Mechanics Module 2021

Bachelor of Schience in Marine
Engineering
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Module Topics Coverage

1 STATICS 1st Prelim
2 MOMENT OF FORCE 2nd Prelim
3 DYNAMICS Midterm
4 VELOCITY AS A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION Semi-Final
5 WITH THE AID OF SKETCHES, A HYDRAULIC LIFTING MACHINE Final
Grading System
Grade Equivalent Interpretation
1.0 95-100%
1.1 94% Excellent
1.2 93%
1.3 92%
1.4 91% Very Good
1.5 90%
1.6 89% Good
1.7 88%
1.8 87%
1.9 86%
2.0 85%
2.1 84% Fair
2.2 83%
2.3 82%
2.4 81%
2.5 80%
2.6 79% Fair
2.7 78%
2.8 77%
2.9 76%
3.0 75% Passed
5.0 below 75% Failed
Dr Dropped Dropped
This course shall adopt this grade distribution guide as follows:

Quizzes, Assignment – 30%
Oral Recitation, Portfolio, – 30%
Examination/Major Quiz – 40%
100%
MODULE 1
Topic: STATICS
After this lesson, students must be able to:
1 Describe Statics
1.1 Explain Scalar and Vector Quantities
1.1.1 Define scalar and vector quantities, giving examples, e.g. mass and weight
1.1.2 Define force
1.1.3 Show force as a graphic representation
1.2 State triangle law and parallelogram law to obtain resultant force
1.2.1 Use the parallelogram of forces to obtain the resultant of two forces acting as a common point
1.3. Describe equilibrium of Force system and Coplanar force system
1.3.1 State the principle of equilibrium
1.3.2 Define the equilibrant
1.3.3 State the necessary conditions for three forces to be in equilibrium
1.3.4 Define the triangle of forces
1.3.5 Describe the polygon of forces
1.3.6 Define the condition for equilibrium in the polygon of forces
1.3.7 Describe the net effect of a n number of forces acting at a common point as the resultant
Overview
Mechanics (Greek: μηχανική) is the area of physics concerned with the motions of physical objects, more
specifically the relationships among force, matter, and motion. Forces applied to objects result
in displacements, or changes of an object's position relative to its
environment. This branch of physics has its origins in Ancient Greece with
the writings of Aristotle and Archimedes (see History of classical
mechanics and Timeline of classical mechanics). During the early modern
period, scientists such as Galileo, Kepler, and Newton laid the foundation
for what is now known as classical mechanics. It is a branch of classical
physics that deals with particles that are either at rest or are moving with
velocities significantly less than the speed of light. It can also be defined as a branch of science which deals
with the motion of and forces on bodies not in the quantum realm. The field is today less widely understood in
terms of quantum theory.
Hydromechanics deals with the basic laws and mechanical concepts of "dry" water, i.e. without viscosity, and
practical implications for the most important tasks of a coastal engineer.
In hydrostatics the understanding of the basic law under consideration of gravitational and other accelerations
is taught. Afterwards the students will be enabled to use the implication of the
basic law and its applications for the calculation of hydrostatic forces on areas
of arbitrary form, and to establish floatability and flotation stability of solid
bodies.
In hydrodynamics the conservation of mass, energy and moments for "dry"
water is focused on together with their combined applications to solve complex
flow problems.
Later the definition of viscosity adapted from Newton's law of viscosity will be explained. The dramatic
implications of the viscosity on the flow will be demonstrated so that students will be able to distinguish
between the two concepts of "dry" and "wet" water. Furthermore, the students will understand the concept
of the boundary layer of Prandtl as a kind of "golden bridge" between the old concept (ideal fluids) and the
new concept (real fluids). The complexity of considering friction and the limits of theoretical descriptions will
be explained using the example of laminar closed-conduit pipe flow, laminar groundwater flow, and turbulent
pressure pipe and open channel flow.
1 STATICS
Fluid Statics and Fluid Dynamics form the two constituents of Fluid Mechanics. Fluid Statics deals with fluids at
rest while Fluid Dynamics studies fluids in motion. In this chapter we discuss
Fluid Statics. A fluid at rest has no shear stress. Consequently, any force
developed is only due to normal stresses i.e, pressure. Such a condition is
termed the hydrostatic condition. In fact, the analysis of hydrostatic systems
is greatly simplified when compared to that for fluids in motion.
Though fluid in motion gives rise to many interesting phenomena, fluid at rest
is by no means less important. Its importance becomes apparent when we
note that the atmosphere around us can be considered to be at rest and so are the oceans. The simple theory
developed here finds its application in determining pressures at different levels of atmosphere and in many
pressure-measuring devices. Further, the theory is employed to calculate force on submerged objects such as
ships, parts of ships and submarines. The other application of the theory is in the calculation of forces on dams
and other hydraulic systems.
1.1 EXPLAIN SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Physics is a mathematical science. The underlying concepts and principles have a mathematical basis.
Throughout the course of our study of physics, we will encounter a variety of concepts that have a
mathematical basis associated with them. While our emphasis will often be upon the conceptual nature of
physics, we will give considerable and persistent attention to its mathematical aspect.
The motion of objects can be described by words. Even a person without a background in physics has a
collection of words that can be used to describe moving objects. Words and phrases such as going
fast, stopped, slowing down, speeding up, and turning provide a sufficient vocabulary for describing the
motion of objects. In physics, we use these words and many more. We will be expanding upon this vocabulary
list with words such as distance, displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration. As we will soon see, these
words are associated with mathematical quantities that have strict definitions. The mathematical quantities
that are used to describe the motion of objects can be divided into two categories. The quantity is either a
vector or a scalar. These two categories can be distinguished from one another by their distinct definitions:
Scalars are quantities that are fully described by a magnitude (or numerical value) alone.
Vectors are quantities that are fully described by both a magnitude and a direction.
The remainder of this lesson will focus on several examples of vector and scalar quantities (distance,
displacement, speed, velocity, and acceleration). As you proceed through the lesson, give careful attention to
the vector and scalar nature of each quantity. As we proceed through other units at The Physics Classroom
Tutorial and become introduced to new mathematical quantities, the discussion will often begin by identifying
the new quantity as being either a vector or a scalar.
1.1.1 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES, GIVING EXAMPLES, E.G. MASS AND WEIGHT
Scalar quantities are defined by a magnitude with no applicable direction. In contrast, vector quantities must
have both magnitude and direction of action. Some common scalar quantities are distance, speed, mass, and
time. Some common vector quantities are force, velocity, displacement, and acceleration.
Understanding the difference between scalar and vector quantities is an important first step in physics. The main
difference in their definitions is:
• Scalar is the measurement of a unit strictly in magnitude.
•Vector is a measurement that refers to both the magnitude of the unit and the direction of the movement the
unit has taken.
In other words, scalar quantity has magnitude, such as size or length, but no particular direction. When it does
have a particular direction, it's a vector quantity.
Examples of Scalar Quantities

Scalar quantities, as stated above, are the measurements that strictly refer to the magnitude of the medium.
There are absolutely no directional components in a scalar quantity — only the magnitude of the medium.
Explore 10 scalar quantity examples.
• Area
If you are measuring the surface area of a piece of land or a two-dimensional object, it has no direction, only
magnitude. You can associate a direction with it when the object in question is three-dimensional, as you are
measuring it in different directions. But the area is scalar when the measurement is simple and two-
dimensional.
• Density
You can find a unit's density by dividing its mass by its volume. Because there are only two points needed in
this calculation, it's a scalar quantity. Direction does not factor into an object's density.
• Distance
How much ground have you covered? When measuring distance, you're finding the magnitude of space that
you have traveled. It doesn't include displacement or speed; the scalar quantity of distance only discusses how
much ground was covered.
• Energy
Like other scalar quantities, energy is the product of two factors (force and displacement, in this case). It
describes the magnitude of energy uses without measuring direction.
• Mass
Many people use the words "weight" and "mass" interchangeably, but they're not the same thing. Mass is the
amount of matter present in an object. It's not dependent on direction; the mass of an object is the same no
matter what direction the object is moving.
• Speed
It can be difficult to understand the difference between speed and velocity. However, knowing that speed is a
scalar quantity might be helpful, as direction is not important when measuring speed.
• Temperature
When you take your temperature with a thermometer, you're measuring your average thermal energy. Since
you already know that energy is a scalar quantity, you can probably figure out that temperature is also scalar.
• Time
Scalar quantities often refer to time, which includes the measurement of years, months, weeks, days, hours,
minutes, seconds, and even milliseconds. There's no consideration or measurement of direction when
measuring time, even though it appears that time is always moving forward.
• Volume
Scalar quantity can refer to the volume of the medium, as in how much of the medium is present. Everything
from tons to ounces to grams, milliliters and micrograms are all scalar quantities, as long as they are applied to
the medium being measured and not the movement of the medium.
• Work
Work is the energy transferred to an object by force. It is a scalar quantity because it's the product of force
and displacement. Work is not the same thing as force, which is a vector quantity, because work is the result
of force.
Examples of Vector Quantities

Vector quantities refer to both the direction of the medium’s movement as well as the measurement of the
scalar quantity. You may notice that you can find scalar products are often the products of two vector
quantities. Check out these 10 examples of vector quantities found in your everyday life.
• Acceleration
While speed is a scalar quantity, acceleration is different. Acceleration measures the rate at which the velocity
of an object changes. It factors in the period of time as well as direction, making it a vector quantity.
• Displacement
The scalar quantity of distance measures the ground covered by movement, but displacement measures how
far it has moved from its original location. You can see that direction and magnitude very much matter when
measuring displacement!
• Force
Force has both magnitude and direction. Unlike the scalar quantity of work, force causes an object to change
its velocity. Think of forces like gravity when considering whether it is a vector quantity.
• Increase/Decrease in Temperature
The measurement of the medium’s temperature is a scalar quantity. However, the measurement of the
increase or decrease in the medium’s temperature is a vector quantity. It has a direction and a magnitude.
• Magnetic Polarization
Polarization indicates that two units have moved away from each other. The direction (away from each other)
as well as the magnitude (how far, or how much) are important factors in measuring polarization.
• Momentum
Momentum indicates that an object is in motion. It is the product of mass and velocity, and can only be
calculated if you know how fast an object is moving (the magnitude) and in what direction.
• Position
It may seem like a fixed position has neither magnitude nor direction. And that's right — if you define
"position" in that way. A position vector is taken relative to the origin of the coordinate system; that is, it
exists at the end of a straight line that connects to the middle of an axis. The direction and magnitude are easy
to see from that perspective.
• Thrust
Thrust is a type of reaction force that also has magnitude and direction. Think of being pushed or shoved
through the air — you're definitely moving in a direction with magnitude! It's most commonly used
in mechanics and aeronautics.
• Velocity
The measurement of the rate at which an object changes position is a vector quantity. In order to measure the
vector quantity of the medium, there must be a directional measurement applied to the scalar quantity.
Another directional element that may be applied to the vector quantity is the difference between vertical and
horizontal movements.
Weight
The weight of an object is the product of its mass and the gravitational acceleration acting upon it. Because it
involves the force of gravity, weight has a direction (down) as well as magnitude.
1.1.2 FORCE
Force has both magnitude and direction. Unlike the scalar quantity of work, force causes an object to change
its velocity. Think of forces like gravity when considering whether it is a vector quantity.
In physics, a force is any interaction that, when unopposed, will change the motion of an object. A force can
cause an object with mass to change its velocity (which includes to begin moving from a state of rest), i.e.,
to accelerate. Force can also be described intuitively as a push or a pull. A force has
both magnitude and direction, making it a vector quantity. It is measured in the SI unit of newton (N). Force is
represented by the symbol F.
The original form of Newton's second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at
which its momentum changes with time. If the mass of the object is constant, this law implies that
the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object, is in the direction of
the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
Concepts related to force include: thrust, which increases the velocity of an object; drag, which decreases the
velocity of an object; and torque, which produces changes in rotational speed of an object. In an extended
body, each part usually applies forces on the adjacent parts; the distribution of such forces through the body is
the internal mechanical stress. Such internal mechanical stresses cause no acceleration of that body as the
forces balance one another. Pressure, the distribution of many small forces applied over an area of a body, is a
simple type of stress that if unbalanced can cause the body to accelerate. Stress usually causes deformation of
solid materials, or flow in fluids.
1.1.3 FORCE AS A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

The Triangle of Forces Method is another graphical method developed to find the resultant of a
coplanar force system. Since the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal, a force triangle may also be
found instead of using the parallelogram method.
GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF FORCE

• We can represent the magnitude and the direction of the force by using straight segments.
•And also the magnitude of the force is represented by the length of the straight line segment.
•The direction is represented by an arrow head.
•The point of application is denoted by a dot.
• Number of units show magnitude of force.
•The dots shows the point of application. (It is drawn largely to observe easily).
•And the arrow head shows the direction.
OBSERVE THE FIGURE BELOW
1.2 TRIANGLE LAW AND
PARALLELOGRAM LAW TO OBTAIN
RESULTANT FORCE
Parallelogram and Triangle law of forces
PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES

If two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram,
then their resultant isrepresented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal passing through the point.
Explanation
Consider two forces Vector P and Vector Q acting at a point O inclined at an angle θ as shown in Fig.
The forces Vector P and Vector Q are represented in magnitude and direction by the sides OA and OB of a parallelogram
OACB as shown in Fig.
The resultant Vector R of the forces Vector P and Vector Q is the diagonal OC of the parallelogram. The magnitude of the
resultant is
R = root[ P2 +Q2 + 2PQcos θ ]
The direction of the resultant is α = tan-1[ Qsin θ / P+Qcos θ ]
TRIANGLE LAW OF FORCES
The resultant of two forces acting at a point can also be found by using triangle law of forces.
If two forces acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a
triangle taken in order, then the closing side of the triangle taken in the reversed order represents the
resultant of the forces in magnitude and direction.
Forces Vector P and Vector Q act at an angle θ. In order to find the resultant of Vector P and Vector Q, one can
apply the head to tail method, to construct the triangle.
In Fig., OA and AB represent Vector P and Vector Q in magnitude and direction. The closing side OB of the
triangle taken in the reversed order represents the resultant Vector R of the forces Vector P and Vector Q. The
magnitude and the direction of Vector R can be found by using sine and cosine laws of triangles.
The triangle law of forces can also be stated as, if a body is in equilibrium under the action of three forces
acting at a point, then the three forces can be completely represented by the three sides of a triangle taken in
order.
If Vector P , Vector Q and Vector R are the three forces acting at a point and they are represented by the three
sides of a triangle then P/QA =Q/AB =R/ OB.
1.2.1 THE PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES TO OBTAIN THE RESULTANT OF TWO FORCES ACTING AS A
COMMON POINT
The law of parallelogram of forces states that if two vectors acting on a particle at the same time be represented in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point their resultant vector is
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the same point .
Okay, got it what it wants to say. But the main question here is how does it
happen! Right?So let us assume that the two vectors A and B, inclined at angle θ,
be acting on a particle at the same time. Let they be represented in magnitude and
direction by two adjacent sides OP and OS of parallelogram OPQS, drawn from a
point O.According to parallelogram law of vectors , their resultant vector will be
represented by the diagonal of the parallelogram .
Magnitude and Direction of Resultant:

Draw a perpendicular QN to OP produced.
And let us assume that OP=A, OS= PQ= B, OQ=R and angle SOP= angle QPN =
θ.
Now considering this if we proceed further , in the case of triangle law of
vector addition , the magnitude and direction of resultant vector will be given
by
R= sqrt of A^2 + B^2 + 2 AB cosθ
tan B = B sinθ/ A+B cosθ
1.3. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEM AND COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM

The body is said to be in equilibrium if the resultant of all forces acting on it is zero. There are two major types
of static equilibrium, namely, translational equilibrium and rotational equilibrium.
Coplanar forces means forces in the plane. When several forces act on a body then they are called force
system or system of forces. In the system in which all the forces lies in the same plane then it is known
as coplanar force system .
When all forces are acting in the same plane, they are called coplanar whereas when forces act at the same time and at
the same point, they are called concurrent/forces. For forces acting in the same direction and having the same line of
action, the single force having the same effect as both of the forces, called the resultant force or just the resultant, is the
arithmetic sum of the separate forces.
When two forces do not have the same line of action, the magnitude and direction of the resultant force may be found
by a procedure called vector addition of forces. There are two graphical methods of performing vector addition, known
as the triangle of forces method and the parallelogram of forces method. For forces acting in opposite directions along
the sameline of action, the resultant force is the arithmetic difference between the two forces. When three or more
coplanar forces are acting at a point and the vector diagram closes, there is no resultant. The forces acting at the point
are in equilibrium.
1.3.1 State the principle of equilibrium

A balanced state of a body under the action of given forces, is known as equilibrium. In this state the net effect
of all the forces is nil.
A body in equilibrium has no resultant and no couple acting on it. Such a body has no linear or angular
acceleration. It may be either at rest or moving with uniform velocity.
Principles of Equilibrium:
A few common principles equilibrium are:
• Two force principle: States that if two forces are in equilibrium, they must be equal, opposite, and
collinear.
• Three force principle: States that if three forces are in equilibrium then resultant of any two forces must
be
equal, opposite, and collinear with the third force. Also, if three forces are in equilibrium, they are always
concurrent.
• Four force principle: States that if four forces are in equilibrium then resultant of any two forces is equal,
opposite and collinear with the resultant of other two forces.
1.3.2 THE EQUILIBRANT

Equilibrant is defined as something that brings things into balance. An example of an equilibrant is a force in a
physics experiment. A force equal to, but opposite of, the resultant sum of vector forces; that force which
balances other forces, thus bringing an object to equilibrium.
1.3.3 THE NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR THREE FORCES TO BE IN EQUILIBRIUM

A solid body submitted to three forces whose lines of action are not parallel is in equilibrium if
the three following conditions apply : The lines of action are coplanar (in the same plane) The lines of action
are convergent (they cross at the same point) The vector sum of these forces is equal to the zero vector.
A solid body submitted to three forces whose lines of action

are not parallel is in equilibrium if the three following
conditions apply :
1. The lines of action are coplanar (in the same plane)
2. The lines of action are convergent (they cross at the same
point)
3. The vector sum of these forces is equal to the zero vector.
In the animation, the forces are contained in the plane Pxy. P is the point of intersection and the vector sum of
the forces is zero at all times. The mass is in equilibrium.
This state of equilibrium continues as long as the sum of the forces applied to the body remains zero. This
corresponds to Newton’s Law of Inertia: “All bodies will maintain their state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line that they are already in, unless acted upon by a force that would cause them to change their
state of motion.”
The area of Mechanics that studies solids at rest is called Statics.
1.3.4 THE TRIANGLE OF FORCES

Three force vectors that form a triangle for which the directions of the forces
are all either clockwise around the triangle or counterclockwise around the
triangle have a zero resultant, and hence the forces are in equilibrium.
It has been established that the resultant of these forces is zero. If these are the
only forces acting on P, the net force on it is zero, and P is in equilibrium.
Forces ⃑𝐹1 and ⃑𝐹2 need not be perpendicular to be two of the forces in a triangle of zero resultant force. The
following figure shows an example of a force triangle where none of the forces are perpendicular to each
other; the diagram also shows these forces acting on a particle P that is in equilibrium.
1.3.5 THE POLYGON OF FORCES
a polygonal figure, the sides of which, taken successively, represent, in length and direction,
several forces acting simultaneously upon one point, so that the side necessary to complete the figure
represents the resultant of those forces.
This polygon of forces may, by a slight extension of the above

definition, be called the reciprocal figure of the external forces, if the
sides are arranged in the same order as that of the joints on which they
act, so that if the joints and forces be numbered I, 2, 3, 4, &c., passing
round the outside of the frame in one direction, and returning at last to
joint 1, then in the polygon the side representing the force 2 will be
next the side representing the force I, and will be followed by the side
representing the force 3, and so forth.
1.3.6 THE CONDITION FOR EQUILIBRIUM IN THE POLYGON OF FORCES

Polygon Law of Forces
It states that “if more than two forces acting simultaneously on a particle, be represented
in magnitude and direction by the sides of a polygon, taken in order, their resultant may
be ,represented in magnitude and direction by the side closing of the polygon, taken in
opposite order”.
Equilibrium of forces
If the resultant of a number of forces, acting on a particle is zero, the particle will be in
equilibrium. Such a set of forces, whose resultant is zero are called equilibrium forces.
If any number of forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by
the sides of a closed polygon, taken in order, the forces shall be in equilibrium.
1.3.7 THE NET EFFECT OF ANUMBER OF FORCES ACTING AT A COMMON POINT AS THE RESULTANT
In physics, it is possible to determine the torque associated with the point of application of a net force so that
it maintains the movement of jets of the object under the original system of forces. Its associated torque, the
net force, becomes the resultant force and has the same effect on the rotational motion of the object as all
actual forces taken together. It is possible for a system of forces to define a torque-free resultant force. In this
case, the net force, when applied at the proper line of action, has the same effect on the body as all of the
forces at their points of application. It is not always possible to find a torque-free resultant force.
REFERENCES
Refer to your footnotes in Module 1 in answering your Activity and Assignment as well your reference.
MODULE 2
Topic: MOMENT OF FORCE

2 Describe Moment of force
2.1 Define the moment of a force about a point
2.2 Define Couple
2.2.1 Determine the moment produced by a couple
2.3 Describe the conditions required for equilibrium when anumber of forces and moments act on a body
2.3.1 Describe balance moments
2.3.2 Resolve a force into a forces and a couple
2.4 Define the factors which govern stability and overturning of a box
2.5Explain Center of Gravity different shapes and sections
2.5.1 State that the center of gravity of a mass suspended by a single point lies vertically below the point of
suspension
2.6 Explain Vertical translation and Horizontal translation
2.6.1 state that the center of gravity of mass supported by a single point lies vertically above the point of
support
2.2.2 solve simple numerical and graphical problems related to the elements in the above objectives
Overview
The Moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to cause a body to rotate about a specific point or axis.
This is different from the tendency for a body to move, or translate, in the direction of the force. It is defined
as the product of the force (F) and the moment arm (d).
In order for a moment to develop, the force must act upon the body in
such a manner that the body would begin to twist. This occurs every
time a force is applied so that it does not pass through the centroid of
the body. A moment is due to a force not having an equal and opposite
force directly along its line of action.
Imagine two people pushing on a door at the doorknob from opposite
sides. If both of them are pushing with an equal force then there is a
state of equilibrium. If one of them would suddenly jump back from the door, the push of the other person
would no longer have any opposition and the door would swing away. The person who was still pushing on the
door created a moment.
The magnitude of the moment of a force acting about a point or axis is directly proportional to the distance of the force
from the point or axis. It is defined as the product of the force (F) and the moment arm (d). The moment arm or lever
arm is the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the center of moments.
2 MOMENT OF FORCE
Moment of a force
1of a point : the product of the distance from the point to the point of application of the force and the
component of the force perpendicular to the line of the distance.
2of a line : the product of the perpendicular distance from the axis to the point of application of the force and
the component of the force perpendicular to the line of the distance and in a plane perpendicular
to the axis.
2.1 THE MOMENT OF A FORCE ABOUT A POINT

The moment of a force about a point is the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance of the point to the
line of action of the force. For example, if children are sitting on a see-saw, their weights multiplied by their
distance from the pivot are the moments of their forces about the pivot.
Force applied on a rigid body can produce translation, pure rotation or translation along with rotation. If the
force is acting through center of mass of the body, it can produce only translation in the direction of force.
Two equal unlike parallel forces (couple) will produce pure rotation on a
body to which it is applied. Forces applied through points other than the
center of mass can have both translational and rotational effect on it.
Any force applied irrespective of its line of action can produce a rotational
effect, if it is hinged with respect to an axis. By moment we are measuring
this rotating ability of a force with respect to an axis (axis may be
represented by a point in the plane of rotation).
Moment of a force with respect to a point (center of rotation also known as moment center) is the turning
effect (rotating effect) the force produces with respect to the point. It is measured as the product of force and
the perpendicular distance of the force from the center of rotation. It's unit in SI system is Nm. In figure,
moment of force 'F' with respect to the moment center, M = F x d.
2.2 COUPLE
Couple, in mechanics, pair of equal parallel forces that are opposite in direction. The only effect of a couple is
to produce or prevent the turning of a body. The turning effect, or moment, of a couple is measured by the
product of the magnitude of either force and the perpendicular distance
between the action lines of the forces.
The steering wheel of an automobile is turned by hand forces that constitute a
couple, and a screwdriver is twisted by the equivalent of a couple. A wrench, on
the other hand, is actuated by a force applied at one end only, and, in addition
to the turning moment, it creates an unbalanced force on the element being tightened.
2.2.1 THE MOMENT PRODUCED BY A COUPLE

A special case of moments is a couple. A couple consists of two parallel forces that are equal
in magnitude, opposite in sense and do not share a line of action. It does not produce any
translation, only rotation. The resultant force of a couple is zero. BUT, the resultant of a couple is not zero; it is
a pure moment.
For example, the forces that two hands apply to turn a steering wheel are often (or should be) a couple. Each
hand grips the wheel at points on opposite sides of the shaft. When they apply a force that is equal in
magnitude yet opposite in direction the wheel rotates. If both hands applied a force in the same direction, the
sum of the moments created by each force would equal zero and the wheel would not rotate. Instead of
rotating around the shaft, the shaft would be loaded with a force tending to cause a translation with a
magnitude of twice F. If the forces applied by the two hands were unequal, there would again be an
unbalanced force creating a translation of the "system." A pure couple always consists of two forces equal in
magnitude.
The moment of a couple is the product of the magnitude of one of the forces and the perpendicular distance
between their lines of action. M = F x d. It has the units of kip-feet, pound-inches,
KN-meter, etc. The magnitude of the moment of a couple is the same for all points
in the plane of the couple. A couple may be moved anywhere in its plane or a
parallel plane without changing its external effect. The magnitude of the couple is
independent of the reference point and its tendency to create a rotation will remain
constant. This can be illustrated with the simple illustration of a bar with a
length d that is pinned at its midpoint. Two parallel forces of equal magnitude, opposite in sense are applied at
the ends of the bar. The magnitude of the moment generated by the couple of the forces F, relative to the pin
in the illustration, is equal to
(F)(d/2) + (F)(d/2)
= (F)(d)
The magnitude of the couple of the forces F relative to point "O" is
(F)(d+x) - (F)(x)
(F)(d) + (F)(x) - (F)(x)
= (F)(d)
Again, it can be seen that the magnitude of the couple is independent of the reference location. It is always
equal to (F)(d)!
The resultant of a number of couples is their algebraic sum. A couple CANNOT be put in equilibrium by a single
force! A couple can only be put in equilibrium by a moment or another couple of equal magnitude and
opposite direction anywhere in the same plane or in a parallel plane. If a single force is added to the system
that balances the sum of the moments, one of the other two equations of equilibrium will not be satisfied. A
couple maintains the internal equilibrium of a simple beam or of many other simple structural systems. The
concept is very important to the further study of structural behavior.
There are many examples of couples in the built world. Some structures are clear manifestations of the
couple; others hide the couple inside oftheir structural elements.
The Saltash Bridge by Brunel is a structure which allows the couple at midspan to be clearly read. The
structure illustrates the equilibrium developed by the compressive force of the top chord and the equal and
opposite tensile force of the suspension chain. These two forces create a couple at midspan. The magnitude of
the couple would be the force Fc or Ft times the distance separating the two forces, d. This is the same type of
couple that is hidden inside of solid beams.
2.3 THE CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR EQUILIBRIUM WHEN A NUMBER OF FORCES AND MOMENTS ACT
ON A BODY
Conditions for equilibrium require that the sum of all external forces acting on the body is zero
(first condition of equilibrium), and the sum of all external torques from external forces is zero
(second condition of equilibrium). These two conditions must be simultaneously satisfied in equilibrium.
A body is in equilibrium when it remains either in uniform motion (both

translational and rotational) or at rest. When a body in a selected inertial frame
of reference neither rotates nor moves in translational motion, we say the
body is in static equilibrium in this frame of reference.
Conditions for equilibrium require that the sum of all external forces acting on
the body is zero (first condition of equilibrium), and the sum of all external
torques from external forces is zero (second condition of equilibrium). These
two conditions must be simultaneously satisfied in equilibrium. If one of them is not satisfied, the body is
not in equilibrium.
The free-body diagram for a body is a useful tool that allows us to count correctly all contributions from all
external forces and torques acting on the body. Free-body diagrams for the equilibrium of an extended rigid
body must indicate a pivot point and lever arms of acting forces with respect to the pivot.
2.3.1 BALANCE MOMENTS

If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot is equal to the total
anticlockwise moment about that pivot. If the object is balanced: total clockwise moment = total
anticlockwise moment.
The diagrams show two examples of balanced objects where there is no rotation.
A ball at the bottom of a trough

A balanced see-saw
For a balanced object, you can calculate:
• the size of a force, or
• the perpendicular distance of a force from the pivot
2.3.2 A FORCE INTO A FORCES AND A COUPLE

A force can have a tendency to cause both a linear and angular acceleration. For example, below is diagram of
a force acting on an extended body. If we were to think about everything relative to
the center of mass of this body, there would be some force acting on the center of
mass that would cause the same linear acceleration and some pure moment
(couple) that would cause the same angular acceleration. This would be a force and
couple that is statically equivalent to the original force, though the point of
application of the force changes.
The process of transforming one force applied at one point, into a force and a couple at some other point is
known as resolving a force into a force and a couple. There are a few reasons that we may want to do this, but
one primary reason is to find the equivalent force couple system for a complex set of forces and moments.
The equivalent force couple system is used to simplify more complex analysis and consists of a single force and
a single pure moment (couple) that are statically equivalent to some more complex combination of forces and
moments. An important first step in finding the equivalent force couple system is to resolve all the forces so
that everything is acting at the same point.
In order to visualize the process of resolving a force into a force and a
couple, you can use the process outlined in the diagram below.
Imagine we have a body with a force acting at some point A. We want
to resolve the force into a force and a couple about some other point
B. To do this we will first add two forces to the diagram at point B. One
will have the same magnitude and direction as the original force and
the other will be equal and opposite to the original force. Because
these two forces are equal, opposite, and collinear, this will not
change the situation (it's the equivalent to adding zero to an
equation). Now, with these three forces acting on the diagram, we can
break it down into two sets. The first is a force acting at point B with
the same magnitude and direction as the original force. The other two
forces act as a couple, exerting a pure moment about point B. Finally,
we can redraw the system as a force acting at point B and the pure moment acting about point B.
2.4 THE FACTORS WHICH GOVERN STABILITY AND OVERTURNING OF A BOX
The safety factor of wall stability against overturning is defined as the ratio between the sum of resisting
moments and the sum of overturning moments. Wall stability against overturning can,
however, be assessed using the position of the resultant force on the base, which is
unaffected by the assumed thrust surface.
Dams are structures whose purpose is to raise the water level on the upstream side of river,
stream, or other waterway. The rising water will cause hydrostatic force which will tend the dam
to slide horizontally and overturn about its downstream edge or toe. The raised water level on
the upstream edge or heel will also cause the water to seep under the dam. The pressure due to
this seepage is commonly called hydrostatic uplift and will reduce the stability of the dam
against sliding and against overturning.
2.5 CENTER OF GRAVITY DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SECTIONS

Centre of gravity, in physics, an imaginary point in a body of matter where, for convenience in certain
calculations, the total weight of the body may be thought to be concentrated. The concept is sometimes
useful in designing static structures (e.g., buildings and bridges) or in predicting the behavior of a moving body
when it is acted on by gravity.
In a uniform gravitational field the center of gravity is identical to the center of mass, a term preferred by
physicists. The two do not always coincide, however. For example, the Moon’s center of mass is very close to
its geometric center (it is not exact because the
Moon is not a perfect uniform sphere), but its
center of gravity is slightly displaced
toward Earth because of the stronger
gravitational force on the Moon’s near side.
The location of a body’s center of gravity may
coincide with the geometric center of the body,
especially in a symmetrically shaped object composed of homogeneous material. An asymmetrical object
composed of a variety of materials with different masses, however, is likely to have a center of gravity located
at some distance from its geometric center. In some cases, such as hollow bodies or irregularly shaped objects,
the center of gravity (or center of mass) may occur in space at a point external to the physical material—e.g., in
the center of a tennis ball or between the legs of a chair.
2.5.1 CENTER OF GRAVITY OF A MASS SUSPENDED BY A SINGLE POINT LIES VERTICALLY BELOW THE POINT
OF SUSPENSION
Centre of gravity of a freely suspended body always lies vertically below the point of suspension. The center of
gravity of an object is the point you can suspend the object from without there being any rotation because of
the force of gravity, no matter how the object is oriented.
If you suspend an object from any point, let it go and allow it to come to rest, the center of gravity will lie
along a vertical line that passes through the point of suspension. Unless you've been exceedingly careful in
balancing the object, the center of gravity will generally lie below the suspension point.
2.6 VERTICAL TRANSLATION AND HORIZONTAL TRANSLATION

In geometry, a vertical translation (also known as vertical shift) is a translation of a geometric object in a
direction parallel to the vertical axis of the Cartesian coordinate system.
The graphs of different antiderivatives of the function f(x) = 3x2 − 2. All are vertical translates of each other.
Often, vertical translations are considered for the graph of a function. If f is any
function of x, then the graph of the function f(x) + c (whose values are given by adding
a constant c to the values of f) may be obtained by a vertical translation of the graph
of f(x) by distance c. For this reason the function f(x) + c is sometimes called a vertical
translate of f(x). For instance, the antiderivatives of a function all differ from each
other by a constant of integration and are therefore vertical translates of each other.
In function graphing, a horizontal translation is a transformation which results in a

graph that is equivalent to shifting the base graph left or right in the direction of the x-axis. A graph is
translated k units horizontally by moving each point on the graph k units horizontally.
For the base function f(x) and a constant k, the function given by g(x) = f(x − k), can be sketched f(x)
shifted k units horizontally.
2.6.1 THE CENTER OF GRAVITY OF MASS SUPPORTED BY A SINGLE POINT LIES VERTICALLY ABOVE THE
POINT OF SUPPORT
Determining the center of mass for a real object
There are a couple of useful experimental tests that can be done to determine the center of
mass of rigid physical objects.
The table edge method (Figure 4) can be used to find the center of mass of small rigid objects
with at least one flat side. The object is pushed slowly without rotating along the surface of a
table towards an edge. At the point where the object is just about to fall, a line is drawn
parallel to the table edge. The procedure is repeated with the object rotated 90°. The
intersection point of the two lines gives the location of the center of mass in the plane of the
table.
The plumb line method (Figure 5) is also useful for objects which can be suspended
freely about a point of rotation. An irregularly shaped piece of cardboard
suspended on a pin-board is a good example of this. The cardboard pivots freely
around the pin under gravity and reaches a stable point. A plumb line is hung from the pin and used to mark a
line on the object. The pin is moved to another location and the procedure repeated. The center of mass then
lies beneath the intersection point of the two lines.
Center of mass and toppling stability

One useful application of the center of mass is determining the maximum angle that an object can be tilted before it will
topple over.
Figure 6a shows a cross section of a truck. The truck has been poorly loaded with
many heavy items loaded on the left-hand side. The center of mass is shown as a red
dot. A red line extends down from the center of mass, representing the force of
gravity. Gravity acts on all the weight of the truck through this line.
If the truck is tipped at an angle θt(as shown in figure 6b) then all the weight of the
truck will be supported by the left-most edge of the left wheel. Should the angle be
further increased then the point of support will move outside of any point of contact
with the road and the truck is guaranteed to topple over. The angleθt is the topple limit.
2.2.2 SOLVE SIMPLE NUMERICAL AND GRAPHICAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO THE ELEMENTS IN THE ABOVE
OBJECTIVES
Systems of Linear Equations in Two Variables To establish basic concepts, let’s consider the following simple
example: If 2 adult tickets and 1 child ticket cost $32, and if 1 adult ticket and 3 child tickets cost $36, what is
the price of each?
Let: x = price of adult ticket

y = price of child ticket
Then: 2x + y = 32
x + 3y = 36
Now we have a system of two linear equations in two variables. It is easy to find ordered pairs (x, y) that
satisfy one or the other of these equations. For example, the ordered pair 116, 02 satisfies the first equation
but not the second, and the ordered pair 124, 42 satisfies the second but not the first. To solve this system, we
must find all ordered pairs of real numbers that satisfy both equations at the same time. In general, we have
the following definition:
DEFINITION Systems of Two Linear Equations in Two Variable
Given the linear system

ax + by = h
cx + dy = k
where a, b, c, d, h, and k are real constants, a pair of numbers x = x0 and y = y0 3also written as an ordered
pair 1x0 , y024 is a solution of this system if each equation is satisfied by the pair. The set of all such ordered
pairs is called the solution set for the system. To solve a system is to find its solution set.
We will consider three methods of solving such systems: graphing, substitution, and elimination by addition.
Each method has its advantages, depending on the situation.
Graphing
Recall that the graph of a line is a graph of all the ordered pairs that satisfy the equation of the line. To solve
the ticket problem by graphing, we graph both equations in the same coordinate system. The coordinates of
any points that the graphs have in common must be solutions to the system since they satisfy both equations.
Example 1
Solving a System by Graphing Solve the ticket problem by graphing:
2x + y = 32
x + 3y = 36
Solution
An easy way to find two distinct points on the first line is to find the x and y intercepts.
Substitute
y = 0 to find the x intercept 12x = 32, so x = 162, and substitute x = 0 to find the y intercept 1y =
322. Then draw the line through116, 02 and 10, 322. After graphing both lines in the
same coordinate system (Fig. 1), estimate the coordinates of the intersection point:
2x + y = 32 x + 3y
= 36 Check that 112, 82 satisfies each of
Check 2(12) + 8 ≟ 32 12 + 3182 ≟ 36 the original equations.
32 = ✓ 32 36 = ✓ 36
Matched Problem 1 Solve by graphing and check:

2x - y = -3
x + 2y = -4
It is clear that Example 1 has exactly one solution since the lines have exactly one point in common. In general,
lines in a rectangular coordinate system are related to each other in one of the three ways illustrated in the
next example.
Example 2Solving a System by Graphing Solve each of the following systems by graphing:
(A) x - 2y =
2 (B) x +
2y = -4 (C) 2x
+ 4y = 8
x + y = 5
2x + 4y = 8
x + 2y = 4
Solution
MODULE 3
Topic: DYNAMICS
3. State Dynamics
3.1 Explain Velocity and the Effect of Change of Directions
3.2 Define Friction
3.3 Define Hydrostatics
3.4 Define Hydraulics
3.5 Define velocity as vector quantity
3.6 Plot graphs of velocity against time
3.7 Define relative velocity
3.7.1 Determine average velocity from initial and final values of velocity
3.7.2 State that the area enclosed by a velocity – time curve is distance
3.7.3 Define acceleration in terms of initial and final values of velocity
3.7.4 Solve simple problems, using the equations
v = u ± at
v² = u² ± 2as
s = ut ± at²
2
Overview
Dynamics is the branch of physics developed in classical mechanics concerned with the study of forces and
their effects on motion. Isaac Newton was the first to formulate the fundamental physical laws that govern
dynamics in classical non-relativistic physics, especially his second law of motion.
Generally speaking, researchers involved in dynamics study how a physical
system might develop or alter over time and study the causes of those
changes. In addition, Newton established the fundamental physical laws
which govern dynamics in physics. By studying his system of mechanics,
dynamics can be understood. In particular, dynamics is mostly related to
Newton's second law of motion. However, all three laws of motion are
taken into account because these are interrelated in any given observation
or experiment.
The study of dynamics falls under two categories: linear and rotational. Linear dynamics pertains to objects
moving in a line and involves such quantities as force, mass/inertia, displacement (in units of
distance), velocity (distance per unit time), acceleration (distance per unit of time squared)
and momentum (mass times unit of velocity). Rotational dynamics pertains to objects that are rotating or
moving in a curved path and involves such quantities as torque, moment of inertia/rotational inertia, angular
displacement (in radians or less often, degrees), angular velocity (radians per unit time), angular
acceleration (radians per unit of time squared) and angular momentum (moment of inertia times unit of
angular velocity). Very often, objects exhibit linear and rotational motion.
For classical electromagnetism, Maxwell's equations describe the kinematics. The dynamics of classical
systems involving both mechanics and electromagnetism are described by the combination of Newton's laws,
Maxwell's equations, and the Lorentz force.
3. DYNAMICS
Dynamics, branch of physical science and subdivision of mechanics that is concerned with the motion of material objects
in relation to the physical factors that affect them: force, mass, momentum, energy. A brief treatment
of dynamics follows.
More formally, dynamics is the branch of mechanics that deals with the effect that forces have on the motion
of objects. In contrast, statics is the study of forces without motion; or more formally, the branch
of mechanics that deals with forces in the absence of changes in motion. Dynamics implies change.
Informally, dynamics is the study of forces and motion. More formally, dynamics is the branch of mechanics
that deals with the effect that forces have on the motion of objects. In contrast, statics is the study of forces
without motion; or more formally, the branch of mechanics that deals with forces in the absence of changes in
motion. Dynamics implies change. Statics implies changelessness. The change that matters is acceleration.
3.1 VELOCITY AND THE EFFECT OF CHANGE OF DIRECTIONS

The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position with respect to a frame of reference, and is a
function of time. Velocity is equivalent to a specification of an object's speed and direction
of motion (e.g. 60 km/h to the north). Velocity is a fundamental concept in kinematics, the branch of classical
mechanics that describes the motion of bodies.
Velocity is a physical vector quantity; both magnitude and direction are needed to define it.
The scalar absolute value (magnitude) of velocity is called speed, being a coherent derived unit whose quantity
is measured in the SI (metric system) as meters per second (m/s or m⋅s−1). For example, "5 meters per
second" is a scalar, whereas "5 meters per second east" is a vector. If there is a change in speed, direction or
both, then the object has a changing velocity and is said to be undergoing an acceleration.
Generally,the velocity decreases when a moving object changes its direction, this happens because the
force is straightforward and by changing the direction it slows down and thus the speed or velocity decreases.
3.2 FRICTION
Friction is a force between two surfaces that are sliding, or trying to slide, across each other. Friction always
works in the direction opposite to the direction in which the object is moving or trying to move.
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material
elements sliding against each other. There are several types of friction:
• Dry friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of two
solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction issubdivided into static
friction ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic
friction between moving surfaces. With the exception of atomic or
molecular friction, dry friction generally arises from the interaction of
surface features, known as asperities.
• Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other.
• Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces.
• Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body.
• Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it
undergoes deformation.
When surfaces in contact move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic
energy into thermal energy (that is, it converts work to heat). This property can have dramatic consequences,
as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing pieces of wood together to start a fire. Kinetic energy is
converted to thermal energy whenever motion with friction occurs, for example when a viscous fluid is stirred.
Another important consequence of many types of friction can be wear, which may lead to performance
degradation or damage to components. Friction is a component of the science of tribology.
Friction is desirable and important in supplying traction to facilitate motion on land. Most land vehicles rely on
friction for acceleration, deceleration and changing direction. Sudden reductions in traction can cause loss of
control and accidents.
Friction is not itself a fundamental force. Dry friction arises from a combination of inter-surface adhesion,
surface roughness, surface deformation, and surface contamination. The complexity of these interactions
makes the calculation of friction from first principles impractical and necessitates the use of empirical
methods for analysis and the development of theory.
Friction is a non-conservative force – work done against friction is path dependent. In the presence of friction,
some kinetic energy is always transformed to thermal energy, so mechanical energy is not conserved.
3.3 HYDROSTATICS
Hydrostatics, Branch of physics that deals with the characteristics of fluids at rest, particularly with
the pressure in a fluid or exerted by a fluid (gas or liquid) on an immersed body. In applications, the principles
of hydrostatics are used for problems relating to pressure in deep water (pressure
increases with depth) and high in the atmosphere (pressure lessens with altitude).
Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies

"fluids at hydrostatic equilibriumand the pressure in a fluid or exerted by a fluid on
an immersed body".It encompasses the study of the conditions under which fluids
are at rest in stable equilibrium as opposed to fluid dynamics, the study of fluids in
motion. Hydrostatics is a subcategory of fluid statics, which is the study of all fluids,
both compressible or incompressible, at rest.
Hydrostatics is fundamental to hydraulics, the engineering of equipment for storing, transporting and using
fluids. It is also relevant to geophysics and astrophysics (for example, in understanding plate tectonics and the
anomalies of the Earth's gravitational field), to meteorology, to medicine (in the context of blood pressure),
and many other fields.
Hydrostatics offers physical explanations for many phenomena of everyday life, such as why atmospheric
pressure changes with altitude, why wood and oil float on water, and why the surface of still water is always
level.
3.4 HYDRAULICS
Hydraulics, branch of science concerned with the practical applications of fluids, primarily liquids, in motion. It
is related to fluid mechanics (q.v.), which in large part provides its theoretical foundation. Hydraulics deals
with such matters as the flow of liquids in pipes, rivers, and channels and
their confinement by dams and tanks. Some of its principles apply also
to gases, usually in cases in which variations in density are relatively
small. Consequently, the scope of hydraulics extends to such mechanical
devices as fans and gas turbines and to pneumatic control systems.
Liquids in motion or under pressure did useful work for man for many
centuries before French scientist-philosopher Blaise Pascal and Swiss
physicist Daniel Bernoulli formulated the laws on which modern
hydraulic-power technology is based. Pascal’s law, formulated in about 1650, states that pressure in a liquid is
transmitted equally in all directions; i.e., when water is made to fill a closed container, the application of
pressure at any point will be transmitted to all sides of the container. In the hydraulic press, Pascal’s law is
used to gain an increase in force; a small force applied to a small piston in a small cylinder is transmitted
through a tube to a large cylinder, where it presses equally against all sides of the cylinder, including the large
piston.
Bernoulli’s law, formulated about a century later, states that energy in a fluid is due to elevation, motion, and
pressure, and if there are no losses due to friction and no work done, the sum of the energies remains
constant. Thus, velocity energy, deriving from motion, can be partly converted to pressure energy by enlarging
the cross section of a pipe, which slows down the flow but increases the area against which the fluid is
pressing.
Hydraulics (from Greek: Υδραυλική) is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and
other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the
liquid counterpart of pneumatics, which concerns gases. Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation
for hydraulics, which focuses on the applied engineering using the properties of fluids. In its fluid
power applications, hydraulics is used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use
of pressurized liquids.
Hydraulic topics range through some parts of science and most of engineering modules, and cover concepts
such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control circuitry. The principles of hydraulics are in use
naturally in the human body within the vascular system and erectile tissue. Free surface hydraulics is the
branch of hydraulics dealing with free surface flow, such as occurring
in rivers, canals, lakes, estuaries and seas. Its sub-field open-channel flow studies the flow in open channels.
The word "hydraulics" originates from the Greek word ὑδραυλικός (hydraulikos) which in turn originates
from ὕδωρ (hydor, Greek for water) and αὐλός (aulos, meaning pipe).
3.5 VELOCITY AS VECTOR QUANTITY

Velocity is a physical vector quantity; both magnitude and direction are needed to define it. If there is a
change in speed, direction or both, then the object has a changing velocity and is said to be undergoing an
acceleration.
function of time. Velocity is equivalent to a specification of an object's speed and direction
of motion (e.g. 60 km/h to the north). Velocity is a fundamental concept in kinematics, the branch of classical
mechanics that describes the motion of bodies.
Velocity is a physical vector quantity; both magnitude and direction are needed to define it.
The scalar absolute value (magnitude) of velocity is called speed, being a coherent derived unit whose quantity
is measured in the SI (metric system) as metres per second (m/s or m⋅s−1). For example, "5 metres per
second" is a scalar, whereas "5 metres per second east" is a vector. If there is a change in speed, direction or
both, then the object has a changing velocity and is said to be undergoing an acceleration.
3.6 PLOT GRAPHS OF VELOCITY AGAINST TIME

It depends , if you’re not going to ignore the air However , say the air resistance is not present
Resistance than the object will soon reach terminal (vacuum) then in that case the object will keep
velocity and its graph would look something like this : accelerating at a constant acceleration of
9.81m/s^2 and its velocity will be steadily
increasing , forming a graph like this :
Representing Free Fall by Position-Time Graphs

A position versus time graph for a free-falling object is shown below.
Observe that the line on the graph curves. As learned earlier, a
curved line on a position versus time graph signifies an accelerated
motion. Since a free-falling object is undergoing an acceleration (g =
9.8 m/s/s), it would be expected that its position-time graph would
be curved. A further look at the position-time graph reveals that the
object starts with a small velocity (slow) and finishes with a large
velocity (fast). Since the slope of any position vs. time graph is the
velocity of the object (as learned in Lesson 3), the small initial slope
indicates a small initial velocity and the large final slope indicates a large final velocity. Finally, the negative
slope of the line indicates a negative (i.e., downward) velocity.
Representing Free Fall by Velocity-Time Graphs

A velocity versus time graph for a free-falling object is shown below.
Observe that the line on the graph is a straight, diagonal line. As learned
earlier, a diagonal line on a velocity versus time graph signifies an
accelerated motion. Since a free-falling object is undergoing an
acceleration (g = 9,8 m/s/s, downward), it would be expected that its
velocity-time graph would be diagonal. A further look at the velocity-time
graph reveals that the object starts with a zero velocity (as read from the
graph) and finishes with a large, negative velocity; that is, the object is
moving in the negative direction and speeding up. An object that is
moving in the negative direction and speeding up is said to have a
negative acceleration (if necessary, review the vector nature of acceleration). Since the slope of any velocity
versus time graph is the acceleration of the object (as learned in Lesson 4), the constant, negative slope
indicates a constant, negative acceleration. This analysis of the slope on the graph is consistent with the
motion of a free-falling object - an object moving with a constant acceleration of 9.8 m/s/s in the downward
direction.
3.7 RELATIVE VELOCITY

The relative velocity also or is the velocity of an object or observer B in the rest frame of another object or observer A.
Suppose you are driving a car and you overtake the other car from
behind. What actually happens is that the driver from the car behind
you sees the car coming in the backward direction and eventually goes
back. But the person standing on the ground doesn’t see it as the car is
moving backwards, although the driver behind sees it that way. This is
what relative velocity is.
When you are traveling in a car or bus or train, you see the trees, buildings and many other things outside
going backwards. But are they really going backwards? No, you know it pretty well that it’s your vehicle that is
moving while the trees are stationary on the ground. But then why do the trees appear to be moving
backwards? Also, the co-passengers with you who are moving
appear stationary to you despite moving.
It’s because in your frame both you and your co-passengers
are moving together. Which means there is no relative
velocity between you and the passengers.Whereas the trees
are stationary while you are moving. Therefore, trees are moving at some relative velocity with respect to you
and the other passenger. And that relative velocity is the difference of velocities between you and the tree.
The relative velocity is the velocity of an object or observer B in the rest frame of another object or the
observer A. The general formula of velocity is :
Velocity of B relative to A is =
This is the only formula that describes the concept of relative velocity. When two objects are moving in the
same direction, then
When two objects are moving in the opposite direction, then
Let’s us understand the concept of relative velocity with this example.
Consider two trains moving with same speed and in the same direction. Even if both the trains are in motion
with respect to buildings, trees along the two sides of the track, yet to the observer of the train, the other
train does not seem to be moving at all. the velocity of the other train
appears to be zero.
Suppose you are in a car moving at 50 mph. The 50 mph is your relative
velocity as compared to the surface of the earth. At the same time if I am
sitting next to you your relative velocity compared to me is zero. If we were
on a bus and you walked forward at 1 mph, your relative velocity on the earth
would be 51 mph and your relative velocity compared to me would be 1 mph. Relative velocity is simply any
objects speed compared to any other object regardless of its speed.
3.7.1 DETERMINE AVERAGE VELOCITY FROM INITIAL AND FINAL VALUES OF VELOCITY
The sum of the initial and final velocity is divided by 2 to find the average. The average velocity calculator uses
the formula that shows the average velocity (v) equals the sum of the final velocity (v) and the initial
velocity (u), divided by 2.
As the word states, Average Velocity is the average value of the known velocities. Average Velocity is defined
as the total displacement travelled by the body in time t. The average velocity is denoted by Vav and can be
determined using the following formula:
AverageVelocity=Total Displacement
TotalTime
Based on the values given, the above formula can also be written as:
• If any distances xi and xf with their corresponding time intervals ti and tf are given we use the formula:
Where
xi = Initial Distance
xf =Final distance
ti = Initial time
tf = Final time
• If final Velocity V and Initial velocity U are known, we make use of the formula:
Where,
U = Initial Velocity and
V = Final Velocity
• If there are diverse distances like d1, d2, d3, dn for diverse time intervals t1, t2, t3, tn then
Average Velocity Problem

Sample Problem: A car is moving with an initial velocity of 30 m/s and it touches its destiny at 80 m/s.
Calculate its average velocity.
Given: Initial Velocity U = 30 m/s
Final velocity V = 80 m/s
Formula:
Solution:
= 30 m/s + 80 m/s
2
= 110 m/s
2
Average velocity Vav = 55 m/s
3.7.2 THE AREA ENCLOSED BY A VELOCITY – TIME CURVE IS DISTANCE

The area enclosed by the velocity-time curve and the time axis represents the distance travelled by the body.
3.7.3 ACCELERATION IN TERMS OF INITIAL AND FINAL VALUES OF VELOCITY

Acceleration (a) is the change in velocity (Δv) over the change in time (Δt), represented by the equation a =
Δv/Δt. This allows you to measure how fast velocity changes in meters per second squared
(m/s^2). Acceleration is also a vector quantity, so it includes both magnitude and direction.
Much like velocity, there are two kinds of acceleration: average and instantaneous. Average acceleration is determined
over a "long" time interval. The word long in this context means finite — something with a beginning and an end. The
velocity at the beginning of this interval is called the initial velocity, represented by the symbol v0 (vee naught), and the
velocity at the end is called the final velocity, represented by the symbol v (vee). Average acceleration is a quantity
calculated from two velocity measurements.
3.7.4 SOLVE SIMPLE PROBLEMS, USING THE EQUATIONS

V = U ± AT
V² = U² ± 2AS
S = UT ± AT²
2
USING EQUATIONS
This section is designed to help you work out some of the problems using the equations of motion.
CONSTANT VELOCITY
1. s = vt
CONSTANT ACCELERATION
2. v = u + at
3. s = ut + ½at2
4. average velocity = [v + u]/2
5. v2 = u2 + 2as
If you need to use any of these equations to work out problems the way to do it is this:
(a) write down what you are given, usually three things
(b) look for the equation that contains these three things and the quantity that you are trying to find
(c) put the numbers in the CORRECT equation and work it out
You will need to know how to rearrange equations to make different quantities the subject of the equation.
You might like to try using the triangle rule if there are only three quantities in the equation but some of them
are more complex than this.
Example problems
1. A horse accelerates steadily from rest at 4 m/s2 for 3s.What is its final velocity and how far has it travelled?
(a) Initial velocity (u) = 0 Final velocity (v) = ?
Acceleration (a) = 4 m/s2 Time (t) = 3 s.
Known quantities u,a and t. Unknown v.
Solution:
Correct equation is: v = u + at
Final velocity (v) = 0 + 4x3 = 12 m/s
(b) Correct equation is s = ut + ½at2

Distance (s) = 0x3 + 0.5x4x9 = 18 m
2. A car travelling at 30 m/s accelerates steadily at 5 m/s2 for a distance of 70 m. What is the final velocity of
the car?
Known quantities u,a and s. Unknown v.
Solution:
Correct equation is v2 = u2 + 2as
Final velocity2 (v2) = 30x30 + 2x5x70
Therefore v = 40 m/s
MODULE 4
Topic: VELOCITY AS A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

4 Define velocity as a graphic representation
4.1 Use the parallelogram and the triangle of velocities to obtain a resultant velocity
4.2 Define friction in the horizontal plane
4.2.1 Define the force required to overcome friction in the horizontal plane as
F = µN
Where: F = force in newtons
N = normal (i.e., 90°) reaction force between contactSurfaces
µ = coefficient of friction
4.2.2 Solve simple numerical problems related to the elements in the above objectives
4.2.3 State the formulas for the pressure exerted by a liquid at any given vertical depth
4.2.4 Deduce the equation F = 9.81 x head x density x area, to give the force on the surfaces of a rectangular
tank when filled with liquid
4.2.5 Define the effect of ‘sounding pipes’, ‘air release pipes’ or other ‘stand pipes’ when containing liquid
Overview
function of time. Velocity is equivalent to a specification of an
object's speed and direction of motion (e.g. 60 km/h to the north). Velocity is
a fundamental concept in kinematics, the branch of classical mechanics that
describes the motion of bodies.
Velocity is a physical vector quantity; both magnitude and direction are

needed to define it. The scalar absolute value (magnitude) of velocity is
called speed, being a coherent derived unit whose quantity is measured in the SI (metric system) as metres
per second (m/s or m⋅s−1). For example, "5 metres per second" is a scalar, whereas "5 metres per second
east" is a vector. If there is a change in speed, direction or both, then the object has a changing velocity and is
said to be undergoing an acceleration.
4 VELOCITY AS A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

In a position-time graph, the velocity of the moving object
is represented by the slope, or steepness, of the graph line. If
the graph line is horizontal, like the line after time = 5 seconds
in Graph 2 in the figure below, then the slope is zero and so is the velocity. The position of the object is not
changing.
In a position-time graph, the velocity of the moving object is represented by the slope, or steepness, of
the graph line. If the graph line is horizontal, like the line after time = 5 seconds in Graph 2 in the figure below,
then the slope is zero and so is the velocity. The position of the object is not changing.
Velocity versus time graphs to describe motion. As we will learn, the specific features of the motion of objects
are demonstrated by the shape and the slope of the lines on a velocity vs. time graph. The first part of this
lesson involves a study of the relationship between the shape of a v-t graph and the motion of the object.
Constant Velocity versus Changing Velocity

Consider a car moving with a constant, rightward (+) velocity - say of +10 m/s, a car moving with a constant
velocity is a car with zero acceleration.
If the velocity-time data for such a car were graphed, then

the resulting graph would look like the graph at the right.
Note that a motion described as a constant, positive velocity
results in a line of zero slope (a horizontal line has zero
slope) when plotted as a velocity-time graph. Furthermore,
only positive velocity values are plotted, corresponding to a
motion with positive velocity.
Now consider a car moving with a rightward (+), changing velocity - that is, a car that is moving rightward but
speeding up or accelerating. Since the car is moving in the positive direction and speeding up, the car is said to
have a positive acceleration.
If the velocity-time data for such a car were graphed, then the
resulting graph would look like the graph at the right. Note
that a motion described as a changing, positive velocity results
in a sloped line when plotted as a velocity-time graph. The
slope of the line is positive, corresponding to the positive
acceleration. Furthermore, only positive velocity values are
plotted, corresponding to a motion with positive velocity.
The velocity vs. time graphs for the two types of motion -
constant velocity and changing velocity (acceleration) - can be summarized as follows.
4.1 USE THE PARALLELOGRAM AND THE TRIANGLE OF VELOCITIES TO OBTAIN A RESULTANT VELOCITY
The resultant vector is the vector that 'results' from adding two or more vectors together. There are two
different ways to calculate the resultant vector.
Methods for calculating a Resultant Vector:
• The head to tail method to calculate a resultant which involves lining up the head of the one vector with
the
tail of the other.
• The parallelogram method to calculate resultant vector. This method involves properties
of parallelograms but, in the end, boils down to a simple formula.
In the picture on the left, the black vector is the resultant of the two red vectors. To try
to understand what a resultant is consider the following story.
If you drove from your house, centered at the origin. To your friend’s house, at the point
(3, 4), imagine that you had to take two different roads these are the two red vectors.
However, the resultant vectorwould be the straight line path from your home to your
friend's house, and the black vector represents that path.
4.2 FRICTION IN THE HORIZONTAL PLANE

Friction describes the force between two surfaces when you try to move one across the other. The force resists motion,
and in most cases the force acts in the opposite direction to the motion. Down at the molecular level, when you press
two surfaces together, minor imperfections in each surface can interlock, and there may be attractive forces between
the molecules of one material and the other. These factors make it harder to move them past each other. You don’t
work at this level when you calculate the force of friction, though. For everyday situations, physicists’ group all of these
factors together in the “coefficient” μ.
Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each
other.
There are several types of friction:
• Dry friction is a force that opposes the relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is
subdivided
into static friction ("stiction") between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction between moving surfaces. With the
exception of atomic or molecular friction, dry friction generally arises from the interaction of surface features, known
as asperities (see Figure 1).
• Fluid friction describes the friction between layers of a viscous fluid that are moving relative to each other.
• Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a lubricant fluid separates two solid surfaces.
• Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a fluid across the surface of a body.
• Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it
undergoes deformation.
When surfaces in contact move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic
energy into thermal energy (that is, it converts work to heat). This property can have
dramatic consequences, as illustrated by the use of friction created by rubbing
pieces of wood together to start a fire. Kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy
whenever motion with friction occurs, for example when a viscous fluid is stirred.
Another important consequence of many types of friction can be wear, which may
lead to performance degradation or damage to components. Friction is a component
of the science of tribology.
4.2.1 THE FORCE REQUIRED TO OVERCOME FRICTION IN THE HORIZONTAL PLANE AS: F = ΜN
WHERE: F = FORCE IN NEWTONS
N = NORMAL (I.E., 90°) REACTION FORCE BETWEEN CONTACT SURFACES
Μ = COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION
Surfaces exert a frictional force that resists sliding motions, and you need to calculate the size of this force as
part of many physics problems. The amount of friction mainly depends on the “normal force,” which surfaces
exert on the objects sitting on them, as well as the characteristics of the specific surface you’re considering.
For most purposes, you can use the formula:F = ΜN,to calculate friction, with N standing for the “normal”
force and “μ” incorporating the characteristics of the surface.
Calculating the Force of Friction

The “normal” force describes the force that the surface an object is resting on (or is pressed onto) exerts on
the object. For a still object on a flat surface, the force must exactly oppose the force due to gravity, otherwise
the object would move, according to Newton’s laws of motion. The “normal” force (N) is the name for the
force that does this.
It always acts perpendicular to the surface. This means that on an inclined surface, the normal force would still
point directly away from the surface, while the force of gravity would point directly downwards.
4.2.2 SOLVE SIMPLE NUMERICAL PROBLEMS RELATED TO THE ELEMENTS IN THE ABOVE OBJECTIVES
Example problem1
A horizontal force of 20 N acts on a particle of mass 7 kg on a rough horizontal plane. Given the particle is on
the point of slipping, what is the coefficient of friction, between the particle and the plane?
Solution
Resolving Vertically: R = mg = 68.67 N
Resolving Horizontally: 20 − F = 0, ⇒ F = 20 N mg R F 20 N Figure
As the particle is on the point of slipping, fiction is limiting, F = FMAX,

so: FMAX = µR
20 = 68.67µ
⇒ µ = 20/68.67
⇒ µ = 0.29 (2 s.f.)
Example problem2
The coefficient of friction between a particle, of mass 8 kg, and a rough horizontal plane is 0.4. Given a
horizontal force of 29 N acts on the particle (as in Figure 3) does slipping occur?
Solution
Resolving Vertically: R = mg = 78.48 N
Also: FMAX = 0.4 × 78.48 = 31 N (2 s.f.)

And for equilibrium: F = 29 < 31 = FMAX, so no motion will occur.
4.2.3 FORMULAS FOR THE PRESSURE EXERTED BY A LIQUID AT ANY GIVEN VERTICAL DEPTH
Pressure is the weight of the fluid mg divided by the area A supporting it (the area of the bottom of the
container):
P = mg A
P=hρg
Where
P = is the pressure,
H = is the height of the liquid,
ρ = is the density of the liquid, and
g = is the acceleration due to gravity.
If your ears have ever popped on a plane flight or ached during a deep dive in a swimming pool, you have
experienced the effect of depth on pressure in a fluid. At the Earth’s surface, the air pressure exerted on you is
a result of the weight of air above you. This pressure is reduced as you climb up in altitude and the weight of
air above you decreases. Under water, the pressure exerted on you increases with increasing depth. In this
case, the pressure being exerted upon you is a result of both the weight of water above you and that of the
atmosphere above you. You may notice an air pressure change on an elevator ride that transports you many
stories, but you need only dive a meter or so below the surface of a pool to feel a pressure increase. The
difference is that water is much denser than air, about 775 times as dense. Consider the container in Figure 1.
Its bottom supports the weight of the fluid in it. Let us calculate the pressure exerted on the bottom by the
weight of the fluid. That pressure is the weight of the fluid mg divided by the area A supporting it (the area of
the bottom of the container):
P=mgA
We can find the mass of the fluid from its volume and density:
m = ρV
The volume of the fluid V is related to the dimensions of the container. It is
V = Ah,
where A is the cross-sectional area and h is the depth. Combining the last two equations gives
m=ρAhm=ρAh.
If we enter this into the expression for pressure, we obtain
P=(ρAh)gAP=(ρAh)gA.
The area cancels, and rearranging the variables yields
P = h ρ g.
4.2.4 EQUATION F = 9.81 X HEAD X DENSITY X AREA, TO GIVE THE FORCE ON THE SURFACES OF A
RECTANGULAR TANK WHEN FILLED WITH LIQUID
Fluid Density
Fluid Density is the mass per unit volume and is denoted by the Greek letter ρ (rho).
The dimensions of density are mass per length cubed or M / L³
The old English system of units uses the slug for the unit of mass and feet for the unit of
length. Dimensions commonly used in connection with this system are force, F, length, L, and time, T.
In the System International (SI), the common dimensions are mass, M, length, L, and time, T. By using the LFT
dimension the slug can be obtained by relating mass to force with acceleration due to gravity.
i.e. F(force) = M(mass) x g(acceleration due to gravity)
Since the units of acceleration are ft³/sec²

the units of density in the English system are Slug/ft³ or lb•sec²/ft^4
The units of density in the SI system are kg/m³ or N•sec²/m^4
It is possible to convert between the English system and the SI system by substituting the equivalent of each
dimension with the appropriate value.
1 Slug/ft³ = 515.363 kg/m³
The density of water is 1.94 slug/ft³ or 1000 kg/m³ (1 gr/cm³);

Specific Weight
Specific weight, sometimes referred to as unit weight, is simply the weight of fluid per unit volume. It is usually denoted
by the Greek letter γ (gamma) and has dimensions of force per unit volume.
Its units in the English system and the SI system are lb/ft³ and N/m³ or kg/m²•sec²
The specific weight and the fluid density are related by the acceleration due to gravity, orγ = gρ
In the U.S., density is often given as pounds per cubic foot, lb/ft³
Since g = 32.2 ft/sec² (9.81 m/sec²), the specific weight of water is

γ = 32.2 x 1.94 slugs = 62.4 lb/ft³
γ = 9.81 x 1000 kg/m³ = 9810 N/m³ (SI)
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 62.4 lb/ft3 . The specific gravity of mercury is
13.56. Compute the density of water and the specific weight and density of mercury.
Solution
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 9.81 kN/m3 . The specific gravity of
mercury is 13.56. Compute the density of water and the specific weight and density of mercury
Solution
4.2.5 THE EFFECT OF ‘SOUNDING PIPES’, ‘AIR RELEASE PIPES’ OR OTHER ‘STAND PIPES’ WHEN CONTAINING
LIQUID
Sounding pipes are small-bore mild steel pipes used to measure the quantity of fluid in a tank or a hold bilge.
The pipe allows a tape or sounding rod to pass through to the bottom of a tank or hold. Deck sounding
pipes pass through the weather deck and are fitted with screw-down caps.
They allow free flow of air preventing pressure or vacuum, keeping pressure same as atmospheric pressure.
Upper ends of Air pipes have specific fittings to prevent unintentional flooding during bad weather. This will be
covered later on in ship construction class.
Air pipes are provided for all tanks to prevent air being trapped under pressure in the tank when it is filled, or
a vacuum being created when it is emptied. The air pipes may be fitted at the opposite end of the tank to the
filling pipe and/or at the highest point of the tank.
MODULE 5
Topic: SKETCHES, A HYDRAULIC LIFTING MACHINE

5 Define, with the aid of sketches, a hydraulic lifting machine
5.1 Apply simple numerical calculations related to the elements in the above objectives
5.2 Describe the different energies stored in a liquid when in motion as potential energy and kinetic energy
5.3 Define the “of a liquid”
5.3.1 State the energy components in a moving liquid in terms of its head
5.3.2 State the expression to give the volumetric flow of liquid as its velocity x cross – sectional area, measured
in m³/second
5.3.3 State the expression to give the mass flow of liquid as its velocity x cross – sectional area x density,
measured in kilogram / second
5.3.4 Solve simple problems concerning the above objectives
5.4 Discuss fluid at res: Pascal’s law is started and explained; Center of ratio is defined; the center is always
below the centroid wetted area.
5.5 Explain fluid in motion: Laminar flow, turbulent flow and viscosity is explained. The development of flow
pattern as liquid velocity is increased until turbulence occurs is described and illustrated. Critical velocity is
defined
Overview
Hydraulic machines use liquid fluid power to perform work. Heavy construction vehicles are a common
example. In this type of machine, hydraulic fluid is pumped to various hydraulic motors and hydraulic
cylinders throughout the machine and becomes pressurized according to the resistance present. The fluid is
controlled directly or automatically by control valves and
distributed through hoses, tubes, or pipes.
Hydraulic systems, like pneumatic systems, are based on Pascal's
law which states that any pressure applied to a fluid inside a
closed system will transmit that pressure equally everywhere and
in all directions. A hydraulic system uses an in-
compressible liquid as its fluid, rather than a compressible gas.
The popularity of hydraulic machinery is due to the very large
amount of power that can be transferred through small tubes and
flexible hoses, and the high power density and wide array
of actuators that can make use of this power, and the huge multiplication of forces that can be achieved by
applying pressures over relatively large areas. One drawback, compared to machines using gears and shafts, is
that any transmission of power results in some losses due to resistance of fluid flow through the piping.
5 SKETCHES OF HYDRAULIC LIFTING MACHINES

A hydraulic lift is a type of machine that uses a hydraulic apparatus to lift or move
objects using the force created when pressure is exerted on liquid in a piston. Force
then produces "lift" and "work."
A hydraulic lift is a device for moving objects using force created by pressure on a
liquid inside a cylinder that moves a piston upward. Incompressible oil is pumped
into the cylinder, which forces the piston upward. When a valve opens to release the oil, the piston lowers by
gravitational force.
The principle for hydraulic lifts is based on Pascal’s law for generating force or motion, which states that
pressure change on an incompressible liquid in a confined space is passed equally throughout
the liquid in all directions.
The concept of Pascal’s law and its application to hydraulics can be seen in the example below,
where a small amount of force is applied to an incompressible liquid on the left to create a large
amount of force on the right.
A hydraulic system works by applying force at one point to an

incompressible liquid, which sends force to a second point. The process
involves two pistons that are connected by an oil filled pipe.The image below is a
representation of the two pistons and how they are connected by a pipe.
The diagram below represents a simple version of the working mechanism of a hydraulic device. The handle
on the right moves the incompressible oil, under pressure, from the reservoir to the
high-pressure chamber in the middle of the diagram. The ram moves up as the oil is
pumped in.
The force generated in a hydraulic system depends on the size of the pistons. If the
smaller of the two pistons is two inches and the larger piston is six inches, or three
times as large, the amount of force created will be nine times greater than the
amount of force from the smaller piston. One hundred pounds of force by a small piston will be able to lift 900
pounds.
5.1 SIMPLE NUMERICAL CALCULATIONS RELATED TO THE ELEMENTS IN THE ABOVE OBJECTIVES
Application of Pascal’s Principle
One of the most important technological applications of Pascal’s principle is found in
a hydraulic system, which is an enclosed fluid system used to exert forces. The most
common hydraulic systems are those that operate car brakes. Let us first consider the simple
hydraulic system shown in Figure 1.
Relationship Between Forces in a Hydraulic System

We can derive a relationship between the forces in the simple hydraulic system shown in Figure 1 by applying
Pascal’s principle. Note first that the two pistons in the system are at the same height, and so there will be no
difference in pressure due to a difference in depth. Now the pressure due to F1 acting on area A1 is simply
P1=F1
A1
as defined by
P=F
A
According to Pascal’s principle, this pressure is transmitted undiminished throughout the fluid and to all walls
of the container. Thus, a pressure P2 is felt at the other piston that is equal to P1. That is P1 = P2. But since
P2=F2
A2
we see that
F1=F2
A 1A 2
This equation relates the ratios of force to area in any hydraulic system, providing the pistons are at the same
vertical height and that friction in the system is negligible. Hydraulic systems can increase or decrease the
force applied to them. To make the force larger, the pressure is applied to a larger area. For example, if a 100-
N force is applied to the left cylinder in Figure 1 and the right one has an area five times greater, then the
force out is 500 N. Hydraulic systems are analogous to simple levers, but they have the advantage that
pressure can be sent through tortuously curved lines to several places at once.
Sample problem: Calculating force of slave cylinders: PASCAL put on the brakes.
Consider the automobile hydraulic system shown in Figure2.
A force of 100 N is applied to the brake pedal, which acts on

the cylinder—called the master—through a lever. A force of
500 N is exerted on the master cylinder. (The reader can
verify that the force is 500 N using techniques of statics
from Applications of Statics, Including Problem-Solving
Strategies.) Pressure created in the master cylinder is
transmitted to four so-called slave cylinders. The master
cylinder has a diameter of 0.500 cm, and each slave cylinder
has a diameter of 2.50 cm. Calculate the force F2 created at
each of the slave cylinders.
Strategy
We are given the force F1 that is applied to the master
cylinder. The cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 can be
calculated from their given diameters. Then
F1=F2
A 1A 2
can be used to find the force F2. Manipulate this algebraically to get F2 on one side and substitute known
values:
Solution
Pascal’s principle applied to hydraulic systems is given by
F1=F2:
A 1A 2
F2=A2 F2=πrT22
A1 πrT12
F2=(1.25 cm)2×500 N = 1.25 x 104N

(0.250 cm)2
F2=1.5625 sq.cm x 500 N

0.0625 sq.cm
F1 = 25 x 500 N
F1 = 12,500 N or 1.25 x 104N
Discussion
This value is the force exerted by each of the four slave cylinders. Note that we can add as many slave
cylinders as we wish. If each has a 2.50-cm diameter, each will exert 12,500 N(1.25 × 104 N).
5.2 THE DIFFERENT ENERGIES STORED IN A LIQUID WHEN IN MOTION AS POTENTIAL ENERGY AND
KINETIC ENERGY
Energy is everywhere and comes in many forms, with the two most common forms known as potential energy
and kinetic energy. Though they’re very different in terms of how they interact with the physical world, they
have certain aspects that make them complementary to one another. But to understand how they work, you
first need to understand what they are — and the definition of energy itself.
Before understanding either form of energy, it’s vital to understand what energy really is. In the simplest terms, energy
is the ability to do work, which is when a force is applied to an object and it moves.
Potential energy is one of the two main types of energy in the universe. It’s fairly straightforward, although
slightly difficult to grasp intuitively: It is a form of energy that has the potential to do work but is not actively
doing work or applying any force on any other objects. Potential energy of an object is found in its position,
not its motion. It is the energy of position.
When objects are displaced from positions of equilibrium, they gain energy that was stored in the objects
before being knocked out of equilibrium by elastic rebound, gravity, or chemical reactions. This is best
demonstrated in an object like an archer’s bow, which stores the energy that is created from pulling back the
bowstring. The potential energy stored in the pullback is responsible for the energy that occurs upon release,
which is known as kinetic energy.
Understanding kinetic energy is intuitively easier because it’s more obvious that moving things have energy.
Kinetic energy is created when potential energy is released, spurred into motion by gravity or elastic forces,
among other catalysts.
Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. When work is done on an object and it accelerates, it increases the
kinetic energy of an object. The most important factors that determine kinetic energy is the motion (measured
as velocity) and the mass of the object in question.
While mass is a universal measurement, the motion of an object can occur in many different ways, including
rotation about an axis, vibration, translation, or any combination of these and other motions.
There are three subcategories of kinetic energy: vibrational, rotational, and translational.
Vibrational kinetic energy is, unsurprisingly, caused by objects vibrating. Rotational kinetic energy is created by
moving objects, while translational kinetic energy is caused by objects colliding with one another.
These three subcategories of kinetic energy comprise nearly all of the energy in motion throughout the known
universe.
The main difference between potential and kinetic energy is that one is the energy of what can be and one is
the energy of what is. In other words, potential energy is stationary, with stored energy to be released; kinetic
energy is energy in motion, actively using energy for movement.
Another important difference is velocity. This measurement is the basis of kinetic energy yet has nothing to do
with potential energy. In fact, velocity is the most important part of the equation when determining the
amount of kinetic energy for any given object, and it is nonexistent in the potential energy equation.
5.3 THE LIQUID”

A liquid is a nearly incompressible fluid that conforms to the shape of its container but retains a (nearly)
constant volume independent of pressure. As such, it is one of the four fundamental
states of matter (the others being solid, gas, and plasma), and is the only state with a
definite volume but no fixed shape.
A liquid is made up of tiny vibrating particles of matter, such as atoms, held together
by intermolecular bonds. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a
container. Most liquids resist compression, although others can be compressed. Unlike
a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container and maintains a fairly constant density. A
distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, leading to wetting phenomena. Water is, by far, the
most common liquid on Earth.
The density of a liquid is usually close to that of a solid, and much higher than in a gas. Therefore, liquid and
solid are both termed condensed matter. On the other hand, as liquids and gases share the ability to flow,
they are both called fluids. Although liquid water is abundant on Earth, this state of matter is actually the least
common in the known universe, because liquids require a relatively narrow temperature/pressure range to
exist. Most known matter in the universe is in gaseous form (with traces of detectable solid matter)
as interstellar clouds or in plasma from within stars.
5.3.1 THE ENERGY COMPONENTS IN A MOVING LIQUID IN TERMS OF ITS HEAD

Fluid head is the height of a vertical column of fluid and represents mechanical energy per pound of fluid.
The fluid head is the pressure which is measured by the height to which fluid that is being pumped can be
raised by the pressure.
Fluid particles are subject only to pressure and their own weight. If a fluid is flowing horizontally and along a
section of a streamline, where the speed increases it can only be because the fluid on that section has moved
from a region of higher pressure to a region of lower pressure; and if its speed decreases, it can only be
because it has moved from a region of lower pressure to a region of higher pressure. Consequently, within a
fluid flowing horizontally, the highest speed occurs where the pressure is lowest, and the lowest speed occurs
where the pressure is highest
Different Types of Energies or Head of a Liquid in Motion. The following are the three types of energies or
head of flowing liquids:
1. Potential energy or potential head. It is due to the position above some suitable datum line. It is denoted
by
z.
2. Kinetic energy or kinetic (or velocity) head. It is due to the velocity of flowing liquid. Its value is given by v2/
2g, where v is the velocity of flow and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
3. Pressure energy or pressure head. It is due to the pressure of liquid. Its value is given by p/w, where p is the
pressure in N / m2 and w is the weight density of the liquid in N / m3.
Note: The total energy or total head of a liquid particle in motion is given as follows :
Total energy, E = Potential energy + Kinetic energy + Pressure energyand
Total head, H = Potential head + Kinetic head + Pressure head
5.3.2 THE EXPRESSION TO GIVE THE VOLUMETRIC FLOW OF LIQUID AS ITS VELOCITY X CROSS – SECTIONAL
AREA, MEASURED IN M³/SECOND
You might hear the term volume flow rate and think it sounds boring, but volume flow rate keeps you alive. I'll
tell you how in a second, but first we should define volume flow rate. The
volume flow rate Qof a fluid is defined to be the volume of fluid that is
passing through a given cross sectional area per unit time. The term cross
sectional area is just a fancy term often used to describe the area through
which something is flowing, e.g., the circular area inside the dashed line in
the diagram below.
Since volume flow rate measures the amount of volume that passes
through an area per time, the equation for the volume flow rate looks like
this:
Q=V = Volume
t time
In S.I. units (International System of Units), volume flow rate has units of meters cubed per second,m3since it
s
tells you the number of cubic meters of fluid that flow per second.So how does volume flow rate keep you
alive? Your heart pumps a volume of blood roughly equal to the volume of a can of soda every four seconds.
5.3.3 THE MASS FLOW OF LIQUID AS ITS VELOCITY X CROSS – SECTIONAL AREA X DENSITY, MEASURED IN
KILOGRAM / SECOND
In physics and engineering, in particular fluid dynamics, the volumetric flow rate (also known as volume flow
rate, rate of fluid flow, or volume velocity) is the volume of fluid which passes per unit time; usually it is
represented by the symbol Q (sometimes V̇). The SI unit is cubic meters per second (m3/s). Another unit used
is standard cubic centimeters per minute (SCCM). In hydrometry, it is known as discharge.
In US customary units and imperial units, volumetric flow rate is often expressed as cubic feet per second
(ft3/s) or gallons per minute (either US or imperial definitions).
Volumetric flow rate should not be confused with volumetric flux, as defined by Darcy's law and represented
by the symbol q, with units of m3/(m2·s), that is, m·s−1. The integration of a flux over an area gives the
volumetric flow rate.
Volumetric flow rate can also be defined by:
Q = vA
where:
v = flow velocity
A = cross-sectional vector area/surface
The above equation is only true for flat, plane cross-sections. In general, including curved surfaces, the
equation becomes a surface integral:
This is the definition used in practice. The area required to calculate the volumetric flow rate is real or
imaginary, flat or curved, either as a cross-sectional area or a surface. The vector area is a combination of the
magnitude of the area through which the volume passes through, A, and a unit vector normal to the area, n̂.
The relation is A = An̂.
The reason for the dot product is as follows. The only volume flowing through the cross-section is the amount
normal to the area, that is, parallel to the unit normal. This amount is:
where θ is the angle between the unit normal n̂ and the velocity vector v of the substance elements. The
amount passing through the cross-section is reduced by the factor cos θ. As θ increases less volume passes
through. Substance which passes tangential to the area, that is perpendicular to the unit normal, does not
pass through the area. This occurs when θ = π/2 and so this amount of the volumetric flow rate is zero:
These results are equivalent to the dot product between velocity and the normal direction to the area.
When the mass flow rate is known, and the density can be assumed constant, this is an easy way to get Q.
Where:
ṁ = mass flow rate (in kg/s).
ρ = density (in kg/m3).
5.3.4 SOLVE SIMPLE PROBLEMS CONCERNING THE ABOVE OBJECTIVES

Sample problem
How many cubic meters of blood does the heart pump in a 75-year lifetime, assuming the average flow rate is
5.00 L/min?
Given:
Q = 5.00 L/min
t = 75
Find: cubic meters of blood does the heart pump
Formula:
Q = V/t V = Qt
Solution:
V = Qt
V = [5.00 L/min] [75y] [1m3103L] [5.26 x 10 min y] = 2.0 x 105m3
Substituting known values yields
V = 200,000 cubic meters
Discussion
This amount is about 200,000 tons of blood. For comparison, this value is equivalent to about 200 times the
volume of water contained in a 6-lane 50-m lap pool.
5.4 FLUID AT REST: PASCAL’S LAW IS STARTED AND EXPLAINED; CENTER OF RATIO IS DEFINED; THE
CENTER IS ALWAYS BELOW THE CENTROID WETTED AREA.
Pressure is defined as force per unit area. Can pressure be increased in a fluid by pushing directly on the fluid?
Yes, but it is much easier if the fluid is enclosed. The heart, for example, increases blood pressure by pushing
directly on the blood in an enclosed system (valves closed in a chamber). If you try to push on a fluid in an
open system, such as a river, the fluid flows away.
An enclosed fluid cannot flow away, and so pressure is more easily increased by an applied force. What
happens to a pressure in an enclosed fluid? Since atoms in a fluid are free to move about, they transmit the
pressure to all parts of the fluid and to the walls of the container. Remarkably, the pressure is
transmitted undiminished. This phenomenon is called Pascal’s principle, because it was first clearly stated by
the French philosopher and scientist Blaise Pascal (1623–1662): A change in pressure applied to an enclosed
fluid is transmitted undiminished to all portions of the fluid and to the walls of its container.
The center of pressure is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body, causing a force to
act through that point. The total force vector acting at the center of pressure is the value of the integrated
vectorial pressure field. The resultant force and center of pressure location produce equivalent force and
moment on the body as the original pressure field. Pressure fields occur in both static and dynamic fluid
mechanics. Specification of the center of pressure, the reference point from which the center of pressure is
referenced, and the associated force vector allows the moment generated about any point to be computed by
a translation from the reference point to the desired new point. It is common for the center of pressure to be
located on the body, but in fluid flows it is possible for the pressure field to exert a moment on the body of
such magnitude that the center of pressure is located outside the body.
5.5 FLUID IN MOTION: LAMINAR FLOW, TURBULENT FLOW AND VISCOSITY IS EXPLAINED. THE
DEVELOPMENT OF FLOW PATTERN AS LIQUID VELOCITY IS INCREASED UNTIL TURBULENCE OCCURS
IS
DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED. CRITICAL VELOCITY IS DEFINED
Laminar flow is characterized by smooth flow of the fluid in layers that do not mix. Turbulence is characterized
by eddies and swirls that mix layers of fluid together. Fluid viscosity η is due to friction within a fluid. Flow is
proportional to pressure difference and inversely proportional to resistance: Q=p−2p1R.
Laminar flow or streamline flow in pipes (or tubes) occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no
disruption between the layers. Turbulent flow is a flow regime characterized by chaotic property changes. This
includes rapid variation of pressure and flow velocity in space and time.
Laminar flow, type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid travels smoothly or in regular paths, in
contrast to turbulent flow, in which the fluid undergoes irregular fluctuations and mixing.The fluid in contact
with the horizontal surface is stationary, but all the other layers slide over each other.
Laminar flow, type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid travels
smoothly or in regular paths, in contrast to turbulent flow, in which the fluid
undergoes irregular fluctuations and mixing. In laminar flow, sometimes
called streamline flow, the velocity, pressure, and other flow properties at
each point in the fluid remain constant. Laminar flow over a horizontal surface
may be thought of as consisting of thin layers, or laminae, all parallel to each
other. The fluid in contact with the horizontal surface is stationary, but all the other layers slide over each
other. A deck of new cards, as a rough analogy, may be made to “flow” laminarly.
Laminar flow in a straight pipe may be considered as the relative motion of a set of concentric cylinders of
fluid, the outside one fixed at the pipe wall and the others moving at increasing speeds as the center of the
pipe is approached. Smoke rising in a straight path from a cigarette is undergoing laminar flow. After rising a
small distance, the smoke usually changes to turbulent flow, as it eddies and swirls from its regular path.
Laminar flow is common only in cases in which the flow channel is relatively small, the fluid is moving slowly,
and its viscosity is relatively high. Oil flow through a thin tube or blood flow through capillaries is laminar.
Most other kinds of fluid flow are turbulent except near solid boundaries, where the flow is often laminar,
especially in a thin layer just adjacent to the surface.
Turbulent flow, type of fluid (gas or liquid) flow in which the fluid undergoes
irregular fluctuations, or mixing, in contrast to laminar flow, in which the fluid
moves in smooth paths or layers. In turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at a
point is continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and direction. The
flow of wind and rivers is generally turbulent in this sense, even if the currents
are gentle. The air or water swirls and eddies while its overall bulk moves along a specific direction.
The Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it corresponds
to the informal concept of "thickness": for example, syrup has a higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity can be conceptualized as quantifying the internal frictional force that
arises between adjacent layers of fluid that are in relative motion. For instance,
when a viscous fluid is forced through a tube, it flows more quickly near the
tube's axis than near its walls. In such a case, experiments show that
some stress (such as a pressure difference between the two ends of the tube) is
needed to sustain the flow through the tube. This is because a force is required
to overcome the friction between the layers of the fluid which are in relative motion. So, for a tube with a
constant rate of flow, the strength of the compensating force is proportional to the fluid's viscosity.
A fluid that has no resistance to shear stress is known as an ideal or inviscid fluid. Zero viscosity is observed
only at very low temperatures in superfluids. Otherwise, the second law of thermodynamics requires all fluids
to have positive viscosity; such fluids are technically said to be viscous or viscid. A fluid with a high viscosity,
such as pitch, may appear to be a solid.
Critical velocity of a fluid is the velocity at which the liquid flow turns from streamlined to turbulent. When
the velocity of a fluid in a pipe is less, the streamlines are straight parallel lines but as the velocity is gradually
increased, the streamlines continue to be straight and parallel to the pipe wall until a velocity is reached that
causes the streamlines to break and form patterns. Critical velocity disperses the streamlines randomly
throughout the pipe.
The other way of defining critical velocity is the speed and direction at which the fluid can flow through a
conduit without becoming turbulent. Turbulent flow is defined as the irregular flow of the fluid with
continuous change in magnitude and direction. It is the opposite of laminar flow which is defined as the flow
of fluid in parallel layers without disruptions of the layers.
Development of flow pattern as liquid velocity is increased until turbulence occurs

When you pour yourself a glass of juice, the liquid flows freely and quickly. But when you pour syrup on your
pancakes, that liquid flows slowly and sticks to the pitcher. The difference is fluid friction, both within the fluid
itself and between the fluid and its surroundings. We call this property of fluids viscosity. Juice has low
viscosity, whereas syrup has high viscosity.
In the previous sections we have considered ideal fluids with little or no viscosity. In this section, we will
investigate what factors, including viscosity, affect the rate
of fluid flow. The precise definition of viscosity is based
on laminar, or nonturbulent, flow. Before we can define
viscosity, then, we need to define laminar flow and
turbulent flow. Figure 1 shows both types of
flow. Laminar flow is characterized by the smooth flow of
the fluid in layers that do not mix. Turbulent flow,
or turbulence, is characterized by eddies and swirls that mix
layers of fluid together.

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Bachelor of Schience in Marine

Module Topics Coverage

This course shall adopt this grade distribution guide as follows:

1.1 EXPLAIN SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES

Examples of Scalar Quantities

Examples of Vector Quantities

1.1.3 FORCE AS A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION OF FORCE

PARALLELOGRAM LAW OF FORCES

Magnitude and Direction of Resultant:

1.3. EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCE SYSTEM AND COPLANAR FORCE SYSTEM

1.3.1 State the principle of equilibrium

1.3.2 THE EQUILIBRANT

1.3.3 THE NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR THREE FORCES TO BE IN EQUILIBRIUM

A solid body submitted to three forces whose lines of action

1.3.4 THE TRIANGLE OF FORCES

This polygon of forces may, by a slight extension of the above

1.3.6 THE CONDITION FOR EQUILIBRIUM IN THE POLYGON OF FORCES

Topic: MOMENT OF FORCE

2.1 THE MOMENT OF A FORCE ABOUT A POINT

2.2.1 THE MOMENT PRODUCED BY A COUPLE

A body is in equilibrium when it remains either in uniform motion (both

2.3.1 BALANCE MOMENTS

A ball at the bottom of a trough

2.3.2 A FORCE INTO A FORCES AND A COUPLE

2.5 CENTER OF GRAVITY DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SECTIONS

2.6 VERTICAL TRANSLATION AND HORIZONTAL TRANSLATION

In function graphing, a horizontal translation is a transformation which results in a

Center of mass and toppling stability

Let: x = price of adult ticket

DEFINITION Systems of Two Linear Equations in Two Variable

Given the linear system

Matched Problem 1 Solve by graphing and check:

3.1 VELOCITY AND THE EFFECT OF CHANGE OF DIRECTIONS

Fluid statics or hydrostatics is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies

3.5 VELOCITY AS VECTOR QUANTITY

3.6 PLOT GRAPHS OF VELOCITY AGAINST TIME

Representing Free Fall by Position-Time Graphs

Representing Free Fall by Velocity-Time Graphs

3.7 RELATIVE VELOCITY

When two objects are moving in the opposite direction, then

Let’s us understand the concept of relative velocity with this example.

Average Velocity Problem

3.7.2 THE AREA ENCLOSED BY A VELOCITY – TIME CURVE IS DISTANCE

3.7.3 ACCELERATION IN TERMS OF INITIAL AND FINAL VALUES OF VELOCITY

3.7.4 SOLVE SIMPLE PROBLEMS, USING THE EQUATIONS

(b) Correct equation is s = ut + ½at2

Topic: VELOCITY AS A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

Velocity is a physical vector quantity; both magnitude and direction are

4 VELOCITY AS A GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION

Constant Velocity versus Changing Velocity

If the velocity-time data for such a car were graphed, then

Methods for calculating a Resultant Vector:

4.2 FRICTION IN THE HORIZONTAL PLANE

Calculating the Force of Friction

As the particle is on the point of slipping, fiction is limiting, F = FMAX,

Also: FMAX = 0.4 × 78.48 = 31 N (2 s.f.)

The dimensions of density are mass per length cubed or M / L³

Since the units of acceleration are ft³/sec²

The units of density in the SI system are kg/m³ or N•sec²/m^4

1 Slug/ft³ = 515.363 kg/m³

The density of water is 1.94 slug/ft³ or 1000 kg/m³ (1 gr/cm³);

Since g = 32.2 ft/sec² (9.81 m/sec²), the specific weight of water is

Topic: SKETCHES, A HYDRAULIC LIFTING MACHINE