p r e v i o u s ly ,

arra n g e d as so o n as t h e first i de a I : , fo ll ows t h e s e n sib l e st im ul a

, ,

tio n. I t i s als o e xp e di e n t t o c o m m a n d t h e p e rso n who i s b e i n g

t e s t e d t o pro n o u n c e at o n c e disti n ctly t h e w o rd fo r t h e fi rst id e a
th at app e ars T h e sig n a l -m o ti o n i s s o arra n g e d as to c l os e an
.

e l e ctri c str e am so tha t by t h is m e a n s t h e m o m e n t o f its e x e c u ti o n

,

i s als o m ark e d u po n t h e drum I f t h e v e loci ty o f t h e r o tatio n of

.

t h e dr u m i s k n o w n t h e spac e lyi n g b e t we e n t h e t wo poi n ts m ark e d

,

u po n t h e d r u m m ay be e mp l oy e d i n d ir e ct l y e s timati n g t h e tim e
th at has e l a ps e d b e tw e e n t h e s e n se -im pr e ssio n an d t h e m otio n .

Th i s e n tir e tim e we wi l l d e sig n at e as T I t co n s ists of s e v e ral .

s e cti o n s as fo ll o ws
( r ) T h e tim e which t he s tim u lus n e e d s i n o rd e r t o pa s s from
t h e p e rip h e r al s e n s o ry s u r fac e to t h e s e n s itiv e cort e x o f t h e
c e r e b r u m w h e r e i t i mpa r ts a s e n s ati o n
, .

( 2 ) Th e t i m e tha t e l aps e s b e tw e e n t h e se n satio n an d t h e

app e a r a n c e o f t h e fi r s t id e a .

(3 ) T h e tim e that e laps e s b e tw e e n t h e app e ara n c e of t h e fi rs t

id e a an d t h e a pp e ara n c e o f t h e id e as o f m o tio n r e q u isi t e fo r t h e

pr o d ucti o n o f t h e sig n al-m otio n an d t h e pro n u n ciat i o n of t h e
w o rd .

(4 ) T h e ti m e n e c e ssary for t h e t ra n smis s io n of t h e c e n tral

m ot o r e xcitatio n t o t h e m u sc l e an d t h e p ro d u cti o n of co n trac ti o n
,

i n t h e latt e r .

We shall d e s ig n at e t h e s e fou r parts as t , t 2 t 3 t 4 h e n c e T , , ,

We d e t e rm i n e t h e s u m t o ta l I ; by e xp e rim e n t
'

, .

We wi s h t o d e t e rmi n e t 2 t h e tim e of associati o n e lapsi n g b e tw e e n

,

s e n satio n an d id e a B o t h t 1 an d t , t h e d urati o n o f c e n tri p e tal

.
,

an d c e n trifu gal co n d u ct i o n ar e k n o w n to us approxi m at e l y at

, ,

l e ast through p h y sio l o gy ; t 3 is q u i t e u n k n ow n to u s i t Ob viously

,

r e p re s e n ts t h e tim e o f ass o ciatio n b e t we e n two i d e a s L e t us .

n o w co n s id e r that t h e id e a o f m o tio n wh ich clos e s t h e s e cti o n t

3
is v e ry e asi l y e xci tabl e o n acc o u n t o f ou r clos e att e n ti o n i n oth e r
w o rds t h e path s l e adi n g t o t h is id e a o f m o tio n ar e e sp e cia ll y
,

capabl e o f co n ducti n g t h e e xcitat io n H e n c e t 2 is m uch sh o r t e r

.
192 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i olog i cal P sych o logy .

tha n t h e tim e o f associati o n th at i n t e rve n e s b e twe e n an y two

i d e a s but i t i s n o t to b e ig n o r e d o n this acco u n t Fo r this
,
.
.

r e a so n w e m u st a b a n d o n t h e att e m p t t o asc e r tai n t 2 al o n e ; w e

c an o n l y d e t e rm i n e t 2 + t 3 I t i s i m p o ssi bl e t o d e t e rm i n e t h e
.

a m o u n t o f tim e th at i n t e rv e n e s b e tw e e n t h e s e n sati o n an d t h e
fi rst id e a fo l lowi n g ; fo r t h e pr e s e n t we c an o n ly m e a s u r e h o w
m u ch t im e e laps e s b e t we e n t h e s e n satio n an d a m ot i o n tha t
dir e ct l y fo l lows t h e fi rst id e a i m pa r t e d by t h e s e n satio n .

I n t h e l igh t o f t h e e xp e ri m e n tal i n ve stigati o n s th a t hav e b e e n

e m pl o y e d u p to t h e p r e s e n t ti m e wha t is t h e m ag n i t u d e o f 12 ,
t3 ?
U n fortu n at e ly th e s e e xp e rim e n ts ar e v e ry li mit e d Th e r e a s o n .

fo r th i s scarcity o f availab l e t ru stworthy i n v e stigati o n s l i e s

e sp e cially i n t h e fac t t h at a c e rtai n th e ory which is t o be me n ,

t i o n e d at t h e clos e o f th is chapt e r an d wh ich is i n fac t i n c o rr e c t , , , ,

h as fo r c e d t h e e xp e rim e n ts i n t o a v e ry d i ff e r e n t li n e O n l y t he . .

i n v e stigatio n s o f T r au t sc h o ldt 1 ar e applica bl e i n part at l e a s t i n , ,

a n sw e ri n g th is q u e sti o n G alto n h ad a l re ady mad e sim i l ar

.

e xp e rim e n ts b e fo r e T r au t sc h o ldt Th e y sh o ul d b e m e n ti o n e d .

d e spit e th e i r o bvi o u s i n e xact n e ss b e caus e th e y ar e to b e v e ry ,

h ig h ly r e c o m m e n d e d as pr e lim i n a r y e xp e rim e n ts wh ich we c an

e asi l y r e p e at .G a l t o n 2 wr o t e s e v e n ty-five words o n d i ffe re n t
stri ps o f pap e r an d at i n t e rval s o f s e v e ral day s h e laid s u ch a
,

strip at fi rst half co n c e al e d u n d e r a b o ok so t h at h e cou l d o n l y

, ,

r e ad t h e wo r d wh e n h e l e a n e d fo rward As soo n as h e l e a n e d .

forward an d saw t h e word h e start e d a chro n om e t e r stopp i n g i t ,

agai n o n ly a ft e r s o m e fo u r id e as s u gg e st e d by t h e v is u al s e n sa
tio n o f t h e word had o cc u rr e d to hi m
, Th e r e s u l t of th e s e .

e xp e rim e n ts sh ow e d th at 660 s e co n ds w e r e n e c e ssary for 50 5

ass o ciatio n s o f id e as accordi n g to which t h e av e rag e t im e O f

,

associati o n wo u l d a m o u n t t o a l m o st 1 1 s e co n ds We re cog n is e .

t h e e rrors i n t h is m e th o d a t o n c e I t i s o n ly n e c e ssa r y to me n .

t io n o n e o f th e m At t h e sam e t im e that G a l t o n h im s e l f s e t t h e
.

ch r o n om e t e r i n m otio n a n e w s e n satio n of sig h t an d a n e w

m o ti o n w e r e i n t r o duc e d Tr au t sc h o ldt o n t h e oth e r ha n d sp o k e
.
, ,

1
P hil o so ph . St ud i en . I , S . 21 3 .
1
B ra i n , 1 8 79 . Ju l y .
1 94 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sy ch o logy .

su bj e ct to s u ch gre at variat i o n s T h e r e ar e i n d ivid u als i n wh o m

.

e v e ry s e n s e - im pr e ssio n awak e n s id e as by ass o ciatio n w i th t h e

g re at e st rapidity an d th e r e ar e oth e rs that r e ac t m uch m o r e
,

slow l y i n this r e sp e ct N o t o n ly d o e s t h e sp e e d of associa tio n

.

va ry am o n g i n dividuals b u t t h e tim e o f associati o n vari e s c o n

,

s i de r ably a l so i n t h e sam e i n divid u al accordi n g t o h is s tat e o f

fe e li n g physiological co n ditio n e t c We shall h e ar sti l l m or e

, , .

c o n c e rn i n g th e s e di ffe re n c e s lat e r Fro m t h e sta n dpoi n t j u st .

m e n tio n e d it wi l l a pp e a r to us imp r ob ab l e a pr i o r i tha t t h e ti m e .

o f associatio n should b e i n variably co n sta n t .

We hav e n o w e stab l ish e d a t l e ast ap p r oximat e ly t h e amou n t

, ,

o f tim e t h at e laps e s b e tw e e n a s e n satio n an d t h e firs t id e a that is

.

associat e d wi th i t I t i s a m uch rar e r sp e cia l cas e wh e n t h e fi rs t

.

id e a a s s o ciat e d with t h e s e n satio n is t h e imag e that form e r l ik e

s e n s ati o n s h av e l e ft i n t h e m e m ory i e wh e n a compl e t e r e c o g , . .

n i t i o n tak e s plac e Th e att e mpt h as also b e e n m ad e to d e t e r

.

m i n e t h e d u ratio n O f th is s o call e d t i me of r ecogn i t i o n bu t th is

- ”
,

is j u st t h e cas e i n which t h e r e s u lts ar e m ost u n c e rtai n 1 We ar e .

m u ch m or e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e fu rt h e r q u e stio n as to how rapid l y t h e

i d e as I , an d [ 3 co n ti n u e to follow o n e aft e r a n oth e r as so o n as
I 1 has app e are d I t wou l d obviously be n atural to ass u m e th at
.

I 2 g e n e ra l ly fo l lows I I j u st as r apidly as I I fo l lows S fo r i n b o t h ,

ca se s i t is m e r e ly a q u e stion of t h e r e producti o n of a lat e n t imag e

o f m e mo r y Th e e xp e ri m e n ts i n this cas e e s p e cially hav e gi v e n
.

v e ry m u tabl e r e sul ts I d e as that r a r e ly app e ar tog e th e r r e quir e

.

m or e tha n a s e co n d fo r th e i r m u tual r e p r oducti o n whi l e id e as ,

that hav e b e e n associat e d with o n e a n oth e r v e ry fr e q u e n tly r e pro

duc e e ach oth e r withi n o n e -third o f a s e co n d I d e as wh os e .
,

r e l atio n s t o o n e a n oth e r ar e v e ry com plicate d e sp e cially com pl e x ,

id e as r e prod u c e e ach oth e r m uch m o r e s lowly tha n id e as l e ss

,

i n tricat e ly r e lat e d as fo r e xam pl e t h e id e as o f wo r ds that r hym e

, , ,
.

O n t h e oth e r h a n d a c o mpl e x id e a whos e c o mpo n e n t id e as ar e

, ,

s o co n stitut e d that o n ly a si n gl e oth e r id e a i s associat e d with

t h e i r totali ty r e produc e this o n e id e a v e ry q u ick l y Th e r e for e

,
.

1
In t hi s case the ab o v e -m e n t i o n e d j udg me n t o f lik e n ess is in tr o duc d
e .
 R api di ty f
o t he As so ci a t i o n f
o I de as . 195

t he qu e sti o n N am e a work o f G o e th e s l is m u ch m o r e s l ow l y
,
“ ’ ”

a n sw e r e d tha n t h e q u e stio n What is t h e fi r st drama o f G o e t h e s ?

“
,
’

Assoc i ati o n o f t h e latt e r ki n d i s sai d to b e u n e q u ivocal l y d e t e r

m i n e d T h e l e s s e qu ivocal t h e d e t e rm i n atio n o f an as so ciati o n
.

is i e t h e smal l e r t h e n umb e r o f possibl e associatio n s is j u st so

, . .
,

m uch m or e rapid l y do e s t h e ass o ci atio n tak e plac e as a rul e 1

.

T h e r e latio n b e tw e e n t h e co n t e n ts of t h e id e as that ar e associat e d

a l s o has c o n sid e ra bl e i n fl u e n c e o n t h e r apid ity o f a s s o ciati o n .

T h e sam e is tru e o f t h e abov e -m e n tio n e d gro u pi n g o f t h e l at e n t

id e a s I t i s g e n e ra l ly an u n favo u rabl e accid e n tal gro u pi n g o f
.
,

t h e lat e n t id e as that r e n d e rs i t occasio n al l y di fli c u lt fo r us to

r e ca l l a n am e or an y oth e r word B ut t h e r apidity o f ass o ciati o n
.

va r i e s a l so fo r t h e sam e ac t o f i d e atio n i t i s di fl e r e n t i n d i ffe r e n t

i n dividua l s an d va r i e s i n t h e sam e i n dividual with h is cha n gi n g
m o o d s Th e r e ar e i n divid u als i n whom t h e assoc i at i o n l s ac c o m
.

plish e d wit h gr e at e r r apidi ty oth e rs i n whom i t tak e s plac e m o r e

,

s l owly To d ay o ur tho u gh ts se e m to fly an d to m o r r o w wh e n
.
,

we ar e ti r e d th e y s e e m to crawl A bov e all t h e i n fl u e n c e o f t h e

.
,

e m o tio n s o n t h e r apid ity of associatio n i s v e r y im p o rta n t If .

id e as an d s e n satio n s th at ar e ac compa n i e d by fe e l i n gs O f pl e as ure

pr e d o m i n at e t h e tho u ghts flow m or e e as ily an d rapid l y ; o n t h e
,

co n tra ry fe e l i n gs o f p ai n o r disp l e asure e x e r ci s e an arr e stive i a

,

fl u e n c e upo n t h e as s ociatio n o f id e as We fin d t h e m o s t i n t e r e st
.

i n g i l l u s trati o n s o f this i n flu e n c e o f t h e e m oti o n al t o n e i n t h e

sph e r e o f m e n tal d i s e a se s P sychiat e r s ar e acquai n t e d wi th two
.

form s of m e n tal dist u rba n c e k n ow n as m e l a n ch o l ia an d m a n i a

,
.

Th e y poss e ss diam e tricall y opposit e psych o l ogical c h aract e ri s tic s

i n alm o st e v e ry r e sp e ct M e l a n cho l ia is char act e riz e d by t h e
.

m o rbid pr e domi n a n c e o f fe e l i n gs o f displ e asure that b ord e r o n

pai n an d ar e e n tir e l y wi thout a m o tiv e ; m a n ia is c ha r act e ri z e d
b y t h e m o rbid pr e d o m i n a n c e o f fe e l i n gs of j oy with o u t a m o ti v e .

I n w h at r e latio n do t h e t wo d is e as e s s ta n d as r e ga r ds t h e rapidity
o f ass o ciatio n ? I n n u m e rabl e e xp e ri e n c e s d e m o n strat e t h at t h e
ass o ciatio n o f id e as is v e ry gre at l y r e tard e d o r ar re st e d i n t h e

1
C o m pare M U N ST B G
ER ER ,
l
. c .
1 96 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

cas e o f m e l a n cholia b ut e xc e e d i n gly acc e l e rat e d i n t h e cas e of

,

m a n i a We th e r e for e s o m e ti m e s d e sig n at e t h e id e as tha t occ u py

.

t e t h ough ts o f an i n d ividual aflf ic t e d with m a n ia as “

h fl igh t O f
id e as ”
.Th is acc e l e ratio n o f t h e associatio n o f id e as r e acts o n ,

i ts pa r t u po n t h e co n t e n t of t h e id e as I n fact th o s e id e as ar e
, .

associat e d by p r e fe re n c e which sta n d i n a m e r e ly sup e rficial ,

associativ e r e la tio n as fo r e xam pl e that o f simi l arity o r r hym e

, , ,
.

We have alr e ady s e e n abov e that s u ch r e lati o n s e vi n c e a r e m ark

abl e capacity fo r sp e e dy ass o c iatio n I n t h e followi n g e xam p l e .

we hav e a - typical cas e of such cap r i cious i d e atio n i n a s l ight e r

de gr e e I t occu r s i n t h e l e tt e r o f a you n g ma n iacal wom an to
.

h e r b r oth e r an d r u n s t h u s
, E s grii ss t D ich u n d all e die n ach
m i r frag e n m it Zi tt e r n u n d Zag e n E s h att e e i n e n H ak e n u n d .

n un si n d wi r fr e i E ur e S chw e st e r i n C h r ist o ab e r n ich t i n M isto

.

O n t h e co n trary a wom a n su ffe r i n g

” 1
s o n st kom m t M e phisto .
,

fro m m e l a n cholia oft e n r e qui re s s e v e r al m i n ut e s b e fo re sh e is abl e

to associat e t h e n e c e ssa ry i d e as an d to giv e t h e c o r r e c t a n sw e r as
t o t h e dat e o f h e r birth fo r which sh e h as b e e n ask e d We c an
,
.

d e sign at e th is distu rba n c e of t h e associati o n o f i d e as as d i ffi c u l t

r e coll e ctio n o r m e n t al i n e rt n e ss t h e m e n tal imag e s o r t h e s o ,
~

ca ll e d m e mory ar e still i n tact bu t t h e associatio n o f th e s e imag e s

, ,

o f m e mory is accom plish e d wi th e xtrao r di n ary d iffi c u lty an d slo w

n e ss . A v e r y apt ill u st r atio n i s fu r n ish e d b y alcohol ic i n toxi ca

tio n Aft e r t h e fi rst glass e s o f wi n e hav e b e e n dru n k t h e t houghts
.

fl o w m or e r ap idly ; t h e associatio n of id e as i s u n usually ac c e le

r at e d t h e sta t e of fe e li n g is pr e -e m i n e n tly gay B u t aft e r a
,
.

c e r tai n poi n t has b e e n r e ach e d t h e th o u gh ts fl o w m o re slowly

agai n i n p r oportio n as t h e n um be r Of glass e s i n c r e as e s u n ti l ,

1
Th e t h i s passage so far as i t c o n tai ns an y se n s e wh at e v e r i s
se n s e o f , ,

ab o u t as fo ll o ws A gr e e t i n g t o yo u an d t o all wh o i n q u i re a ft e r m e i n fear
a n d tre mb li n Th e re h as b e e n a h itch an d n o w w e ar e fre e Y o u r s iste r i n
g . .

C h r i s t b u t n o t i n du n g e l se t h e d e vil wi ll co m e
, ,
”
I n t hi s cas e t h e se l e c t i o n o f .

t h e w o rd s frage n Zi tte rn Zage n (ask tre m b l e fear ) an d C h ri sto

” " ”
, , , , ,

M i st o M e phi sto (C h ri st dun g d e vil o r M e phi s to ph e l e s ) se e m s t o

,
”
, ,

h ave be e n d e te rm in e d e n t ir e l y by t he po ss ibi li ty o f rhyme an d a lli t e rati o n

’
.

T s.
198 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P /iys i o log i cal P syc/zo logy .

12 . I n ab ov e proc e ss we r e c o g n is e a n oth e r v e r y im porta n t

t he
fo rm o r way i n which t h e acc e l e ratio n o f id e at i o n m ay b e a e c o m
l i h e d i n t e rv e n i n g id e as m ay b e om itt e d an d t h e associa ti o n
p s : ,

o f id e as th e r e by abbr e viat e d Ou r th i n ki n g wo u ld b e an i m
.

m e s e ly t e dious task if we had to go thr o u gh t h e proc e s s o f t e

n
1
,

coll e cti n g a l l t h e i n t e rv e n i n g i d e as e v e ry tim e I n o u r u s u al .

th o ugh t w e co n sta n tly ski p n umb e rl e ss id e as i n fact t h e g e n i u s is ,

di s ti n guish e d from o th e r l e ss gift e d i n divid u als i n that h e o m its

g re at e r s e ri e s o f i n t e r c e d e n t id e as an d th e r e for e figurativ e ly
, ,

sp e aki n g adva n c e s i n s e v e n -l e ag u e boots O n t h e o th e r ha n d

, .
,

that which we call practic e also fr e q u e n tly d e p e n ds u po n s u ch an

abbr e viati o n of t h e associatio n o f id e as Th e practis e d ch e ss
‘

p l ay e r fo r e xampl e skips n umb e rl e ss i n t e rc e d e n t id e as i n his

, ,

c ombi n atio n s o r ass o ciation s whil e t h e am at e u r is comp e ll e d t o

,

thi n k th r o ugh t h e e n ti r e s e r i e s acc o rd i n g t o t h e o rd e r i n wh ich

t h e id e as occu r I f we n o w co n c e i v e o f this proc e ss of pract ic e
.

as sti l l fu r t h e r pe r fe ct e d by t h e om issio n o f all i n t e rv e n i n g i d e as

what e v e r i n cludi n g ultimat e ly a ls o t h e i d e a o f m o ti o n w h i ch
,

i mparts t h e fi n al actio n we h av e an a u tomati c act I n th is c on

,
.

n e c t i o n i t i s o n ly n e c e ssary t o r e ca l l wha t was said i n a form e r

chapt e r co n c e r n i n g t h e g radual d e v e l o pm e n t o f a u tomatic actio n

from t h e so - call e d v o l u n ta r y actio n I t is hardly n e c e ssary t o
.

e mp h asi z e tha t practic e as such t e n d s to dir e c tly faci l itat e t h e

associatio n of i d e as b e sid e s e x e r ci s i n g an i n di r e ct i n fl u e nc e by
abbr e viati n g t h e p r oc e ss o f thought Th e s h ort e n i n g o f t h e pr o
.

c e ss o f id e atio n is also oft e n facilitat e d pathol o gica l ly ; i n s uch

cas e s we o ft e n sp e ak o f th ough t as i n coh e r e n t ”
.

Thus far we hav e co n sid e r e d t h e associatio n o f id e as m e r e ly

as a s u cc e ssi o n o f di scr et e id e ation al e l e m e n ts T h e o n ly bo n d .

co n n e cti n g t h e succ e ssiv e id e as I , I ! I 3 e t c was i n accorda n c e

, , , .
, ,

with t h e chi e f law o f t h e associati o n of id e as e i th e r th e i r fr e q u e n t ,

p r e vious simulta n e ous app e a r a n c e o r th e i r sim ila r ity We h av e .

n o w to l e a r n t h e m o r e com p l icat e d fo r ms o f id e atio n I n fact we .

,

G cr .
“
la ng we i li g whi c h i n t h i s c ase m ay al so be
,
”
u d n rt
e s oo d in t h e apt
lit ral
e se n s e , as s i gn ify i n g
“
g g f
r eat le n t /z o t z me -T s
'

.
” ’
.
 R api di ty f
o t be A s s o ci a t i o n f I de as
o . 1 99

do no t c o n sta n t l y thi n k i n simpl e pro gr e ssi v e s e ri e s of id e as ;

,

a h igh e r stag e o f th o ug h t co n s ists o f t h e s o -ca ll e d j u dgm e n t s

an d co n cl u si o n s . L e t u s n o w i n q u i r e wh e th e r th e s e t wo ch i e f
l o gical fu n cti o n s o f j udgi n g an d co n c lu di n g m ay als o be sub sum e d
u n d e r t h e p roc e ss e s o f id e atio n o r wh e th e r we m u st r e gard t h e m
,

as e n tir e ly n e w h e t e rog e n e o u s p sych ical fac ul ti e s O f co u rs e

,
.

we sha l l d e cid e i n fa v o u r o f t h e latt e r o n l y i n cas e of n e c e s s ity .

I t wil l u n doub t e d l y be m or e satisfactory i f we ar e ab l e to r e duc e

logical tho u gh t i e t h e j u dgm e n t an d t h e co n clusi o n a l so t o t h e
,
. .
,

simpl e pr o c e ss k n ow n as t h e associatio n o f id e as L e t us b e gi n .

—
with a si mpl e j u dg m e n t for e xam p l e ,
“
T h e r o s e is b e a u ti ful .
"

”
I n t h i s j udgm e n t we h av e two id e as ( 1 ) t h e i d e a
'
ros e an d (2 )
, ,

t h e id e a
“
b e a u tifu l ”
I t is e vid e n t that th e s e t wo id e as ar e n o t
.

associat e d b e ca u s e o f som e m e r e l y i n cid e n tal co n n e c ti o n b e tw e e n

th e m i n t h e s e n s e of th e simpl e law o f id e atio n wi th w h ich we ar e
thus far acq u ai n t e d but that t h e s e con d i d e a s ta n d s i n som e m uch
,

m o r e i n timat e r e l atio n to t h e fi rst Th is m o re i n tim at e r e lati o n i s

.

“ ”
e xpr e ss e d b y t h e w o rd is i t i s tru e ; bu t e v e n i f w e r e gard th is
,

“
i s a s an i n t e rm e diat e i d e a we by n o m e an s a v oid t h e fact th at
”
,

t h e j u dgm e n t is n o t co n c e r n e d with th r e e id e as that ar e m e r e l y

arra n g e d i n s u cc e ssio n O n t h e co n trary we m u st c orr e ct l y

.
,

assum e that t h e m e diat e id e a is n o t o n ly r e fe rs to t h e p re ce d

“ ”

i n g id e a “
ro s e b u t also to t h e succ e e di n g id e a b e a u ti fu l
,
” “ ”
.

N o w i s i t quit e im p o ssibl e to e xplai n t h e o rigi n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t

o f this do u bl e r e latio n o f t h e m e diat e i d e a i s physi o l o gica ll y P
“

By n o m e a n s Th u s far we ha v e n o t i n v e stigat e d t h e mat e ria l

.

proc e s s t h a t tak e s p l ac e i n t h e c e r e b ral co r t e x d u ri n g t h e associa

ti o n o f id e as as a c o n t i n o us wh o l e we hav e o n ly s e l e ct e d a fe w
si n gl e m om e n ts o f t h e pr o c e ss i n which c e rtai n pha se s co rr e spo n d
t o s e parat e id e as I t is e vid e n t that th is is n o t q u i t e corr e c t
. .

B e tw e e n t h e m at e rial co n ditio n 153i l an d t h e m at e rial c o n diti o n

E i ,, th e r e i s a m e diat e m at e rial p r o c e ss an d we h av e n o caus e ,

what e v e r fo r ass u m i n g that th is i n t e rm e diat e pr o c e s s tak e s p l ac e

e n tir e l y u n acc o mpa n i e d by a psychical corr e l ativ e O n t he .

co n tra ry i t is h ighly probabl e th at t h e fo u n dati o n fo r t h e c o n

,

t i n u i t y o f o u r j udgm e n ts o r i n oth e r words fo r t h e r e ciprocal

, , ,
200 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

r latio n th at e xists b e tw e e n t h e id e as as combi n e d i n t h e j u dg

e

m e n t i s fu rn ish e d by th is p roc e ss of c o n d u cti o n I t sho ul d al so

,
.

b e co n sid e r e d that i n t h e m aj ority of j udgm e n ts o n ly t h e word s ,

i e t h e m oti o n s o f articulatio n fo r m a succ e ssi v e s e ri e s wh il e t h e

'

.
.
, ,

t wo id e as ros e an d b e au tiful fo r e xam p l e ) ap pe ar si m ul

” ”

t an e o u sly as t h e com p o n e n t id e as of a c ompl e x i d e a Th e .

s e paratio n o f t h e id e as an d th e i r a rr a n g e m e n t i n a c o n ti n u o u s
s e ri e s is on ly accomplish e d wh e n th e y ar e e xpr e s s e d i n la n g u ag e .

O f c o urs e t h e abov e e xpla n ati o n i s at p r e s e n t p u re l y hy po t h e t ical .

Fu r th e rmor e i n v i e w of t h e l im it e d k n owl e dg e o n t h is s u bj e ct
,

which we n o w p o ss e ss we n e e d n o t ye t at t e m p t t o giv e a r e a l ly
,

ad e quat e psycho - physiol o gical e xpla n ati on o f t h e co n ti n u ity o f o u r

though t i n j u dgm e n t O n t h e co n t r ary i t i s su ffi ci e n t to h av e
.
,

d e m o n st r at e d t h e possibili ty of su ch an e xpla n atio n We h av e .

sh o wn tha t such an e xpla n ati on i s possihle u po n t h e gro u n ds of

physi o logical psychol o gy an d withou t e xc e e di n g t h e b ou n ds o f
t h e ass o ciatio n of id e as o r fab r icati n g a n e w e n tir e ly hypoth e tical
,

psychical facul ty .

F r om t h e abov e sta n d poi n t th e re fo r e t h e fo rm u l atio n o f

, ,

j u dg m e n ts is t o b e r e gard e d as a h igh e r stag e i n t h e d e v e l opm e n t

o f that which we c o m m o n ly d e sig n at e as id e ati o n o r t h e ass o cia

ti o n of id e as t h e form e r p r oc e ss is by n o m e a n s wh o ll y d issimi l a r
to t h e latt e r B u t wh at has th us fa r b e e n said d o e s n o t co n sti tut e
.

a co m pl e t e pr e s e n tatio n o f t h e p sychological cha r act e ri stics of

t h e j udgm e n t An e ss e n tial fe atur e o f t h e j u dgm e n t i s its d e p e n
.

d e n c e o n a m uch m or e i n t imat e an d ab u n da n t associati o n of i ts

com po n e n t id e as S u pp o rt e d b y th i s clos e r e latio n of its com
.

pon e n t id e as we ar e abl e t o clai m fo r t h e j udgm e n t t h e r igh t to

,

b e valu e d as cor r e ct P sych ologica ll y to b e h e l d as corr e c t

“ ”
.

sim p l y m e a n s t h e a b s e n c e o f c o n tradicto ry id e as T h e commo n .

s e ri e s o f ass o ciat e d id e a s
“
r os e — l e af— sum m e r ” d e p e n ds o n n o
, ,

oth e r co n di tio n o f associatio n tha n som e form e r i n c id e n ta ll y

si mu l ta n e ous app e ara n c e o f t h e id e as or th e i r corr e sp o n d i n g
s e n sati o n s T h e j u dgm e n t
.
“
t h e r os e h as d e n tat e l e av e s
,
”
is ,

d isti n guish e d fr om t h e s im pl e s e ri e s o f associat e d id e as j u s t

m e n tio n e d ( I ) by t h e thorough r e latio n of t h e id e as to e ach oth e r ,
202 I ntro du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

s e ri e s o f j udgm e n ts c an b e arra n g e d accord i n g to t h e abo v e

sch e m e o r an y o n e o f t h e oth e r sch e m e s familiar t o t h e logicia n s
,
.

Fo r c e rtai n purp o s e s it may e v e n b e quit e adva n tag e o u s to arra n g e

o u r s e ri e s o f j u dgm e n ts acc o rd i n g t o such a sc h e m e B u t we
m ust d e cid e d l y opp o s e t h e id e a t h at o u r c o m m o n n ai v e co u rs e
, ,

o f though t e v e r co n for m s to th e s e sy l logi stic fo rm s o f t h e school

l o gic W h e n we thi n k n aturally w e k n ow n o th i n g o f a m aj or

.
,

p r e mis e o r a m i n o r pr e m is e ; we sim ply m ak e u s e o f t h e associa

ti o n o f j u dgm e n ts C ai u s — m an —m ortal an d t h e co n cl usio n
'

, ,

has b e e n r e ach e d F o r e xampl e we see C aius

.
,
with t h e
vi s u al s e n sati o n i s associat e d t h e id e a m an w ith t h e latt e r t h e
,

“
i d e a m ortal .
”
Th e r e for e e v e ry co n cl u si o n t h e sam e as e v e ry
,

j u dgm e n t , i s m e r e l y a form o f t h e ass o ciatio n o f id e as b u t as a

d isti n c t form o f associatio n i t is of al most n o imp orta n c e what e v e r
p sycho l ogi c al l y .

I t is o f co u rs e imp o ssib l e h e r e t o d e v e lop t h e e n tir e st r uctur e

o f scholastic l o gic u po n this psychol o gical basis We h a v e o n l y
.

spac e fo r a cursory g l a n c e ov e r t h e fi e ld o f logic h e r e as form e rly ,

o v e r t h e fi e ld o f ae sth e tics I t is fo r physiol o gical psych o l o gy t o

.

e stabl i s h m e r e ly h o w though t act u ally tak e s plac e an d wha t

m at e rial proc e ss e s accom pa n y i t Th e prob l e m o f l o gic as t o
.
,

which fo r mal p r oc e ss e s o f though t l e ad to t h e so -cal l e d t r u e j udg

m e n t an d wh ich do n o t do e s n o t b e l o n g to t h e sp h e r e o f
.

psyc h o logy . T h e gr e at pr o bl e m of physi o logical p sychol o gy

c o n sists i n t h e r e d u cti o n o f t h e m a n y d i ffe r e n t fo r ms o f th o u g h t ,

i n cl u di n g e v e n t h e m os t complicat e d d e mo n stratio n a l l to t h e ,

sim pl e id e ati o n o r t h e associatio n o f id e as an d i ts laws B ut physio .

l o gical psychology is s till fa r from ha v i n g r e ach e d a com pl e t e

solutio n o f this pro b l e m ; fo r this r e aso n we h av e o n l y b e e n abl e
to sk e tch i n abo u t wha t dir e ctio n t h e s o l u tio n i s to b e s o ught I t .

is probabl e that som e o f o u r d e d u ctio n s wi l l u n d e rgo sti ll fu rth e r

m o di ficati o n wh e n t h e l igh t o f c o n ti n u e d i n v e stigatio n s i s bro u gh t
t o b e ar o n th e m . Th e fu n dam e n ta l co n c e ptio n that al l proc e ss e s
o f tho u gh t c an b e r e d u c e d psychol o gica l ly to t h e associatio n o f

id e as wi l l a t a l l e v e n ts e n d ur e
, .

O f cours e we shal l n o t att e m p t t o d isgu is e t h e fac t that

 R api di ty of t he As so ci a t i o n o f I de as .
3

par ticularly i n G e rma n y a n oth e r sch o ol o f p sych o l ogy is pr e

dom i n a n t that d o e s n o t r e cog n is e this fu n dam e n tal th o u gh t
,
.

Wu n dt 1 s tan ds a t t h e h e ad o f t h is school H e an d h i s sc h o l ars .

claim that th e r e is a larg e n u mb e r o f id e ati o n al combi n a tio n s t h at

ca n n ot be e xplai n e d m e r e l y by t h e ass o ciati o n o f id e as T h e y .

th e r e fo re ass u m e a sp e cial psych ica l fa c ul ty , s u p e rio r to t h e

associatio n o f id e a s w h ich th e y d e sig n at e as app e r c e pti o n T h e
,
.

associatio n o f id e as c o n sta n t l y suppli e s thi s app e r c e ptio n with n e w

mat e rial fo r id e as an d t h e app e rc e p ti o n i ts e l f s e l e cts fr o m th is
,

m at e rial I t tu r n s fi r st to this th e n to th at id e a an d is th e n cal l e d

.
,

att e n tio n o r agai n i t c o mbi n e s o n e id e a with a n o th e r an d form s

,

a com po u n d id e a ; fi n al l y i t impa rt s voli tio n al m ot o r im puls e s

th r ough t h e n e rv e s an d is th e n c al l e d will We se e that thi s .

hypoth e s i s is v e ry co n v e n i e n t All th at ca n n o t b e e as i l y e x .

p l ai n e d by t h e ass o ciatio n of i d e as is ascrib e d t o t h e activi ty o f

a high e r pow e r o r sp e cial p syc h ical fac ul ty Th e latt e r h o w e v e r .
, ,

i s an e n ti re l y u n k n o w n fac to r All o f t h e argum e n ts tha t h av e .

so oft e n an d so j u stly b e e n adva n c e d agai n s t t h e th e o r y wh ich

-
assum e d so cal l e d fac u l ti e s of t h e so u l m ay be also di re ct e d
“ ”
,

agai n st thi s m e taphysical t h e o r y o f app e rc e ptio n T h e th e ory of .

app e rc e ptio n a l so a rbitrarily assum e s an acti v e subj e ct as t h e

e ffi ci e n t ca u s e o f a s e r i e s o f co n scious p r oc e ss e s Wu n dt h as .

also giv e n his th e ory a physi o l o gical ti n g e by addi n g t h e hyp o th e si s

that this app e r c e ptio n i s l o cat e d i n t h e fro n ta l l ob e s of t h e b r ai n .

I n maki n g thi s ass u mp tio n h o w e v e r h e o n ly succ e e ds i n placi n g

, ,

t h e c o n tradic tory fe at u r e s o f t h e e n tir e co n c e pti o n i n a s ti l l m or e

g l ari n g l igh t A s u pp o s e d psych ical faculty wh ich accordi n g t o
.
,

t h e v e ry hypoth e sis i n which i t i s assum e d acts i n d e p e n d e n tly o f ,

a l l m e cha n ical ca u sality i s th u s l o ca l iz e d i n a d e fi n it e pa r t o f t h e

,

b r a i n fo r t h e p urpos e o f gai n i n g s o m e c o n n e c tio n with t h e

phy si ol o gy o f t h e brai n an d o f r e n d e ri n g t h e th e o ry m o r e
ha r mo n i o us wi th t h e sp ir i t o f n at u ral sci e n c e cha ract e r istic o f t h e

WO N DT S ’
G r un dz ug e de r ph ys i o lo g P syc
. hl
o o
ge i be s id es in t hi s wo rk ,

a pre se n tat i o n o f t he th e o ry i n qu i
e st o n i s a l
so to be fu d
o n in V
VU N DT
’
S
“
L og ik ,
”
Bd . l , S . 10 ff
.
2 04 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

pr e s e n t age B u t t h e physiology o f t h e b r ai n m u st r e j e c t th is
.

co n n e ctio n an d with i t t h e e n tir e th e ory an d hypoth e sis of ap

p e r c e ptio n Th e fro n tal lob e s o f t h e b rai n d o n o t pos s e ss thi s
.

fu n ctio n at a l l La rge p o r tio n s of t he fro n tal lob e s of t h e b rai n

.

m ay be d e stroy e d with o u t disturbi n g that activity o f t h e i n t e ll e c t

1

wh ich t h e sch o ol o f W u n dt ascri b e s to app e rc e ptio n C ha n g e s i n .

charact e r an d c e r tai n m e n tal d ist u rba n c e s m ay app e a r i n an y

dis e as e o f t h e brai n n o m att e r w h e r e i t is locat e d A gr e a t d e al
, .

o f argum e n t h as oft e n b e e n bas e d up o n t h e fact th at part o f t h e

e n c e pha l o n o f low e r a n imals corr e spo n di n g to t h e fro n tal pa r t o f

'

t h e huma n b r ai n i s r e lativ e ly dwarfe d T h is fact h as b e e n u s e d .

i n att e m pti n g to e xplai n t h e suppos e d abs e n c e of app e rc e ptio n i n

t h e low e r a n i mals Th is app l icatio n of t h e fact h o w e v e r i s n o t
.
, ,

j u stifiabl e T h e m otio n s us e d i n sp e aki n g an d w r iti n g an d fi n al l y

.
,

also t h e m otio n s o f t h e tru n k ar e im part e d by t h e cort e x of t h e

,

fro n tal b r ai n accordi n gly sp e e ch w ri ti n g an d u prigh t locom otio n ,

ar e wa n ti n g i n t h e a n i mals b e low m an I f we tak e t h e abs e n c e .

o f th e s e thr e e charact e r istics i n to co n sid e r atio n t h e fro n tal b r ai n ,

o f t h e ape i s r e lativ e ly at l e ast

,
j ust as larg e as tha t o f m an ,
.

Th e r e for e th e r e is n o g r o u n d what e v e r fo r assumi n g tha t th is

hypoth e tical app e r c e p ti o n is localiz e d i n t h e fr o n tal b rai n T h u s .

a n oth e r prop which was subs e qu e n tly i n troduc e d fo r t h e s u pport

,

o f t h e th e ory falls Fo r r e aso n s abov e discuss e d we sha ll r e j e ct

, .
,

th is m e tap h ysical assumptio n o f a psychical fac u lty I n st e ad we .

hav e att e m pt e d to e xplai n t h e m or e complicat e d p roc e s s e s of

th o ugh t wi thout app e r c e ptio n by m aki n g u se of t h e associati o n
, ,

o f id e as . T o do th is r e q u ir e s of c o u rs e m uch m o re pai n s t ha n
, ,

t o sim p l y r e fe r o r ascrib e a l l of t h e m or e complicat e d p ro c e s s e s

o f t h o u g h t to a p r o b l e m atic app e r c e ptio n Furth e rmor e i n .
,

m aki n g s u ch an assum p tio n we m ak e n o p rogr e ss t o wa r d an

e xpla n ati o n o f t h e p r o c e ss e s th a t o ccupy o ur att e n tio n ; o n t h e

co n trary we d e priv e o u rs e lv e s ir r e tri e vab l y o f t h e possibi l ity o f

,

u n d e rsta n d i n g th e m i n t h e lig h t of psycho-p hysiological r e s e arch .

L e t u s r e p e at — m a n y o f o u r e xpla n ati o n s m ay sti l l n e e d c o r

C o mp are L . W LT E , i
D ss e rtati o n , Zu ri hc ,
1 88 8 .
 C H AP T E R XI .

A TT E N TI O N—VO LU N T A R Y T H O UG H T—TH E EG O —M E M O R Y .

I N t he la s t chapt e r s w e b e cam e acq u ai n t e d with t h e chi e f char

ac t e r i s t i c s o f t h e associatio n o f id e as We i n v e stigat e d t h e
.

s imp l e r e cog n itio n an d r e p r o ductio n of m e n tal imag e s We .

fo u n d that t h e r e produc e d i mag e s o f m e m ory app e ar t o g e th e r

fi rs t i n l e ss compact s e ri e s th e n i n c o m b i n ati o n s of a high e r
,

ord e r t h e j ud gm e n ts
,
.T h u s fa r i n o u r d iscu s sio n s we h av e
i n t e n tio n a l ly ig n or e d o n e e l e m e n t whic h how e v e r p l ays an i m , ,

p orta n t part i n t h e proc e s s e s o f th o u gh t This e l e m e n t is tha t .

which we comm o n ly ca l l at t e n t i o n
“ ”
We say t h at we tu r n ou r
.
“

”
att e n tio n n o w t o th is s e n satio n n o w to that s e n sati o n or th a t ,

we tur n t h e att e n ti o n n o w to th is l i n e o f t h o u gh t n o w to tha t

“ ”
.

I t s e e m s to b e l e ft t o o ur Optio n ; appar e n t l y w e d ir e ct o u r
att e n ti o n t o t h i s or that s e n sati o n t h is or that id e a by pre fe r e n c e
, .

H e n c e w e mig h t fe a r th at w e sha l l ye t b e co m p e l l e d t o d e cid e

i n favo ur o f ass u m i n g an app e rc e pti o n wh ich is sup e ri o r t o t h e
,

ass o ciation an d wh ich att e n ds to o r di s r e gards t h e s e n satio n s

, ,

an d id e as at wi ll . Th is is n o t t h e cas e h o w e v e r L e t us fi rs t .

i n v e stigat e t h e a tt e n t i o n as dir e ct e d t o t h e se n sa t i o n s m aki n g u se ,

fo r this p u rp o s e o f a d e fin i t e e xam pl e S u ppos e t h e l e ft e ye to

.

b e clo s e d an d t h e righ t e ye t o b e Op e n an d m ot io n l e s s ly fix e d upo n

t h e fi e l d o f visi o n b e for e u s L e t t h e fi e ld o f visi o n b e d e sig n at e d
.

by t h e circ l e fig 2 1 which co n tai n s a l a rg e n u mb e r of o bj e cts

,
.
, .

I n t h e fig u r e b u t thr e e of th e m ar e d e sig n at e d by l e tt e r s o n e
, ,

sit u at e d som e w h a t apart from t h e c e n tr e of t h e fi e l d o f v isio n an d

cor r e spo n di n g t o t h e m acula lu t e a o f t h e r e ti n a is d e sig n at e d by ,

C an d t wo o th e rs situat e d a n ywh e r e n e a r t h e p e riph e ry b y P ,

, , ,
 At ten t i on Vo lu n t ary Th o ug h t Th e Eg o —Me m o ry . 20 7

an d P it i
No ws an u n doubt e d fact that we g e n e ral l y t u r n o u r
2 .

att e n ti o n to t h e obj e c t C s i t u at e d i n t h e m idd l e o f t h e fi e l d Of

v i s io n We fix t h e e ye as i t is comm o n ly e xpr e ss e d o n t h e
.
, ,

obj e ct C an d we b e l i e v e tha t we ar e abl e t o do so with gr e at e r

,

o r l e s s e n e rgy D o e s th i s m e a n t h at an app e rc e pti o n g e n e ra ll y

.

r ef e r s t h is C t o w h ich it accordi n gly vo lu n t ar i ly tu r n s t h e at

p ,

t e n ti o n ? C e rtai n l y n o t O n t h e c o n trary t h e facts i n t h e cas e

.

ar e as fo l l o w s C i s t h e poi n t si t u at e d n e a r t h e c e n tr e o f t h e fi e ld
o f vi s i o n c o rr e sp o n di n g t o t h e m ac ul a l u t e a O f t h e r e ti n a ; h e n c e ,

acc o rdi n g t o t h e t e ach i n gs o f physi o l o gical Optic s i t i s m u c h ,

m o re di s ti n ct l y s e e n tha n all oth e r poi n t s situat e d n e ar e r t h e

FI G . 21 .

p e riph e r y P I an d P 2 i n g e n e ral cas t b u t c o m pa r ativ e ly c o n fu s e d

.

an d i n di s ti n ct imag e s u po n t h e r e ti n a C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e s e n sa
.

ti o n prod u c e d by C i e t h e m at e rial c o rtica l e xcitati o n E c

, . .

c o rr e s p o n di n g t o t h e s e n satio n will al s o b e far m o r e i n t e n s e an d

,

c o rre s po n d m uc h m o r e c l o s e ly t o form e r s e n sati o n s p rod u c e d b y

si mila r o bj e cts tha n t h e s e n satio n s produc e d by t h e Obj e cts P I
an d P 2 which ar e l o cat e d n e ar e r t h e p e ri ph e ry I n th i s cas e .
,

t h e r e for e we fin d s e v e ral s e n s ati o n s act iv e at t h e s am e ti m e an d

, ,

i n a c e rtai n s e n s e e n t e ri n g i n t o a c o n t e s t for t h e pri v il e g e o f

,

awak e n i ng t h e n e xt i mag e of m e mory an d d e t e rmi n i n g t h e cours e

o f id e ati o n T h e r e su l t o f t h i s c o n t e s t as we hav e t e rm e d i t
.
, ,

d e p e n ds upo n t wo fac to rs ( I ) t h e i n t e n sity an d ( 2 ) t h e di s ti n ct

, ,

n e ss O f t h e s e n satio n i n q u e stio n I t i s o b vio u s th at t h e stro n g e r

.

s e n satio n s o r t h e m o r e i n t e n s e m at e r ial proc e ss e s accompa n yi n g

,
 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

th e m p o ss e ss a far gr e at e r abil i ty fo r co n v e rti n g lat e n t E l s i n to

,
’

E i s o r i n oth e r wo r ds fo r awak e n i n g t h e im ag e s Of m e mory an d

’
, ,

de t e rm i n i n g t h e co u rs e Of id e ati o n B ut t h e d isti n ct n e ss o r
.

sharp n e ss o f a s e n sa tio n is also e ss e n tial We h a v e o ft e n dis .

t i n c t ly s e e n a tu l ip fo r e xam pl e h e r e aft e r i t wi l l be q u it e e ss e n tial

, .

wh e th e r a n e w vis ual s e n satio n O f t h e t u lip is lik e t h e fo rm e r i e , . .

e qua l ly disti n c t an d sh arp o r wh e th e r i t is u n l ik e fo rm e r v isual

,

s e n sati o n s i e is i n d isti n ct an d co n fu s e d t h e Obj e c t tu l ip b e i n g

,
. .
, , ,

t o o fa r O ff o r b e i n g s e e n o n ly by t h e p e riph e ral parts o f t h e r e t i n a .

I t is Obvi o us tha t i n t h e latt e r cas e r e cog n i tio n Of t h e o bj e c t will

b e m o r e d i ffi c u l t ; le t us r e call i n th is c o n n e ctio n wha t was
form e rly said co n c e r n i n g t h e t r ai ni n g o f t h e n e r v e -paths n e c e ssary
fo r r e c o g n itio n T h e i n di st i n ct s e n satio n o f t h e t u lip fi n d s n o
.

path e xact l y trai n e d fo r its pu r pos e Fo r this r e aso n b oth t h e

.
,

fi rst r e producti o n t h e awak e n i n g o f sim ila r i m ag e s o f m e m ory

,

fo r m e rly e xp e r i e n c e d an d t h e e xci tatio n o f oth e r i d e as associat e d

,

w ith t h e m e n tal i mag e Of t h e t ul ip will be r e n d e r e d e xc e e di n gly

,

di ffi c u lt 1
. Th e r e fo r e dist i n ct n e ss an d i n t e n sity ar e t h e m o s t i m
porta n t factors i n d e t e rmi n i n g which s e n satio n wi l l pr e v ail i n t h e
co n t e s t wi t h o th e rs ca u s e t h e r e producti o n o f c e rtai n m e n ta l
,

im ag e s an d thu s d e t e rm i n e t h e associatio n of id e as Thi s also .

e xplai n s why o n ly t h e O bj e ct situat e d i n t h e c e n tr e Of t h e fi e ld o f

visi o n g e n e rally de t e rm i n e s t h e ass o ciatio n of id e as i t is j ust t h e

obj e c t th at prod u c e s t h e mos t i n t e n s e an d d isti n ct s e n satio n .

e x e rcis e s an y a r bit r ary co n t ro l o v e r t h e

“ ”
NO app e rc e ptio n
p ro c e ss what e v e r T h e associatio n o f id e as is i n e vitab l y n e c e s
.

s i t at e d from t h e b e gi n n i n g to t h e e n d S uch ar e t h e O bj e ctiv e

.

facts acc o m pa n y i n g t h e ph e n om e n a o f att e n tio n B ut w h e n c e .

a r is e s t h e p e c u lia r s e n satio n of s e l f-ac tivity cha r act e r is ti c O f

at t e n ti o n ? S e lf-O b s e rvatio n t e ach e s that thi s s e n s ati o n i s a
s e n satio n O f motio n p r od u c e d by t h e i n n e r vatio n o f n um e r ous

O f co urse t hi s i mpo rtan t di sti n c t n e ss o f vi sual se n sat i o n s i s v e ry clo se l y

co n n e c t e d w i t h t h e i n t e n s i ty o f t h e se n sat i o n s re c e ive d fro m t h e macula lut e a .

Th e l att e r g iv e r i se t o t h e gre at e r n u mb e r o f a ss o c iat i o n s b e caus e t h e y ar e t h e

m o st i n t e n se ; t h e y ar e t h e re fo re t h e mo st di st i nc t r e t i n al i mage s o f t h e O bj ec ts
se e n .
 2 10 I n t r o du ct i o n t o Phys i o log i cal P sycho logy .

virt u e o f its gr e at e r i n t e n sity r e produc e s t h e n e x t follo wi n g

,

i mage s O f m e m ory an d th e r e by d e t e rm i n e s t h e fu rth e r cours e O f

t h e associati o n o f i d e as ;
(2 ) e ith e r au tomatical l y o r vol u n t a ri l y
(i e c o n scio u sly) t h e e y e s ar e t u r n e d t o t h e dazz l i n g l igh t P 1 an d
. .
,

t h e m otio n O f t h e e y e s thus e x e c u t e d produc e s m otor s e n satio n s

which c o n stitu t e t h e p e culiar fe e li n g o f acti v ity accom pa n yi n g t h e

cha n g e O f att e n tio n Th e r e fore i n th i s ca se als o w e di s co v er
.

n ot h i n g m o r e tha n a p ro c e ss o f associat i o n with c e rtai n m u sc ul a r

s e n sati o n s With s o m e pai n s we c an also o ccasi o n ally s u cc e e d i n

.

dir e cti n g t h e att e n ti o n t o t h e p e riph e ral Obj e ct P l wit h o u t m aki n g

t h e m ov e m e n t O f t h e e ye n e c e ssary t o b ri n g P I wi thi n t h e r a n g e

O f t h e mac ula l u t e a B u t if we obs e rv e sh arp l y duri n g such an

.

e xp e rim e n t we p e rc e iv e a co n s ta n t i n cli n ati o n o f t h e e ye to m o v e

,

s o as to bri n g t h e imag e O f t h e Obj e ct P

I u po n t h e m ac u la lut e a .

G e n e rally we ar e u n abl e to e n tire ly r e pre ss th e s e m oti o n s ; ou r

e y e s o ccasio n al l y d e viat e i n fact t o ward o n e sid e o r t h e ot h e r ,

alth o ugh we agai n i n sta n tly c o rr e ct e ac h l at e r al d e vi atio n H e n c e .

,

i n this v e ry e xc e pti o n al ca s e al s o m o to r s e n satio n s an d m o tor

,

id e a s i n fl u e n c e t h e fe e li n g wh ic h accom pa n i e s att e n ti o n .

L e t u s n o w c o n sid e r c e rtai n o th e r facto r s b e sid e s t h e d isti n ct

,

n e s s an d i n t e n si ty o f s e n satio n that h e lp to d e t e rm i n e t h e d e gr e e
,

Of i n fl u e n c e which a s e n satio n e xe rts u po n id e ati o n L e t us t e .

tai n t h e e xam pl e o f t h e e ye a t r e st as us e d abov e We shall ,

.

s u ppos e t h at t h e o bj e c t P 2 situat e d n e a r t h e p e ri ph e ry of t h e
,

fi e l d o f visi o n p r o d u c e s a stim u lati o n O f b u t v e ry sligh t i n t e n sity

,

i t t h e r e for e impa r ts a s e n satio n that is b u t littl e fi tt e d to d raw t he

a t t e n ti o n o r to d e t e rm i n e t h e associatio n O f id e as L e t us no w
.
,

h o w e v e r a l so ass u m e that t h e Obj e ct P 2 produc e s a v e ry liv e ly

,

fe e l i n g o f pl e as u re i n o th e r words t h e s e n sati o n im par t e d by P 2

,

i s accompa n i e d by a v e ry st r o n g positiv e to n e O f fe e l i n g Fo r .

e xa m pl e ,
a star fai n t i n d e e d bu t g l imm e ri n g with t h e m o st
, ,

b e autifu l colours app e a r s with i n an d n e ar t h e p e riph e ry Of t h e

,

fi e ld o f vi s io n D e spi t e i ts s l igh t i n t e n sity Of l igh t an d gr e at e r

.

o r l e ss i n disti n ct n e ss t h is r e ti n al imag e will a t o n c e attrac t t h e

,

att e n tio n Th e e ye is accordi n gly t u r n e d toward t h e sta r an d t h e

.

fo llowi n g id e as ar e d e t e rm i n e d by this s e n satio n an d n o t by that

 A t ten t io n Vo lu n t a ry Th o ug h t Th e Eg o — M e n zo i y . 2I t

impart e d by C . T h e sam e thi n g is j ust as tru e o f s e n satio n s t h at

ar e acc o m pa n i e d by stro n g n e gativ e to n e s o f fe e li n g ; d e spit e
th e ir s l ight i n t e n sity an d disti n ct n e ss such s e n s ati o n s b y v irt u e of
, ,

th e ir st r o n g accom pa n yi n g fe e li n g of disp l e asur e ar e abl e t o ,

div e r t t h e att e n tio n from s e n sati o n s that ar e m o r e i n t e n s e an d

d isti n ct bu t that hav e a w e ak e r e m o tio n al to n e I n a c e rtai n
, .

s e n s e th e y co n t e st as i t w e r e with t h e latt e r fo r t h e i n fl u e n c e
, ,

u p o n t h e co u rs e o f id e atio n F o r e xamp l e a soft ch o rd c an

.
,

fe tt e r t h e att e n tio n i n t h e m idst o f n um e rous lo u d e r n oi se s We .

h e a r k e n — that i s we tig h t e n t h e e ar-dru m an d t urn t h e h e ad i n

,

o rd e r t o h e a r t h e chord as disti n c t l y as p o s s i bl e an d ou r tho u gh ts

,

b e c o me occupi e d wi th t h e chord I n t h i s cas e we agai n fin d all

.

t h e e l e m e n ts c h a r act e ri s ti c o f att e n tio n i n g e n e ra l A s e n satio n

.
,

by virtu e o f c e rtai n o f i t s p r op e rti e s (i n t h e ab o v e cas e fo r ,

e xam pl e by virt u e O f its stro n g p ositiv e e m o ti o n a l to n e ) produc e s

, ,

e it h e r by r e fl e x o r co n sc i o u s acti o n c e r tai n m o tio n s an d wha t i s

, , ,

s ti l l m o r e e ss e n tia l d e t e rm i n e s t h e co u r s e Of id e at io n
,
T h e m o to r .

s e n s ati o n prod u c e d by t h e m otio n s gi v e s t h e att e n tio n tha t

p e c u lia r fe e li n g o f activi ty by which i t i s charact e r iz e d A v e ry .

s imi l a r p r oc e ss ta k e s p l ac e wh e n a s l igh t b u t v e r y u n p l e asa n t

,
,

d iscord occ ur s i n t h e m id s t o f a n u mb e r o f to n e s o r n ois e s I t .

lik e wis e att r acts t h e att e n tio n v e ry fo rc ib l y H e n c e we fin d tha t

.

s ti l l a third fact o r al s o larg e ly shar e s i n t h e i n fl u e n c e which t h e

s e n sati o n e x e rts u po n t h e a ssociatio n of id e as t h e i n t e n si ty of t h e
e mo t i o n al t o n e is t o b e add e d to t h e d isti n ct n e s s an d i n t e n s ity o f

t h e s e n sati o n . Bu t we hav e n o t ye t e xha u st e d all t h e fact o r s

that i n fl u e n c e t h e att e n tio n Th e d e cisio n o f t h e qu e sti o n as to
.

which s e n satio n sha ll d e t e rm i n e id e atio n i s by n o m e a n s wh o l l y

i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e id e as that hav e pr e c e d e d i n t h e las t fe w
m i n u t e s o r ho u rs I t i s n o t a m att e r o f i n di fl e r e n c e as to wh ich
.

o f th e s e id e as ar e sti l l v e ry activ e an d which ar e n o t o r as t o ,

whi ch ar e m u t u a ll y a rr e sti v e o r mutually i n ci ta n t I n bri e f that .

,

wh ich we fo r m e r ly d e sig n at e d as t h e gro u pi n g Of t h e id e as lik e wis e ,

e x e rts an i n fl ue n c e u po n t h e att e n ti o n L e t u s tak e a n oth e r

.

simpl e e xam p l e Whil e we ar e taki n g a wa l k n u m b e rl e ss visua l

.
,

s e n sati o n s c o n sta n tly thr o n g o ur co n scious n e ss I f t h e id e a o f

.
212 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

m e e ti n g o th e r st rol l e rs fo r e xamp l e is i n c o n di tio n to b e e asily

, ,

r e produc e d , t h e visual s e n sati o n o f an app roach i n g fri e n d o r

s tra n g e r attracts ou r att e n tio n an d d e t e rmi n e s o ur fu rth e r m o v e
m e n ts an d i d e as b ut if this id e a i s ch e ck e d by t h e pr e dom i n a n c e
o f oth e r th o ugh ts we pass t h e approachi n g p e r so n i n a stat e o f
,

abs e n t-m i n d e d n e ss wi tho u t h e e di n g h i m we t u rn our att e n ti o n to

t h e la n dscap e fo r e xam pl e which happ e n s to prod u c e a visual
, ,

s e n satio n m or e favou r abl e to t h e m om e n tary gro u pi n g O f t h e

lat e n t id e as U n d e r c e r tai n circumsta n c e s t h e visual s e n sati o n O f
.

a fri e n d m ay b e e v e r so disti n c t an d i n t e n s e an d poss e ss e v e r s o

st r o n g an e motio n al t o n e an d ye t i n co n s e q u e n c e o f an u n favo u r
,

abl e gr o u pi n g O f t h e lat e n t id e as o th e r s e n satio n s wil l pr e vail

,
'

an d d e t e rmi n e t h e cou r s e o f i d e atio n Th e ph e n om e n a wh ich .

“ ”
we d e sig n at e as s e e ki n g an d i n t e n s e e xp e ctatio n ar e typical
cas e s o f t h e i n fl u e n c e e x e r t e d upo n t h e att e n tio n by t h e gro u pi n g
Of t h e id e as Th e visua l id e a o f t h e O bj e c t sough t o r e xp e ct e d
.

co n sta n tly fi l ls t h e m i n d ; n umb e rl e ss s e n satio n s app e a r b u t de ,

spit e th e i r d isti n ct n e ss an d i n t e n si ty n o n e O f t h e m fi x t h e att e n tio n

,
.

O n t h e oth e r ha n d as soo n as t h e imag e o f t h e Obj e ct so u gh t but

,

app e ars n e ar an d wi thi n t h e p e riph e ry o f t h e fi e ld O f v isi o n be i t

, ,

e v e r so w e ak an d i n disti n ct i t i s at o n c e n otic e d an d t h e att e n

,

t i o n di re ct e d to i t ; i t th e n d e t e r m i n e s fur th e r m ov e m e n ts an d
id e as I n this cas e t h e g r o upi ng o f t h e lat e n t id e as i s t h e factor
.

that gov e rn s t h e a tt e n tio n i t is aid e d e sp e cial l y by t h e fe e li n g o f

pl e as u r e wh ich accom pa n i e s t h e d e si r e d s e n satio n an d wh ich is , ,

i n fact t h e ca u s e of t h e s e e ki n g
, .

We sh all d e sig n at e t h e total ity of all fact o rs that d e cid e wh e th e r

a s e n satio n sh al l b e com e t h e Obj e ct o f att e n tio n an d d e t e rm i n e
t h e fo l lowi n g associatio n O f id e as or n o t as t h e asso ci at i ve ,

i mpu lse o f t h e s e n satio n We h a v e s e e n t h at t h e associativ e i m

.

p u ls e O r t h e asso ci at i ve po we r O f a s e n sati o n is d e p e n d e n t o n ( r )
,

t h e i n t e n sity ( 2 ) t h e di st i n c t n e ss l 3 ) t h e str e n gth o f t h e a e com

, ,

1
I n t hi s cas e t h e di sti n ct n e ss o f a s e n sat i o n as o n e o f t h e co n di tio ns
“
.

o f the “
a ci at ive i mpul se migh t al so b e d e sign ate d as t h e as so ciati ve
sso ,
" “

re l atio n s hi p .
 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psy ch o logy .

e motio n al to n e an d t h e gro u p i n g o f lat e n t id e as e x e rt an i n fl u e n c e

i n favou r o f t h e si n g l e co n trasti n g s e n satio n .

L e t us agai n e m phasiz e that i n by far t h e gr e at e r n u m b e r o f c a s e s ,

t h e fi rst id e a to b e im part e d by t h e pr e vail i n g s e n sati o n is an id e a O f

m otio n I n fact i t i s g e n e r ally t h e id e a o f j u st tha t m otio n wh ich
.
,

i s fi tt e d to adj u st t h e orga n O f s e n s e so as t o r e c e iv e t h e pr e vail

i n g stim u l u s t h u s h e ight e n i n g t h e disti n ct n e ss an d i n t e n si ty o f
,

t h e s e n s atio n still fur th e r We alr e ady k n ow fu rth e rm o r e that .

, ,

t h e m o tor id e a (its s u fli c i e n t vivacity b e i n g ass u m e d ) is its e l f an

am pl e i n fact t h e o n ly ca u s e of t h e r e s p e cti v e m o tio n Th e r e fo r e

, ,
.

t h e fi r st co n s e qu e n c e o f m ost s e n sati o n s to wh ich we d i r e ct t he

att e n tio n i s a m otio n which s e rv e s to plac e t h e orga n o f s e n s e

1
,

i n a favourabl e positi o n Th e s e m o v e m e n ts ar e m ost high l y de

.

v e lo pe d fo r t h e e ye an d e ar Wh e n t h e at t e n ti o n i s d r aw n to .

s e n satio n s Of t h e ski n a g e n e ral t o n i c c o n tractio n Of t h e n e igh

,

b o ur i n g m uscl e s u s ually fi rst app e ars o n ly th e n d o e s t h e associ

atio n o f id e as fo llow Accordi n g to th e s e fac ts we m ay c o n c l u d e
.

that e ach s e n satio n poss e ss e s a c e rtai n m o to r po we r o r m o t o r i m

p ul s e I t i s withou t d o u b t e x t r aordi n a r ily fi tti n g an d t h e o u tcom e
.

o f a lo n g pr o c e ss o f n atural s e l e ctio n t h a t th is m o tor imp u ls e ,

always t e n ds t o r e n d e r t h e s e n sati o n m o re di s ti n ct an d i n t e n s e by
a m o r e favou r abl e adj ustm e n t o f t h e s e n s e -orga n with r e fe re n c e
t o t h e stimulus T h e s e n sati o n that is t o occupy o u r though ts i s
.
,

to a c e r tai n e xt e n t pr e parativ e ly i n t e n sifi e d b e for e an y th o u gh t

,

occ ur s We c an e asi l y im agi n e h o w t h e p h ylog e n e tic d e v e l o p

.

m e n t O f thi s e xp e di e n t co n n e ctio n b e tw e e n t h e m oto r i m p ul s e

an d t h e s u b s e qu e n t associatio n Of i d e as has b e e n accom p l ish e d
2
.

I t i s o n l y n e c e ssa r y h e r e t o e m pha siz e o n c e m o r e th at m a n y o f th e se

accommodativ e m ov e m e n ts tak e plac e w ith o u t o ur b e i n g co n sc ious
o f th e m ; i n oth e r words th e y ar e pu r e ly m at e rial proc e ss e s e ith e r
, ,

d i g at th
We at i es t whi h t h att t i h b
n e tu r d
o s e se n s o ns o c e en on as een ne as

p pt i
e r ce ( Wah r h m u g ) Th w rd p r pt i
on s hwvrh b u d
ne n en . e o e ce on, o e e ,
as ee n se

b y p y h l gi t i
s c m a y di ff r t m a i g t h at i
o o s s appl i a b i li ty h b
n so n e en e n n s ts c as een

i mpai r d e .

At fi r t p i all y b au it r d r p i bl m r c mpli cat d d m r

s , es ec ec se en e s o ss e o e o e an o e

e xa t d f i v m v m t
c e ens e o e e n s.
 At t en t ion Vo lu n t ary Th o ug h t Th e Eg o — M e rn o ry . 2I 5

r e fl e x or a u t o m atic ac tio n s Th e m oto r id e a i s o mitt e d fro m

.

co n scio u s n e ss ; o n l y t h e fact t h at t h e m ov e m e n t p l aci n g t h e

o rga n o f s e n s e i n a favo u rab l e po s itio n has b e e n acc o m pli s h e d ,

mak e s u s awar e th at a lat e n t m ot o r i d e a h as b e e n e xc it e d F o r .

e xam pl e t h e t u r n i n g O f t h e h e ad i n t h e dir e cti o n Of a sou n d is i n

,

m an y ca se s an e n tir e l y u n co n sci o u s act Fi n al l y th e re ar e c e rtai n .

,

m o v e m e n ts by m e a n s o f which c e rtai n orga n s ar e adj u s t e d s u c h ,

as th o s e e x e cu t e d by t h e Optic m u sc l e s o f accom m o dati o n which ,

t ak e p l ac e c o n sta n tly o r a l m o st co n sta n tly as pure l y r e fl e x acts

, ,
.

We hav e a l r e ady b e c o m e acq u ai n t e d with t h e f urth e r co u rs e o f

t h e as s o ciatio n o f id e as a ft e r h avi n g b e e n o n c e e xc it e d by s e n s a

tio n s i n p re vio u s ch apt e rs

,
T h is fu rth e r p r oc e s s o f th ough t m ay
.

b e o f t wo ki n d s We g e n e ra l ly d isti n g u i sh b e tw e e n s o —
. ca ll e d
vo lu n t ar y th o u g h t an d i n vo lu n t ar th o u g h t T his i s n o t a fu n da
y .

m e n tal disti n cti o n h ow e v e r O ur thi n ki n g ge n e ra l ly s e e m s to

, .

us t o b e volu n tary wh e n we ar e o cc u pi e d wit h t h os e ph e n om e n a

Of c o n sci o u s n e s s wh ich we d e sig n at e as r e fl e cti n g
“ ” “
t ryi ng t o ,

r e c o l l e ct ” “
,
maki n g u p t h e m i n d e t c Th e lab o rious m e n ta l
”
, .

occ upatio n O f t h e child with i ts puzzl e o r o f t h e ad u lt th in k e r ,

wi th h is pr o b l e m ar e b oth simply vari e ti e s o f that psychical pro

,

c e s s which we vario u s ly d e sig n at e as r e fl e c ti o n

“ ” “
c o n t e m platio n ”
, ,

“ ” “ ”
m e ditatio n an d cogi tati o n
,
N o w what cau s e s t h e proc e ss .

o f r e fl e ctio n t o s e e m l ik e a v o l u n tary ac t P
‘
L e t us hav e r e c o u rs e
t o acc u rat e i n tr o s p e cti o n Th e s o call e d volu n tary th o ugh t i s
.

charact e riz e d b y t h e fac t th at t he d e s i r e d id e a is al way s k n ow n

t o b e a lr e ady c o n tai n e d i n t h e i n i tial id e as that i n tr o duc e t h e

ass o cia tiv e s e ri e s as w e ll as i n t h e fo l l owi n g id e as t h e as so ciati o n s

,

n e c e ssary fo r its d i s c o v e ry how e v e r ar e oft e n v e ry co m pl icat e d

, ,
.

Bu t th e r e i s sti l l a n o th e r imp o rta n t factor charac t e ri stic of vo lun

tary tho u gh t as it i s ca ll e d Wh e n we ar e o ccupi e d with d e e p
, .

r e fl e ct io n s a s e ri e s o f s ligh t m uscula r i n n e r v atio n s app e ar s t h e se

,

ar e o n ly to b e di s cov e r e d u p o n clos e i n trosp e ctio n T hi s m u sc u lar .

i n n e rvati o n i s s e ld o m e n tir e ly abs e n t wh e n e v e r we ar e o cc u pi e d

1
C o m pare t h e so me w h at s i m i l ar dd
e u c ti o ns in M U N S T E R BERG S
’ “
Di e
Wi ll e n s h an dl un g , Fr ib e u rg , I 88 8 .
216 I ntro duct i o n t o Phys i o log i cal P sycho logy .

with s o - c a l l e d volu n tary though ts We w r i n kl e t h e brow s l ightly .

,

pr e s s t h e t e e th som e wh at m o r e fi rm l y tog e th e r an d fr e qu e n t l y ,

th e re app e ars a sligh t to n ic co n tracti o n of t h e lips an d t h e m uscl e s

Of t h e n e ck 1
All th e s e i n n e rvatio n s Of t h e m uscl e s ar e g e n e r
.

al l y accom p l is h e d u n co n sciously Furth e r mor e we hav e n o is o lat e d .

,

s e n sati o n s o f t h e si n gl e m ot io n s b ut th e i r comb i n e d actio n pro ,

d u c e s that p e c ul iar total s e n satio n wh ich we g e n e ra l ly h av e wh e n

t ryi n g to r e col l e ct o r wh e n abs o rb e d i n so -ca l l e d vol u n ta ry
”
,

r e fl e cti o n s Th e En glish l a n guag e v e ry aptly d e sig n at e s th is c o n

.

d itio n as att e n tio n ( p r imari l y fr om t e n do to st re tch ) 2 This

“
, .

com b i n atio n of m o to r s e n satio n s Oft e n gi v e s ou r though t t h e cha r

act e r Of at t e n tiv e n e ss an d an app e ara n c e o f v o li tio n an d s e lf
activity which i n fact do n o t b e lo n g to i t at al l We ca n n ot .

th i n k as we w i ll bu t we m ust th i n k as j ust th os e associatio n s

,

w h ich h app e n to b e p re s e n t pr e sc r ib e ,
.

B u t th e r e is sti l l a n oth e r circum sta n c e wh ich would s e e m t o

str e n gth e n thi s app e ara n c e Of vol i ti o n I n t h e cours e O f t h e .

o n tog e n e tic d e v e l opm e n t o f t h e i n d ividual a p e culia r compl e x ,

o f ass o cia t e d i m ag e s o f m e m o ry i s co n s tr u ct e d which w e de s i g ,

T h e ch i l d l ab orious l y acq u ire s

”
n at e as t h e id e a o f t h e Ego .

t h e id e a o f its o wn b ody as disti n ct an d s e pa r at e from t h e r e st

Of t h e wor l d ab o u t i t I n t h e b e gi n n i n g t h e ch ild k n o ws n o
.

di ffe re n c e b e tw e e n t h e ha n d touch i n g an d t h e obj e ct t o uch e d .

Th e m oo n which i t t r i e s to r e ach an d its o wn fo ot wh ich i t ,

grasps s e e m to t h e ch i l d to b e e q u al l y n e ar t o i t This co n ditio n

,
.

1
I t is i t r ting
n e es t t h at am o n g t h e l o we r an i mal s particul arl y i n t h e
to no e ,

c as e o f t h e a e t h e wri n kli n g O f t h e b ro w as a m o ti o n e x pr e ss iv e o f att e n t i o n

p , , ,

d o e s n o t se e m t o o ccur Darwi n h o we ve r O b se rve d a yo un g o ran g-o utan g

.
, ,

whi ch u n d o u bt e dly pro duce d m o t i o n s e x pre ss iv e o f atte n t i o n b y cl o si ng an d

pro tru di n g t h e li ps .

9
I t i s v e ry i n t e re s t i n g t o n o t e t h at i n t h e c as e o f t h e O b se rvat i o n s mad e by
L an ge al re ady m e n t i o n e d t h e a ppe aran ce o f vi sua l i mag e s O f m e m o ry i s fr e
, ,

qu e n t ly acco mpan i e d by sli gh t u n co n sc i o us m o v e me n ts o f t h e e ye s F o r e x .

a mpl e o n e thi n k s O f a l o n g stre e t an d at t h e sa me t i m e u n c o n sc io us ly mo ve s

, ,

t h e e ye s s li g h t l y fro m o n e s id e t o t h e o t h e r as if fo ll o w i n g t h e li n e o f b uildi n gs
, .

Th e E n g li s h e x pre ss i o n atte n t i o n co rre s po n d s e xact l y t o t h e G e r m an

”

S pan n u n g
’
Ts .
218 I n t r o du ct i o n to P hys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

b u t tha t com bi n atio n s o f id e as also tak e pl ac e withi n t h e m i n d

i ts e l f an d i n th e i r total i ty c o rre spo n d t o n o act u a ll y e xp e ri e n c e d
,

com bi n atio n o f s e n s a tio n s O n t h e co n trary t h e s e id e as r e pr e s e n t

.
,

wh o ll y s u bj e ctiv e id e ati o n al combi n atio n s I n th is ma n n e r a com .

pl e x o f id e as is als o d e v e lop e d i n which o u r paramou n t m o st , ,

i n t e n s e li n e s o f tho u gh t acco m pa n i e d by t h e str o n g e st e moti o n s

, ,

participat e as e l e m e n ts T h e s u m total o f o u r pr e s e n t i n c l i n ati o n s

.

an d o u r actually d om i n a n t id e a s co n s titut e s an e ss e n tial part of

o u r id e a Of t h e e go B ut b e sid e s t h e id e a o f o n e s pr esen t c o r ’
.

po r e al an d m e n ta l e go th e r e i s s till a th i r d m e m b e r participat i n g
,

i n t h e u s u al e go -id e a Th is i s t h e v e ry e ss e n tia l total id e a that

.

has b e e n d eposit e d i n m e mory by t h e succ e ssi o n o f o n e s m o s t ’

i m p o rta n t m e n tal an d physical e xp e ri e n c e s i n t h e past I t wi l l .

s e e m striki n g t o u s p e rhaps that t h e e o -

, g id e a whic h is d e s ig n at e d
, ,

by t h e s h o r t s m all w o rd I should be s u ch a com p l e x struct u r e

,
”
, ,

compos e d o f thr e e ch i e f m e mb e r s i n wh ich th o usa n ds an d th o u

sa n d s o f com p o n e n t id e as participat e Bu t le t us r e fl e c t ; t h e .

word is i n d e e d sh o rt b u t t h at i ts i n t e l l e ct u al co n t e n t m u st b e
, , ,

v e ry compl e x i s r e adi l y sh o w n by t h e fact t h at we s h o ul d b e a t

o n c e e mbarrass e d i f ca l l e d u p o n t o stat e t h e m e n tal c o n t e n t o f o u r

s o ca l l e d
- “
id e a o f t h e e go ”
We sh ou l d at o n c e t h i n k of t h e
.

b o dy Of o u r r e lati o n to t h e e xt e r n al w o rl d an d o u r r e l atio n s t o
,

fam i l y an d to prop e r ty of o u r n a m e an d titl e o f o ur ch i e f i n

, ,

c li n at i o n s an d dom i n a n t id e as an d fi n a ll y o f o ur past e xp e ri e n c e s
,
.

I n so doi n g we sh o u l d d e m o n strat e for o ur s e l v e s h ow e xc e e di n g l y

com pl e x this id e a o f t h e e go is T h e r e fl e cti v e p e r s o n o f cours e
.
, ,

r e duc e s this compl e xity o f t h e e go -id e a to r e l ativ e sim p l icity b y

placi n g h is o wn e go as t h e s u bj e c t o f h i s s e n sati o n s id e as an d
, ,

m o t i o n s ov e r ag a i n s t all obj e cts an d o th e r e gos of t h e e xt e r n al

,

w o r l d T o b e s ur e th is sim pl ificatio n of t h e e go -
.
,
id e a by p l aci n g
i t as s u bj e ct i n Opposi tio n to t h e r e st o f t h e w o rld as o bj e ct h as ,

a d e e p fou n datio n i n e pi s t e m o logy ; b u t r e ga rd e d p u r e l y i n t h e

l igh t o f psych o l o gy this sim pl e e go i s bu t a th e o r e tica l fi ct io n
,
.

E m pirica l psych o l o gy r e cog n is e s o n l y t h at com pl e x e go who se

chi e f charac t e ri s tic fe at u r e s w e hav e j u s t b ri e fly d e scrib e d Wh e n .

we ar e o ccu pi e d wi th t h e com mo n p r oc e s se s of n atu r al th o u g h t

 A t ten t i o n Vo lu n t ary Th o ug h t Th e Eg o — M
e rn o ry . 2 19

we pass from id e a to id e a an d from j u dgm e n t to j u dgm e n t with

o u t t h e app e ara n c e o f th i s com plicat e d id e a of t h e e go It is .

v e ry d i ffe r e n t i n t h e cas e o f t h e s o -call e d vol u n tary th ough t to

wh ich we h av e a l re ady r e fe rr e d ab ov e H e r e t h e id e a of t h e e go
.

Oft e n app e ars b e tw e e n t h e si n g l e id e a s an d j udgm e n t s ; i n t h i s

ca s e we m ake a m e n tal r e fe r e n c e t o t h e e go -id e a as t h e ca u s e of
.

t h e s e ri e s o f id e as an d j u dgm e n ts with wh ich i t is ass o ciat e d .

H ow e v e r t h e co n comi ta n t acti v i ty Of t h e id e a o f t h e e go i s n o t
,

a l ways pr e s e n t I n t h e cas e of v e ry d e e p r e fl e cti o n o r rumi

.

n ati o n we Oft e n forg e t that i t is we o u rs e l v e s wh o ar e th i n k i n g .

B u t i n g e n e ra l i t i s tr u e t h at t h e s o - ca l l e d vo l u n tary th o ugh t i s
accompa n i e d by t h e id e a o f t h e e go .

L e t us n o w r e capi t ul at e t h e th r e e fact o rs that ch aract e ri z e s o

ca l l e d vo lu n tary tho u gh t T h e y ar e as fo ll o ws : ( I ) T h e pe c u
.

li ar i t y that t h e i d e a d e s ir e d an d s o u ght is k n ow n t o b e alr e ady

c o n ta i n e d i n t h e i n itia l s e ri e s o f id e as ( 2 ) A c o m p l e x O f a e c o m
.

pa n yi n g m u sc ul ar t e n si o n s that pr o d uc e s t h e ki n ae sth e tic s e n sa

tio n charact e risti c O f att e n tio n an d fi n a ll y (3 ) t h e co n com ita n cy
,

o f t h e e go — id e a wi th t h e s e ri e s o f i d e as th at co n stit u t e thought .

We hav e also s e e n that th e s e thr e e fac tors ar e all g e n e ral l y b u t ,

n o t alway s p r e s e n t a t t h e sam e t im e an d that th e y app e ar si n g l y

, ,

a l so i n t h e cas e o f i n vo l u n tary th o u gh t From w h at has b e e n s aid

.
,

h o w e v e r we m ay als o co n cl u d e that this vo l u n tary thought by n o

,

m e a n s o ccupi e s a u n iqu e o r p e cu l ia r p o sitio n a m o n g p s ychica l

pr o c e ss e s O n t h e c o n t r ary it r e mai n s quit e wit h i n t h e l i m i ts o f
.

t h e ass o ci ati o n o f id e as with which we ar e a l r e ady t h o r o u g hl y

fam i l iar O u r th o ugh ts ar e n e v e r v o l u n tary ; l ik e a ll e v e n ts t h e y

.
,

ar e stric tly n e c e ssitat e d T h e fr e e dom w h ich we thi n k to po s s e ss

.
,

i n t h e so - ca l l e d v o l u n tary pro c e s se s O f th o u g h t i s o n l y s e m b la n c e ;
,

b u t th is app e ara n c e o f fr e e d o m is ful ly e xp l ai n e d p syc h o l o gical l y

by t h e thr e e ab o v e -m e n tio n e d factors .

B oth t h e c o m m o n usag e o f l a n g u ag e an d O f phi l o s o ph ica l an d

psyc h o l ogical th e ori e s hav e d isti n g u i s h e d ma n y oth e r s p e cia l
,

fo rm s o f t h e ass o ciati o n o f id e a s b e sid e s th o s e that we ha v e m e n

t io n e d. T h e s e s p e cial fo r m s hav e r e c e i v e d sp e cia l d e sig n atio n s ,

s u ch as u n d e rsta n d i n g ” “
r e a son ,
,
” “
p ow e r o f j u dgm e n t ”
,
 I t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psych o logy
‘
2 20 n .

” “
sagacity ,
fa n tasy e t c At t h e sam e ti m e th e r e has al ways
, .

b e e n a t e n d e n cy t o r e n d e r th e s e sp e cial activi ti e s that m ay be ,

d isti n guish e d m o r e o r l e ss j u stly i n d e p e n d e n t e n t iti e s by asc ri b

,

i n g th e m to j u s t as ma n y di ffe r e n t psychical fac ul ti e s O n th e .

co n tra ry how e v e r we s h a l l h o ld to t h e fac t that a l l th e s e activiti e s

, ,

simply r e pr e s e n t vari e ti e s of t h e associatio n o f id e as I t wou l d

‘

n o t b e at a ll di f fi cul t to r e d u c e a l l t h e s e forms to t h e o n e fu n da
m e n t al fo r m o f ass o ciati o n by pu re l y psychological r e aso n i n g T h e .

d i ffi culti e s tha t cli n g to th e s e co n c e pt io n s ar e due to th e i r all i

a n c e with c e rtai n co n c e p tio n s o f m e taph y s ics an d e pist e m ol o gy
an d to t h e fl u ctuati n g applicatio n s i n wh ich t h e co rr e s p o n di n g

t e rm s hav e b e e n u s e d by d i ffe r e n t p e o pl e s an d p h ilosophi cal

schools We sh all n o w e m p h asiz e o n ly o n e oth e r phas e o f t h e
.

ass o ciatio n o f id e as t h e memo ry o r fac u lty o f r eco llect i o n I n this

,
.

e xam pl e (t h e m e m o ry ) we shall ill u st r at e h o w s u ch psychical

activiti e s ar e to b e vi e we d as a rul e an d how th e y ar e to be r e duc e d

t o t h e associatio n O f id e as I t is obvious that two th i n gs ar e
.

n e c e ssary i n ord e r that we m ay r e call t h e m e n tal imag e o f an

Obj e ct o r s e n s atio n : ( r ) t h e i m ag e o f t h e o bj e ct i n m e mory m u st
b e i n tact an d ( 2 ) t h e associati o n as s u ch mu s t tak e plac e n orma ll y
,
.

Th e l at t e r i s ab n ormal o n ly i n cas e s o f g r e at fatigu e o r o f m e n tal

d is e as e U n d e r s u ch circumsta n c e s t h e ass o ciatio n of id e as m ay
.

b e so r e tard e d that it is fi n al l y com pl e t e ly ar r e st e d ; n o m e n tal

i mag e or id e a is r e prod u c e d Th e lat e n t m e n tal i mag e E 1 is i n tac t
.
,

b u t t h e mat e rial proc e ss which should co n v e rt this E l i n to E i

, ,

an d th e r e by bri n g t h e imag e o f m e m ory i n to co n scio u s n e ss is n o t ,

suffici e n tly vigor o us to acc o m p l ish t h e task Th is forg e t fu l n e ss .

i s b u t t r a n si t o ry But t h e l o ss o f m e m ory c aus e d by t h e de s t r uc

.
,

t io n o f t h e m e n tal i mag e s th e ms e lv e s i s a v e ry d i ffe r e n t m at t e r

, .

We h av e alr e ady h e ard i n a pr e vi o u s chap t e r that d u ri n g t h e fi rs t

.

five m i n u t e s aft e r th e i r d e pos iti o n t h e im ag e s of m e m ory l o s e v e ry

littl e o r n o t h i n g at all o f th e ir i n t e n sity an d disti n ct n e ss T h e n .

t h e slow proc e ss o f mat e ria l cha n g e b e gi n s g r ad u al l y e ffaci n g t h e ,

m at e rial d ispositio n s — t h e E l s T o e xp r e s s i t i n t h e l a n g u ag e o f
’
.

p sychol o gy t h e i mag e s o f m e m o ry gradually los e th e ir i n t e n sity

,

an d disti n ct n e ss Th e m o r e s e ldom th e y ar e r e produc e d t h e

.
,
2 22 I n tro du ct i o n t o Phys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

was j u st ab l e to r e pr o d u c e th e m Aft e r c e r tai n i n t e r va ls o f t im e

.

o r e xam p l e
( f , 20 min o r r o r 2 days
.
, ) had e laps e d h e d e t e r ,

m i n e d by e xp e rim e n t h o w m a n y tim e s h e had t o r e- r e ad t h e

partly fo rgott e n sy ll abl e s i n ord e r t o b e ab l e t o r e pr o duc e th e m
agai n . By t h is m e a n s h e Obtai n e d a sta n da r d fo r m e a s u ri n g t h e
d e gr e e O f fo rg e tful n e s s As t h e r e s ul t i t app e ar e d that t h e pr o c e s s
.
,

O f fo rg e tti n g pr o gr e ss e d v e ry s l owly at fi rst th e n m o r e rapid l y ,

an d fi n a ll y v e ry sl o w l y agai n An h ou r aft e r t h e s e ri e s had fi rs t

.

b e e n m e m o riz e d t h e p r o c e ss of forg e tti n g had adva n c e d so fa r

,

t h a t m or e tha n h alf t h e ti m e origi n ally e mp l oy e d was r e quisi t e fo r

c o m mit ti n g t h e s e ri e s t o m e m ory agai n E ight hours lat e r two .

t h ird s t h e o rigi n al tim e was r e qui r e d fo r l e ar n i n g i t a n e w a mo n th ,

lat e r abou t fo ur-fift h s t h e o r igi n al t i m e T h e s e n u m e ri cal r e l a.

t io n s may b e e xpre ss e d appr o xim at e ly at l e ast i n t h e fol l owi n g

, ,

law : T h e q u oti e n ts o f t h e amo u n t s r e tai n e d by t h e am ou n ts

“

forg o tt e n ar e t o e ach oth e r i n v e r s e ly as t h e logarithms o f t h e

various p e riod s Of tim e tha t h av e e l aps e d T h e r e s u lt o b tai n e d
.

by t h e sam e autho r i n m aki n g u se o f s e ri e s i n which t h e sy l labl e s

,

ar e arra n g e d so as t o produc e s e n s e is wort h y o f m e n tio n

,
Fo r .

e xam pl e t h e v e rs e s of an e pic po e m c an b e t e n tim e s m or e e as i l y

r e tai n e d tha n s e n s e l e ss s e r i e s o f syl l a b l e s With out i n v e s tigati n g

.

t h e co r r e ct n e ss o f t h e n umb e r t e n w e se e tha t i t i s u n d o u b t e dly

,

t r u e that t h e i d e as c o mp o si n g a s e ri e s ar e m or e firmly fix e d i n
m e m o ry wh e n th e y ar e m o r e c l os e ly a ssociat e d with e ach oth e r ,

e sp e cially b y m e an s o f j u dgm e n ts Id e as th u s thor o u ghly ass o

.

c iat e d m u tual l y assi s t o n e a n oth e r i n r e pr o d uctio n by m e a n s o f

that which w e hav e d e sig n at e d as t h e gro u pi n g of i d e as As .

H e rbart e xp r e ss e s i t th e y ar e mu tu al aids (H ii lfe n ) E bb i n g

,
“
.

h a u s fou n d fu rth e r that o n e r e adi n g i s s u ffi ci e n t to m e m oriz e a

-
s e ri e s o f from s e v e n to e igh t syllabl e s b u t th at forty four r e p e ti
,

tio n s ar e n e c e ssary for a s e ri e s o f tw e n ty-fou r sy l labl e s .

I n v e stigati o n s that ar e j ust as e xac t as thos e suppli e d by

E bbi n gh a u s fo r t h e m e mory ar e wa n ti n g fo r m ost o f t h e oth e r
,

pysc h i c al p r oc e ss e s . We m u st th e r e fore r e s t r ict O u rs e l v e s to r e

p e a t i n g o n c e m or e that th e y m ay all b e e xplai n e d wi thout di ffi
cul ty by t h e associatio n o f id e as an d i ts l aws .
 C H AP T E R XI I .

M O R BI D T H O UG H T S L E E P — H Y P N O TI S M .

T H U S far we hav e co n s id e r e d o n ly t h u g h t proc e ss e s Of t h e

the o -

h e a l thy m an i n h i s waki n g m om e n t s L e t u s n o w d e sc e n d as i t
.
,

w e r e i n t o t h e labyri n th ic r e al m s o f i n sa n e or m o r b id th o u g h t
,
.

Right am o n g t h e s e p sych ical a n o mali e s we sha l l o b s e rv e n u m e r

o u s ph e n o m e n a that c o n fi rm t h e pr o p o si ti o n s thus far adva n c e d .

We r e m e mb e r t h at we r e d u c e d e v e ry p sych ical proc e ss t o e s s e n

t i ally t h e s am e simp l e sch e m e An i n itial s e n s atio n S i s fo l l o we d
.

by a d e fi n it e s e ri e s o f id e as 1 1 , e tc
,
i n accorda n c e wi th
.
,

t h e laws o f ass o ciati o n Th e s e n sati o n S i s always co n d itio n e d

.

by an e xt e r n al stim u l u s E t h e id e a s I I 1 2 1 3 e t c ori gi n at e d i n
, , , .
,

form e r s e n sati o n s Th e s e m at e r ial d i s posi tio n s t h e E l s that h av e

.
,
’

b e e n l e ft by fo r m e r s e n satio n s ar e c h a n g e d by t h e a s sociati v e pro

,

c e ss i n to E i s o r I s an d ar e th u s r e produc e d i e ca l l e d i n t o
’
,
’
, ,
. .

p s yc h ical l i fe N o w w h at d e viatio n s from this n ormal p r oc e ss occu r

.

i n t h e c o n s cio u s l i fe of t h e i n sa n e ? L e t u s h e r e fi rs t call att e n tio n

t o a p e c u l iar ph e n o m e n o n th at has b e e n t e rm e d “
s e c o n dary s e n sa
t io n . T his ph e n o m e n o n oc cu r s wh e n a s e n s atio n o f o n e q u a l ity
that has b e e n n o r ma ll y pr o duc e d by an ad e q u at e e xt e r n a l s t i m u
lus at t h e sam e tim e im parts a s e n sati o n of an e n tir e l y d i ffe r e n t
,

quality for which th e r e is n o c o rr e spo n di n g e xt e r n al stim ulu s .

A si mpl e e xam pl e of th is s e c o n dary s e n s atio n i s as fo llows We

h e a r a v e ry loud shrill so u n d an d a t t h e sam e ti m e se e a flash o f
, ,

ligh t b e for e t h e e y e s I n this c as e t h e visual s e n sat io n o f t h e

.

fl ash o f ligh t has b e e n p r oduc e d with o u t an y ad e q u at e stim ul ati n g

caus e i n co n s e qu e n c e o f a n ormal s e n sat i o n of h e a r i n g O n t h e .

oth e r ha n d a brigh t l ight som e tim e s p roduc e s t h e s e c o n dary

,

77 3
 2 24 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sycho logy .

acoustic s e n satio n o f a high to n e b e sid e s t h e p rimary s e n satio n

o f l ight I t is Obvi ous that this ph e n om e n o n d e p e n ds o n t h e
.

sym path e tic e xc itati o n o f t h e e l e m e n ts o f t h e audi tory c e n tr e t o

which t h e cort ical e xc itatio n primarily prod u c e d i n t h e v isual
c e n tr e h as b e e n tra n sfe rr e d by m e a n s o f t h e associ ativ e p ath s .

T his proc e ss d i ffe rs from t h e p r oc e ss o f association wi th which we

ar e al r e ady fam ili a r o n l y i n t h e fac t th at t h e l att e r is t h e as s o cia

tio n o f m e n tal imag e s o r id e as whil e t h e s e co n dary s e n satio n s o n

, ,

t h e co n t r ary ar e p r o d uc e d by t h e ass o ciatio n O f s e n satio n s

, The .

i mag e o f fire m ay re mi n d o n e o f a c r ack l i n g n ois e ; t h e sou n d of

,

a t r um p e t m ay r e call t h e id e a of y e llow I n both cas e s how .

,

e v e r t h e a ss o ciatio n i s accomplish e d by m e a n s of id e as an d o n ly
‘

t h e me n t al i m ag e of r e d o r y e llo w is r e produc e d O n the co n .

t r ar y i n t h e cas e of s e co n dary s e n sa t io n s t h e p r im ar y s e n satio n

,

di r ect ly im parts a n oth e r sen sa t i o n .

We shall d o b e tte r th e r e for e to avoid t h e e xpr e ssio n associa “

”
t io n i n co n n e ctio n w i th s e co n dary s e n sati o n an d m ak e u se O f
t h e te rm r adiatio n We ar e all awa re that t h e pai n ca u s e d b y
”
.

a cario u s t o o th m ay oft e n sp re ad i n a som e wha t r e m arkabl e way

u n til i t fi n a l ly attacks t h e e n ti re h alf of t h e h e ad 1 .

Th e e ffe c t wh ich p ro l o n g e d pai n p roduc e d i n t h e cas e of o n e

s e n s e i s tra n sfe r r e d i n t h e cas e o f s e co n dary s e n satio n s from o n e
s e n s e to a n oth e r Amo n g t h e s e co n da ry s e n satio n s ph otisms
.
,

e co n da r y s e n satio n s o f l igh t o r colou r ) ar e d e cid e dly t h e

( i. e s .

m os t fr e q u e n t ; s e co n dary s e n sati o n s o f to n e
o r n ois e ) ar e co n sid e r ably rar e r T h e qual ity o f t h e s e co n dary
.

s e n satio n s is al ways t h e sam e i n t h e sam e i n divid u a l bu t o n t h e ,

oth e r h a n d o ft e n di ffe r e n t i n d i ffe r e n t p e rso n s F o r th is r e aso n

,
.

i t is o n ly possibl e to formulat e a fe w g e n e ral laws As a r ul e .

,

brigh t photisms ar e prod u c e d by s e n satio n s o f high to n e s or also ,

1 i n te re st i n g O bse rvati o n s o f U R B AN T S C H I TS C H S u po n t h e ch an ges i n

Th e
’

t h e s e n s i b ili ty o f t h e tr i g e m i n a l n e r v e s a cco m pan y i n g di se ases o f t h e e ar al so ,

pre se n t a ce rta i n an al o gy C o m par e al so P F L G G E R S Arch i v Bd 42

’
. . .
,

T h e u s e o f t h e w o rd s ph o t i s m ph o n i s m h as b e e n b o rr o we d
2 “ ” “ ”
an d

fro m t h e G e rman fo r t h e sak e o f b re vi ty Th e ir me an in g i s pare n t h e t icall y i n

.

di c at e d ab o v e —T s
’
. .
2 26 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych ology .

rare r cas e s an i n t e r val o f som e s e co n ds has b e e n o b s e r v e d to

e laps e b e fo r e t h e app e a r a n c e of t h e s e co n da r y s e n satio n .

Th e qu e stio n n o w aris e s : ar e th e s e ph e n om e n a path o logical

o r n ormal e xp e ri e n c e s o f t h e psychic life ? Bl e ul e r an d L e h
m a n n fou n d such s e co n dary s e n sati o n s i n o n e -e igh th o f a l l t h e
1

m e n w h om th e y i n v e stigat e d T h e qu e s tio n s (Frag e bog e n ) of .

F e ch n e r 2 b
ro ugh t tog e th e r 3 4 7 r e liab l e cas e s i n which co l ou r s
w e re associat e d with sou n ds O f cours e i t is p ro babl e t h at n o t .

all o f th e s e cas e s ar e g e n u i n e bu t that o n t h e co n trary i n a p art , ,

o f th e m c e r tai n associa ti o n s O f i d e as o rigi n ati n g partly i n e a r l i e st

, ,

childhood ar e t h e caus e o f t h e s e co n dary s e n sati o n s I t ca n n ot

, .

b e dou b t e d how e v e r th at g e n u i n e cas e s occur

, , I n th e s e .

g e n ui n e cas e s a l m ost without e xc e pti o n w e fin d a n e u r O pat h i c

, ,

d ispositi o n T h e ab o v e -m e n tio n e d lady s u ffe r e d fr o m s e v e r e

’

r e fl e x n e urosis At t h e tim e that N uss b a u m e r 3 fi rst im pa r t e d

.

h is s e lf-Obs e rvati o n s t o G e rma n y b e fo r e t h e m e dical frat e rn i ty of

Vi e n n a B e n e dict had a lr e ady call e d att e n tio n to t h e psych o -
, patho
l ogical fe at ur e s o f th e s e symptom s I n v e ry m a n y cas e s th e re is .

an i n h e ri t e d disposi tio n N u ssb au m e r s b roth e r h ad lik e wis e had

’
.

s e co n dary s e n satio n s ; a l so s e v e ral of B l e u l e r s r e l at io n s b e sid e s ’

h ims e l f I n m e n tally h e althy i n d i vid u a l s who ar e fre e from a l l

.
,

n e ur O
p at h i c disturba n c e s th e s e s e co n dary s e n satio n s ar e at l e ast
,

j u st as rare as t h e ha l luci n atio n s that ar e to b e co n sid e re d pr e

se n t ly Th e r e i s n o doub t that i n h e ri t e d ass o ciativ e path s of
.

ab n o rmal capacity for co n ductio n ar e i n t h e abo v e cas e s t h e , ,

m e a n s o f commu n icatio n b e tw e e n t h e s e pa r at e cortical c e n t r e s of

s e n sati o n .

1 “
Zw an g smals si g e L i ch t e m pfin du n g e n
'

Sc a und e rwan t e Er dur h c h ll v d

sc h e i n u n ge n a uf i ”
d
de m G e b e t de r an e re n S i n n e s e m pfin du n ge n , L e pz g , 1 8 8 1 i i .

2
S T E I N B R G G G E, U e b e r se cu n dii re S i n n e se m pfin du n ge n ,
”
e sb a e n , 1 88 7 Wi d .

I n t hi s wo rk al so t o b e fo u n d fu rt h e r t h o ugh i n co
ar e e e e re , m pl t li t rary ,

fe r e n ce s To t h e ab o v e w o rk s h o uld b e a dd e d G I RAN DEAU

.
,

DE R OC HA S L a Natu re 1 88 5 an d n u m e r o u s I ta li an a u t h o rs Th e
”
1 8 85 , ,
.

fi rst d e scri pt io n w as g i ve n by L U S S AN A as e arly as 1 8 65 .

3
Wi e n e r m e d Wo c h s ch r 1 8 73 F E C H N ER S fi rs t co mmun icatio n ap
. .
, .
’

p e a r e d i n d e pe n d e n t l y o f N U S S B A U M E R S i n t h e
“
V o r schul e d e r Ae s t h e t i k
’
,
”

1 8 76 .
 Mo r bi d Th o ug h t S le ep— H ypn o t i s m . 227

N o r m al l y t h e s e n sati o n sh ould always ca u s e t h e app e ara n c e

,

o f id e as o n ly an d n o t Of s e n sati o n s ; t h e s e n satio n s th e ms e lv e s
,

sh o u l d n o t app e ar without ad e q u at e s timulati o n T h e s e co n dary .

s e n sati o n i s n o t pr o d u c e d b y ad e q u at e stim ul atio n bu t by t h e ,

ac ti o n o f som e oth e r s e n sat i o n ; i t th e r e fo r e d e part s from t h e

n atur e o f t h e n o rm al o r pri m ary s e n satio n We s h a l l n o w c o n .

sid e r a n oth e r cas e o f m o rbid s e n satio n — t h e h allu ci n at i o n I n .

this cas e n o t o n l y t h e ad e q u at e e xt e r n al sti mu lu s b u t a l so t h e ,

primary s e n satio n ar e wa n ti n g T h e p e rs o n s s u bj e c t to h alluc i

.

n atio n s s e e s p e rso n s an d la n dscap e s i n t h e cl o u d l e s s sky an d ,

h e ars voic e s i n t h e m o st pr o fo u n d still n e ss At t h e sam e t im e .

his visi o n s ar e Oft e n so r e alistic an d so t ru e i n c o l o u r an d t h e ,

a u di t o ry hal lu ci atio n s that h e h e ars ar e so l o ud an d d isti n ct

n 1
,

t h at i t is ab so l u t e ly i mpossib l e to d isti n guish th e m; fr o m t h e

r e a l ity Th e y app e ar wh e n t h e e y e s an d e a rs ar e cl o se d t he sam e
.

as w h e n th e y ar e Op e n Th e y o ft e n co r r e sp o n d t o t h e ac t u a l
.
‘

c o n t e n t o f t h e i n valid s thoughts ; i n thi s cas e h e c o m p l ai n s t h at

’

all h is tho u gh ts ar e at o n c e s e t i n sc e n e an d il lu str at e d or

“ ” “ '

that th e y b e c o m e l o u d
“ ”
Agai n t h e visio n s are oft e n e n ti r e ly
.
,

stra n g e an d s u rprisi n g t o t h e pati e n t hims e lf ; h e s e e s fac e s that

h e n e v e r saw b e fo re an d h e ars wo r d s that hav e n o t t h e r e mot e st
,

c o n n e ctio n wi th h i s thought s o r e v e n c o mbi n atio n s o f syl l ab l e s

that h e n e v e r h e a rd b e fo r e I n stil l ot h e r cas e s t h e i n valid
.

pos se s se s t h e p o w e r o f pr o d uc i n g this o r that halluci n atio n at

wil l s o m e wh at as G o e th e r e lat e s o f O t ti l i e i n h is n o v e l
,
“
W ahl ,

v e rwa n dt s chaft e n .
” 2
G e n u i n e hall uc i n atio n s o f tast e sm e ll an d ,

touch ar e c o n sid e rab l y m o r e r ar e C e r tai n hall u ci n ati o n s i n t h e

.

cas e o f m o t o r s e n satio n ar e h igh l y i n t e r e sti n g O n e i n va l id t o ld .

t h e a u t h o r that h e fe l t h is lary n x an d to n gu e m o v e as if h e h e ard

t h e word
“
parricid e iss u i n g fro m th e m I t i s n o t improbabl e .

that s uc h hal lu ci n at o ry m o t o r s e n satio n s at tim e s caus e actua l

i n v olu n tary m o tio n s thus prod u c i n g t h e articulati o n o f t h e r e spe c
,

ti v e wo r d As r e gards localisati o n t h e v o ic e s h e ard ar e occasion

.
,

1
G er Aho as m e n —T ’
s.

—T
. .

N at ura l or e e l ct iv fi n it ie s
e af
’
s.
2 28 I n t r o du ct i o n t o Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

ally t h e visio n s v e r y r ar e ly locat e d with i n t h e h e ad much m ore

,

fr e q u e n tly b o th ar e p r o j e ct e d o u tward Th e i r l o catio n wh e n pe r .

,

c e i v e d as e xt e r n al to t h e i n va l id h i ms e lf app e ar t o va ry ; t h e ,

variati o n is o n ly i n pa r t d e p e n d e n t o n t h e m o ve m e n ts o f t h e ,

i n valid s e y e s whil e e xp e ri e n ci n g t h e halluci n atio n s Thos e cas e s

’
.

ar e r e markabl e i n which t h e halluci n atio n s ar e always h e a r d with

,

but o n e e ar o r s e e n i n bu t o n e hal f of t h e fi e ld of v isio n Th e

, .

a u thor also r e coll e cts a ca s e i n wh ich t h e agr e e abl e voic e s always

spok e i n to t h e r igh t e ar an d t h e d isag r e e abl e voic e s i n to t h e l e ft
,

e ar. S q u i n t e r s Oft e n s e e t h e ir v isio n s do u bl e S om e ti m e s i t i s .

n e c e ssary fo r t h e i n val id to giv e e sp e cia ll y c l os e att e n ti o n i n ord e r ,

t o disti n g u ish word s am o n g t h e i n disti n c t hall u ci n atory m u rm u r

i n gs . T h e h a l luci n atio n s g e n e rally hav e a stro n g e r i n flu e n c e
upo n t h e associatio n o f id e as tha n t h e co n com ita n t n o rm al s e n sa
tio n s which ar e Oft e n i n fact o v e r shadow e d Fo r this re aso n
, , , .
,

wh e n a larg e n umb e r o f hall u ci n atio n s co n ti n u e s m a n y y e a rs th e y

v e ry r ar e ly fail to b e g e t i n sa n e id e as .

I n m a n y cas e s o f halluci n atio n a dis e as e O f t h e i n valid s orga n

’

o f h e a r i n g o r sigh t c an b e diag n os e d ; but i n n umb e rl e ss cas e s n o

s u ch d is e a s e Of an o rga n o f s e n s e is pr e s e n t I n di v id u als whos e .

optic n e rv e s h av e b e e n atroph i e d fo r a n umb e r of y e a rs can ha v e

visi o n s O n t h e co n t rar y n o p e r so n s hav e e v e r b e e n k n ow n to hav e
.

Optic o r acoustic halluci n atio n s who w e r e bo r n bli n d o r d um b 1

,
.

Th e sti l l n e ss o f sol itud e as i n t h e cas e of soli tary co n fi n e m e n t

,

fo r e xampl e favo u rs t h e app e ara n c e of acoustic hallucin atio n s ;

,

t h e dark n e ss of n igh t or t h e ba n dagi n g Of t h e e y e s aft e r an Op e ra

t io n fo r t h e r e moval o f a cata r act favou r s t h e app e ar a n c e of ,

visio n s Th e s e t wo stat e m e n ts d o n o t e xp r e ss e n ti r e ly u n iv e rsal

.

r ul e s h ow e v e r O n t h e co n t r ary th e re ar e e v e n cas e s i n whic h

, .
,

sligh t stimul i o f sigh t o r h e ari n g o f an y ki n d whatso e v e r, ar e ,

su fli c i e n t fo r t h e app e ara n c e o f halluci n atio n s

‘
I t also ap pe ars .

i n som e cas e s that a n o r m al s e n sati o n o f o n e quality i s r e q u isit e

to produc e halluci n atory s e n sation s o f a n oth e r quality (Kah lbau m) ,

s o that i n a c e rtai n s e n s e a rimary s n satio n is s ti l l n e c e ssary

p e .

1
L EI DES DO RF ,
“
L e h rb . d .
psyc h . Kr an kh .
, 1 865
.
2 30 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sych o lo
gy .

class occur o n l y wh e n v e r y co n sid e ra bl e cha n g e s i n t h e e xcita

b i li t y o f t h e s e n satio n - c e l ls hav e tak e n p l ac e whil e t h e ac t u al ,

co n sciou s i d e as produc e ha llu ci n ati o n s e v e n wh e n t h e e xcitabi l ity

o f t h e s e n satio n - c e lls has b u t v e ry s l ight l y i n cr e as e d Fo r th is .

r e aso n hal lu ci n atio n s o f t h e s e co n d class ar e g e n e ral l y much m o r e

vivid l y p e rc e iv e d th a n thos e of t h e fi rst class si n c e i n t h e fo rm e r ,

cas e t h e s e n satio n - c e lls ar e m or e a ffe ct e d by t h e m o rbi d ph e n o

m e n a tha n i n t h e latt e r As we al r e ady k n o w b oth s e n sati o n
.
,

c e l ls an d m e m ory-c e l l s ar e locat e d i n t h e c e r e b ral co r t e x ; t h e

halluci n atio n s ar e th e r e for e d e cid e d l y o f co r tical origi n T h e .

ass u mptio n that t h e p e riph e ral pa r ts o f t h e s e n so r y n e r v e -paths

( corpora qu adrig e m i n a r e
,
ti n a e t c ) ar e sym path
,
e tically e xcit
. e d t o

a c e rtai n e xt e n t i n cas e o f h alluci n atio n s wa n ts s u ffici e n t g r o u n ds ,

.

O n t h e o th e r h an d i t c an b e show n that i n a larg e n u m b e r of

'

cas e s o f hall u ci n ation som e e x t e rn al stimu l atio n i n t h e broad e r

,

s e n s e i s n o t e n tir e ly wa n ti n g I t app e ars i n fact that subj e ctiv e

.
, ,

sou n d s produc e d i n t h e p e riph e ral pa r ts o f t h e orga n o f h e ari n g

, ,

o r e n top tic d isturba n c e s i n t h e vitr e o u s b ody fo r e xampl e an d ,

e sp e cia ll y e xc e ssiv e ly a u gm e n t e d m o u ch e s vola n t e s ar e v e r y

“ ”

fr e q u e n tly t h e ca us e o f h all u ci n atio n s S u ch subj e ctiv e so u n d s .

,

r e sulti n g from p e riph e r al ca u s e s m ay e xis t fo r y e ars an d b e pe r

,

c e i v e d i n th e i r tru e n at u r e i e fo r e xam pl e as a simp l e b u zzi n g

, , ,
. .

o r h u mm i n g i n t h e e ars I f howe v e r a m e n tal d ist u rba n c e i s

.
, ,

d e v e l o p e d i n t h e i n dividual th e s e n ois e s ar e s o o n h e ard as w o rds

,

I n a sim i l a r m a n n e r t h e m o u ch e s vola n t e s ap p e ar
“ ”
an d voic e s .

to o n e d e li rio u s from t h e u se of alco hol to b e n umb e rl e ss m ic e o r

b e e s swarm i n g abou t h im I t i s v e ry appar e n t tha t i n this cas e
.
,

an d i n m a n y oth e r si mi l a r cas e s t h e s e n satio n - c e lls d o n o t r e c e iv e

,

e xci tati o n from e xt e rn al stimu l i i n t h e n ar r ow e r s e n s e that i s from , ,

such as ar e e xt e r n al to t h e b ody b u t from thos e e xt e r n al stim u l i ,

that ar e si tuat e d i n t h e s e n s e - o rga n o r i n som e part o f t h e s e n s o ry

n e rv e - path up to t h e c e r e bral cort e x U n d e r n o rmal circum .

sta n c e s a v e ry simpl e s e n satio n corr e spo n ds to this e xcitatio n ;

t h e i n d ivid u al h e ars a b u zzi n g i n t h e e a r s or s e e s dark spots i n

t h e visua l fi e ld . U n d e r ab n o rmal circ u msta n c e s t h e m e m ory -c e l ls

act upo n t h e s e n sati o n -c e l ls i n such a m a n n e r as to tra n sform
 Mo r bi d Th o ug h t — S leep H ypn o t i s m . 23 1

t h e e xci tati o n i n t o mor e c o mplicat e d s e n sat i o n s ; t h e b u zzi n g i n

t h e e ars b e com e s words t h e dark s p o ts b e c o m e fo rm s ,
I n ma n y .

r e s p e ct s th e s e h al l uci n ati o n s 1 a l r e ady app r oac h t h e i ll usio n s w h ic h

we s h all fo rthwit h di s c u ss m o r e full y .

Als o i n t h i s co n n e ctio n we sha ll n o w ask wh e th e r t h e b allu c i

, ,

n ati o n s m ay o ccu r i n h e a l t h y p e r s o n s or wh e t h e r th e i r app e ara n c e ,

is l im it e d m e r e ly t o m e n tal d i se as e s An e xact i n v e stigati o n o f

this s u bj e ct shows th at i n t h i s cas e a l s o t h e ma n y i n d ivid u a l s wh o
h ave i n h e ri t e d t e n d e n ci e s toward m e n ta l d is e as e s a l t h o ugh n o t ,

m e n ta ll y d e ra n g e d t h e ms e lv e s e xp e ri e n c e ha llu ci n atio n s Of , .

still gr e at e r imp o rta n c e t o us is t h e fact that e v e n m e n who ar e

v e ry gifte d m e n ta ll y particu l ar l y artists wh o p o ss e ss a v e ry vivid
,

i magi n ati o n h av e ha llu c i n atio n s T h e I ta l ia n pai n t e r S pi n e l lo

, .
,

Ar e ti n i is said t o h a v e copi ed h i s Mado n n as as i t w e r e fr o m a

, , ,

v isio n ; an I ta l ia n com pos e r is said to hav e c o mpos e d h is s o n ata

i n im itati o n o f m u s i c h e ard d u ri n g ha l luci n atio n s Th e w e l l .

k n own vi s i o n o f G o e th e s — t h e r id e r i n pik e -gr e y ma n tl e u po n

’

t h e S e s e n h e im rid e — was p r obably a simp l e i llu si o n B alluc i .

n ati o n s ar e r e cord e d o f S c h u m an n P asc al C arda n u s M e n d e l s s o h n , , , ,

Je a n P a ul S pi n oza By r o n Ti e ck Jo h n so n P op e an d n um e r o u s
, , , , , ,

o th e rs . T o be s ur e i n m a n y of th e s e cas e s we h av e to d e al wi t h
,

v e ry doubtfully a u th e n ticat e d r e ports ; i n m a n y t h e ph e n om e n a

m ay h av e a l s o b e e n m e r e i ll usio n s I n t h e n o r mal man at l e ast .
, ,

e v e n t h e l iv e l i e s t e m oti o n s g e n e r a l ly p r o duc e n oth i n g m or e tha n

i l l u si o n s n e v e r hal lu ci n ati o n s
, F e ch n e r an d H e n l e r e port o f .

t h e m s e lv e s th at at n i g h t o bj e cts wi t h w h ich th e y had b e e n

occ u pi e d duri n g t h e day Oft e n app e ar e d t o t h e m agai n as
pha n tasms i n t h e dark Th e p e cu l iar hyp n agogic h a ll uci n atio n s
.

1
Th e li t
ratu re u po n t h e s ubj e ct o f h all uci n at i o n s i s e x trao rdi n ar il y c o m
e

pr e h e n s ive At t h e pre se n t m o m e n t e x tract s fro m o ve r 3 00 w o rk s li e b e fo re

.

t h e au t h o r A s a pre parato ry i n tro d u ct i o n t o t h e t h e o ry o f h alluci n at i o n s

.
,

H A G E N All g e m e i n e Z e itsch rift f ur P syc h i at r i c B d 2 5 i s t o b e e s pe c i all y

, , .
,

re co m m e n d e d A l so KA H L B AU M i b id e m B d 2 3 L A Z A R U S Ze i t s ch r f
.
,
. .
, . .

VO lke r psyc h o lo g i e B e r li n 1 8 67 KR AE PEL I N U e b e r T r u g w ah r n e h m

'
“
, , .
,

un e n
g , Arc h f P syc h Bd 1 4 KAN D IN S KY Arc h f P sychiatr i e Bd 1 1
”
. . .
, . .
, . .
, . .

A br i e f pre s e n tat i o n o f t h e d o c tri n e o f h a ll uci n at i o n s i s t o b e fo un d i n

M E N D E L Be rl kl i n c h sch r 1 890
, . . .
, .
23 2 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

that app e a r j us t b e for e fall i n g asl e e p ar e also v e ry i n t e r e sti n g .

Th e y hav e b e e n mos t e xactly d e scrib e d b y Hopp e 1

Almost .

e v e ry o n e c an obs e r v e th e s e i n his o wn cas e occa s io n ally Th e y .

app e a r o n ly up o n closi n g t h e e y e s an d ar e w i thou t e xc e ptio n , , ,

vision s o f bu t sligh t s e n sual v ivacity g e n e r al l y i n disti n c t visag e s ,

o r la n dscap e s .

By i llu si o n s we u n d e rstan d thos e s e n satio n s th at ar e i n fact , ,

p roduc e d by e xt e r n al stimuli b ut tha t do n o t co rr e s po n d to t h e ,

sam e i n quali ty We ar e all familia r p e rhaps with t h e p o e m of

.
, ,

S chill e r s which r u n s as fol l ows

’
,

H or
’
ich das P fO rt ch e n i h t ge h e n ?
n c

H at n c i ht d er R i e ge l ge kli rrt ?
Ne i Wi d W h
n, es war de s n es e en ,

D d rch di
er Papp l ch wi rrt
u e se e n s .

S h i h i h t Wei d rt h i mm r
’
e c n c s sse s o sc e n ?
G la t i h t wi id G wa d ?
nz
’
s n c e se nes e n

N i i t d S a l F li mm
'

e n, es s er u e e rn

A d du kl ” 2
n T w der n en axu s an .

Or le t us r e coll e c t t h e w e ll -k n ow n e xam pl e o f an i n sa n e p e rso n

who wh il e obs e rvi n g a r e al po r trai t sudd e n ly p e r c e iv e s t h e
, ,

pai n t e d h e ad p rotrud e its to n gu e t h e visio n poss e ssi n g a l l t h e ,

s e n sual v ivaci t y o f t h e r e al ac t Agai n a lady wh o was m e n tal l y .

,

d e r a n g e d o n c e r e lat e d to t h e autho r that as O ft e n as s h e trav e ll e d

upo n t h e r ailway sh e h e ard a voic e call o ut fr o m t h e r att l i n g of
,

t h e wh e e ls “
crazy B r e m e r c r azy B r e m e r —B re m e r b e i n g t h e
,
”
, ,

3
L e t us n o w i n qui r e what proc e ss e s li e at t h e
’
pati e n t s n am e .

1
O PP E Erklalru n ge n de r S i n n e s t au sch u n ge n Wii rz b u r g 1 8 8 8
H ,
'

, ,
.

2
T h e abo ve se l e cti o n i s fro m S chill e r s E rwartu n g T h e r e ad e r wh o i s
”
’
.

n o t v e rs e d i n G e r m an w ill
pro b ab l y b e ab l e t o d e ri v e gre at e r b e n e fi t so far as ,

i t s spe c ifi c appli cat i o n ab o v e i s co n ce rn e d fro m a m o re li t e r al tran s l at i o n i n ,

pro se tha n fro m a fr e e po e t i ca l tran s l at i o n Th e fo r me r i s as fo ll o ws Do .

I n o t h e ar t h e wi c k e t o pe n ? Was i t n o t t h e b o l t th at cli ck e d ? N o it w as ,

o n l y t h e wi n d s i hi n
g g an d m u rm ur i n g t h ro u gh t h e s e po pl ars B ut do I .

n o t s e e so m e t hi n
g w hi te gl e a m i n g t h e r e I s i t n o t t h e fl ash o f a s ilk e n ro be
,
”—
e co lu m n s t h at g li s t e n a a i n st t h e d ar k wall o f ye ws
’
NO , i
t s b u t t h g Ts .
’
.

3
Th e G e r man wo rd s wh e n r e gul ar l y r e pe at e d b e ar m o re o r l e ss rese mb l an ce
, ,

t o t h e r hyt h m i ca l b u t m o n o t o n o us n o i s e o f car- wh e e l s i n m o t i o n Ve r r ii c kt e
- - —T s
,

Bre m e r v e r r ii ckt e Bre me r ( - -

.

’
, u V V , v V V .
234 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

on ly the m o s t im po r ta n t ormal psych ology t h e m ost

, an d fo r n

t r
in e e s ti n g ph e n om e n a O n e O f t h e ch i e f am o n g th e s e i s i m
.

beci li ty o r de me n t i a We r e m e m be r that t h e m os t proba bl e

.

a n at o m ical ba s i s fo r t h e associatio n o f id e as was fo u n d to co n sist

o f n u mb e rl e ss so call e d
- “ ”
ass o ciativ e fi bre s which co n n e c t t h e,

ga n g l i o n -c e l ls with o n e a n oth e r by r u n n i n g t h r o ugh t h e wh it e

m att e r partly i n arcuat e c o u rs e s from o n e part o f t h e c e r e bra l
, ,

cort e x t o a n o th e r T h e ga n glio n -c e lls th e m s e lv e s ar e m o s t

.

n at u ra ll y t o b e r e ga rd e d as thos e e l e m e n t s which w e h a v e de si g

n at e d as m e mory - c e lls an d i n which t h e so -

,
ca l l e d lat e n t imag e s
o f m e m o ry ar e d e posit e d N o w i t is o f t h e gr e at e st i n t e r e st t h at
.

t h e i n v e s ti gati o n s o f pathological a n atomy hav e fu r n i s h e d positiv e

r e s u lts i n t h e cas e o f that m e n tal d i s tu rba n c e whi ch i n e vitably

l e ads to com p l e t e imb e cili ty t h e so -ca ll e d soft e n i n g o f t h e b rai n
, ,

o r de me n t i a par al y tica I t co n sists pa r ticula rly i n t h e d e st ructio n

.

( )r o f t h e ga n glio n - c e lls th e ms e l v e s an d ( )
2 o f t h,
e associativ e

fi bre s u n i ti n g th e m We fin d that th e s e facts t o a c e rtai n e xt e n t

.
, ,

o n c e mor e co n firm all o ur p r e vious d e ductio n s a po st er i o r i ,

.

T h e a b n o rmal acc e l e r atio n an d o bstructi o n of t h e associati o n

o f id e as an d al s o i ts m o r bid i n coh e r e n cy hav e b e e n alr e ady m e n
,

t i o n e d abov e I t o n ly r e m ai n s fo r us to co n sid e r bri e fly two oth e r

.

psych opathic ph e n om e n a that d e s e rv e a v e ry e sp e cial i n t e r e st ,

t h e delu s i ve i dea an d t h e co mpu lso ry i dea Th e two ph e n om e n a

.

ar e alik e i n b e i n g associati o n s o f j udgm e n t that hav e n o s u ffi ci e n t

foun datio n i n t h e e x t e rn al world Th e y di ffe r fr o m o n e a n oth e r

.

i n that i n t h e fo rm e r cas e t h e i n val id b e l i e v e s i n hi s d e lusi o n ,

whil e i n t h e la tt e r h e i s fu l l y co n scious o f t h e i n corre ct n e s s an d

m orbid n at u r e o f t h e id e a wh ich i s fo r ci n g its e l f u po n h im A .

pati e n t wh o b e li e v e s that h e is J e sus C h r ist is su ffe r i n g from a

d e l u sio n ; o n e who wh i l e cutti n g h is b r e ad is c o n sta n tly
, ,

h ara ss e d by t h e though t that h e is cu tt i n g h is b roth e r i n two ,

an d wh o a l tho u gh h e r e c o g n is e s t h e id e a i ts e l f to b e fa l s e
,

an d laughabl e i s still u n abl e to r id hims e lf o f i t an d is d r iv e n to

, ,

t h e poi n t o f r e fu si n g n o u rishm e n t i s t h e victim o f a com pulsory

,

i d e a o r an id e a wh ich fo r c e s i ts e l f u po n him H ow do id e as
, .

o f th e s e t wo ki n ds aris e ? N o r mal l y t h e associatio n o f id e as ,

 Mo r bi d Th o ug h t -
S le ep— H ypn o t i s m .

e sp e cia l ly a s soci ati o n that pr o duc e s j udgm e n ts d e v e lop s u n d e r ,

t h e co n s ta n t i n flu e n c e o f s e n sati o n s t h at we ar e always e xpe r i

,

cu e i n g a n e w fr o m m om e n t t o m om e n t t h e latt e r co n di tio n an d
d e t e rm i n e t h e fo rm e r T his i n fl u e n c e o f t h e s e n satio n s a ffo rds
.

t h e p o ssibi l i ty o f a co n sta n t c orr e cti o n o f t h e j udgm e n t s th at

ar e b e i n g produc e d by t h e associatio n o f id e as I n c o rr e ct
.

j udgm e n ts ar e s u ppr e ss e d i n t h e v e ry act o f fo rmatio n T h u s .

b oth fa n tasy an d j u dgm e n t ar e u n d e r t h e c o n trol o f t h e e xt e r n al

world an d m ay n e v e r b e c o m e t o o co n t r adictory to i t We c o m
,
.

m i t e rro r s o f j u dgm e n t i n fact b e cau s e o u r s e n s atio n s t h e m

“ ”
, ,

s e l ve s d o n o t always cor r e sp o n d e xactly to t h e e xt e rn al e xcita n ts ,

an d pa r tic ul ar l y b e caus e t h e ch i e f law of t h e associatio n o f id e as ,

t h e law o f sim u l ta n e o u sn e s s obvio u sly p e rmit s o r e v e n ca u s e s a t

,

tim e s qu it e i ll ogical co n clusi o n s an d u n wa rr a n tab l e g e n e ra l i za

tio n s ; b u t s u ch e r r ors b e com e n e i th e r d e l u s iv e n o r co m p ul sory
1

id e as I n g e n e ra l t h e parall e lism o f t h e associatio n s o f j u dgm e n t

.

an d t h e s e ri e s o f e xt e r n al e xc ita n ts o r pr o c e ss e s of t h e e xt e r n a l

world r e mai n s com parativ e ly i n tact I n i n valid s wh o ar e s u ffe ri n g

.

from d e l u si o n s o r c o mpuls o ry id e as t h e r e g u lativ e i n fl u e n c e o f

t h e s e n sati o n s o r of t h e e xt e r n al sti m ul i u po n id e at io n has e ith e r

b e e n r e mov e d o r has l os t t h e p e rsi s t e n cy o f i ts actio n H e n ce .

t h e as s ociatio n o f id e as produc e s j u dgm e n t s tha t ar e c o m pl e t e ly

c o n tradict o ry to t h e pr o c e s s e s of t h e e xt e rn al world I n fact i n .

,

t h e cas e o f th e s e i n v alids t h e proc e s s i s r e v e r s e d t h e a s s ociatio n

o f id e as i n fl u e n c e s t h e s e n s ati o n s Th e latt e r ar e i n t e rp r e t e d s o
.

as t o harm o n iz e with t h e e xi s ti n g i n sa n e id e as an d r e m o d e l l e d
acc o rdi n g l y ; a furt h e r stag e b ri n gs il lu s i o n s an d hal lu ci n ati o n s .

I t is n o t m e r e cha n c e that i l l u s i o n s an d ha llu ci n ati o n s s o v e ry

fr e q u e n t l y accom pa n y d e l u siv e o r i n sa n e id e as All thr e e ar e .

sym p to m s that t h e id e atio n al li fe has b e e n wr e s t e d fr o m t h e

c o n tr o l of t h e s e n ti e n t l ife D e l u si v e an d c o mp ul s ory id e a s ar e
.

o n ly d i s ti n g u i s h e d from e ach o th e r as r e gards t h e ir orig i n In .

t h e latt e r cas e co r r e ct j u dg m e n t s ar e sti l l mad e as w e l l as i n c o rr e ct ,

1
M U N ST B R G i ri gh t i d l ari
ER E s n ec n
g th at t h e e rro rs o fj u dg m e n t c an be far
m o re e asi ly e x pl a i n e d psy c h o l o g i ca ll y t h a n i t s co n stan t co rre c t n e ss.
23 6 I n t r o du c t i o n to Phys i o log i ca l Psych o logy .

an d xc e e d t h e latt e r i n n umb e r s whil e i n t h e fo rm e r

gr e atly e ,

cas e o n t h e co n tra ry , co rr e c t j udgm e n ts ar e n o t form e d at all o r

, ,

at m ost o n ly i n v e ry lim it e d n u mb e r s .

We m ust n o w c o n t e n t ou r s e lv e s with th e s e fe w h i n ts c o n
c e r n i n g t h e th e o ry o f m o rb id d ist urba n c e s i n m e n tal activity, an d
pass o n t o t h e psychological p r e s e n tatio n of a co n diti o n that h as
oft e n b e e n d i r e ctly compa r e d tho u gh o f co u rs e with o u t su ffi ci e n t
,

gr o u n ds to t h e m o rb id m e n tal co n ditio n s v iz t h e co n ditio n o f

, , .

sleep with i ts d r e am s We d o n o t ye t k n o w with c e rtai n ty what

.

t h e p h ysiological basis o f sl e e p is wh e th e r m e r e l y a ch e mical ,

e xhaustio n o f t h e c e r e bral co r t e x o r a u n iv e r sal o r partial ch a n g e

,

i n t h e cir culatio n o f t h e blo o d 1 P s ychologica l ly sl e e p app e ars

.
,

to be a m or e o r l e ss com pl e t e r e moval of all psy ch ical pr o c e ss e s .

O n e m igh t d e sig n at e this co n ditio n if so d e sir e d as u n c o n , ,

s c i o us n e s s T h e E c s o f t h e c e r e bral c o r t e x r e m ai n too w e ak to
.
’

produc e a co n com ita n t psych ical p r oc e ss o r s e n sati o n an d t h e ,

E l s ar e n o t a r ous e d fr o m th e i r s tat e of lat e n cy

’
P sychical .

proc e ss e s app e a r i n but o n e form du r i n g s l e e p — i n t h e form o f ,

d r e ams T h e st u dy of dr e am s is e xt r aordi n arily i n t e r e sti n g an d

‘

.
,

u rg e n tly t o b e r e comm e n d e d as a s u bj e c t fo r i n t r o s p e ct io n T h e .

r e s u l ts of o ur s e lf-obs e r vatio n s will o n ly be e xact how e v e r i f we , ,

follo w t h e e xam p l e o f Laz a r us by lay i n g pap e r an d p e n cil b e sid e

us b e fo r e fal l i n g asl e e p s o that as soo n as we wak e n i n co u s e
, ,

q u e n c e o f a d re am i ts co n t e n ts c an b e w r i tt e n dow n at o n c e
,
.

I f we wai t l o n g e r till m or n i n g p e rhaps t h e gre at e r par t o f i t

, ,

will hav e va n is h e d from m e mory An accu r at e a n aly s is of t h e .

proc e ss o f dre am i n g shows that i ts e l e m e n ts ar e imagi n ati v e id e as

(i n t h e s e n s e wh ich we hav e alre ady d isc u ss e d abov e ) bu t tha t ,

t h e s e id e as ar e also oft e n e q u ipp e d wi t h almost a s gr e at a s e n s u a l

v i c ac i t y as t h e s e n sati o n s th e m s e lv e s O n this acco u n t th e y m ay .

b e r e gard e d as p e c u l ia r som n ia l halluci n atio n s that app e ar i n

l o n g e r s u cc e ssiv e s e r i e s b u t that ar e g e n e rally e v e n m o r e c l o s e l y
,

co n n e c t e d with o n e a n o th e r tha n t h e ha l luci n atio n s e xp e ri e n c e d

1
M r ro e t i n ve sti gatio n s se e m
e ce n to i d icat
n e at l a t a partial
e s an a m ia o f
the ce re bral co rt e x .
238 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

d u ctio n o f e v e n a vi vid dr e am is n o lo n g e r pos s i b l e wi th an y

d e gr e e o f com pl e t e n e ss five m i n u t e s a ft e r o n e h as wak e n e d .

B u t we ar e a l so u n ab l e to r e produc e a lo n g s e ri e s o f s e n satio n s
o r id e as that h av e b e e n e xp e ri e n c e d i n waki n g m o m e n ts e n tir e l y

wi tho u t om i s si o n L e t us r e m e mb e r that t h e associati o n o f t wo

.

i d e as which h av e n o oth e r co n n e cti o n tha n th at o f m e r e s u c

c e ssi o n i n t im e is v e ry l o o s e ; o n th i s acco u n t we r e d uc e d t h e
a s s o ciatio n o f id e as by s u cc e ssi o n i n so far as t h e latt e r is n o t
,

q u it e d ire ct to t h e associatio n o f sim u lta n e o u s id e as

, S uc h .

associati o n s as t h e latt e r ar e n e v e r e n tire ly wa n ti n g H e n c e we .

ar e abl e t o r e p r o d u c e e v e n t h e l o n g s e ri e s o f o u r e xp e r i e n c e s

that we h av e wh e n a wak e pas sably w e ll I n so doi n g we ar e

,
.

als o aid e d e s p e cial l y by t h e vivacity wh ich t h e imag e s l e ft i n t h e ,

m e m ory b y t h e succ e ssiv e s e n sati o n s poss e ss i n di ffe re n t d e gr e e s

,

an d b y t h e c o m pl e t e an d clos e r e lati o n e xisti n g am o n g t h e

s u cc e s s iv e s e n satio n s o r id e as T h e s e ri e s o f s o m n ial s e n satio n s
.

o r id e as o ffe r m u ch l e ss fa v o ur a b l e r e latio n s fo r r e prod u ctio n .

Th e s e n sati o n s i n d r e am i n g ar e a l ways l e ss i n t e n s e an d m uch

m or e disco n n e ct e d ; th e y ar e charact e r iz e d b y m a n y abr u p t
tra n si ti o n s T h e s e parat e succ e ssiv e id e as ar e b u t rar e ly c o m
.

b i n e d i n to c o n c e p tio n s an d co n c e ptio n s o f r e latio n ar e r ar e l y

,

i n trod u c e d .

Fi n a ll y a s u dd e n a wak e n i n g produc e s ab r upt ch a n g e s i n t h e

circu l ati o n of t h e blood wh ich ar e follow e d by i mm e diat e an d
importa n t ch a n g e s i n n e rvo u s e xci tab i l i ty tha t ar e pro bably n o t
t h e sam e fo r all pa r ts o f t h e c e r e b r al cort e x ; n u mb e rl e ss stim ul i

act at o n c e upo n all t h e s e n sory orga n s an d prod u c e an e qual ,

n umb e r o f s e n sati o n s By th is m e an s th at which we d e sign at e d

.

as t h e groupi n g of lat e n t id e as is wholly ch a n g e d ; t h e n e w

gr o u pi n g is i n all r e sp e cts u n fa v o ur abl e t o t h e m e n tal i m ag e s

tha t hav e b e e n d e posi t e d by t h e som n ial s e n sati o n s T his .

e xplai n s t h e di f fi cu l t r e pr o ductio n of t h e imag e s o f a d r e am o r , ,

as i t may al s o b e e xpr e ss e d t h e a mn es i a o f s o m n ial proc e s s e s

,
.

Ho we v e r t h e n atur e o f t h e d r e am -imag e s i s b y n o m e a n s l e s s
,

psych ical tha n t h e s e ri e s of s e n sati o n s an d id e a s that ar e e x ‘

e r i e n c e d wh e n o n e is a wak e I f w e hav e e n tir e ly o r almost

p .
 Mo r bi d Tho ug h t S le ep— H ypn o t i s m . 23 9

en tir e l y fo rg o tt e n a s m all occu rr e n c e that happ e ne d wh i l e w e

w e r e awak e a short tim e ago we ar e n o t o n t h a t acc o u n t j u stifi e d
,

i n co n cl u di n g h ow e v e r that we had n o p r o p e r psych ical pr o c e s s

, , ,

an d w e r e h e n c e u n co n scio u s Th e sam e is tru e i n t h e cas e o f

.

dr e ams T h e fact t h at we h a v e fo rg o tt e n th e m is n o t s u ffi ci e n t
.

gro u n d fo r t h e co n cl u sio n t hat duri n g t h e dr e ams w e w e r e n o t

ful l y co n sci o u s o r that we w e r e u n co n sc io u s 1
Th e p sych i cal .

ph e n om e n a o f t h e d re am s an d t h e c o n sci o us life o f waki n g h o u rs

ar e di ffe r e n t but t h e two do n o t h av e a di ffe r e n t psychical valu e
, .

A r e moval o f p sychical proc e s s e s i e u n c o n s ci o u s n e s s o cc u r s ,

. .
,

o n ly i n t h e cas e of sl e e p without dr e ams wh ich is com parativ e ly ,

r ar e .

B e sid e s sl e e p th e r e is still a n o th e r s e ri e s of d i ffe r e n t al t e rati o n s

i n t h e p sych ical l ife a l l o f wh ich ar e charac t e r i z e d by a gr e at e r
,

o r l e s s d e ra n g e m e n t o f t h e c o n ditio n s att e n di n g n o r mal e xcita

b i li t y o f t h e c o r t e x an d by a c o n s e q u e n t m o r e or l e ss c o m p l e t e
,

am n e sia To th e s e be l o n g partic ul arly t h e daz e d o r s t u pe fie d

.

co n ditio n s o f m a n y e pil e p tics i n wh ich th e y p e rfo rm t h e m o s t

,

com pl icat e d actio n s o r som e tim e s e v e n c o m m i t c rim e s that th e y

, ,

ar e aft e r wa r ds tota l ly u n abl e to r e coll e c t 2 I n v e ry rar e cas e s i t .

so m e tim e s happ e n s that b o th ph as e s of psych ical l ife with th e i r ,

d i ffe r e n t gro upi n gs o f lat e n t imag e s of m e m o ry a l t e r n at e ; e ach ,

ph as e is charact e riz e d by am n e sia o f t h e pre c e d i n g u n lik e phas e s

b u t by r e coll e ctio n o f all form e r lik e pha se s T h is m orb id ph e .

n o me n o n has r e c e iv e d t h e v e ry u n s u itabl e d e sig n ati o n o f do u ble

” 3
co n sci o u s n e ss .

I I ypn o t i s m
is a n oth e r ph e n o m e n o n th at claims e s p e cial i n t e re s t .

U n d e r this t e r m we shall com pr e h e n d all th o s e d ata t h a t r e mai n

aft e r a thoro u gh critical e l i m i n ati o n o f t h e ph e n o m e n a o f a n im al

1
T he use o f th e w o rd u
co n sc i o usn e s s al s o i n fo re n si c psyc hiatry an d
“
n ,

e s pe ci a ll y t h e co n c lu si o n t h at t h e re m u s t h av e b e e n u n c o n s c i us n e s s b e cau s e o

t h e re was am n e s ia ar e t h us pl ace d i n a v e ry u n favo urab l e li g h t

, .

2
C o m par e S A M T Arc h f P syc hi at r i c Bd 5 an d 6 an d a l s o t h e ma n u al s
, . .
, .
,

o f psyc hi atry by G n t as m o n a K R AFF T - E B I N G an d S C H UL E

, , .

3
C o m pare E M MI N G H AU S Allge me i n e Psyc h o pat h o l o gi e R I BOT L e s
,
”
.
,

mal adi e s de la e tc .
2 40 I n t r o duc t i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

m ag n e tism m e sm e r ism e t c , an d t h at h av e n o w b e com e an o bj e ct

, ,
.

o f e xact sci e n tifi c i n v e stigatio n Hyp n otism d e p e n ds chi e fly o n

.

t h e fu n dam e n tal fact th at c e r tai n i n dividuals m ay b e plac e d i n a

r e m arkably cha n g e d psych ical co n ditio n Thi s con di tio n is i ts e l f .

d e sig n at e d as Hyp n otism I t is p r oduc e d e i th e r by r e q u iri n g t h e

.

p e rs o n t h at i s to b e hyp n oti z e d to gaz e at a g l itt e ri n g obj e ct an d

t h e n b y g e n tly stroki n g his fo r e h e ad o r by co n sta n t l y t e l l i n g t h e
,

s u bj e ct,
you must sl e e p you shall sl e e p ”
,Th e fir s t -n am e d .

m e thod we d e sig n at e as t h e physical m e th od t h e s e co n d m e th od

“ ”
i s commo n ly k n o w n as sugg e stio n B oth m e thods c an be .

s till fu r th e r m odifi e d i n vari o u s ways I n g e n e ral sugg e stio n

“
.

i s t h e m o r e e ffe ctiv e Be r n h e im h as r e c e n tly att e m pt e d t o r e

.

“ ”
duc e all hyp n otism t o sugg e stio n an d to th is e n d has sough t ,

to sho w that a h idd e n i n di re ct sugg e s tio n of s l e e p is al ways c o n

t ai n e d i n t h e acts of fi x e dly gazi n g a t an obj e ct o r stroki n g t h e
fo r e h e ad S ucc e ss i s m os t r api d wh e n o n e m ak e s u se o f b o th
.

m e thods t h e st r oki n g of t h e b r ow an d t h e sugge stio n of sl e e p

, .

B ut t h e e ss e n tial p e culiarity of t h e hyp n otic co n d itio n wi tho u t ,

r e ga r d to t h e m a n n e r i n wh ich it is prod u c e d i n fact probab l y , ,

t h e o n ly pe culia r ity comm o n t o all hyp n otic co n ditio n s i s t h e ,

powe r of sugg e stio n We m ay com ma n d t h e hyp n otiz e d p e rso n

.

to p e rform an y actio n s we pl e as e ; h e p e rform s th e m l ik e an

automat o n We m ay sugge st an y s e n satio n s what e v e r to h im
.

an d h e h as th e m a t o n c e j u s t as v ivid an d r e alist i c al as i f th e y
,

w e r e halluci n atio n s I f w e t e l l him that h is l e ft a r m i s i n s e n sib l e

.

to pai n h e do e s n o t fe e l o r n otic e t h e se v e r e st thrust of a n e e d l e

,

i n to th a t a r m We m ay sugge st an y id e a to hi m that pl e as e s us
.
,

fo r e xam pl e t h e d e lusio n th at h e i s ki n g ; t h e s u bj e ct co n ducts

,

h im s e l f at o n c e as a ki n g I f we fold h is ha n ds as i f i n p r ay e r
.
,

th e s e passiv e m oto r s e n sat io n s at on c e pr oduc e t h e h all u ci n atio n

of a ch u rch a p r i e st e t c I n short t h e p e r so n wh o is h ypn o ti z
, , .
,

i n g e xci t e s i n t h e brai n o f t h e hyp n otiz e d i n di v idual e i th e r by ,

sp e aki n g t o him o r i n som e oth e r ma n n e r an y id e a tha t h e de ,

sir e s an d t h e id e a thus a r ous e d a t o n c e assum e s sway ov e r t h e

,

associatio n of id e as All co n tra ry i d e as an d e v e n t h e s e n satio n s

.

that ar e actually p r e s e n t ar e supp r e ss e d an d t h e ruli n g i d e a ,

24 2 I n t r o duct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal P sych o log .

accompa n i e d t h e psychical acts o r n o t I t i s s u ffici e n t h e r e to .

s tat e t h e p r obl e m ; i n t h e closi n g chap t e r we sh all m e e t i t agai n

i n a g e n e r al form an d att e m pt to solv e i t At al l e v e n ts t h e .

am n e sia as such ca n n ot b e ci t e d as an a rgum e n t e ith e r fo r o r

agai n s t t h e e xist e n c e of co n comi ta n t psychical proc e ss e s d u ri n g
t he hyp n otic stat e
1 I t i s e qually probabl e tha t t h e su d d e n
.

cha n g e i n t h e cortical e xcita tio n s as soo n as n ormal co n scio u s ,

n e ss r e tur n s r e n d e r s t h e associatio n of t h e id e as e xp e ri e n c e d i n
,

t h e n o r mally co n scious c o n di tio n , with thos e of t h e hyp n otic c o n

d itio n impossibl e o r that both id e a s an d s e n satio n s ar e e n tir e ly
,

abs e n t i n t h e l att e r stat e .

We ar e n ew famil ia r wi th t h e m ost e ss e n tial d e viatio n s from t h e

n o r mal ass o ciatio n of i d e as an d c an th e r e for e tu r n to t h e fi n a l
,

e l e m e n t of t h e psych ical proc e ss act i o n i n t h e followi n g chapt e r , , .

1
E v en the re co ll e c tio n
h yp t i c p ych ical pr ow uld
f the t no s o ce sse s o no

ne c ar il y arg i f
e ss f t h ir xi t
ue n d ri g t h hyp t ic tat L t
avo u r o e e s e n ce u n e no s e . e

us call t m i d a f rm r x am pl —t h at i whi h w pa a fri d w i t h u t

o n o e e e, n c e ss en o

no t i i g h i m i t l y c ur t
c n onb q u t l y t h at w h a v
o c sh im F
o u s su se en e e se e n . or

o b vi u ro s h w v r th i b q t app ara
e aso n s , o e e f t h p ych i al pr
,
s su se u en e n ce o e s c o ce ss

i
s on l y p ibl w i thi a v ry h rt i t rval f t i m aft r t h app ara
o ss e n e s f th
o n e o e e e e n ce o e

s t i mulu s.
 C H AP T E R X III .

A CTI O N 1 — E X P R E SS I VE M O TI O NS —S P EEC H .

TH E p sychical p r oc e ss b e ga n with t he s e n satio n Th e ass ocia .

tio n o f i d e as i e a s e ri e s o f succ e s siv e id e as fo l l o w e d t h e s e n sa

, . .
,

tio n Th e r e sult of this associatio n o f id e as m ay b e a moti o n

.
,

an d such a m otio n we cal l “ acti o n Th e associati o n of id e a s .

i m m e d iat e ly pr e c e di n g an actio n we g e n e rally pre fe r to d e sig n at e

sp e c ifi ca ll y as t h e “
play o f m otiv e s ”
L e t us b e gi n by aski n g .
,

H ow has this n e w e l e m e n t t h e m o tio n or t h e m ot o r i n n e rvati o n

, ,

b e e n ad d e d to t h e s e n ti e n t an d i d e atio n al life ? H o w h as m an
acquire d h is m oti o n s — m otio n s that ar e i n fact adva n tag e o u s , , ,

t h at i n g e n e ral corre s po n d with r e ma r kabl e acc ur acy to h is id e as ,

an d show t h e h igh e st d e g r e e o f fi t n e ss ? That m u ch n e gl e ct e d

d e pa r tm e n t o f p sychol o gy wh ich s e e ks to e stablish s o m e th e ory
as to t h e e vo l utio n o f t h e child s soul is alo n e ab l e to assist u s ’
,

i n o b tai n i n g t h e co rr e ct a n sw e r .

T h e n e w-b o r n ch ild t h e sam e as t h e n e w- b o r n a n imal at fi r s t

, ,

e x e c u t e s v e ry fe w if an m ov e m e n ts t h at c ould b e d e s ig n at e d as
y , ,

volu n tary m o ti o n s o r acti o n s I t p e r fo rms o n ly r e fl e x o r au t o.

m atic acts alth o ugh part o f th e s e ar e al r e ady e xt ra o rdi n arily c o m

,

pl e x T h is stat e m e n t agr e e s w e ll with t h e fact o f p h ysiology an d

.

a n atomy that t h e n e r v e -fibr e s l e adi n g from t h e thalamus opticus

,

to t h e p e r iph e ry ar e alr e ady full y d e v e l o p e d i n t h e n e w-bor n chi l d ,

1
By act i o n t h e auth o r si gn ifi e s th at whi ch h as ge n e rall y b e e n t e rm e d
“

vo lun tary ac t i o n Th e l att e r e x pre ss i o n i n t h e pre se n t wo rk i s o n l y ac

.

c e pt i ble w h e n u n d e rs t o o d i n t h e s e n s e o f co ns ci o us o r desi r ed act i o n

“ ”

as t h e re su l t o f id e at i o n w i lle d acti o n S e e page s 2 5-

“ ”
no t ,
29 247 an d .
,

2 65-2 69 .
-T s ’
.
2 44 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

i . e pa r ticu l ar th e y ar e alr e ady e n cas e d i n m e du l lary s h e aths

. in ,

w h il e t h e larg e n e rv e -pat h wh ich e xt e n ds fro m t h e s o — cal l e d

,

m o t o r r e gi o n o f t h e c e r e bral cort e x t o t h e a n t e rio r horn s o f t h e

spi n a l c o rd an d th e n c e to t h e di fl e r e n t pa r ts o f t h e m usc ul a r
syst e m an d which as has b e e n d e mo n strat e d co n d ucts t h e i n
, , ,

g e xcitatio n s to t h e m uscl e s i n t h e cas e o f vo lu n tary act

1
n e r vat i n s ,

has n o t ye t b e e n pro vid e d with m e d u llary sh e aths I t a l so ag r e e s .

with t h e fu rth e r fac t tha t e l e ctric stim u l ati o n of a d e fi n i t e part of

t h e m ot o r r e gio n i n t h e ad u l t co r t e x a l ways p r od u c e s m o v e m e n ts

of t h e op p o sit e arm stimu l ati o n o f s t i ll a n oth e r part m ov e m e n ts

,

o f t h e Opposit e le g an d stim ul atio n o f a thi r d pa r t m otio n s o f t h e

,

Opp o si t e facial m uscl e s but tha t e l e ctric stimulatio n o f all th e s e

parts o f t h e m otor r e gi o n i n t h e cas e o f t h e n e w-b o r n a n ima l , ,

prod u c e n o r e s u l ts what e v e r Fr o m all th e s e facts w e m u st c o n .

c lu de that d u ri n g t h e first m o n th s o f i ts li fe t h e child grad u a ll y

l e a r n s to mak e u se o f vo lu n tary m otio n s or as i t m ay b e m ore , ,

c o rre c t l y e xpr e sse d o f m oti o n s that ar e c o n ditio n e d by psychi ca l

,

activity We sha ll n o w i n q u ir e i n to t h e particulars o f t h e pr o c e ss

.

by wh ich th e s e actio n s ar e acquir e d From t h e m o m e n t o f birth .

t h e b rai n o f t h e n e w- bor n a n im a l a t fi rst o n ly capa bl e o f im part ,

i n g i n frac o rtical r e fl e x an d a u tom atic m otio n s is thro n g e d wi th

“ ”
,

n u mb e rl e ss s e n sati o n s produc e d by t h e n um e r o u s stim u l i t h at

,

st r e am i n th r o ugh all t h e s e n s o ry av e n u e s T h e s e s e n satio n s .

l e av e i n t h e c e r e b r al c o rt e x ( pa rticularly i n i t s s e n s o r y r e gio n )
s
2

m e n tal i mag e s which c o rr e s po n d t o t h e m at e r ia l proc e ss e s o f

e xci ta ti o n At o n c e t h e a s sociatio n o f id e as b e gi n s T h e s e n sory
. .

e xcitati o n is propagat e d a l o n g t h e paths o f associatio n an d e v e ry

w h e r e r e p r o duc e s imag e s of m e m o ry i n t h e c e r e b r al cort e x T h e .

m at e ria l e xc itatio n t h u s propagat e d i n t h e c e re bral c o rt ex a l so

Th i i h w i m ply by t h fact t h at if thi pat h i br k at y p i t

1
s s s o n s e s s o en an o n

by d i a ll v lsetary m t i
se a f th rr p di g h alf f t h b d y
o un o o ns o e co es on n o e o ar e n o

l g r p i bl
on e o ss e.

I t hi
9
nti i i t c ary t tak i t c id rat i t h tat
s co n ne c on t s no ne e ss o e n o o ns e on e s e

m t f ma y au t h rit i
en o t h ph y i l gy f t h
n o b ra i t h at t h i
es on f th e s o o o e n, e s ze o e

cort i a l tr f d r ma l
c ce n at i e th -all d
or e c tr f f li g se n s o n s, e so c e
“
en e o ee n ,
n
co r

r p d
es thon i f t h m t ry r gi
s to e s ze o e o o e o n.
2 46 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sych o lo
gy .

s e n satio n s o f t o u ch app e a r ; th e n t h e ch ild i s at o n c e Occu pi e d i n

att e m pti n g to e x e cu t e n e w m otio n s th at h av e d i ffe r e n t e n ds i n
v i e w I n t h is m a n n e r a grad u al proc e ss o f s e l e ctio n that is i n
.
,

fact asto u n d i n g pro du c e s t he th o ro ugh fi t n e ss o f o ur so -ca ll e d

,

v ol u n ta ry m o tio n s Th e y ar e gradua ll y adapt e d with e xt r ao r

.

di n ar y e xact n e ss to t h e stim u l i of t h e e xt e r n al w o rl d o r — which ,

is t h e sam e thi n g—t o t h e s e n sati o n s I n t h e m e a n ti m e h o w e v e r

.
, ,

a n oth e r sti ll h igh e r stag e o f p e r fe ctio n i s gr adua l ly e ffe ct e d i n t h e

co r tical m otor apparatus T h e m o tor discharg e that has j u s t
.

b e e n d e scrib e d is a t fi r st accom p l i sh e d e n ti r e ly wi th o u t a c o n
,

com ita n t psych ical proc e ss I t i s tru e that s e n satio n s an d id e as

.

m ay pr e c e d e t h e m o t o r d ischarg e bu t primari l y th e y co n tai n n o

,

e l e m e n t that is co n c e r n e d i n t h e r e su l ti n g moti o n I t is o n l y
.

aft e r t h e m o tio n h as tak e n p l ac e that t h e ch ild acquir e s an y

k n owl e dg e o f i ts o wn m otor ac t This k n owl e dg e is acquir e d by
.

m e a n s o f t h e s e n sati o n s o f activ e m o ti o n that we hav e al r e ady

d e scrib e d i n full Th e activ e m o ti o n s stimulat e t h e n e rv e s o f t h e
.

j oi n ts t e n d o n s ligam e n t s an d ski n an d t h e compl e x s e n sati o n

, , , ,

th us prod u c e d we bri e fly d e sig n at e as a m o to r s e n sati o n Al s o .

t h e vis u a l s e n satio n b y wh ich w e ar e m ad e awa r e that t h e po s iti o n

,

Of t h e l imb s has b e e n ch a n g e d by t h e acti v e m oti o n b l e n ds w i th ,

t h e m o t o r s e n satio n by t h e latt e r t e r m we sh all h e r e aft e r de s ig

n at e a com p l e x s e n satio n wh ich i n c lu d e s b oth t h e s e n satio n o f

sight an d t h e fe e li n g o f m otio n Th e r e fo r e t h e s e n sati o n o f

.

m otio n wh ich i n forms u s that a s e r i e s o f id e as h as r e s u lt e d i n a

,

d e fi n it e m oti o n di re ctly fol l ows t h e id e as im m e diat e l y pr e c e di n g

,

i t witho u t t h e aid o f an y i n t e rv e n i n g e l e m e n t An id e a is n o w
.

d e posi t e d b y thi s mot o r s e n satio n j u st as m e n tal imag e s or id e as

,

ar e d e posit e d by a l l s e n satio n s H e n c e we ha v e also d e sig n at e d

.

t h e imag e o f a m oto r s e n satio n i n m e m o ry as a motor id e a Lik e .

a ll oth e r id e as th e s e id e as of m oti o n a l s o participat e h e n c e forth

,

i n t h e associatio n o f id e as l ik e all o th e r i d e as th e y also acq u ire

,

t h e abi l ity t o p r o duc e m otor disch arg e s At fi r st o n l y t h e vis u a l

.

s e n satio n an d id e a or t h e tact u al s e n satio n an d id e a of an o bj e c t

,

produc e t h e m o tio n wh ich i s e x e c u t e d i n gra s pi n g i t A fte r t h e .

motio n o f graspi n g has fr e qu e n t l y tak e n plac e t h e mo t o r i dea o f

 A c t i o n — E xpr e s s i v e Mo t i o n s —S pe e ch . 2 47

gra s p i n g t h e obj e c t i s its e lf abl e t o i mpar t t h e motio n T h e .

com pl e t e associativ e co n n e ctio n that e xists b e tw e e n t h e i n itial

e l e m e n ts o f t h e volu n ta r y m oto r p ath an d a l l cortical e l e m e n ts is ,

o f j u st as m uch ad v a n tag e to t h e m oto r id e as as t o t h e id e as pro

du c e d by an y o n e o f t h e s e n s e s ; i n oth e r words an e sp e cia ll y ,

i n ti mat e associ ativ e co n n e ctio n is e stabl ish e d b e tw e e n t h e m oto r

id e as an d t h e e x citatio n s i n t h e i n itia l c e ll s o f t h e m otor path .

I n fact eve ry si n g l e m ov e m e n t prod u c e s a sy n ch r o n o u s ass o ciat io n

,

b e tw e e n t h e id e as an d t h e e xcitatio n s i n t h e m oto r path th us ,

sp e cifica l ly trai n i n g t h e associ ativ e p ath for c o n d u ctio n H e n c e .

t h e m oto r i d e as that w e r e e n tir e l y s e co n dary p r oducts an d tha t ,

w e re o n ly associat e d with t h e m otor e l e m e n ts s e con d ari l y fi n ally ,

acq u ir e an al most c om pl e t e sway o v e r th e s e m oto r e l e m e n ts .

Lat e r wh e n a s e ri e s o f id e a s
,
[3 ,
c o m pos e d of
i d e as of sigh t h e ari n g an d touch app e ars th e y g e n e ral l y do n o t
, , , ,

dir e ctly i m part t h e m ot o r i n n e r vatio n o n t h e co n t r ary t h e asso ,

c i at i o n o f id e as fi rst p r o duc e s t h e appropriat e m o to r id e a an d

M
,

o n ly t h e latt e r ca u s e s t h e m oto r i n n e rvatio n R e c e n tly ii n st e r

.

b e rg has j u stly cal l e d att e n tio n to t h e fac t that i t is this pr e

1
,

c e de n c e o f t h e m o to r id e a i n d e e d wh ich caus e s t h e m otio n to

, ,

s e e m vo lu n t a ry We w i ll e x e cut e a c e rt ai n m otio n pr o p e rly

.

“ ” “
sig n ifi e s we ar e c o n scious o f t h e id e a o f t h e m o tio n o r
, of , ,

t h e m o to r id e a
”
T h e fe e li n g wh ich l e ads us to supp o s e tha t we
.

ar e e x e r ci si n g a wi l l -
p o w e r is str e n gth e n e d by t h e sim ul ta n e ou s
i n n e rvati o n o f c e rtai n mu s cl e s o f t h e body t h e m u s c u l u s fr o n ta l is
,

fo r e xam pl e T h is m uscu l a r i n n e rvatio n acc o m pa n i e s t h e volu m

.

ta r y m o v e m e n ts t h e s am e as e v e ry e ff ort o f att e n tion an d giv e s ,

ris e to p e c ul ia r c o n c o m ita n t ki n ae s th e tic 2 s e n s atio n s .

T h e r e su l ts of m od e r n i n v e stigati o n s i n t h e fi e l d o f c e r e b ral
p h ysiology als o ha r mo n i z e w e ll with t h e abov e pr e s e n tatio n o f
t h e su bj e ct T h e so -
. cal l e d m o t o r-zo n e of t h e dog that r e gio n o f ,

1
Th e ab o v e pre s e n tat i o nt h i s subj e ct agre e s w i t h M
o f G N S T E RB ERG
’
wri t
S
i ng ,
“
Di e V i lle n sh an dlu n g (F re i b u rg 1 8 8 8 ) i n t h e m o s t e sse n t i a l
V
, po i n ts ,

al t h o ug h i t d e vi ate s fro m i t i n so me o f t h e l e ss e sse n tial part icul ars .

2
M o to r se n sat i o n s i n t he re stri c te d s e n se .
24 8 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal P sych o logy .

t he c e r e bral c o rt e x which p r od u c e s co n tracti o n s o f t h e m uscula r

syst e m wh e n e l e ctrica l ly irritat e d c o n tai n s t h e prima r y e l e m e n ts
,

o f t h e m oto r p ath I n t h e dog t h e m oto r s e n sati o n s an d t h e

.

m o t o r i de as als o app e a r to b e l o cat e d i n t h is sam e r e gio n At

'

l e as t this co n c lu sio n m ay b e d r aw n fro m t h e e xp e rim e n ts m ad e

by M u n k acc o r di n g to th e se e xp e rim e n ts t h e e xti rpatio n o f t h e
,

m oto r r e gi o n from o n e h e misph e r e r e m o v e s all id e as o f m o v e

m e n ts p e rfo r m e d by t h e op posit e half of t h e b o dy I n fact ac
.
,

co r di n g t o M u n k , both s e n satio n s an d id e as o f activ e an d passiv e

to u ch an d of p osi tio n i n t h e c as e o f t h e do g an d ape ar e de
,

p o sit e d i n t h is sam e r e gi o n I f t h e m oto r r e gio n g o v e r n i n g t h e

.

mu scl e s o f t h e dog s for e le g b e e xtirpat e d fr om t h e l e ft h e m i

’

S p h e r e t h e r ight fo re le g m ay b e plac e d i n t h e mos t u n c o m fortabl e

,

p o sitio n an d t h e a n imal mak e s n o att e m p t t o c o rr e ct i t I n

, .

d e sc e n d i n g a fl igh t o f s tairs i t m iss e s t h e s t e ps an d fre qu e n tly

slips wi th t h e r igh t for e fo ot I f i t was trai n e d to o ffe r t h e righ t
.

for e paw i n r e spo n s e t o o n e d e fin it e sig n al an d t h e l e ft i n r e s po n s e

to a n oth e r t h e l at t e r is offe r e d as b e fo re b u t n o t t h e fo r m e r
, ,
.

Th e dog that has th u s u n d e rgo n e vivis e ctio n o n l y r e ac h e s fo r a

p i e c e o f m e at with t h e l e ft fo ot n e v e r with t h e r igh t fo o t t h e
, ,

cortical c e n tre o f which has n o w b e e n e xtirp at e d We se e t h e r e .

,

for e that i n th e s e a n i mal s t h e d i ffe r e n t id e as o f p o si tio n to u ch

, ,

an d m otio n ar e locat e d i n o n e a n d t h e s a me cortical r e gi o n In .

t h e c as e o f man a gr e at e r l o cal s e paratio n o f t h e s e fu n ctio n s s e e m s

t o hav e b e e n e ff e ct e d We should also co n s id e r that t h e m ot o r

.

i d e a is com pl e x an d that i t c o n tai n s a visual e l e m e n t b e s id e s t h e

tactu al . F r o m t h e facts tha t we hav e t hus fa r pr e s e n t e d i t is at ,

l e ast obvious that t h e m at e rial p r oc e ss wh ic h tak e s p l ac e i n t h e

larg e i n itial c e lls o f t h e m oto r path du r i n g i n n e rvatio n occ u rs ,

witho u t a co n com ita n t psych ical proc e ss ; psychic al p ro c e s s e s

o n ly accom pa n y thos e physical p roc e ss e s that corr e spo n d to t h e
a n t e c e d e n t m otiv e s e n s atio n s an d id e as an d to t h e moto r id e a
fo l lowi n g th e s e an d i mm e diat e l y p re c e di n g t h e m o to r i n n e r va
tio n . O n ly s e n satio n an d id e a ar e psych ical p roc e ss e s ; t h e
m otio n or motor i n n e r vatio n h as n o psychi cal co n co mi t an t an d i s
o n lyjt h e cfiect o f a p sych ical p r oc e ss
’
.
2 50 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

s im p l y H ipp s chro n oscop e an d Wun dt s chro n ograph 1 T h e

’ ’
.

r e action -tim e i s g e n e ra l ly stat e d i n th ousa n d ths o f a s e co n d

T h e s e e xp e rim e n ts fo r m e as ur i n g t h e r e actio n -ti m e v e ry s oo n
show e d t h at t h e latt e r v ari e s co n sid e rably accordi n g to wh e th e r ,

t h e t e s t e d p e rs o n di r e cts h is att e n t io n to t h e e xp e ct e d s e n s e -
im
pr e s si o n o r to t h e ha n d wh ich is to p e rform a c e r tai n m ov e m e n t .

I n t h e fi rst cas e w e sp e ak of a sen so r i al r e actio n i n t h e l att e r ca se ,

o f a m u scu la r r e actio n Th e m uscula r r e acti o n is always c o n

.

s i de r ab ly q u ick e r tha n t h e s e n so r ia l t h e di ffe r e n c e b e i n g

2
a bo u t
,

{5 s e c o n d o r 1 0 0 a T h e muscula r r e actio n is th e r e fo r e d e sig n at e d

.

a l so as t h e sh o r t e ned an d t h e s e n so r ial as t h e co mplet e r e ac tio n

,

tim e Acco r d i n g to t h e e x p e r i m e n ts o f L u dwig La n g e t h e simpl e

.
,

r e acti o n -tim e i n t h e cas e of stim u latio n by ligh t e l e ct r ici ty an d ,

s o u n d am o u n ts i n r o u n d n umb e rs as fo ll ows
, , ,

S t i m u li o f Fo r se n so rial re a c ti o n . Fo r m u lar r a ti
sc u e c on .

i ht L g
E l ctr i i ty (
e c th ki on e s n )
S d o un

Th e m o st n otic e a bl e fac t at all e v e n ts i n t h e abov e tabl e i s

, ,

tha t t h e r e actio n u po n i m p r e ssio n s o f l igh t is c o n si d e ra b l y sl o w e r

t h a n i n t h e oth e r two cas e s I n d ivid u a l di ff e re n c e s ar e striki n g l y
.

sligh t as s o o n as e ach p e rso n t e st e d com pli e s wi th t h e p r op e r

co n d iti o n s an d tur n s h is att e n tio n e ith e r ex clu si ve ly t o t h e s e n s e
,

im pr e ssio n o r ex clu si vely t o t h e m ov e m e n t T h e r e acti o n s o f o n e .

wh o u n d e rtak e s t o b e com e t h e subj e ct o f e xp e ri m e n ts fo r t h e fi rs t

tim e wi t h o ut pre pa rati o n ar e at fi rst half m u sc u la r an d ha l f
,

s e n sory t h e att e n tio n i s d i v id e d an d fl u ct u at e s b e tw e e n t h e e x

,

p e c t e d s e n s e -
i mpr e ssio n a n d t h e m o v e m e n t agr e e d u po n O n .

t h is acc o u n t t h e r e a ctio n -tim e i n this cas e vari e s g r e atly als o ac

c o rdi n g to t h e poi n t toward wh ich t h e att e n tio n is ch i e fly

1
C o mp are L un w . L AN C E, P hil o so ph St. ud Bd 4 , S . .
457 .

2
VVU N DT , P hys i o l . Bd 2 , S
. . 2 67 ; L L . AN G E, Ph ilo s . St ud .
,

Bd 4 , S. .
4 79 .
 A ”i o n — E xpr e s s i v e Mo t i o n s S pe e ch .
51

d ir e ct e d I n r e gist e ri n g t h e tim e o f a s tro n o m ical ph e n om e n a

.
,

t h i s v acil l atio n o f t h e r e acti o n s h as b e e n fo u n d to a ffe ct t h e

accuracy o f o b s e rvatio n s A sligh t d i ff e r e n c e i n t h e tim e of
.

r e gistratio n app e ars w h e n t wo obs e rv e rs vi e w t h e sam e ph e n o

m e n o n ; i t is i n t h is cas e n e c e ssary t o m ak e u s e o f e sp e cia l s o
ca ll e d p e rs o n al e q u ati o n s fo r t h e p u rp o s e o f e l im i n ati n g t h e
“ ”

e rr o r . O n l y a fe w trustw o rthy s e ri e s o f e xp e rim e n ts have b e e n

m ad e with t h e oth e r q u al iti e s o f s e n sa tio n Th e stat e m e n t m ad e
.

by v Vi n tschga u an d H O n igsc h m i e d i s v e ry i n t e r e sti n g ; accord

.

i n g to th is t h e tim e o f r e ac tio n is gre at e r wh e n t h e t ip o f t h e

,

t o n g u e is s timu l at e d with qui n i n e tha n wh e n sti m ul at e d wi th

s u gar wh il e t h e r e l a ti o n b e twe e n t h e t wo r e acti o n -tim e s i s r e
,

v e r s e d w h e n t h e back pa r t o f t h e t o n g u e i s t e st e d Thi s r e ca ll s .

t h e fact a l r e ady m e n ti o n e d th at t h e n e r v e -,
fib r e s which im part t h e
s e n s ati o n o f s we e t ar e l o cat e d ch i e fly i n t h e a n t e ri o r third o f t h e
t o n g u e an d th o s e t h at i m part t h e s e n sati o n of bitt e r ch i e fl y i n
, ,

t h e two p o st e ri o r t h i rd s o f t h e t o n g u e Th e r e ar e as ye t n o c o n
.

corda n t e xp e rim e n ta l r e s ul ts i n t h e cas e o f o l factory i rri ta n t s .

v Vi n tschgau an d S t e i n ach hav e d e t e r m i n e d t h e r e actio n -ti m e s

.
1

i n t h e cas e o f m e chan ical an d th e rm i c st im u latio n o f t h e s ki n .

Fo r pr e s s u r e t h e r e actio n - tim e am o u n ts t o about 1 2 0 —1 50 0 .

W h e n t h e stim ul i ar e a ppli e d to o n e an d t h e s am e r e gi o n o n t h e
ski n t h e r e actio n -tim e i n t h e cas e o f h e at-s tim u lati o n is lo n g e r
,

t h a n i n t h e cas e o f sti m u lati o n b y c o l d an d t h e r e ac tio n -ti m e i n

,

t h e latt e r cas e i s l o n g e r t h a n fo r sti m ul ati o n b y pr e s s ur e The .

r e acti o n s app e a r m o r e q u ick l y wh e n stim u l atio n b y h e at o r cold

i s appli e d t o t h e rig h t half Of t h e fac e t h a n w h e n app l i e d t o t h e
l e ft h alf T he fact that i n divid u al di ffe r e n c e s ar e v e ry c o n sid e r
.

a b l e as m e n ti o n e d abov e is o f gr e at i n t e r e s t
, , .

N o w what do th e s e n u mb e rs sig n i fy I t is o b v io u s that t h e

acti o n -tim e as j ust d e t e r m i n e d i s o cc u pi e d by th r e e proc e s s e s : ( 1 )
t h e c e n trifu ga l co n d u ctio n o f t h e sti m u l ati o n from t h e p e riph e ral

s e n s o ry o rga n to t h e c e n tr e o f s e n sati o n i n t h e c e r e bral c o rt e x ( 2 ) ,

t h e i n t e r c e n tral pr o c e ss o f a s s ociati o n wh ich tak e s plac e withi n t h e

1
I ’
FL UG E R S
'
Arc h .
, Bd 43. .
2 52 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

cortical e l e m e n ts (3 ) t h e c e n t r i fugal co n d uctio n fr o m t h e m o tor

,

re gio n o f t h e c o rt e x t o t h e m u scl e We shal l disr e gard an y p o s sib l e

.

p e riods o f l at e n cy or i n h i b i ti o n a t pr e s e n t fo r t h e sak e o f si m pl i fy
,

i n g o ur i n v e stigatio n s O n ly t h e s e c o n d o f th e s e th r e e proc e s se s is
.

accompa n i e d by a co n c o m ita n t psychical proc e ss S i n c e t h e dura .

tio n o f t h e first an d third ar e k n ow n to us th rough physiol o gy a t ,

l e as t app ro ximat e ly t h e d u r atio n o f t h e s e co n d p r oc e ss may al s o

,

b e c o m p u t e d with com parativ e accuracy Th u s for e xampl e i n t h e .

, ,

cas e o f e l e ctri c sti m u l ati o n o f t h e ski n , s o m e 60 —8 0 0 o f t h e 2 1 0 0

compl e t e r e acti o n -tim e m ay b e calc u lat e d for t h e s e n s o ry an d
,

m o t o ry co n d u c ti o n l e avi n g o n ly about O I
,
se e fo r t h e
°

psych o -p h ysical p roc e ss o f ass o ci ati o n I n t h e c as e o f m uscular

.

r e acti o n a sti l l smal l e r fractio n a l part o f a s e c o n d re mai n s This .

last stat e m e n t harmo n i z e s w e l l with t h e fac t th at r e actio n s o ft e n

go astray i n t h e l att e r cas e t h e t e st e d p e rso n o ft e n e x e c u t e s t h e
m ov e m e n t ag re e d o n b e fo re t h e stim ul u s has tak e n e ffe c t a t al l .

N o w i n w h at partic u lars ar e t h e t wo forms o f r e ac tio n to b e d is

t i n gui s h e d fro m e ach oth e r ? I t is ob v i o us that t h e dire cti o n of
t h e att e n ti o n to t h e e xp e c t e d s e n s e -impre ssi o n m e a n s n o th i n g e ls e
th a n that b e for e t h e s e n sat i o n app e ar s id e as w h ich h e ar som e
, ,

r e lati o n to t h e impr e ssi o n ar e al re ady pr e s e n t i n t h e m i n d o f t h e

,

p e r so n up o n whom t h e e xp e rim e n t i s b e i n g m ad e Am o n g th e s e .

i d e as is e sp e ci al l y t h e m e n tal i mag e of t h e e xp e ct e d s e n s e -im p re s

sio n which is alr e ady fam i l iar fro m t h e fac t t h at i ts e fl e c t s h av e
,

b e e n p r e v io u s l y e xp e ri e n c e d This psych ical s tat e i s v e ry clos e l y

.

co n n e ct e d with a c o rre sp o n di n g physical ph e n o m e n o n , t h e i n n e r

vatio n o f t h e m u scl e s o f acc o mmod atio n gov e r n i n g t h e r e s p e ctiv e
o r ga n of s e n s e partic u larly o f t h e m u s c u lus ciliaris an d t h e t e n sor
,

ty m pa n i .

Th e s e ph e n om e n a ar e ch a n g e d i n t h e cas e o f m u scular r e ac ti o n .

H e re t h e a tt e n tio n is di r e ct e d to t h e m otio n tha t is t o b e

e x e c u te d —i a o th e r wo r ds t h e m oto r id e a sp e cifically t h e id e a
, ,

o f t h e m ov e m e n t o f t h e ha n d agr e e d o n oc c u pi e s t h e m i n d of ,

t h e p e rso n who is b e i n g t e st e d a t t h e ti m e t h e s e n s e - impre ssi o n

app e a r s This psych ical stat e g e n e r al l y m a n ife sts i ts e lf i n a sligh t
.
,

co n sta n t t o n ic co n tractio n of t h e m u scl e s of t h e h a n d an d arm

,
2 54 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

com e s au tomatic b y p rac tic e an d t h e psychical proc e ss is at t h e

sam e tim e lost t h e mat e ria l p r oc e ss o f e xci t a tio n grad u al l y tak e s
,

a n ot h e r sho r t e r path Th e y imagi n e that t h e i n t e rm e diat e cortical

.

c e n tr e is e n ti r e ly om i tt e d from t h e proc e ss an d t h at t h e t ra n s ,

m issio n o f t h e e xcitatio n from o n e s e n sory c e n tr e to a n oth e r

m otor c e n tr e is accomplish e d b e l o w t h e cort e x This ass u mptio n .

u n avoidably l e ads t o co n t radictio n s I n thos e cas e s wh e re t h e .

psych ical acts b e com e aut o m atic t h e path l e adi n g acr o ss t h e,

c o r t e x is mor e an d mor e th oro u ghly trai n e d i n c o n s e qu e n c e of

co n sta n t practic e n o w t h e sam e th i n g o ccurs t h at we have al re ady
m e t i n t h e cas e of t h e ass o ciatio n o f id e as — i n t e rc e d e n t id e as ar e ,

omitt e d i n prop o r tio n as t h e p r oc e ss is m or e an d m o r e faci l itat e d .

I f t h e proc e ss is co n sta n tly d e v e lop e d o n e i n t e r c e d e n t i d e a aft e r

,

a n oth e r i s omitt e d u n til t h e last o n e fi n a ll y d rops out Thus .

,

wh e n a high d e gr e e o f p ractic e an d faci l itatio n has b e e n attai n e d ,

t h e e n tir e psyc h ical p roc e ss is om itt e d e sp e cia l ly i f at t h e sam e

,

t im e t h e i n t e n sity o f t h e i n i tial s e n satio n i s r e d u c e d by ot h e r m or e

i n t e n se s e n satio n s o r i d e as app r oximat e ly t o z e r o T h e path o f e x .

citati o n i n th is cas e p r obably r e m ai n s q u i t e t h e sam e ; i t is simp l y

m or e rapidly t r av e rs e d I n th i s m a n n e r r e acti o n s an d e v e n r e fl e x
.

acti o n s ar e d e v e l o p e d from psychical acts T h e ab o v e -m e n ti o n e d .

psychical om issi o n o f a cortical c e n t re as an e l e m e n t i n t h e pro

d uctio n o f a ctio n is o n ly accomplish e d phyloge n et i cally .

B ut le t us r e tur n to ou r e xp e rim e n ts fo r m e as u ri n g t h e tim e

o f actio n s . Thus far we h av e o n ly i n v e stigat e d t h e s impl e st fo r m
o f actio n . We shall n o w co n sid e r som e m or e c o m p l icat e d cas e s .

We n e xt re quir e t h e p e rso n whom we ar e t e sti n g t o e x e cut e t h e c o n ,

c e r t e d mov e m e n t o f t h e ha n d o n ly wh e n h e has e xpr e s sly r ecogn i se d

t h e s e n si b l e stimulus i e wh e n a com pl e t e r e cog n i ti o n has t ak e n

,
. .

p l ac e Th e r e acti o n -
. tim e will o f co u rs e b e re n d e r e d co n sid e r
, ,

ably g r e at e r by this m e a n s A part from t h e sp e cial r e productio n

‘

o f t h e m e n tal imag e a n oth e r p r oc e ss a j u dgm e n t is g e n e r al l y

, , ,

i n t r od uc e d fo r t h e p e rso n o n l y r e acts aft e r havi n g m ad e t h e j udg

,

m e n t n o w I h av e r e cog n is e d t h e ligh t or t h e sou n d

” “ ”
We .

m us t obs e r v e h o we v e r tha t n o w e ll-de fin e d disti n ctio n e xists be

, ,

tw e e n this act o f r e cog n itio n an d t h e simpl e s e n so r ial r e actio n

 Act i o n — E xpr es s i ve Mo l i o n s — S pe e ch . 2 55

in t he n s o rial r e actio n i n i ts m ost com pl e t e form

fo r ( ) 1 cas e o f s e ,

t h e app e a r a n c e of t h e m e n tal imag e an d t h e i n t r o d u ctio n o f a

j u dgm e n t simi l ar to t h e o n e j ust m e n tio n e d ar e ha r d l y to b e ,

avoid e d (z ) i n t h e cas e o f r eact i o n af t e r r ecog n i t i o n t h e att e n tio n

o f t h e p e rso n who is b e i n g t e s t e d i s g e n e r a l ly d ir e ct e d ch i e fly to

t h e e xp e ct e d s e n s e - i mpr e ssio n A s m ay b e e asi l y s e e n th o s e

.
,

e xp e rim e n t s e mploy e d to d e t e rm i n e t h e r e actio n - tim e i n t h e ca se

of r e c o g n i tio n ar e b e s t i n which th e r e is a co n sta n t c h a n g e o f
s e n s e -im pre ssio n s s e l e ct e d fr o m a d e fi n i t e n umb e r By th is m e a n s .

t h e p e rs o n wh o i s t h e s u bj e ct o f t h e e xp e ri m e n t is m os t e asily
c o m p e ll e d always to i n trod uc e t h e a b o v e -m e n tio n e d d e l ib e r ati o n
an d r e cog n i tio n i n st e ad of sim ply r e acti n g
,
Thus t h e r e c o g .

-
n i t i o n tim e b e com e s also t h e
“ -
di sce r n men t t i me
”
or
“
di st i n ct i o n
”
t i me .

A sti l l fu rth e r complicatio n o f t h e p roc e ss m ay b e p re s e n t e d by

so a rra n gi n g t h e e xp e rim e n t that upo n o n e d e fi n i t e s e n s e -impr e s
sio n r e acti o n al ways tak e s plac e with t h e m idd l e fi n g e r u p o n ,

a n ot h e r always wi th t h e fo re -fin ge r I n th is ca s e a ch o i ce m u st .

b e i n troduc e d i n additi o n to t h e di st i n ct i o n o r r ecog n i t i o n ; acc o rd

i n gly t h e r e actio n - tim e b e com e s still gr e at e r an d i s d e s ig n at e d as
- Fo r obvio u s r e aso n s i t i s d i ffi cu l t to ob ta i n
“ ”
t he select i o n t i me .

e ith e r pu r e ly s e n s o rial o r pu r ely mu s cular r e actio n s i n e xp e rim e n ts

of th is k i n d t h e m o d e of r e acti o n is g e n e ra l ly m o r e o r l e s s m i xe d .

Fi n a l ly i f we i n t rod u c e o n e o r s e v e ra l m o r e id e as i e a com p l e t e
, , . .

ass o ciatio n o f id e a s b e tw e e n t h e s e n s e -imp r e ss io n an d t h e m o v e

,

m e n t we obtai n an e xam p l e o f acti o n i n i ts m ost comp l e x for m

,

an d r e t u r n o n c e m o r e t o t h e p r obl e m o f t h e v e l o ci ty o f associa

t io n which we hav e al r e ady disc u s s e d i n full We sha l l pu r pos e ly .

av o id stati n g m o r e e xac t n umb e r s fo r t h e so c a ll e d co m p l e x

“

r e ac tio n -ti me s j u s t disc u ss e d fo r t he re as o n tha t t h e e x pe r i

,

m e n tal i n v e stigati o n s m ad e by C att e l l 1 Fri e drich 2 M u n st e r b e rg 3 , , ,

1 “
P sych o m e t r i sch e U n t e rs uch un
ge n ,
”
P h i l o so ph . S tu d .
,
Bd .
3, S '
305
an d 4 52 , Bd 5, S . . 24 1 . Bd 2, S
63 5 °

9 “
Zu r M t h dik
e o de r Appe r c e pt i o n s ve r such e , B d~ 2, S ' 66: an d Bd' 1’

S .
39 .

8
Be itrage z ur e x p ri m
e t
en e ll en P sych o l o gi e ,
”
H . 1 .
2 56 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

th is fi e l d d e spit e th e i r n um e ro usn e ss an d t h e car e

'

an d o t h e r s in ,

t h at h as b e e n d e v ot e d to th e m ar e n o t ye t su ffici e n tly c o n c o r
,

dan L
O n the ot h e r h a n d we sh all fin d still a n oth e r qu e sti o n o f
,

i n t e r e st H o w d o e s t h e simpl e pr o c e ss o f r e actio n v ary wh e n

.

t h e d i ff e r e n t psychical facto r s va r y ? T h e m ost i m porta n t fac t

b e ari n g up o n this qu e stio n i s tha t t h e r e actio n -ti m e d e c r e as e s as
t he i n t e n si ty o f t h e s e n satio n i n cr e as e s F urth e r m or e t h e .
,

re actio n -tim e is always co n sid e rably l e n gth e n e d by t h e sim u l

t an e o u s pr e s e n c e o f o th e r s e n satio n s o r id e as whic h as i t is e x ,

pr e ss e d di v e rt an d d istract t h e att e n tio n

, Wu n dt has also .

e s t abli sh e d t h e i n t e r e sti n g fact i n particula r th at t h e disturb i n g

‘

e ffe ct o f sy n chr o n o u s s e n satio n s i s gr e at e r wh e n t h e stimul i ar e

disparat e t h a n wh e n th e y ar e o f t h e s am e k i n d T h e r e fo r e i f .

t h e s u bj e ct o f t h e e xp e rim e n t i s to r e act u p o n a spark o f l igh t a ,

s y n ch r o n o u s n o i se i s m or e di s t u rbi n g tha n a sy n chro n o u s ligh t .

Fi n a l ly t h e stat e o f fe e li n g which i s d o m i n a n t i n t h e s u bj e c t at
,

t h e m om e n t o f e xp e rim e n tatio n is n o t wi tho u t i n fl u e n c e u p o n ,

t h e r e a ctio n - tim e as m ay b e e asi l y u n d e rsto o d from fo rm e r di s

,

e ussio n s By s tat e o f fe e li n g w e u n d e rsta n d t h e r e s ul ta n t o f

.
“ ”

t h e p o si tiv e an d n e gativ e e m otio n al t o n e s that app e ar a t an y

d e fi n it e tim e Th e m o r e t h e positiv e to n e o f fe e l i n g p r e domi n at e s

.

i n t h e stat e o f fe e li n g t h e m o r e r apidly cet er i s par i bus do all t h e

, , ,

r e ac ti o n s tak e p l ac e Am o n g o th e r th i n gs th is acco u n ts i n part

.

fo r t h e ab n ormal acc e l e ratio n of m ot o r r e acti o n s t h e s o - ca l l e d ,

m otor e xcit e m e n t accom pa n yi n g m a n ia wh ich as we h av e

, , ,

alr e ady m e n tio n e d is c h a r act e r iz e d by t h e pr e dom i n a n c e o f

,

p ositiv e e m o ti o n s .

Th e r e actio n -tim e is also cha n g e d by t h e u se o f toxican ts Fo r .

e xampl e K ,r a e p li
e n
1
fo u n d that c e rtai n dr u gs s u ch as n itrit e of ,

amyl e th e r an d ch l oroform fi rs t i n cr e as e an d th e n short e n t h e

, ,

r e ac tio n -tim e wh il e alcoh ol o n t h e co n trary fi r s t short e n s an d

, , ,

1 P h i l o so ph S t ud Bd 1 S 4 1 7 an d 573 ; al so r e ce n t ly a
. .
, .
, . di r
sc o u s e

b e fo r e t h e j ah re s v e r sa m m lu n g des psyc hi atr i sch e n V e r e i n s 1 8 8 9 , . C o m pare

a l so DI ET L an d v V1 N r sc n c a u P FL iJG s R s Arc hiv Bd 1 6
.
,
‘

, . .
2 58 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i ca l P sych o logy .

to n e o f fe e l i n g acc o m pa n yi n g t h e m oto r id e a that pre c e d e s t h e

m otio n Th e i mpulsiv e act app r oach e s m os t cl os e ly o f c o urs e
.
, ,

to t h e aut o matic a c t ; t h e i n t e l l e ctual ac tio n i s fu r th e st r e mo v e d

1

from i t .

O f fa r gre at e r i m po rt a n c e tha n t h e classificati o n j ust gi v e n i s

t h e disti n ctio n o f a d e fi n it e gr o u p of actio n s from a n oth e r s ta n d

p o i n t This gro u p is c ompos e d o f t h e

.
“
mo t i o n s of expr essi o n
”
,

“ ”
e x r e ss i ve mo ve men t s All m ov m ts of xpr s s io n ar e
or p e e n e
. e

alik e i n b e i n g t h e m otor d isch arg e o f a psych ic al proc e s s but t h e ,

chi e f e ffe ct of thi s m ot o r discharg e c o n sis ts m e r e ly i n b e trayi n g

t h e psychical p r oc e ss to oth e r i n d ivid u als E v e ry o th e r m ov e .

m e n t h as som e o th e r d e fi n it e e xt e r n al e ff e c t an d o n l y i n c id e n t ,

a ll y an d i n di re ctly b e trays t h e psych ical s tat e o f t h e p e rso n wh o

is acti n g B u t o n t h e c o n trary i n t h e cas e of m o ti o n s of e x
.
,

p r e ssion an y fu r th e r e xt e r n al e ffe ct i s m e r e ly i n cid e n tal I f w e

, .

s e i z e a glass of wat e r i t is sim ply i n cid e n tal th at oth e rs p e rc e i v e

,

i n th is m ov e m e n t o f t h e h a n d o ur i n t e n tio n to dri n k O n t he .

oth e r ha n d i f we laugh t h e chi e f e fl e c t is t h e e xpr e ssi o n an d

'

, ,

u l timat e b e trayal of o u r stat e o f fe e li n g to oth e rs We d e sig n at e .

t h e g r aspi n g o f t h e glass of wat e r as an i n t e n d e d o r vo lu n ta ry

actio n whil e m a n y e xpr e ssi v e m o tio n s s u ch as laughi n g cryi n g
, , , ,

e tc . we g e n e rally d e si g n at e as m or e o r l e ss i n v o lu n ta ry
,
Fi n a l ly .
,

th e r e is a s e ri e s of e xpr e ssiv e m ov e m e n ts also that ar e pro duc e d

by n o n - st r iat e d m uscl e s whi ch accordi n g to t h e comm o n t e r m i n
, ,

o logy ar e n e v e r subj e ct to t h e wi l l at all ;

,
amo n g th e s e ar e
bl u sh i n g cryi n g t h e bristli n g of t h e hai r t h e r u ffi i n g o f t h e
, , ,

fe ath e r s an d o th e r m o v e m e n ts a ffe cti n g t h e vari o u s c u tic ul ar

,

app e n dage s e t c Th e s e e xp r e ssiv e mov e m e n ts of t h e fac e an d of

, .

t h e d e rmal app e n dag e s d o n o t of co ur s e e xh aust t h e s e r i e s of

e xpr e ssiv e m oti o n s Th e g e sticulatio n s o f t h e ha n d t h e sh r u g

.
,

gi n g o f t h e sh ould e r s t h e bowi n g o f t h e h e ad t h e b e n di n g of t h e
, ,

body an d o th e rs ar e a l l also to be r e gard e d as e xpr e ssiv e m o v e

,

m e n ts .

1
M Y N RTE P syc hiatri e Wi e n 1 8 88 ) h as atte m pte d t o d e mo n s trat e
E ,
”
,

t h at all v o lun tary m o t i o n s d e ve l o p fro m au t o m at i c m o t i o n s ; su ch a d e ve l o p

m e n t i n fac t se e m s t o b e c o n ce iv ab l e fo r m an y i m pul s iv e m o t i o n s .
 A ct i o n — Expr e ss i ve Mo t i o n s — S peech . 2 59

Th e m o st impo r ta n t g r oup of e xpr e ssiv e m ov e m e n ts is that

wh ich com p r e h e n d s t h e m ov e m e n ts o f sp e e ch As we k n ow .
,

th e s e m otio n s r e pr e se n t t h e sum o f e xtrao r di n arily c o m plicat e d ,

co- ordi n at e d m usc u la r m ov e m e n ts o f t h e lips palat e to n gu e an d , ,

lary n x Whi l e t h e e xpr e ssiv e m o tio n s fi rst m e n ti o n e d —laugh i n g

.
,

c ryi n g e t c — g e n e ra ll y e xp r e ss e sp e cial e motio n s t h e m ov e m e n ts

, ,

of articulat e s p e e ch b e c o m e t h e e xp r e ssi o n o f o u r s e n sati o n s an d

th e i r imag e s o f m e m ory t h e i d e as Th e e n o r m o u s n u mb e r o f .

actual s e n sati o n s an d id e as n at ur ally r e quir e s a cor re sp o n d i n gly

larg e vari e ty o f articul ativ e mov e m e n t s Both sp e e ch an d th o u gh t .

are t h e r e s u l t o f a pa r all e l d e v e lopm e n t ; e ach o n e is d e v e lop e d

i n an d w i t h t h e oth e r T h e im porta n c e o f t h e arti cu l ativ e m ov e

.

m e n ts fo r t h e com b i n atio n of com p o n e n t id e as i n to u n ifo rm c o n

c e pt i o n s we h av e a l r e ady disc u ss e d i n a fo rm e r chapt e r We shall .

n o w u n d e r sta n d a l so why t h e e xpr e ssiv e m ov e m e n ts o f sp e e ch

hav e so g re at an i n flu e n c e i n d e t e rm i n i n g t h e high e r d e v e lopm e n t

o f man . This fact m ay be furth e r s h ow n i n t h e a n atom ical
s tructu r e o f t h e surfac e o f t h e b rai n I f we c o mpar e t h e brai n o f .

t h e ape with that o f m an we fin d i n t h e latt e r a com p l e x c o n

,

vol utio n o n t h e bac k par t of t h e lowe r fr o n ta l co n v o l u ti o n tha t ,

i s as e n ti r e ly wa n ti n g i n t h e b ra i n of t h e ape as i f i t h ad b e e n
sc o op e d o u t with a goug e At this plac e as sc i e n c e h as k n ow n
.
,

fo r fi fty y e ars l i e s t h e co r tical c e n t r e of artic u lat e sp e e ch

,
If .

-
th is so ca ll e d co n v o l u tio n o f B roca i s d e s troy e d i n t h e l e ft
“ ”

h e m i s ph e r e i n co n s e q u e n c e of havi n g b e com e t h e s e a t o f di s e a s e ,

t h e i n v alid is s ti l l abl e t o e x e c u t e t h e gr o s s e r m o v e m e n ts o f t h e

lips to n gu e an d lary n x bu t h as l o s t t h e fi n e r com p l e x m o v e m e n t s

, ,

o f th e s e orga n s t h at ar e n e c e s sary fo r S p e e ch an d wi l l n e v e r ,

re cov e r t h e co n tro l o f th e m Th e fu n c tio n of t h e cor re spo n di n g

.

plac e i n t h e right h e m isph e r e o f t h e h u ma n c e r e b r u m is n o t

e xactly k n ow n I t is p ro babl e that i t i s m or e o r l e ss co n c e r n e d
.

i n t h e artic ul atio n o f i n t e rj e ctio n s s u ch as my G od ,

“
ye s , ,

an d
“
no
” 1
. At t h e sam e t im e that t h e d e v e lopm e n t o f t h is

1
C o mp are G O WE RS , V rl u
o es n
ge n ub e r di e Diag n o sti k de r G e hi rn kr an k
heite n,
”
V o rl .
9 an d 1 0 .
2 60 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i ca l P sycho logy .

m otor-c e n tr e o f a r ticulat e sp e e ch i s taki n g plac e an audito ry

word -c e n tr e i n which t h e m e n tal imag e s o f w o r ds that we he ar
,

artic u lat e d ar e d e posi t e d is d e v e lop e d i n t h e aud i t o ry c e n tr e o f

,

the c e r e br u m i n t h e t e m poro -
sph e n oidal lo b e I f t h e so - call e d .

r e gio n o f W e r n ick e i n th is c e n t r e b e d e s t roy e d i n t h e l e ft t e m po

ro- s ph e n oidal lob e words ar e still h e ard i n d e e d b u t n o t u n d e r
, , ,

st o o d Fi n ally i n t h e cas e o f t h e ci vi l i z e d an d cul tivat e d m an a

.

n e w stag e o f e xp r e ss iv e m ov e m e n ts app e ars i n t h e m o tio n s o f

w r iti n g to wh ich t h e visual i d e as of r e adi n g corr e spo n d i n t h e

s e n sory sph e r e I t is o n l y possibl e h e re to cas t a v e ry hasty
.

gla n c e at th e s e highly i n t e r e sti n g r e l atio n s o f t h e c e r e b r um to

sp e e ch ; t h e study o f t h e r e sp e ctiv e writ e rs o n th is subj e ct is to
b e u rg e n tly r c m m e d d
e o n e
1
.

T h e developme n t o f e xp r e ssiv e m oti o n s i s a qu e stio n of pa r a

m o u n t i n t e re s t D uch e n n e t h e c e l e brat e d a u thor o f P h ysi o lo gi c
.
“
,

” “ ”
de s m ouv e m e n ts an d M é ca n ism e de la physiog n om i e humai n e ,

still co n sid e r s t h e e xp r e ssiv e m ov e m e n ts - to b e a gi ft with which

G od has e sp e cia l ly e n d o w e d m a n k i n d E ith e r t h e d i v i n e wisdom .

o r t h e d ivi n e fa n tasy acco r di n g to th is c o n c e pti o n has arbitrarily

, ,

d e sig n at e d t h is o r that m uscl e as t h e m e a n s by wh ich m a n ki n d

i s t o giv e e xpr e ssio n t o a d e fi n it e e m o tio n D arwi n 1 was t h e .

fi r st to op e n t h e way fo r a phylog e n e tic e xpla n atio n of th is

s u bj e ct T h e e xp r e ssi v e m ov e m e n ts of m an ar e also d e v e lop e d
.

t h r o ugh th ousa n ds o f y e a r s from t h e e xpr e s siv e m o v e m e n ts th at

ar e fou n d i n t h e low e r a n imal s I t is v e ry p r o babl e that almost .

all m otio n s o f e xpr e ssi o n h av e o n ly d e v e lop e d s e co n da r ily from

t h e commo n i n e xp r e ssiv e psych ical acti o n s L e t us tak e a .

d e fi n i t e e xam pl e Th e facial e xpr e ssio n o f r ag e an d hat e i n m an

is m a n i fe st e d chi e fly i n t h e r e t r actio n o f t h e lips an d t h e e xpos u re

1
W N ICK ER D E, e r aph as i sc h e S ym pt o m e n co mple x , B re s l au 8 74 d
, 1 , an

al p i a ll y t h m r o e r e ce n t ii
c o m po s t o n s o f t h e sa m e au t h ri F m a o

Mdi
so es ec e o n

L AN D S F rt h r i tt
ER
’
o sc en de r e Furth r G
ci n , 1 8 86 e n a s n av , Arch f
m D u t ch Arch f kli Md
. . .

P sych i at r i c , 1 88 5 L tc n r n c e Bd 3 6
M d th L
.
, e s . . . n . .
,
. .

2
Th e E pre ss
“
x i on o f th Em ti
e i o o ns n an an e o we r An i ma l s .

d i
9 1h E it o n , 1 8 76 .
2 62 I n t r o du ct i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

an d cul tur e possibl e an d m an gai n s an i mm e asu r abl e advan

ar e ,
~

tag e i n t h e str u gg l e fo r e xist e n c e .

I t is s till v e ry u n c e rtai n fr om wh at sp e cial e xp r e s s i v e m o v e

m e n ts la n guag e o r sp e e ch has d e v e lop e d I t is by n o m e a n s a .

huma n i n v e n tio n as has b e e n r e c e n t l y ass e r te d tha t h as c o m e

, ,

i n to u se i n c o n s e qu e n c e o f a u n iv e rsal agr e e m e n t O n t h e o th e r .

ha n d t h e co n s t r uctio n o f words app e a r s to hav e tak e n plac e

,

chi e fly i n two ways : ( 1 ) by d e v e lopm e n t fr o m t h e a n im a l s cry ’

,

- n o m at o poe ic d e v e l opm e n t
( by call d o Th e a n im al s cry
’
2
) s o e .

alre ady e xp re ss e s m a n i fold psychical stat e s al tho u gh th e y ar e ,

ch i e fly o f an e moti o n al n at u r e As t h e e n tici n g c all of t h e mal e

.
,

i t e xpr e s se s s e x u al fe e l i n gs ; as t h e cry o f d is tr e ss i t e xpr e ss e s ,

t h e fe a r o f imp e n d i n g da n g e r ; as t h e c r y of r ag e i t e xpr e s s e s ,

h at e e t c
, . P a r tic u larly t h e s u dd e n ly app e a r i n g vi su al stimul i ( a
passi n g a n im al i n fl igh t ligh t n i n g e t c ) im part a c ry that ap
, , .

pr o ac h e s v e r y cl o s e ly to t h e n atur e o f r e fl e x actio n By t h e .

p r oc e ss o f s e l e ctio n t h e s e cri e s b e c o m e d iffe r e n tiat e d m or e an d

m o r e i n t h e m a n n e r that we h av e so o ft e n n o t e d u n til fi n a ll y
, ,

th e y b e com e t h e col o ssal t r e as u r e o f words tha t co n sti t u t e a

l a n guag e O n om atop oe ia has e x e rt e d a m or e s e co n dary mod i fy
.

i n g i n fl u e n c e u p o n la n guag e I t is e sp e cial l y imp o rta n t i n t h e

.
1

cas e of aco u st i c stim u li A s o u n d t h at is o ft e n h e ard i n n atu r e

.
,

is i m ita t e d i n oth e r word s t h e m o t o r discharg e wh ich i s impa r t e d

,

by t h e acoustic s e n satio n o f a ro l l o f thu n d e r, fo r e xam p l e is ,

gradually m odifi e d u n til t h e m o v e me n ts o f t h e o rga n o f sp e e ch

fi n ally prod u c e a sou n d r e s e mb l i n g thu n d e r We ar e as ye t far .

fr o m havi n g arriv e d at an u n d e r sta n di n g o f this im itativ e im puls e

from t h e sta n d p o i n t o f t h e D arwi n ia n th e ory bu t its importa n c e ,

i n t h e d e v e lopm e n t o f la n guag e is n o t to b e d o u bt e d T hat .

m a n y i n dividuals ar e ab l e to u n d e rs ta n d a larg e n umb e r of words

thus d e v e lop e d m ay b e e asi l y e xp l ai n e d i n b oth ca s e s by laws
o f associatio n w ith which we ar e al r e ady fami l ia r L e t u s co n .

sid e r that both t h e r e fl e x cry an d t h e o n omatopoe tic i mitatio n ,

1
B ut not e xclu iv l y ; c m par L A Z A U S
s e o e R ,
L e b e n de r S e e l e . S TE IN T H A L ,

Abri ss de r S prach w i ch aft

s se n s .
 A ct i o n Expr e s s i ve Mo t i o n s S pe ech . 2 63

in the cas e o f o n e an d t h e sam e s e n satio n wou l d n e c e ssarily ,

r e s ul t t h e sam e i n d i ff e r e n t b u t similarly c o n st r uct e d i n divid u al s

, ,
.

Th e gr e at i n fl u e n ce which h e re d ity e x e r ts upo n t h e m ov e m e n ts

of e xpr e ssio n is m o st forc i bly r e v e al e d by t h e fac t tha t p e rso n s
who ar e b o rn b l i n d an d d e af (as Lau r a Bri dgma n fo r e xam pl e )
e xpr e ss th e i r j o y fu l e m o tio n s b y t h e typical fo rm o f l aug h t e r .

I n t h e d e v e l o pm e n t o f t h e n o rm a l c h ild m o st o f t h e e xp r e ssi v e ,

m o t i o n s o n ly app e a r c o m parativ e l y lat e ; fo r e xam pl e w e e pi n g ,

s e l do m app e a r s b e for e t h e th ird m o n th a ft e r b irth 1

I t i s v e ry .

i n t e r e s ti n g to n ot e th at i n a l most a l l t h e rac e s O f m an ki n d t h e
m imic m o ti o n s e xp re ssi n g fe e l i n g ar e v e ry n e a r ly id e n tical As .

r e gard s t he m ov e m e n ts o f e xpre ssi o n i n sp e e c h we k n ow t h at ,

com parativ e ph i l o l o gy h as a l r e ady e s tablish e d v e ry g re at a n alogi e s

b e twee n t h e d i ffe r e n t la n g u ag e s We have alr e ady m e n tio n e d .

ab o v e that t h e l o w e r a n ima l s als o e xh ibit n um e r ou s e xp r e s s iv e

m o v e m e n ts that r e s e m bl e thos e o f m an i n a h igh d e gre e .

A n o t h e r v e ry i n t e re sti n g pa r t of t h i s s u bj e c t is t h e a n atom ical

l o ca l iza ti o n o f t h e n e rv e -path s an d n e rv e - c e n tr e s fo r m o tio n s o f
e x pre s s i o n As we ha v e alr e ady h e ard t h e c e n t r e fo r t h e m ost
.
,

c o mplicat e d e xpre ssi v e mov e m e n t s , thos e o f sp e e ch i s n u ,

d o ubt e dly l oc at e d i n t h e c o rte x T h e path tha t c o n ducts t h e .

m otor im puls e o f sp e e ch fr o m t h e co r t e x to t he m usc l e s of ar t ic u

la ti o n app e ars t o b e co n ta i n e d chi e fly i n t h e py r am idal t rac t ; n o
i n t e rrup ti o n o f th is path wha t e v e r ta k e s plac e i n t h e larg e ga n g l i a .

T his i s di ffe r e n t i n t h e case o f t h e m im ic m ov e m e n ts of e xpr e s

s i o n Th e ir c e n tre i s proba bly locat e d i n t h e T h alam u s o ptic u s
. .

Aft e r t h e e n ti r e c o rt e x o f t h e c e r e brum has b e e n r e m o v e d from

a r a b bi t i t sti l l p e r fo rms i ts charac t e ristic mov e m e n ts o f e xpr e s
,

—
sio n t h e b ob b i n g o f t h e tai l fo r e xam pl e ?
Acco rdi n g t o t h e
m o r e r e c e n t cli n ical obs e rvatio n s o f N ot h n ag e l s 3 t h e T h alam u s ’
,

1
C o m pare P RE Y E R,
“
See l e de s K i n d e s. B I N WAN G
S ER h as o b se r vd e

l a ughi n g a l e ad y r i n t he 1 5t h w e e k afte r b i rth ; sm ili n

g appe ars i n t h e 7t h
an d l o t h w e e k s .

2
B EC H I E R E W,
'

V rn c n Arch Bd 101 ZI H NE E Ar ch f P syc h X X

f kli Md
. . . . .
, .
, .

3
NO I H N AG E L Ze i t sc h r 1 88 9 , Bd 1 6, H 5 an d 6
’ ‘

, . . n. e .
, . . .
2 64 I n t r o du c t i o n t o P hys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

o pticus s e e ms to b e u n d o ub t e dly of gre a t i mpo r ta n c e als o i n

t h e cas e of t h e mim ic e xp r e ssiv e m ov e m e n ts of m an T his i n fra .

co r tical locali zatio n is als o j usti fi e d by t h e psychological fact tha t

t h e m imic m otio n s of e xpr e s s i o n — laughi n g fo r e xam pl e — ar e ,

imp art e d by a psych ica l factor i n d e e d b u t tha t th e y ar e v e ry

, ,

litt l e s u bj e ct to t h e proc e ss o f associatio n I n fact we m ay say .

,

tha t th e y tak e plac e alm os t i n vo lu n ta r ily I t is obvious h ow e v e r

.
, ,

that th e re m ust be s till a n oth e r path to impart t o t h e Tha l am u s

opticus t h e cortical e xci tati o n wh ich corr e spo n ds to t h e psych ica l
stat e o f t h e gay m ood S uch i n t e r n u n cial fi b r e s ar e i n fact
.
, ,

k n o w n t o e xist i n l arg e n umb e rs b e tw e e n t h e Th alamus opt icu s

an d t h e cor te x o f t h e c e r e br u m Fi n al l y c e rtai n e xpr e ssiv e
.
,

m ov e m e n ts such as t h e b r ist l i n g o f t h e hai r blush i n g e t c

,
1
, ,
.
,

proba b ly h a v e th e i r c e n tr e i n still d e e p e r p arts o f t h e b rai n ,

pa r ticu l arly i n t h e M e d u lla obl o n gata This agai n ha r m o n iz e s

.

wi th t h e fact that th e s e e xpr e ssiv e m ov e m e n ts also r e s u l t fr om

psychical caus e s b u t ar e virtua l ly n o t s u bj e c t to t h e vo l itio n o r
, ,

m o r e prop e r l y to t h e p r oc e ss o f associatio n at a l l ; th e y c an n ot
,

e v e n b e volu n tari l y s u ppr e ss e d .

We m u st n o w c o n t e n t o u rs e l v e s wi th this hasty v i e w of
Th e task n e xt awai ts u s of d e t e rm i n i n g wh at plac e
”
acti o n s .

i n ou r p sy chol o gy shal l b e assig n e d to t h e so - call e d wi l l .

1
I n ce rtai n s e n se t h e pe culiar c h an ge s o f t h e pul se t h at acco m pan y t h e
a ,

e m o t i o n s o f e x c i t e m e nt b e l o n g t o t hi s c l a ss o f e x pre s s iv e m o v e me n t s C om .

pare Z I E H E N S ph ygm o graph U n t e rsuchu n ge n

“ ”
, . 1 88 7
, .
2 66 I n t r o du ct i o n to P hys i o log i cal Psych o logy .

N ow as we hav e al r e ady s e e n n othi n g has as ye t com p e ll e d u s

, ,

to ass u m e a n e w an d e n tir e ly hypoth e tical factor i n t h e c o n s ci ous

l i fe We c an th e re for e w ith compl e t e j ustic e shi ft t h e o n u s pr o
.

ban di o n t o t h e shou l d e rs o f th os e who cham pio n t h e d o ct r i n e

o f a sp e cial faculty o f t h e wil l We h av e e xplai n e d a l l psyc h ica l
.

proc e ss e s w i thou t i t ; th e y wo u ld n o t b e r e n d e r e d an y m o r e
i n t e ll igibl e by u si n g i t W h at do e s i t m e a n wh e n w e say I w i ll
,

go ? o r to stat e t h e qu e stio n m o r e corr e ct l y what psyc h ic al

”
, ,

co n t e n t do t h e m o v e m e n ts o f sp e e ch produci n g t h e w o rds I wi ll “
,

go ,
”
e xpr e ss ? O bvio u sl y t h e y o n ly e xp r e ss t h e fact th at t h e
m ot o r id e a o f goi n g occ u pi e s t h e co n scio u s n e ss with gr e at i n t e n
s i t y an d i s a
, ccom pa n i e d by a v e ry p r o n o u n c e d posi ti v e t o n e o f
fe e li n g At t h e sam e tim e t h e groupi n g o f lat e n t id e as i s s u ch tha t
.

tho se id e as wh ich ai d t h e app e ara n c e of t h e m ot o r id e a o f g o i n g

p re domi n at e o v e r th o s e id e as that would arr e st i ts ap p e ara n c e .

Wh e n we imagi n e h o w fin e i t wo ul d be to clim b yo n d e r m o u n tai n ,

th i s id e a m ay b e v e ry vivi d an d ye t we m ay n o t co m e to t h e co n cl u
sio n that we w i ll go u p th e r e I n this cas e a vis u al id e a accompa n i e d
.

by a pos itiv e t o n e o f fe e li n g almos t e xclusiv e ly occup i e s t h e

a tt e n tio n ; th e re is o n l y a v e ry w e ak id e a o f t h e m otio n s t o be
p e r fo rm e d by t h e l imbs Num e r o u s a rre stiv e id e as as tha t of t he
.
,

r e mote n e ss o f t h e mou n tai n e t c d o n o t p e r m it t h e m o t o r id e a

, .
,

to gai n s t r e n gth We go o n e st e p furth e r an d say I w o u ld li ke

.
,

t o clim b yo n d e r m o u n tai n
”
Wh at do e s this wou l d lik e — th is
.

“
d e sir e ”
m e a n ? I n this cas e also t h e co n t e n t o f t h e id e a
r e m ai n s t h e sam e ; t h e m o tor id e a is still ch e ck e d d e spit e t h e
g r e a t i n cr e as e of its positiv e e motio n al to n e Fi n a ll y t h e l ast s t e p
.
,

is tak e n wh e n we say “
I w i ll climb yo n d e r m o u n tai n
,
”
Th e .

m oto r id e a has b e com e e xtraordi n arily i n t e n s e t h e positiv e to n e ,

of fe e li n g has r e ac h e d i ts h e ight an d ab ov e all t h e assista n t id e as

, , ,

pr e d o m i n at e ov e r t h e ar r e st i v e T h e e xp re ssio n 1 will de sig

“
.

n at e s n o t o n ly t h e s u bj e ctiv e s e nsatio n s a t a d e fi n it e m o m e n t ,

b ut also t h e obj e ctiv e st at u s guo o f t h e brai n i n particula r t h e ,

groupi n g o f lat e n t id e as H e r e we m ay d isti n guish thr e e cas e s

. .

I f an o t h e r p e r so n says o f u s tha t we will do this o r tha t h e m e a n s ,

p r op e rly tha t t h e grou pi n g o f o ur lat e n t im ag e s o f m e m ory is

 Wi ll— G e n e r al Co n clu s i o n s . 2 67

favou r abl e to t h e app e ara n c e o f t h is o r that i d e a o f m o ti o n

acc o m pa n i e d by a stro n g posi ti v e e m o tio n a l to n e o r to t h e ap ,

pe ar an c e o f t h e appr o pri at e acti o n O n t h e oth e r h a n d w h e n w e .

,

wi ll do som e thi n g o u r o w n psych i cal co n t en t at t h at m om e n t i s

,

o n ly d i s ti n g u i s h e d from o t h e r psychica l c o n t e n ts by t h e fact that

t h e id e a of a d e si re d ac tio n accom pa n i e d by a p o sitiv e e m ot io n al ,

to n e is a lre ady c o n tai n e d a m o n g t h e s e n satio n s an d id e as t h a t

,

ar e th e n act u ally pr e s e n t I n additi o n t o th i s a l s o thos e p e c ul iar

.
,

o ft -m e n ti o n e d m ot o r s e n s atio n s a pp e ar which ar e pro d u c e d by ,

t h e u n c o n scious i n n e rvatio n o f t h e app r opriat e m u scl e s c o r r e spo n d

i n g t o t h e i n c r e as e i n att e n tio n Fi n a ll y sti l l a third cas e is t o .

,

b e disti n g u i s h e d — o u r o wn psychical co n t e n t wh e n w e say

,
“
I ,

w i ll do so me t hi ng i e wh e n we i n t e rru p t t h e v ol u n tary ac ti o n fo r
,
. .

a m om e n t an d r e fl e ct u po n i t Thi s I wi l l do s o m e t h i n g wh e n ”
.
,

spok e n i s a s e ri e s o f m ot o r id e as o f S p e e ch wi th wh ich ar e as s o c i
,

a t e d ( 1 ) t h e Ego -id e a i n t h e s e n s e form e rly d i s c u ss e d ; (2 ) t h e

i d e a o f a fu t u r e act accom pa n i e d by a posi tiv e e m o tio n a l t o n e ;
,

( )
3 m o t o r s e n s ati o n s acco m pa n yi n g at t e n ti o n ; an d 4
( ) e id e a
t h
o f a ca u sal r e l a tio n e xi s ti n g b e tw e e n t h e Ego - id e a a n d t h e d e sir e d
ac tio n
1
All o f t h e s e e l e m e n ts ar e a lre ady k n ow n to u s n o n e o f
.

t h e m is n e w T h e id e a o f a ca u sal r e latio n i s an id e a o f r e latio n

.

qui t e t h e sam e as t h e id e a o f sim i l arity , fo rm e rly disc u s s e d as a

paradi g m o f a l l id e as o f r e l ati o n The r gfo r e t h i s an alysi s a lso g i ves .

n o g r o u n df o r t h e ass u m t i o n o
p f p i a l f a lt f t h w i ll
'

a s e c c u y o e .

P sych iat ry a l s o fur n i s h e s an i n t e r e sti n g c o n fi rma ti o n o f t h e

abov e co n cl u s io n I t h as arr iv e d qu it e e m p i rically at t h e
.
, ,

ass u m ptio n o f t wo chi e f forms o f psychosis t h e o n e origi n ati n g ,

i n t h e i n t e l l e ctual s ph e r e t h e o t h e r i n t h e e m o t i o n al sp h e r e o f
,

psyc h ica l life P sy ch iatry k n ows o f n o sp e c ial psych o sis of t h e

.

will Th e att e m pts t o se t up sp e cial d i se as e s o f t h e w il l u n d e r t h e

.

n am e o f m o n om a n ia o r a g e n e ral d i s e as e of t h e will d e sig n a t e d as

,

m oral i n sa n ity h av e all b e e n r e cog n i se d fail u r e s All dis t u rba n c e s

,
.

o f v o l u n tary actio n t h at we fin d i n ca s e s o f m e n tal dis e as e wi thou t ,

1
C o m pare t h e di c i s u ss o n s o f TH . VVA l r z ,
’

h rbu h d P ych l gi
L e c er s o o e als

N at urwi ch aft t h at i
ss e n s ,
”
n man y r e spe c ts al r ad y a t i ci pat t h i ta d p i
e n e s s n o n t .
 2 68 I n t r o du c t i o n to Phys i o log i cal Psycho logy .

doi n g v i o l e n c e to o r n e g l e cti n g an y facts m ay be r e d u c e d e ith e r ,

t o distur b a n c e s o f t h e s e n ti e n t l i fe e sp e ci ally of t h e e motio n al to n e, ,

o r to i n t e ll e ct u al dist u r b a n c e s i e dist u rba n c e s o f t h e id e as o r o f

,
. .

t he ass o ciatio n o f id e as T h e s o call e d loss o f vol itio n (ab ul i e )

- .
,

t h e i n a b il ity to c o m e to a d e cisio n fo r e xam pl e is a fr e q u e n t , ,

s ym pt o m of m e n tal dis e as e ; bu t th is s o - call e d loss o f will -p o w e r

m ay a l ways b e r e duc e d e i th e r to t h e e xc e e d i n g sl u ggi sh n e ss o f
o f t h e ass o ciatio n O f i d e as to t h e a b n orm al n e gativ e to n e s o f
,

fe e li n g o r to oth e r simi l a r a ffl ictio n s P ath o logy also argu e s

,
.

agai n st t h e a s s u m ptio n o f a sp e cial facul ty o f t h e will 1 .

We h av e ye t to d is c u ss t h e qu e sti o n as to h o w w e c Om e t o
r e gard t h e id e a o f o u r e go as t h e ca u s e o f our acti o n s ; an d
‘

fin ally wh e n c e t h e fe e l i n g o f fr e e dom that accom pa n i e s our

,

a cti o n s ari se s I t is ob v ious th a t w e fi n ally com e t o r e gard t h e

.

e go - id e a as t h e ca u s e o f o u r actio n s b e caus e o f its v e ry fr e q u e n t

sim u lta n e o u s app e ara n c e w ith e ach actio n I t i s al m ost always .

r e pr e s e n t e d s e v e r al tim e s amo n g t h e id e as i m m e diat e l y pr e c e di n g

t h e fi n al m o v e m e n t B u t t h e i d e a o f t h e r e l atio n o f causa l ity
.

i s an e m pi r ical e l e m e n t t h at al ways app e a r s wh e n two s u cc e ssiv e

i d e as ar e v e ry c l o s e l y associat e d .

T h e fe e li n g of fr e e dom i n ac tio n s i s to b e e xplai n e d t h e sam e

as t h e fe e l i n g of fre e d o m i n t h e associati o n o f i d e a s form e r l y
d e scrib e d We m ust h e r e e m ph asi z e o n c e m or e that th is fe e l i n g
.

o f fr e e dom d e p e n d s u p o n t h e abs e n c e o f e xt e r n al com pu l sory

m otiv e s an d t h e r e fo r e u po n t h e fact th at n o t t h e s e n satio n s a l o n e

, ,

b u t a l s o t h e i mag e s o f m e m ory d e t e r m i n e o u r m ov e m e n ts Th i s
,
.

n otio n o f a fr e e will is also fu rth e r e d by t h e fact that t h e id e a of

n o t p e r fo rm i n g a m o v e m e n t o r t h e id e a o f a n o th e r m o v e m e n t
“
,

t h a n t h e o n e which i s acc o m pa n i e d by t h e stro n g e r to n e of

fe e l i n g an d wh ich i s fi n a l l y act u a ll y e x e c u t e d app e ars an d tak e s
, ,

part i n t h e play o f m oti v e s B u t tha t w h ich fi n a l ly caus e s t h e.

l att e r id e a t o pr e vail an d supp r e ss e s t h e form e r i s n o t a sp e cial

fac ul ty e x e rci s i n g fre e wi ll b u t o n l y t h e st r o n g e r e m oti o n al t o n e
,

1
C o m pare R I BOT , L es ma l adi es de la a wo rk h o we ve r t h at
, ,

ascr i b e s d ci d dly t
e e oo m u h i mp rta
c o nce to the e go in acts o f t h e wi ll .
2 70 I n t r o du c t i o n to Phys i o log i cal P t
’
syc zo lo
gy .

of sth e tics o r t h e sph e r e o f s e n sati o n T h e e thi cal fe e l i n g s

ae ,
.
,

t h e sam e as t h e ae s th e tic ca n n ot b e r e duc e d by t h e e m pirical

,

psych o l o gi s t t o a c e r tai n chi e f fo rm ula I t c an be show n th at .

a l mos t a l l acti o n s wh ich we n o w r e ga r d as crim e s hav e at som e

, ,

tim e b e e n r e gard e d as good by hu ma n b e i n gs of o th e r ag e s o r of

oth e r p l ac e s i e th e y w e r e accom pa n i e d b y posi tiv e e motio n al
,
. .

to n e s i n m a n ki n d A bsolu t e e thical laws ar e as l ittl e to b e

.

e xp e ct e d fr o m psycfzo log y as a bso lu t e a ,

e sth e tical laws B oth t h e .

e thical an d ae st h e tical e m oti o n al to n e s fl uctuat e ( r ) histo r ically ,

th e y ar e t h e produc t o f an h ist o rical i f n o t phylog e n e tic d e v e lop

, ,

m e n t ; an d ( 2 ) also am o n g t h e s a m e p e o pl e at an y d e fi n i t e tim e
th e y ar e fu l l yag r e e d u p o n o n ly by a larg e m aj ori ty an d n o t by
all . We shall c e rtai n l y n o t c o n d e m n e m pi r ical psych ology fo r
n o t e stablish i n g e thical laws fo r o f what assista n c e wou l d an y
,

po ss ible laws w hich t h e p sych o l ogi s t m igh t e stabl ish b e t o t h e

m oral phi l osoph e r ? Th e y could o n ly hav e an e mpi ri cal charac
t e r an d n o t th at a b sol u t e ch aract e r c u st o mari l y r e q u i r e d by t h e
,

e th ical ph ilosoph e r I n this work we ar e o n ly co n c e r n e d wi th

.

laws i n us an d n o t laws abo ve us

, .

I t is v e ry d i ffe r e n t with t h e c o n c e pti o n of m o r al accou n ta b ility

o r r e sp o n sibi l ity This co n c e ptio n i n fact i s c o n trad ictory to
.
, ,

t h e d e d u ctio n s o f physiologi ca l psychology Th e latt e r t e ach e s .

that o u r a ctio n s ar e s t r ictly n e c e s si tat e d th e y ar e t h e n e c e ssa ry

produc t o f ou r s e n satio n s an d id e as Th e re fo r e accord i n g to .
,

physiological psychol o gy we could n o mo r e h old a m an g u ilty

,

an d acc o u n tabl e fo r h is bad actio n tha n a fl ow e r fo r its ug l i n e ss .

H e n c e t h e actio n r e m ai n s b ad e v e n wh e n vi e we d psyc h o lo gi
,

ca ll y b ut i n its e l f do e s n o t i m part gu ilt T h e co n c e p tio n s o f

, .

g u ilt an d accou n tability ar e — to d e sig n at e t h e a n tith e sis br ie fly

e ith e r r e ligious o r social c o n c e ptio n s an d o n that a cco u n t m ay ,

b e disr e gard e d h e r e P sych o l ogy le t us r e p e a t do e s n o t d e n y

.
, ,

a b s olut e ae sth e tical o r e thical laws i n s o fa r as th e y can b e de

m o n s t r at e d from som e oth e r sta n dpoi n t ; but psychology i ts e lf ,

l im it e d to e m pirical data c an o n ly e stab l ish e m pirical law s

,
l
.

Th e f ll
o o wi n g auth o rs ar e t o be e spe ciall y re co mme n d e d fo r a f rt h
u r
e ,
 Wi ll— Ge n e r al Co n clu s i o n s . 2 71

H e n c e t h e i n v e stigati o n o f t h e so -ca ll e d v o l u n tary p r oc e ss e s

has gi v e n us n o gro u n ds what e v e r fo r t h e assum ptio n o f a n ot h e r
psych i cal som e thi n g i n add it io n to t h e s e r i e s of s e n satio n s an d
“

id e as .

T h e m e taphy s icia n c an p e rhaps arri v e at t h e th e or e tical fi ctio n

o f a b e i n g w h ich is t h e s u bj e ct o f t h e s e n satio n s id e as an d , ,

act io n s an d m ay n am e th is s u bj e c t Ego o r S oul P hysiological

,
.

p s yc h o l ogy h o w e v e r ca n n ot e xc e e d t h e bo u n ds of i ts e mpiri cal

, ,

data ; at t h e cl o s e o f i ts i n v e stigati o n s we ha v e si m ply t o ask

wh e th e r i t ca n o ffe r us an y furth e r e m piri cal facts that wi l l thr o w
som e ligh t u p o n - t h e n atur e o f that para l l e lis m whi ch fr om t h e ,

b e gi n n i n g w e h av e suppo s e d to e xist b e tw e e n t h e p s ychical

,

p r oc e ss e s an d t h e mat e r ial physi ol o gic al proc e ss e s o f t h e b rai n .

L e t u s n o w b r i e fly co n sid e r h o w sci e n c e has hi th e rt o accou n t e d

for th is pa r all e l is m which primarily m e a n s sim p l y a r e g ul a r
,

c o e xist e n c e Fo r t h is purpos e we di s ti n gu ish dual i s ti c an d

.

m o n isti c th e ori e s .

T h e dual istic th e o ri e s all acc e pt t h e d u a l i s m o f t h e two s e ri e s

(mat e rial an d p sychica l ) an d avoid e v e r y att e m p t t o r e solv e i t

, .

I n so doi n g t h e c o m p l e t e i n t e rd e p e n d e n c e of t h e two s e ri e s i n ,

fact t h e v e ry th i n g that we have ca l l e d parall e l i s m r e mai n s ,

w h o l ly u n i n t e l ligib l e O n thi s acc o u n t L e ib n i tz o n e o f t h e c h i e f

.
,

cham pi o n s o f t h e dual i s tic th e o r y was fo r c e d to h av e r e co u rs e to ,

.

t h e th e o r y o f a pr e - e stabli s h e d harm o n y G e u li n x s o ccasio n al

’
.

i s m also b e lo n gs to th is class of th e o ri e s O f c o u rs e t h e fact that .

t h e psych ical s e ri e s of p h e n o m e n a is m u ch sh o r t e r tha n t h e

mat e rial o r physical s e ri e s is som e wha t u n favo u ra bl e fo r this

m o re exact tudy f t h t h ry f t h will B B A I P y h l g i l

s o e eo o e : ER
’

R
‘

, s c o o e a s

Wi chaft ; S P N C R Pri ci pl f P ych l gy L I PP G r d

sse n s
”
E E , n es o s o o S,
“
un

th t a sach d
en S l l b
es S T I N T HA L
ee en e E i l i tu g i
ens d P ych l gi E ,
“
n e n n . s o o e

S prac h wi h aft BAI N Th S d t h I t ll t

” ” “
u. s se n s c d , Th e e n se s an e n e ec , an e

E m tio d t h Will
o n s an Th vi w
e f W U N D T whi h
. i g ra l di am
e e s o , c ar e n e ne e

t i lly pp
r ca o d t t h v i w f t h r arch r d whi h agr wit h ld r
o se o e e s o e se e se e s , an c ee o e

au t h r i t i i t h a u m pt i
o es n f a p i a l fa ul ty f t h w ill
e ss t b f
on o d s ec c o e , ar e o e o un

ph y i l g i h P y h l gi d al
“ ”
i
n hi s G d ii g d
r un z e er i his o o sc en s c o o e, an so n s
“
E th i k .
2 72 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P /zys i o log i cal P syc/z o log y .

dua l istic t h e o r y . Exp e ri e n c e d e m o n strat e s parall e l psych ical

p roc e ss e s fo r o n ly a small pa r t of t h e mat e rial pr o c e ss e s n am e ly , ,

fo r t h e physiological p r oc e ss e s o f t h e brai n For th is r e aso n t h e

.

att e m p t h as b e e n m ad e t o e q u aliz e th is d i ff e r e n c e i n l e n gth

“

i f we wish to p r e s e rv e t h e com pariso n wi th li n e s — by h ypo t h e t i

cal l y l e n gth e n i n g t h e psych ical s e ri e s H e n c e c e rtai n philosoph e rs
.

cam e t o assu m e para l l e l p sych ical p r oc e ss e s n o t o n l y fo r al l ,

physiological p ro c e ss e s o f t h e b r ai n but als o fo r a l l o r g an i c

,

m at e rial p ro c e ss e s T h is hyp o th es i s m ay be d e sig n at e d as t h e

.

a n i m i s t i c th e o ry. Am o n g i ts cham pio n s i s Wu n d t Fi n ally t h e

.

do ctri n e o f hyl o zoism g o e s still fu r th e r an d ascrib e s l ife an d

, ,

h e n c e paral l e l psych ical proc e ss e s to all i n o rga n ic proc e ss e s

, .

Fully an d l o gically appli e d th is th e ory vi e ws e ach atom an d e ach

,

m o l e c u l e as t h e po s s e ss o r o f a co n com ita n t p sych ical sub s ta n c e .

I n Opposi tio n t o all th e s e th e ori e s i t sh o uld be r e m e mb e r e d that

,

th e y all l e ad u n a v oidab l y to t h e assum ptio n of u n co n sci o u s psy

chical proc e ss e s an assum ptio n that is i n i ts e l f co n t r ad icto ry as
, ,

we hav e alr e ady s e e n .

Am o n g t h e m o n isti c th e o r i e s we shall co n sid e r tho s e fi rs t th at

assu m e t h e subordi n atio n of o n e s e ri e s to t h e oth e r H e r e b u t .

two th e o r i e s ar e po s sib l e ; e ith e r t h e mat e rial s e ri e s o f p h e n o ~

m e n a i s to b e r e ga r d e d as a fu n cti o n o f t h e psychical o r t h e ,

latt e r as a fu n ctio n o f t h e form e r N e ith e r t h e fir st -m e n ti o n e d

.

i i t li t c vi w t h last -m e n ti o n e d ma t er i ali st i c v i e w i s
so r u a s z e ,
n o r e

abl e to gi v e an y suffici e n t gro u n d what e v e r for t h e sub o rdi n ati o n

o f o n e s e ri e s o f ph e n o m e n a to t h e oth e r wh ich i t assum e s Thos e
.

m o n istic th e ori e s that pr e s e rv e t h e c o -ordi n atio n of t h e two s e r i e s ,

but wo u l d still e stablish th e i r u n ity h a v e s o u gh t to accom p l ish

,

t h e task b y r e gardi n g both s e ri e s a s at tribut e s o f o n e s u bs t a n c e .

A cco r di n gly S pi n oza asc r ib e d t h e t wo attri b u t e s o f e xt e n si o n an d

t h o u gh t (ex t e n si o an d cogi t at i o ) to h is o n e ab s ol u t e substa n c e t h e ,

D e us si n e m u n dus Th is vi e w o f S pi n o za s is i n h arm o n y with

.
’

t h at o f m a n y n atural ph i l osoph e rs wh o ascrib e d ( 1 ) e xt e n sio n

an d (2
) a psychical p r op e rty as
, m e m ory fo r e xam p l e to th
, e ir

m ol e cul e s i n that i t m e r e ly cr e a t e s a formal l o gical u n i ty fo r t h e

,

two s e pa r at e s e ri e s B u t th e s e u n d e mo n st r at e d hypoth e s e s do
.
2 74 I n t r o du ct i o n t o P liys i o log i ca l P syc/z o logy .

e x t e n t p re s e n t complicatio n s o f t h e p r oc e ss T h e u n i n t e lligibl e .

fact wh ich r e qui r e s e xpla n a t io n is t h at co n t r a ry t o t h e au tom atic

,

an d r e fl e x acts t h e actio n i s fou n d t o b e accompa n i e d by an

‘

e n ti r e ly n e w e l e m e n t t h e co n comi ta n t psychical p r oc e ss
, Th e .

mat e r ial e l e m e n t s o f t h e act io n ar e i n th e m s e lv e s quit e cl e ar .

T h e actio n would n o t b e an y d i ffe r e n t e v e n if t h e e xci tatio n o f

t h e s e n sory c e l l sh ould n o t pr oduc e its co r r e la t e t h e s e n satio n , ,

n o r t h e m at e rial d isposi tio n l e ft i n t h e b r ai n

(t h e E l o r E i ) i ts ,

co rre la t e t h e im ag e o f m e m o r y o r i d e a We could r e n d e r t h e
, .

g e n e ral fi t n e ss o f o u r actio n s j us t as i n t e lligibl e as t h e fi t n e ss o f

autom atic an d r e fl e x acts o r t h e fi t n e ss o f a bird s pl u m ag e I n
,
’
.

both cas e s t h e p r oc e ss o f s e l e c tio n is t h e e ss e n tial factor i n t h e

d e v e lopm e n t o f th is fi t n e ss I n t h e cas e of t h e bird s plumag e o f
.
’
,

r e fl e x actio n an d to som e e xt e n t o f au t omatic 1 actio n th is s e l e c

,

tio n is e ss e n tially a phylog e n e tic proc e ss ; i n t h e cas e of ac t io n s

i t i s an o n tog e n e t ic p r oc e ss S tri ctly co n sid e r e d all act i o n s m ust
.
,

fi r s t be at tai n e d by p ractic e du r i n g t h e o n t o g e n e sis of t h e i n d i

v id ual — fo r e xam pl e t h e p r actisi n g o f a s e l e ctio n for t h e pia n o
, , .

O n ly t h e co r tical m e cha n ism an apparat u s h ighly adap tabl e t o

,

t h e t r ai n i n g o f volu n ta r y acti o n s is phylog e n e tica l ly acquire d i e

, ,
. .

i n h e rit e d Th e r e fo r e t h e fi t n e ss o f actio n s is q u i t e co n c e ivabl e

.
,

at l e ast as t h e r e sul t of m a t e r ial laws

,
as a sim pl e m att e r of e x

pla n atio n t h e p arall e l psych ical p r oc e ss e s ar e us e l e ss an d su pe r

,

fl uo n s L e t us r e p e a t th at acco r di n g t o t h e abov e sta t e m e n ts

.
, ,

t h e app e a r a n c e o f c o n com ita n t psych ical p r o c e ss e s t h e ms e l v e s is

t h e o n ly fac t tha t n e e ds e xpla n atio n Acco r di n gly t h e qu e sti o n

.

a r is e s : What m at e r ial p r oc e ss e s ar e accom p an i e d by th e s e psy

ch ical p r oc e ss e s ? I t is n o t su ffici e n t to a n sw e r th at t h e c o r tical

1
Th e ab o ve t h ro ws n e w li g h t u po n t h e n atu re o f t h e aut o m at i c ac t t h e ,

i n te rme diate po si t i o n o f whi c h h as al re ady be e n m e n t i o n e d I n fact apart .

,

fro m t h e ab se n ce o f c o n co m i tan t psychi cal pro c e sse s i n t h e cas e o f auto mati c

act i o n an d t h e i r pre s e n c e i n t h e cas e o f acti o n t h e re i s n o we ll -de fin e d di s
, ,

t i n c t i o n b e twe e n man y aut o mat i c act s t h at ar e o n t o ge n e t i callv d e ve l o pe d an d

pu re ac t i o n Th e u n c o n sci o u s au t o mat i c pl ay i n g o f t h e pia n o ac q ui re d b y
.
,

pract i ce as a m at e ri a l pro c e ss i s h ardl y t o b e di s t i n gui sh e d fro m t h e co n s c i o u s

, ,

act i n an y e ss e n t i al po i n t .
 Wi ll Ge n e r al Co n clu sion s . 2 75

p r oc e ss e s al o n e ar e accom pa n i e d by psychica l p r o c e s s e s N u m .

b e r le ss m at e ria l p r oc e sse s o f t h e cort e x t ak e plac e w i t / ma t t h e

co n comi t a n c e of psych ical p roc e ss e s O n e an d t h e sam e E c
.

p r oduc e s a s e n satio n t o d ay b u t n on e to -mo rr ow acco r di n g t o

, ,

t h e variatio n s i n t h e groupi n g of t h e l at e n t i d e as Th e r e i s n o .

an sw e r to t h e abov e q ue stio n what e v e r But e mpi r ical p sych o.

l ogy n o w rais e s that critical an d d e ci siv e qu e sti o n by m e an s o f ,

wh ich i t t e sts i ts o wn fou n datio n s : H o w do we com e by th is

s e paratio n o f t h e e m pirical data i n to two s e ri e s t h e m at e ria l an d ,

t h e psych ical ? With whi ch s e ri e s ar e we d ire ct l y an d p r im arily

fu r n ish e d ? L e t us t e s t t h e m att e r u pon o ur s e lv e s We s e e a .

tr e e fo r e xamp l e Appar e n tly i n this cas e both s e r i e s of da t a ar e

,
.

al r e ady pre s e n t t h e see i ng an d t h e t r ee B u t i s thi s an e xact

,
.

stat e m e n t o f t h e facts i n t h e cas e ? By n o m e a n s That which .

is e m pirica ll y fu r n ish e d us is sim p l y an d alo n e ou r visual s e n sa

tio n tr e e i e m e r e ly a p syc h ical pr o c e ss We o n l y e m ploy th is
, ,
. . .

s e n satio n i n a v e ry r e markabl e way by c o n st r ucti n g an id e a of t i re

ob j ect tr e e as t h e caus e of o u r se n sa t i o n t re e T h e sam e i s t r u e o f.

all obj e cts o f t h e e xt e r n al wo r ld I n eve ry c as e we hav e o n ly t h e

.

psych ical s e ri e s of s e n satio n s an d th e i r id e as We o n ly adopt a .

u n iv e r sal hypoth e sis wh e n we assum e that a m at e r ial s e ri e s

,

e xists i n a casual r e l atio n t o t h e psych ical s e r i e s E pist e m ology .

an d m e taphys ics i n so fa r as th e r e is such a sci e n c e m ust d e ci d e

, ,

as to t h e j ustic e o f this hypoth e sis Th e p ropositio n its e lf tha t

.
,

t h e m at e ri al an d psych ica l s e r i e s o f ph e n om e n a ar e n o t e qual l y

d i re c t an d prima ry as factors i n cog n iti o n c o n tai n s all th at is o f ,

im po r ta n c e t o us h e re We ar e o n ly di r e ctly an d e m pirically
.

fur n ish e d with t h e psych ical s e r i e s of ph e n om e n a ; t h e oth e r

s e ri e s is sim ply i n fe r r e d T h e m at e r ial s e ri e s may b e r e ga r d e d as
.

an id e a that we h av e abst r act e d fr om o ur s e n sati o n s an d th e ir

id e as M o d e r n physic s h a r m o n iz e s w e ll wi th this vi e w
. U lti .

m at e ly n o th i n g o f t h e so -cal l e d m att e r is l e ft to t h e n atu ral

sci e n tist but i n fi n it e sim al p o i n t s i n spac e t ha t ar e co n c e iv e d o f,

as possibl e c e n t r e s o f pow e r i e tha t c an e ffe c t s e n sati o n s This

,
. . .

so - call e d m att e r apa r t from its hyp oth e tical causal r e latio n t o t h e
,

s e n satio n s i s oth e r wis e an e n ti re ly u n k n ow n e l e m e n t N ow t h e

, .
2 76 I n t r o du c t i o n to P nys i o log i cal P sycno log y .

sam e th i n g is t ru e o f t h e m at e r ial c o r tical proc e sse s that i s t r u e

of al l m at e r ia l pro c e ss e s Th e y ar e also m e re ly i n fe r r e d an d n o t
.
,

p r imary e m pirica l data as ar e t h e psych ical p r oc e ss e s S tr ictly

, , .

sp e aki n g we arriv e a t t h e i n fe r e n c e of a m at e r ial s e ri e s of ph e n o

,

m e n a as fo ll ows : We hav e n um e r ous s e n sati o n s an d by m e a n s ,

of th e s e we acqu ire id e as we th e n ass u me e xt e r n a l o bj e cts as t h e

ca u s e s o f th e s e s e n satio n s an d id e as Am o n g o u r s e n satio n s ar e .

also thos e wi th which we h av e m e t i n o u r a n at o mical an d phys i

o l ogical i n v e stigatio n s o f t h e c e r e b ral cort e x H e r e t h e sa m e as .
,

i n t h e cas e o f al l s e n satio n s we also assum e tha t a m at e rial caus e

, ,

t h e c e r e b r a l c o rt e x p roduc e s t h e s e n satio n s wh ich we h av e i n

,

s e e i n g an d i n v e stigati n g t h e sam e Fu r th e r r e s e a rch sh ows that

.

j ust t h e s e m at e r ial co r tical p r oc e ss e s also h av e a v e ry sp e cia l

re latio n to all psych ical proc e ss e s tha t i n fac t t he form e r n e v e r , ,

o ccu r w ithout t h e l att e r n o r t h e lat t e r wi th o u t t h e fo rm e r

,
Em .

pi r i c al psycho l ogy do e s n o t n e e d t o occupy i ts e l f wi th a furth e r

s o lutio n o f this com p l icat e d p r obl e m E v e ry att e m pt to r e ach .

a com pl e t e s o l u t io n would n e c e ssitat e i ts d e partur e fr om e mpi r i

cal grou n ds I t th e re fore r e l e gat e s t h e furth e r ha n dli n g of t h e
.

p r obl e m i n so far as i t i s capa b l e o f an y solu tio n what e v e r to a ,

possibl e m e taphysics o r t o e pis t e m ology O n t h e oth e r ha n d

, .
,

o u r sc i e n c e m ust d e p e n d so m uch t h e m or e up o n t h e e m pirical

fac t i ts e lf that pr imarily we hav e o n ly psychical data an d n oth in g

, ,

outsid e of o r b e yo n d th e s e Thus far psych o logy r e m ai n s with i n

.

t h e bou n ds o f n atu r al sci e n c e an d i s q u i t e tru e to i ts e mpirica l

,

charact e r . I t is of i n t e r e st tha t i n this la s t p r o positio n o u r

sci e n c e sta n ds i n t h e cl o s e st harmo n y wi th t h e fo u n d e r of t h e
c r it ical ph ilo s o phy Ka n t Lock e B e rk e l e y an d Hum e had pr e
, .
, ,

par e d t h e way fo r t h e g r e a t trut h wh ich Ka n t fi n a l ly e xpr e ss e d ,

that p rimarily we hav e o n l y t h e psych ical s e ri e s t h e s e ri e s o f ,

app e ara n c e s o r ph e n om e n a as h e call e d th e m Th e h ypo t h e t

“
,
.

ica l caus e of t h e ph e n om e n a o r o f t h e psych ical s e r i e s i s

“ ” “ ”
, ,

( )
r m e r e ly i n fe rr e d an d 2
( ) a facto r o f which we k n ow absolu t e l y
,

n oth i n g
.

Thu s t h e psychophysical dualism o r pa r all e l ism fi n ally pr ov e s

to be o n ly a s e mbla n c e .
 I N DE X .

Act i n osp/z a r i u m , r e fl x a ti f e c on o , 8 . 19 di t i gui h d fr s n s e o m re fl ex

Ac t i o n , c o n trast e d wit h r fl x e e an d a ti
c 3 ; x am pl
on , 1 f e es o , 1 3, 1 -
5 18 ;
aut o mat i c act i o n 2 2—2 5 3 1 de f , ,
.
,
a at mi a l l ali at i
n o c oc z on o f, 3 5, 3 6 .

2 43 ; n at u r e an d d e v e l o pm e n t o f ,

2 43 —2 49 ; fo rms an d k i n d s o f ,
B ai n , f o o no es t t on pag e s 1 52 , 1 82,

2 49 2 58 — . 2 71 .

Afl -
i i n ag es , 1 42
er . B e at s , de f . o f, 138 .

Af t e r -
se ns at i o n s , 1 8 9 . B e clz te r e w, 2 63 , fo o no e t t .

A m n es i a, o f so m n a pro c e sse s, il 23 8 ; B e n edi ct , 2 26 .

f ll
o o wi n g t h e ypn o t c c o n h i di t i on, B en elve , 1 52 , f o o no e t t .

24 1 . B e r keley, 2 76 .

A nz a bce , ’
ne rvo u s pr o ce sse s o f , 6. B e r n /z e i m , on h yp t i m 4 no s ,
2 0.

A n z n z i s t i c t /z eo f y ,
’

se e Tli e o r i e s, etc . B i ede r m an n , on di cri m i at iv

s n e se n si

Appe r cept i o n , no s
pe c i al fa ul ty f c o , bili t y, 71 .

18 4 ; arg um e n t s agai t W dt ns un
’
s B i n s wan g er , 2 4 1 an d 263 , f t t
o o no es .

i
as su m pt o n o f, 20 3 , 20 4 B le ule r , 2 26

Mg
. .

A r o n so nn , 65, fo o tn o t e .
'

B lz x , a n u s , o n s pe c ifi c e n e rgy ,
65 .

A ssoc i at i v e r e lat i o n s / n } ,
de f . o f, 2 1 2, B r ai n ,
”
65, f t t
o o no e .

f o o no e.t t B r en t a n o , on i n te rpre tat i o n o r

Asso c i at i o n , de f o f, 2 4 ; o f . e as , id W e be rsL ’
aw, 52 53 , .

1 72— 1 89 ; l
aws o f, 1 73 ; as re c o g B r idg m an , L au r a, 2 63 .

n i t i o n , 1 73 —1 78 ; c e aw o f, 1 78 ; hi f l B r o ca, co n v l ti o u on o f, 2 59 .

f
o r m s o f, 1 78 -1 8 3 ; p ys o o g ca h il i l B r o d/ mu , 5 f t
1 1 , oo no e t ; on di s c r i mi
i
b as s o f, 1 73 — 1 76, 1 79 , 1 8 0 ; as n ati v e se n s i b ili ty9 1 1

c o ce , 1 8 3 —
.
,

h i 1 8 8 ; rap ty o f, 1 9 0 idi B u bn oj
’

a n d H e i den lz e i m , 24 1 , f
oo t
1 98 as j g m e n tud 1 8 —
9 20 1 o t e r h no e t
o r m s o f, 2 0 1 —
, .

f 222 . Byr o n , L o r d, 2 3 1 .

At t en t i o n , de f o f, 20 6 ; as . ire c t e d d
t o s e n sat o n s an d i e a s, 2 0 6—2 1 5 id . C a me r er , 64, o o t n o t e f .

Au di t i o n co lo r c‘e , 22 5 . C a r dan u s , 2 3 1 .

-
A n a back, 1 1 , o o t n o t e f . C a tt ell, co u n ti n g se n sat i o n s 1 45
on ,

Au t o mat i c A ct i o n , e ne , 1 3 , 1 4 dfi d o n re act i o n -
ti me 2 55 , .

non -
psyc h ica l c h ara t c e r o f, 1 4, 1 8, C esca o n u n co n sc i o us psyc hi cal co n
,
!
 I n dex . 2 79

di t i O n s , 5, f t t
o o no e ; al so 1 3 2, f
oo t Du ch e n n e , on mo v e me n s o f e t x pr es

i
s o n , 2 60 .

C li a r cot , 1 55, f t t
o o n o e.

E be r t , 1 20 , f oo no e t t .

C li o r d, de f o f, 1 3 7, f oo no e t t E cce n t r i c pr oj ect i o n 97
—
. . .
,

C a le n t e r at a , 6 . Eg o , 2 1 6 21 9 .

C o ld-
s ots,
p on the s ki n, 68 . E n z m i n g /z a u s, on d ub l o e co n sc i o us
C o lo u r , 1 03 —1 1 2 . n e ss, 23 9 , f
oo tn o t e o n m e m o ry ,

C o lo u r -
bli n dn ess , 1 14 . 22 1 , 22 2 .

C o mp ulso ry i dea s, 2 3 4, 2 3 5 . E mpi r i cal psych o logy , 1

C o n cept i o n , f rmat i
o on o f, 1 54 —1 60 E n er gy , o f t h e e , 1 71 id a .

se n s u al or co n cre te 1 61 ; ge n e ral ,
E n g e lma n n , o n re ac ti o n , 16 .

co n c re te ,
1 63 ; ab strac t 1 65 , . E n t opt i c st i mu li , 230 —2 3 3 .

C o n clu s i o n , 2 0 1 , 20 2 . E n t o t i c s t i m u li , 230 23 3 .

C o n scio u s ac t i o n , se e Act i o n . E r dn i an n , 1 76, f t n o te

oo .

C o n sc i o us n ess , de f . o f. 29 , f o o no e t t .
E u le n bu r g , 74, f
o o tn o te .

C o n sc i o u s plz en o r nen a , 26 . E x c i t at i o n , de f . o f, 8 se e a l so S t i ma
la t i o n
'

C o n t i gu i ty , 1 8 2, 1 83 .
.

C or t i , o rgan o f, 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 7, f o o no e , t t E x n e r , 64, 1 2 6, fo o t n o t e .

1 12 .

C r i t i cal t /z e o ry , se e T/zeo r i es , e tc . F ec/i n c r , on t he a pp l icat i o n o f

W e be rs ’
L aw, 51 , 9 7, 1 1 9 ; o n t he
“
go ld
ct i o n 1 40 1 4 1 an d
en se , , ,

Dani 64 o o t n o t e
, ,
f . fo o t n o te ; o n audi t i o n c o lo ré c 2 26 ; ,

Da n i/ i n o n n e r t e i h i d act s 1 7 2 1 6 o n h alluci n at i o n s 23 1 h is fu n d a ,
, , , ,

f t t
o o no e on i n t e rpre tati o n o f m e n tal fo r mul a 52 an d fo o t n o t e , , .

m o t i o n s o f e x pre ss i o n 260 , .
F ee li g nde f o f 6 1 , fo o t n o te se e .
, ,

Da w i n i s m appli e d t o t h e t h e o ry o f
r
,
S e n sat i o n .

t h e o ri g i n o f l an guage 2 62 F i sc/z e r f tn o te
’
.
an d P e n z o lat , 65, oo .
,

De lba uf o n i n t e rpre tat i o n o f We be r s

,
’
Flag ella t a , re fl e x a c t i o n o f, 8 .

L aw , 59 . F lee / mg, 3 2 an d 1 2 6, f o o n o e s. t t
Deli ber at i o n , se e P lay o
f mo t i ves .
Fli gfz t of i de as , 1 9 6 .

Delu s i ve i de a s , 2 3 4, 2 3 5 .
Fo r d , 3 2 , f o o no e . t t
Desso i r , 24 1 , f oo tn o t e . Fr a n z , 8 9 .

Di e/l an d 71 . Vi n t sc/zg a n , 2 56, f

oo t F r i edr z c/z ,
’

on t i me
re acti o n - , 2 55 .

no te .

Di scr i mi n at i v e se n s i bi li ty, 71 , 72 , 9 3 , G a lt o n , on rapi d ity o f asso ciati o n

an d f oo no e. t t 1 92 .
,

Di scer n me n t -
t i me , or di st i n c t i o n t i m e , ~
G eo r g e , 1 39 .

2 55 .
G e n /i n x , dual i tic th
ry o f 2 71 s eo , .

Di s t i n ct n ess o f t h e i e a 1 71 , d , . G i r a n a ea u 2 2 6 fo o t n o t e
'

, ,

di i i iv
.

Do /z r n o n t h e , sc r m n at e se ns i G lads t o n e o n co l o u r - b li n d n e ss o f
, th e
bi li t y, 71 .
an c i e n t G re e k s 1 1 4 , .

Dr eams , 2 3 6—23 9 .
G oe t /z e o n co l o u r 1 3 9
, , .

Dr o bi sc/z , on the co l o u r -scal e , 1 04 .

G o lsc/z e ider fo o tn o te s o n pag e s , 38,
 40 , 74, 75, 1 3 4 o n ge n e a ra l se n se I de a (me n ta mage o r i mage o f l i
of f li
e e n g , 68 o n se n s ati o n s o f m e m o ry) 24, 2 5 o f mo t o n 26 ;
, i ,

ti
m o o n , 69 an d 74 . u se o f te rm , 1 51 , f o o no e t t fo r
G o lg i , 3 2 , 1 2 5, o o n o e s t t f . m at i on atu re o f 1 51 1 52 ;
an d n , ,

G o lt z , o n r e fl e x m o ti o n s o f t h e fro g p h y s i o l o g i ca l b a i f —
, s s o 1 5 1 54
2 ,

12 ; o n au t o matic m o v e me n t s 1 4 , ,
o f art i cul at i o n 1 58 1 59 o f a wo rd , ,

1 5 a l so fo o tn o t e s o n page s 1 2 1 3 as h e ard 1 59 1 60 ; i ma i n at iv e
, , ,
g ,

q ual iti e s o f 1 67—

,

14 . 1 66 ; 1 69 ; de ,

G o wer s , t t 259 , f o o no e . s tru c t i o n o f 1 71 , .

G r aslz ey 2 60 fo o t n o t e
, , . I deali s m , se e Tlz e o r i es , e t c.

G r ie s i n ge r 23 9 fo o t n o t e , , . I llu s i o n s, 23 2 , 2 3 3 .

G r o upi ng o f l at e n t i d e as , , 1 86 . [ n co lz e r e n t t lz o ug /z t , 1 98 .

G u st a t o ry bu lbs , fl asks , o r len o bs , 62 .

j ea n P a u l, 23 1 .

o b n so n
j , 23 1 .

H ag en , 2 3 1 , o o t n o t e f .
j ud
g me n t , 1 98 —20 1 .

H a llu ci n a t i o n s , 2 2 7—23 2 .

H a m i lt o n , 5, f oo no e t t . l r a/z lbau m ,
’
on halluci at i n o n s, 2 28

H ear i n g , s e e S e n sa t i o n s o
f H e ar i ng .
al so 23 1 , f o ot n o te .

H ea t -
s ot s ,
p 68 . K a n di n sky , 23 1 , fo o no t te .

H e lmh o lt z , on Wb e e r s L aw 53 ; o n
’

,
K an t , on th e sc e n c e oi f psyc hl o o
gy,
t i mb r e , 94 ; on s e n sat i o n s o f s i g h t , 3 ri t i cal phil o so ph y
on the c , 2 76 .

1 04 . 1 1 3. 1 3 7. 1 3 8. 1 40 . [ ( olli be r 1 3 5 fo o t n o te , , .

ati o n s 2 3 1 h allu i K o n i g o n di sc r i m i n at iv e se n si b ili ty

’

H e n le , o n c n , . , ,

H e r ba t h i s mat h e matical c o m pu ta
r , 1 19 .

t i o n s as appli e d t o psyc h o l o gy 1 8 7 , ,
lr on /g
' '

an d Di e t e r zc i , 1 1 5, f
oo tn o t e .

1 88 Al so fo o tn o t e s o n page s 8 0
.
,
’

p r oz r e a
eli n
c ti o n -
ti m e 2 56 257
, on , ,

1 58 , 1 76 , 1 78 , 20 1 , 2 71 . al so 2 3 1 fo o t n o t e , .

h is l aw al o ri c afi - E bi n g 2 3 9 fo o t n o t e
’

H er i n g ,
56, 57 ;
'

on c za , ,
, .

st i mul at i o n 68 o n s i gh t 1 1 3 1 2 2 ; , , ,
K au s e o n t h e r e gi o O l fac t o ria 64
r , , .

al so fo o tn o t e s o n page s 58 75 2 2 1 Ai lpe 1 3 2 fo o t n o t e
’
i , , .
, , .

H e r ma n n 3 9 fo o t n o t e , , .

H ipp hi s c h ro n o sc o pe 2 50 L asso c i ati o n 2 7 2 8 ; o n

, , . an
g e, L , on

1 4 7 fo o t n o t e
, ,

H of m a n n E T A ,
' . . .
, , .
d rat i o n o f
u se n sat i o n 1 42 ; o n r e
H og a t li s cu r v e o f b e au ty 1 4 1
,

ac t i o n -t i m e 2 50 an d fo o t n o t e
’
r .
, ,

H o n igsclz m i e d o n r e act i o n -
t i me 2 51
, .

, , .
L a n g ley , 1 20 , fo o t n o te
H oppe o n h ypn ago g i c h all uc i n at i o n s
.

a n d fo o t n o t e s o n
, , L az a r us , 2 3 6,
pag e s
23 1 2 3 2 ; al so 2 3 2 fo o t n o t e
, , .
23 1 an d 2 62
H o r w ic z 1 3 2 fo o t n o t e
.

, , .
L e lz ma n n , t t 1 77, 2 2 6, f
o o no e
H u ber 2 2 1 fo o t n o te
.

, ,
.
L e i bn i t z h i s d ua li s tic th e o ry 2 71
,

H u m e o n i d eas 1 51 1 52 pre d e
, .

L e idesa o rj ; 2 2 8 fo o t n o t e
’
, as , ,
, .

c e sso r o f Ka n t 2 76 , .
L e wes fo o t n o t e s o n page s 5 an d 1 0
, .

i lya r a, 6 L i c/z t lz ei m 2 60 fo o t n o t e
’
.
, , .

n /z t d is ti n gu i s h e d
H ypn agog i c lz allu c i t m t i o n s , 23 1 , 23 2 .
L gi z t n ess
/ o r , ,

H ypn o t i s m , 23 9 —242 .
fro m whi te 1 0 7 1 0 8 , , .
o 0 (0
t
0
I n der .

P hys i o logi c al psych o /ob r e l ati o n to S el a

]; on se n s at i o n s o f t o u ch an d

pro vi n ce ai
—3
p yc h o l o gy
s , 1 o f, p n, 1 35 .

2 2 25 - . S ch r oe de r vo n de r Kath , 1 55, f
tn o te
oo .

P hys i o logi cal t i me , se e S i mple v. S ch u be r t -

S o lde r n , 2 73 , fo o t n o te .

ac t i o n -
t i me . S ch u le , 2 39, f t t
o o no e.

P i t ch , 90 . S c h u ma n n , 23 1 .

\Ve b e r L aw,
’
P lat e au , on s 52 , 53 , S eco n da ry se n s a t i o n s , s e e S en sat i o n .

97 al s o fo o no e, t t 59 . S e le ct zbn -
t i me , 2 55 .

pro duc ti o n
—24 ;
'

P lat o , 1 52 . S e n sat i o n , o f, 23

P ope , 23 1 .
pro pe rt i e s f, 4 3 -44,
o 1 29 ; i mt en

P o t e r i o den dr o n , 6 . si t y o f, —
44 49 ; L aw o f \Ve b e r,
P r e ss u r e s -
po ts ,
67, 8 2 .
-
49 60 ; q ali ty
u o f a, 6 1ch i e f five
P r eye r , on t h e O ph i u r ae , 1 5; f
oo t g ro u ps o f, 6 1 ; t i m e ch ara c t e ri s t i c s
t e s o n page s 9 9 2 4 1 263
no , ,
. o f, 141 —1 45 ; se co n d ary 2 23 — 2 26 , .

P r o ce sses m ate ri al 2 ; n e r v o u s 1 0
, , , , S e n sa t i o n -
c i r c les , de f o f, 8 2 ; s i g n i
—
.

3 3 6 ; phys i o l o gi cal 2 ; psy c h o

1 , fic an c e an d ch arac t e r i t i c s s o f, 8 2—83 .

p h y s i o l o gical 2 1 2 2 29 , , , . S e n sat i o n s off eeli n g , e e dvl t of

o pm e n ,

P r oj ect i o n e c ce n tr i c 77 , ,
. i l i
66 s t m u at o n o f, 66 n u mbe r o f

P r o t i st a , 7 . q ali t i
u f, 66, 67 ;
es o c o rt i ca l ce n tre

P sych i ca l ph e n o me n a , 4—6 . o f, 68 ; o rgan c , 68 i .

P sych o logy, as a ci s e n ce , 3 . S e n sat i o n s of h e ar i n g , s t m at o n o f, i ul i

phys i cs pro v i n ce
P sych o - ,
o f, 3 .
8 5-8 8 ; o rgan o f, 8 8- 90 ; a ty q u li
o f, 9 95;
0 — n t e n s ty o f,
-
95 97 i i
R adi at i o n , 2 24 . t i m e as an e l e m e n t o f, 9 3 —94
R a m o n y C aj a l, 1 3 5, foo no e. t t l o caliz at i o n o f 9 7—1 00 , .

R eact i o n , m usc ular ,

2 50 ; se n s o rial , Se f
ns a t i o n s o f, 6
m o t i o n , de f
9 . o

2 50 .
p a s s i e a v
n d ac t e ,
69 , 70 ; 2 4 6 iv .

R ea ct i o n -
t i m e, —2 53 si m pl e 2 49 ,
1 93 , S en s at i o n s of po s i t i o n , de f o f, 68 , 69 . .

R ecog n i t i o n 1 73 — 1 76 ,
.
S e n sat i o n s o
f pr es s u r e 71 72 , , , 73 .

t i m e 2 54—
R e cog n i t i o n - 2 57 ,
.
S e n sa t i o n s of s i gh t 1 0 1—1 28 ,
st im u

R e i n h a r d, 1 55 , foo no e t t . l ati on o f, 1 01 o rga n o f, 101 -1 0 3

R efl ec t i o n , 3 1 . q u ali t i e s o f , 103 —1 1 6 ; i n t e n s i ty o f,
R efl e x ac t i o n , de f at u re an d . o f, 7 ; n 1 1 6 1 20 ; -arran ge m e n t an d l o ca li
d e ve l o pm e n t o f 7—1 3 ; as i n st i n ct , , z at i o n o f 1 20 — 1 2 6 ; co rre c t n e s s o f
, ,

17 , 18 ; an at o m ica l l o cali z at i o n , 1 2 6- 1 28 ; n at ivi s tic an d g e n e t i c

—
3 4 36 t h e o r i e s o f 1 22 , .

Repr o du ct i o n o f i deas , de f . o f, 1 72 .
S e n s t i o n s of s m e ll 64 ; q uali ti e s o f
a , ,

R i bo t , 2 3 9 , 2 68 , f oo tn o te s .
64— 65 ; o rgan o f 65 ; s t i m u l at i o n ,

R i ch e t , 1 3 4, f oo tn o te .
o f 65 ; i n t e n s i ty o f
,
65 ; l o c a li z a ,

de R o ch as , 2 26, fo o t n o te . t i o n o f 65 66 , , .

R o m a n es , on the M du e sa
e , 6 .
S e n sa t i o n s of t ast e 62 ; s t i mul ati o n ,

R o m a n es an d E w ar t , on s tar fi sh ,
15 .
o f 62 ; q u ali t i e s o f 62 ; o r g an o f
, , ,

62 63 ; ge n e ra l ch aract e r i s ti cs o f
,

S ain t, 23 9 , f
o o no e t t . 63 , 64 .

S an de r s -
Em, 1 1, f oo tn o t e . S e n sat i o n s o f t e mpe r at u r e (o f co ld an d
 I n dex . 28 3

o f h
t ) st i mu l at i o n
ea , o f, 66, 67, 68 ; Sp i
a s 2 72 ; spiri tual i st i c
no z
’
, ,
2 72

i n t e n si ty o f 74 75 , , . m at e rial i st i c 2 72 o f id e n t i ty , ,
2 73

S en sa t i o n s f
o t o u ch , o rgan o f, 66 cr i t i cal 2 73 —2 77 , .

se e al so S e sat i o n s Of n
pr essu r e ; of T/z o m se n an d Tu m /i r z , on th e me a
ac t iv e to u c h de f 70 ,
.
, . su e m e n r t o f v i s v i va, 45 .

S e n so r i al r e act i o n , se e R eact i o n . Tlz o ug lz t , t h e di t i t i s nc on of vl o un tary

S i mple r eact o n i -
t i me ,
1 93 . an d i vln o un t ary ,
21 —
5 219 .

S leep, p s o o g hy i l i al ba i f 3 6 c s s o , 2 . Ti e ck, 23 1 .

S o u l, i n t h e s pi n al c rd P fl ii g o ,
e r, 10 . Ti ede m a n n , on the mo v e me n s t o f
S o u n d, 8 5—88 m u i cal 8 6 8 7 3 7 s , , , 1 s tar -
fs , 1 ih 5 .

n o se ,i 8 6, 8 7 . Ti m or e , 9 4 .

S pac e -
pe r cept i o n , by to uch -8
77 4 To n e , de f o f, 8 6
—1 4 1
.

—1 2 8
.
,

by s g i ht , 1 21 . To n e ff
o e e li n g , 1 29 , 1 45 1 — 50 .

S pec ific e n e r gy , o f se n so ry ne rv e s , To n e /z , di t i t i s nc on twe e n act iv e a n d

be

pass iv 7 f e, 0, o o tn o te .

S pe n ce r , 2 71 , f oo t n o te . Tr au t sc lz o ldt , o n ra i di ty o f as s o c i a
p o

S pi n ello A r e t i n i , t h e p ai n ti n g of h is tio n , 1 92 —1 93 .

M ad o nn as , 23 1 .

S pi n o z a , s ub e c j t to h allu c n i at i o n s ,
Ug /i ct t i , co n d ary s e n satio n s
o n se , 2 25 .

23 1 h i s mo n i s m, 2 72 ; al so 2 69 , m1 1 5 fo o t n o te
(f li t /t o , .

f oo tn o t e . Ur ba n t sc /z i t sc/z 2 2 4 fo o t n o t e , , .

S pi r i t u a li s t i c t /z eo ry, se e Tlz e o r i e s , e t c.

S po n t a n eo u s mo t i o n s , de f . o f, 3 6 . Ve n aole , on s t i m ul ati o n by st r
yc h o

S t a r ke , 9 6, f oo tn o te . n nei , 63 .

S t ei n a c/t , o n r e acti o n -t i m e , 2 51 . Ve r wo r n , Pro t i sta 8 on the , .

S t e i n br z cgg e , 2 2 6 fo o t n o t e Vi er o r dt o n c al o ri c s t i m u l at i o n 68
’

.
, , , .

S t ei n t /z a l, 2 62 an d 2 71 , f oo tn o t e s . Vi br at i o n s sy m pat h e t i c 1 62 , , .

S t at e o f fice/i n g ,
de f . o f, 2 56 . Vi n t sc/zg a u o n m e ch a n i ca l an d t h e r
,

S t i mu lu s , ki d n s o f, 3 7—40 ; o f tast e ,
m i c s t i m u l at i o n 2 51 ; a l so fo o t ,

62 o fsm ll e ,
65 ; o f t o uc h ,
n o te .

o f h ari e ng, 8 5—88 ; o f s ig h t ,

101 Vo lu n t ary act i o n s , de f . o f, 28 ; se e

1 12 a l so A ct i o n s
—
. .

S t i n t a la t i o n , 40 43 Vu lpi a n , on re fl e x m o ti o n , 12 ; al so
S t r ass bu r g e r , o n p h o o t ta x is , 1 2 4. 1 5, f oo tn o te .

S uc ce ss i ve co n t r a s t , 1 89 .

S u mma t i o n -
t o n es , 1 3 8. Wan/e , on the
“
g ro p n g u i of l at en t
S y/npat /z e t i c v i br at i o n s , 1 62 . id e as ,
187 .

Wai t s , 2 73 , f oo tn o te .

Te mpe r at u r e -
s o t s , se e H
p e at a n d C o ld lVe oe r , E . o n c a l o r i c s t i mul ati o n ,

68 .

Tlz eor i e s as to t il e p ar alle li s m o f We be r ’

s L aw, 50 53 Fe c lm e r
’
s i n te r ;

m at e r ial
p y c hi ca l ph e n o m e n a
an d s
, pr e t at i o n , 53 , 54 ; P fe fie r s , 54, 55 ;
'
’

2 71 — 2 77 ; t h e d ua li s t i c
( L e i bn i t z Wu n dt s , 55 ; Zi e h c n s , 55—
’ ’

59 ; fo r
G e u li n x) 2 71 —2 72 , an i m i s t i c se n s b i ili
ty o f s n 71 fo r e ar n g, ki , h i
( W u n d t ) 2 72 ; m o n i st ic 2 72 2 73 ;
, , , 96 ; fo r s i gh t ,
1 1 8 , 1 28 ; fo r se n s i
2 84 I n dex .

b ili t y t o di ff r e en ce s in t i me , 1 43 , Wu n dt , on t he rgy o f
spe c ific ene

1 44 . se n so ry n e r ve s 40 fo o t n o te ; o n
, ,

I Velt , L 20 4 , f oo t n o te t h e m e t h o d o f av e rage ra d at i
,
.
g o ns ,

We r n i cke , f t t
o o n o e s, 1 61 an d 2 60 .
59 o n l o we s t t o n e s 9 0 fo o t n o t e , ,

[Vi /br a n d, on h em ian o ps i a , 1 0 5, 1 55, on a ppe rce pti o n , 20 3 2 04 ; h is ,

f t t
o o no e . ch ro n o gra ph 2 50 ; o n re ac ti o n
,

—
,

lVi /l, 2 65 2 71 t h e o ry o f 2 8
; the , , 2 50 , fo o tn o t e ; as ch a mpio n o f
2 65—267 as vi e w e d by psychi atry , an i m i s m 2 72 ; al so 2 57 an d
,

2 67 268 ; w h e n c e t h e id e a o f t h e
, , fo o tn o te s .

28 29
, 2 68 ,as re l at e d t o e t hi cs ,

2 69, 2 70 .
Zi e lt e n , 2 64 , fo o t n o t e .

22 1 , foo no et t . Zu cl e r lea n dl, 65,

’
f t t
o o no e .

B ut l
er 8: T an n e r . l
Th e S e wo o d P rin t in g Wo rks , F ro me . an d L o n do n .