9835 1 Ed

Doc 9835 AN/453
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficienc !e"uirement#
Approved by the Secretary General and published under his authority
First Edition 2004
International Civil Aviation Organi ation
AMENDMENTS
The issue of amendments is announced regularly in the ICAO Journal and in the monthly Supplement to the Catalogue of ICAO Publications and Audio-visual Training Aids, which holders of this publication should consult. The space below is provided to keep a record of such amendments.
RECORD OF AMENDMENTS AND CORRIGENDA

AMENDMENT No. Date Entered by No. Date !"##$%ENDA Entered by
(ii)
!A"#E OF CO$!E$!S
Page Fore%ord &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& & E'ecutive Su((ary &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& Chapter +& Introduction &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& 1.1 Background to strengthened ICAO language proficiency requirements ................................... 1.2 Revie of provisions prior to adoption of amendments containing language proficiency requirements ........................................................................................... 1." Call for close international cooperation ..................................................................................... Chapter 2& ICAO Standards and -eco((ended .ractices )SA-.s* concerning #anguage .ro/iciency -e0uire(ents &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& 2.1 2.2 2." 2.# 2.) 2., 2./ 2.0 2.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ Anne$ 1% &AR's related to proficiency requirements .............................................................. ICAO 'hraseology..................................................................................................................... (se of plain language................................................................................................................ *anguage to +e used................................................................................................................. -he ICAO language proficiency requirements in Anne$ 1. Appendi$ A ................................... Radiotelephone communications ............................................................................................. ICAO Rating &cale .................................................................................................................... Anne$es , and 11 ..................................................................................................................... #inguistic A%areness&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& )vii* )i'*
+,+ 1!1 1!" 1!#
2,+ 2!1 2!2 2!" 2!" 2!" 2!) 2!, 2!0 2!1 1,+ "!1 "!2 "!" "!# "!) "!) "!, "!/ "!0 4,+ #!1 #!2
Chapter 1& ".1 ".2 "." ".# ".) "., "./ ".0 ".1
2eneral...................................................................................................................................... 3ative and non!native speakers................................................................................................ ICAO phraseology ..................................................................................................................... Concurrent need for careful use of plain language ................................................................... &lang. 4argon and idioms........................................................................................................... 5unction and register................................................................................................................. 'ronunciation. dialect and accent ............................................................................................. Cross!cultural communication ................................................................................................... &ummary ................................................................................................................................... #anguage !raining and -adiotelephony Co((unications &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
Chapter 4&
#.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ #.2 *anguage learning..................................................................................................................... (iii)
(iv)
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements Page #." #.# #.) #., #./ #.0 #.1 *anguage training programme developer and instructor qualifications .................................... Content6 2eneral and aviation!specific 7nglish language training ........................................... Basic principles of language learning........................................................................................ Role of computer!+ased programmes....................................................................................... 'rogramme standards6 8ide variety in programme quality ...................................................... Additional factors ....................................................................................................................... &ummary of +est practice in aviation language training ........................................................... Co(pliance %ith ICAO #anguage .ro/iciency -e0uire(ents &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& #!" #!0 #!11 #!12 #!1" #!1" #!1" 2,+ )!1 )!2 )!2 )!2
Chapter 2& ).1 ).2 )." ).#
Introduction................................................................................................................................ Compliance ith Anne$ 1 &tandards 1.2.1.1 and 1.2.1.2 ......................................................... 9emonstration of proficiency at the 7$pert level....................................................................... 9emonstration of proficiency at *evels # and ) ........................................................................
Chapter 3&
Aviation #anguage !esting&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
3,+ ,!1 ,!2 ,!2 ,!" ,!" ,!) ,!, ,!1% ,!12 ,!12
,.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ ,.2 -est overvie ............................................................................................................................ ,." :igh stakes................................................................................................................................ ,.# -he solution6 7thics and a code of practice .............................................................................. ,.) Best practice for language testing in aviation ........................................................................... ,., -esting services ........................................................................................................................ ,./ -esting oral proficiency and the ICAO language proficiency rating scale................................. ,.0 2eneral!purpose and specific!purpose language testing ......................................................... ,.1 Computer!assisted language testing......................................................................................... ,.1% &ummary ................................................................................................................................... Chapter 4& Aviation #anguage and Aeronautical -adiotelephony Co((unicative #anguage Functions &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& /.1 /.2 /." /.# /.) /., Introduction................................................................................................................................ *anguage as a factor in aviation incidents and accidents......................................................... Aeronautical communicative language functions ...................................................................... &pecific!purpose language teaching ......................................................................................... Aeronautical language functions. events. domains and tasks .................................................. Communicative functions in radiotelephony communications .................................................. Additional Support /or !eaching and #earning &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&
4,+ /!1 /!1 /!# /!) /!) /!, 5,+ 0!1 0!" 0!#
Chapter 5&
0.1 -o the teacher ........................................................................................................................... 0.2 -o the material developer ; Aviation!specific materials .......................................................... 0." -o pilots and air traffic controllers6 &trategies for successful 7nglish language learning .........
Ta le of Contents A..E$6ICES
(v)
Page Appendi' A& 'art I. 'art II. 'art III. Appendi' "& 'art I. 'art II. 'art III. 'art I<. 'art <. ICAO SA-.s &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& 7$tracts from ICAO Anne$es 1. ,. 1% and 11 .................................................................. ICAO *anguage 'roficiency Rating &cale........................................................................ 7$planation of rating scale ............................................................................................... Aviation #anguage &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& Communicative *anguage 5unctions. 7vents. 9omains and -asks Associated ith Aviation ........................................................................................ 7vents and 9omains ........................................................................................................ 'riority *e$ical 9omains ................................................................................................... *anguage -asks of Air -raffic Controllers ........................................................................ 5our!8ord Clusters in &poken 7nglish ............................................................................ A,+ A!1 A!/ A!1% ",+ B!1 B!) B!1% B!11 B!10
Appendi' C& 1. 2. Appendi' 6& 1. 2. ".
Case Studies in Aviation #anguage !esting &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& Oral 'roficiency Intervie =O'I> -esting .......................................................................... '7*A ; 'roficiency in 7nglish *anguage for Air -raffic Control ..................................... Standards /or #anguage !raining and !esting &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& -raining 'rogramme &tandards ....................................................................................... *anguage -esting &tandards ; -he International *anguage -esting Association =I*-A> Code of 7thics.................................................................................... *anguage -esting &tandards ; -he ?apan *anguage -esting Association =?*-A> Code of 'ractice................................................................................
C,+ C!1 C!1 6,+ 9!1 9!1 9!0
Appendi' E& 'art I. 'art II.
Additional -e/erences &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& References ....................................................................................................................... 8hat is not &tandard in Real Radiotelephony@................................................................ A
E,+ 7!1 7!)
FO-E7O-6
&afety e$perts are constantly seeking to identify means of improving safety in order to reduce the already lo accident rates. 8ith mechanical failures featuring less prominently in aircraft accidents. more attention has +een focussed in recent years on human factors that contri+ute to accidents. Communication is one human element that is receiving rene ed attention. In 1110. the ICAO Assem+ly. taking note of several accidents and incidents here the language proficiency of pilot and air traffic controller ere causal or contri+utory factors. formulated Assem+ly Resolution A"2!1, in hich the ICAO Council as urged to direct the Air 3avigation Commission to consider. ith a high level of priority. the matter of 7nglish language proficiency and to complete the task of strengthening the relevant provisions of Anne$ 1 ; Personnel Licensing and Anne$ 1% ; Aeronautical Telecommunications. ith a vie to o+ligating Contracting &tates to take steps to ensure that air traffic control personnel and flight cre s involved in flight operations in airspace here the use of the 7nglish language is required are proficient in conducting and comprehending radiotelephony communications in the 7nglish language. &u+sequently. the Air 3avigation Commission esta+lished the 'roficiency Requirements in Common 7nglish &tudy 2roup ='RIC7&2> to assist the &ecretariat in carrying out a comprehensive revie of the e$isting provisions concerning all aspects of air!ground and ground!ground voice communications and to develop ne provisions as necessary. In Barch 2%%". the Council adopted amendments to Anne$ 1. Anne$ , ; Operation of Aircraft. Anne$ 1%. Anne$ 11 ; Air Traffic !ervices. and the 'rocedures for Air "avigation !ervices ; Air Traffic Management ='A3&!A-B. 9oc ####> relating to language proficiency in international civil aviation. In order to support &tatesC efforts to comply ith the strengthened provisions for language proficiency. the development and pu+lication of guidance material compiling comprehensive information on a range of aspects related to language proficiency training and testing ere seen as necessary. 8hile the ICAO *anguage 'roficiency Requirements ere developed for use in assessing language proficiency in all languages used for radiotelephony communications. not 4ust in the 7nglish language. much of the focus of this manual is on 7nglish language training issues. as this is the area in hich most &tates and aircraft operators require specific guidance. -he principles. ho ever. are largely transfera+le to other language training programmes as ell. -he purpose of this manual is not to provide a comprehensive language learning education to language instructors or training programme developers. nor to provide a curriculum ; tasks ell +eyond the scope of this document given the +readth of language training and testing activities required ; +ut rather to serve as a guide. -he target audience for this manual includes the training managers of civil aviation administrations. the airline industry. and training organiDations. -he material contained in this manual is dra n from a num+er of sources and is e$pressed in ays designed to +e accessi+le to laypersons outside the field of applied linguistics and language teaching. -his guidance material is of special interest to aviation specialists ho oversee the implementation of appropriate language training and testing programmes.
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E8EC9!I:E S9;;A-<
Chapter +& Introduction of
1. Inadequate language proficiency has played a role in accidents and incidents and led to a revie ICAO language requirements.
Assem+ly Resolution A"2!1, urged the Council to direct the Air 3avigation Commission =A3C> to consider this matter ith a high level of priority. and complete the task of strengthening provisions related to the use of the 7nglish language for radiotelephony communications. 2. Both ICAO phraseologies and plain language are required for safe radiotelephony communications. ". ICAO has adopted communications. strengthened language proficiency requirements for radiotelephony
#. All &tates and organiDations have a role to play in improving communications.
Chapter 2&
ICAO Standards and -eco((ended .ractices )SA-.s* concerning #anguage .ro/iciency -e0uire(ents
1. -he ICAO language proficiency requirements6 a> strengthen the provisions related to language use in radiotelephony communications. +oth for the language of the station on the ground and. in airspace here it is required. for 7nglish. from the level of Recommendations to &tandardsE +> esta+lish minimum skill level requirements for language proficiency for flight cre s and air traffic controllersE c> introduce an ICAO language proficiency rating scale applica+le to +oth native and non!native speakersE d> clarify the requirement for the use of +oth plain language and phraseologiesE e> standardiDe on the use of ICAO phraseologiesE f> recommend a testing schedule to demonstrate language proficiencyE and g> provide for service provider oversight of personnel compliance. 2. Anne$ 1% &AR's clarify that ICAO phraseologies shall +e used henever possi+le. ". Anne$ 1 &AR's descri+e ho language should +e used for radiotelephony communication.
#. -he language proficiency requirements in Anne$ 1 apply equally to native and non!native speakers. (i#)
(#)
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements ). 'ilots and controllers are required to demonstrate Operational *evel # language proficiency in the use of +oth ICAO phraseology and plain language +y 2%%0. ,. A &tandard in Anne$ 1 stipulates recurrent testing for pilots and controllers language proficiency +elo 7$pert *evel ,. ho demonstrate
/. Anne$es , and 11 stipulate service provider or airline oversight of personnel language proficiency. Chapter 1& #inguistic A%areness
1. -he ICAO language proficiency requirements apply to native and non!native speakers alike. 2. -he +urden of improving radiotelephony communications should +e shared +y native and non!native speakers. a> &tates should ensure that their use of phraseologies aligns as closely as possi+le standardiDed phraseologies. ith ICAO
+> 'ilots and controllers should +e a are of the natural haDards of cross!cultural communication. c> 3ative and other e$pert users of 7nglish should refrain from the use of idioms. colloquialisms. and other 4argon in radiotelephony communications and should modulate their rate of delivery. d> 3ative speakers must ensure that their variety of 7nglish is comprehensi+le to the international aeronautical community. e> 'lain language should +e specific. e$plicit. and direct. f> 7nglish!speaking organiDations. airlines or training centres may ish to e$plore ho they might provide cost!efficient 7nglish language learning opportunities to code share partners and other airlines at minimal cost. Chapter 4& #anguage !raining and -adiotelephony Co((unications
1. An important first step in the esta+lishment of efficient and cost!effective language learning programmes is the selection of appropriately and adequately qualified teachers. a> *earning a language is a great deal more comple$ than the familiar use of our o n native language in our daily lives often leads us to +elieve. +> *anguage teaching is a professional activity that requires specialiDed training and is further distinguished from other teaching activities +ecause of the unique nature of language learning6 a comple$ +lend of skill. kno ledge and cultural a areness. com+ining physical components ith mental and communicative processes. c> A chart outlining appropriate qualifications for a language training and testing specialist is provided in this chapter. ith language teachers to develop
2. Aeronautical su+4ect matter e$perts =&B7> should colla+orate accurate and effective programmes.
$#ecutive !ummary
(#i)
a> -he &B7 can ensure accurate and appropriate training content. and the language teacher can ensure that delivery focusses on language learning. +> -he task of teaching language classes or developing appropriate language learning materials should +e guided +y language teaching e$perts and material developers. ". 5light cre s and air traffic controllers need to acquire phraseologies. +ut aviation 7nglish training should not +e limited to phraseologies. #. *anguage proficiency is an intricate interplay of kno ledge. skills. and competence. requiring much more than memoriDation of voca+ulary items. ). Bany factors influence the language learning process. It is difficult to predict ho long any particular individual ill require to reach the ICAO Operational *evel # proficiencyE as a general rule of thum+. +et een 1%% and 2%% hours of language learning contact hours are required for measura le improvement. -his num+er can +e reduced +y involvement in specific!purpose classes hich focus solely on speaking and listening. ,. -here are no short cuts in language learning. -ime. motivation. and mature effort are al ays required. /. Adherence to the standards set +y a num+er of professional language teaching associations +est guarantees effective programmes.
Chapter 2& 1.
Co(pliance %ith ICAO #anguage .ro/iciency -e0uire(ents
(ntil ) Barch 2%%0. &tates may continue to use the procedures they currently have in place to assess the 7nglish proficiency of flight cre s and controllers. ay the
2. -he relative facility to assess proficiency at the e$pert level allo s fle$i+ility in the assessment is made. ". *icensing authorities should require a specialiDed evaluation =or test> of those demonstrate 7$pert proficiency. #. 'hraseologies!only testing is not appropriate. ). 9emonstration of actual speaking and listening a+ility is required.
ho do not
Chapter 3&
Aviation #anguage !esting
1. *anguage testing in aviation has high stakes +ecause careers and safety are at stake. a> *anguage testing is a specialiDed professional activity. +> *anguage testing is. on the hole. an unregulated industry. c> 2eneral lack of a areness of the professional requirements for language testing. com+ined ith the high!stakes nature of language testing. might present a risk if inadequately prepared tests are used.
(#ii)
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements
2. -ests prepared +y people ho do not have the specialiDed kno ledge and e$perience possessed +y language testing professionals may +e adequate for placing someone ithin a training programme or for 4udging student progress. +ut the need for the relia+ility and validity of language proficiency tests in an aviation conte$t is very high. a> 8ith careers and possi+ly lives at stake. administrations should turn to language testing professionals in order to ensure that the tests used or developed for compliance ith the ICAO language proficiency requirements ill provide relia+le and valid results. +> A code of ethics and a sample code of practice to guide test development are provided in Appendi$ 9 to this manual. c> All participants and stakeholders ; testers. test developers. and test users ; involved in aviation language testing have the responsi+ility to ensure that the language proficiency tests they select. provide. or develop for the aviation industry are valid. relia+le. effective and appropriate. d> -est developers. administrators and providers. in particular. are accounta+le to the stakeholders6 to the pilots and controllers taking their testsE to the airlines and air navigation service providers contracting for the testing. and to the passengers relying on the individual language skills of the airline pilots and air traffic controllers. ". -esting services. rather than Fa testG. are required. #. 9irect. communicative proficiency tests of speaking and listening a+ilities are appropriate assessment tools for the aviation industry and ill allo organiDations to determine hether flight cre s and air traffic controllers are a+le to meet the ICAO language proficiency &tandards. a> -he ICAO language proficiency requirements point to ards an aviation conte$t for testing. +> 'hraseologies!only testing is not appropriate. c> Indirect tests of grammatical kno ledge. reading or riting are not appropriate. d> -ests that test proficiency in another specific!purpose conte$t =academics or +usiness> are not appropriate. Chapter 4& Aviation #anguage and Aeronautical -adiotelephony Co((unicative #anguage Functions
1. -here are three distinct roles of language as a factor in aviation accidents and incidents. a> (se of phraseologiesE +> 'roficiency in plain languageE c> (se of more than one language. 2. -he follo ing information and material in Appendi$ B language programmes6 a> Aeronautical communicative language functionsE ill support curriculum development for aviation
$#ecutive !ummary +> Inventory of events and domainsE c> 'riority le$ical domainsE d> Aviation language tasks. Chapter 5& Additional Support /or !eaching and #earning
(#iii)
Chapter 0 contains three +rief articles directed. in turn. to aviation language teachers. material developers. and to pilots and air traffic controllers.
Chapter + I$!-O69C!IO$
=ey concepts H H H H Inadequate language proficiency has played a role in accidents and incidents. Both ICAO phraseologies and plain language are required for safe radiotelephony communications. ICAO has adopted strengthened language proficiency requirements for communications. All &tates and organiDations have a role to play in improving communications. radiotelephony
+&+
"AC=G-O9$6 !O S!-E$G!>E$E6 ICAO #A$G9AGE .-OFICIE$C< -E?9I-E;E$!S
1.1.1 In three accidents =one collision on the ground. one accident involving fuel e$haustion and one controlled flight into terrain>. over 0%% people lost their lives. 8hat these seemingly different types of accidents had in common as that. in each one. accident investigators found that insufficient 7nglish language proficiency on the part of the flight cre or a controller had played a contri+uting role in the chain of events leading to the accident. In addition to these high!profile accidents. multiple incidents and near misses as a result of language pro+lems are reported annually. instigating a revie of communication procedures and standards orld ide. 1.1.2 Concern over the role of language in these and other aviation accidents and incidents has +een e$pressed from several quarters. 9ata o+tained from the ICAO AccidentIIncident 9ata Reporting &ystem =A9R7'> data+ase. the (nited &tatesC 3ational -ransportation and &afety Board reports. and the (nited JingdomCs Bandatory Occurrence Reporting &ystems corro+orate that the role of language in accidents and incidents is significant. A num+er of other fatal and non!fatal accidents appear in the ICAO A9R7' hich cite Flanguage +arrierG as a factor. Additionally. the (nited JingdomCs Bandatory Occurrence Reporting &ystems cite 1"# language!related pro+lems in fe er than si$ years. 1.1." mem+ers &uch concern heightened after a 111, mid!air collision in hich "12 passengers and cre ere killed in yet another accident in hich insufficient 7nglish language proficiency played a role.
Assembly Resolution A3216 1.1.# Concern over the role of language in airline accidents led to the 1110 ICAO Assem+ly Resolution A"2!1,. in hich the ICAO Council as urged to direct the Air 3avigation Commission to consider this matter ith a high degree of priority. and complete the task of strengthening relevant ICAO %&%
%&'
provisions concerning language requirements. ith a vie to o+ligating Contracting &tates to take steps to ensure that air traffic control personnel and flight cre s involved in flight operations in airspace here the use of the 7nglish language is required are proficient in conducting and comprehending radiotelephony communications in the 7nglish language. Development provisions of the language proficiency
1.1.) In 2%%%. the 'roficiency Requirements in Common 7nglish &tudy 2roup ='RIC7&2> convened for the first time. 'RIC7&2 had +een esta+lished to assist ICAO in advancing the task esta+lished +y the Air 3avigation Commission on language competency. hich included. among other elements. the follo ing aspects6 a> carry out a comprehensive revie of e$isting provisions concerning all aspects of air! ground and ground!ground voice communications in international civil aviation. aimed at the identification of deficiencies andIor shortcomingsE develop ICAO provisions concerning standardiDed 7nglish language testing requirements and proceduresE and develop minimum skill level requirements in the common usage of the 7nglish language.
+> c>
1.1., -he study group as comprised of operational and linguistic e$perts ith +ackgrounds in aviation =pilots. air traffic controllers. and civil aviation authority representatives> or aviation 7nglish training and applied linguistics. representing Contracting &tates and international organiDations covering most main linguistic areas. -he 'RIC7&2 met throughout the years 2%%% and 2%%1. presenting the &ecretariat ith a set of recommendations in the fall of 2%%1. 1.1./ Amendments to Anne$ 1% ; Aeronautical Telecommunications. <olume II ; Communication Proce(ures inclu(ing those )ith PA"! status and the Proce(ures for Air "avigation !ervices ; Air Traffic Management ='A3&!A-B. 9oc ####> regarding the harmoniDation of radiotelephony speech and improvement in the use of standard phraseology. in partial response to the task assigned. +ecame applica+le on 1 3ovem+er 2%%1. -he ""rd &ession of the ICAO Assem+ly =BontrKal. &eptem+erIOcto+er 2%%1> noted that provisions related to language proficiency ere +eing developed and considered that the o+4ective should not +e limited to the 7nglish language. -o complete the assigned task. the &ecretariat proposed amendments to the follo ing Anne$es and documents6 a> +> c> d> e> Anne$ 1 ; 'ersonnel *icensingE Anne$ , ; Operation of AircraftE Anne$ 1% ; Aeronautical -elecommunications. <olume II ; Communication 'rocedures including those ith 'A3& statusE Anne$ 11 ; Air Traffic !ervicesE and 'rocedures for Air 3avigation &ervices ; Air -raffic Banagement ='A3&!A-B. 9oc ####>.
1.1.8 The proposed amendments to Annexes 1, 6, 10 and 11 and to the PANS-ATM were adopted by the ICA Co!n"#$ #n Mar"h %00&.
Chapter %* +&2
Intro(uction -E:IE7 OF .-O:ISIO$S .-IO- !O A6O.!IO$ OF A;E$6;E$!S CO$!AI$I$G #A$G9AGE .-OFICIE$C< -E?9I-E;E$!S
%&+
1.2.1 'reviously. t o Recommended 'ractices in Anne$ 1% and a &tandard in Anne$ 1 comprised the provisions relating to the use of language. In Anne$ 1%. it as recommended that 7nglish +e made availa+le henever an aircraft station as una+le to communicate in the language used +y the station on the ground. -here as also an attachment to Anne$ 1% dealing ith specific language issues. 1.2.2 In Anne$ 1. it as stipulated that air traffic controllers demonstrate kno ledge of Fthe language or languages nationally designated for use in air!ground communications and a+ility to speak such language or languages ithout accent or impediment hich ould adversely affect radio communicationG. 1.2." In addition to the a+sence of any similar requirements for flight cre s. the &tandards and Recommended 'ractices =&AR's> for language proficiency did not provide a clearly defined required proficiency level. making implementation difficult and assessment uneven. 1.2.# -hose early aviation communications specialists ho drafted the Anne$ 1% provisions had hopes that the requirements for pilot and controller communications ould +e achieved once a Fradiotelephony speechG +ased on simplified 7nglish had +een developed. &ome of the issues addressed have +een met through the development of phraseologiesE much of the rest has +een addressed +y the amendments or has +een surpassed +y advances in linguistic understanding. *inguistic research no makes it clear that there is no Fform of speechG more suita+le for human communication than natural language. Artificial languages ; and there are many ; have had little impact in any sphere even decades after their introduction. Computer!aided voice recognition and translation technologies remain unproven. especially in the conte$t of the demand for relia+ility in aviation. As all other options fall short. natural language continues to +e the most relia+le and efficient form of human communication. 1.2.) Although standardiDed ICAO phraseologies have +een developed to cover many circumstances =essentially routine events. +ut also including some predicta+le emergencies or non!routine events>. no set of phraseologies can fully descri+e all possi+le circumstances and responses. Aircraft are flo n and controlled +y humans. and human +ehaviour is infinitely varia+leE the need to communicate an infinite variety of circumstances or nuances ill continue. 'ilots and air traffic controllers need sufficient language proficiency to manage all of the potential requirements of communications. hich can range from routine situations to circumstances not addressed +y the limited phraseologies. as ell as non!routine situations and outright emergencies. :uman language is characteriDed. in part. +y the a+ility to create ne meanings and to use ords in novel conte$ts. a creative and comple$ function of language hich accommodates the comple$ and unpredicta+le nature of human interaction. even ithin the relatively constrained conte$t of aviation communications. -here is simply no more suita+le form of speech than natural languages for human interactions. Attempts to delimit the scope of a language ill al ays fail at some point. hen the need to communicate a ne and une$pected situation e$ceeds the resources of the artificially constrained language. Summary 1.2., -he ICAO language proficiency requirements cannot completely eliminate all sources of miscommunication in radiotelephony communications. Rather. the goal is to ensure. as far as possi+le. that all speakers have sufficient proficiency in the language used to negotiate for meaning. in order to handle non!routine situations. Communication errors ill pro+a+ly never +e completely eliminatedE ho ever. compliance ith the ICAO language proficiency requirements ill ena+le speakers to more readily recogniDe errors and ork to ards the successful and safe resolution of misunderstandings.
%&, +&1
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements CA## FO- C#OSE I$!E-$A!IO$A# COO.E-A!IO$
1.".1 Improving communications cannot +e seen as an o+ligation of non!native 7nglish!speaking &tates and personnel alone. All ICAO Contracting &tates. airlines. service providers. and training organiDations have a stake in and an o+ligation to shoulder a fair share of the +urden. -here are a num+er of ays that native 7nglish!speaking &tates. organiDations. and personnel can help. -he first and easiest measure is for Contracting &tates to improve their o n standards for communications and to align phraseologies closely ith ICAO phraseologies =see Chapter ">. 1.".2 Airlines can assist their code!sharing partners and others in the esta+lishment of high!quality. aviation!specific 7nglish programmes. either +y providing qualified language training personnel in country or +y making 7nglish language training availa+le at lo cost for international partners at e$isting training centres. 5or e$ample. +et een 111) and 111/. several 3orth American and 7uropean airlines provided intensive. aviation 7nglish language training to controllers from the civil aviation authority of one Contracting &tate. &econdly. a great deal of useful language training material can +e developed +y modifying e$isting aviation training products. OrganiDations can invest in the development of high!quality. aviation!specific 7nglish learning products and materials +y supporting the efforts of linguists and aviation language specialists to develop high!quality. appropriate. aviation!related 7nglish learning materials =see Chapter #>. 'roducts so developed may +e made availa+le to learners at cost or for marginal profit. A num+er of other possi+le useful measures are outlined in Chapter ". In short. those native and highly!proficient 7nglish! speaking &tates and organiDations. hich are naturally at an advantage regarding the provisions for the strengthened use of 7nglish. can facilitate the movement to ards a safer communication environment +y giving assistance to those non!native 7nglish!speaking &tates not so advantaged. and +y generally factoring this orld ide need for heightened language proficiency into commercial considerations. An aviation community cooperatively committed to communicating +etter ill fly more safely.
Chapter 2 ICAO S!A$6A-6S A$6 -ECO;;E$6E6 .-AC!ICES )SA-.S* CO$CE-$I$G #A$G9AGE .-OFICIE$C< -E?9I-E;E$!S
=ey concepts H ICAO &AR's related to language proficiency ere developed ith the assistance of the 'RIC7 &tudy 2roup. comprised of an international group of aeronautical and aviation 7nglish e$perts. representing all geographical regions. Anne$ 1% &AR's clarify that ICAO phraseologies shall +e used henever possi+le. Anne$ 1 &AR's define proficiency requirements. -he language proficiency requirements in Anne$ 1 apply equally to native and non!native speakers. 'ilots and air traffic controllers are required to demonstrate Operational *evel # language proficiency in the use of +oth ICAO phraseology and plain language +y 2%%0. A &tandard in Anne$ 1 stipulates recurrent testing for pilots and air traffic controllers demonstrate language proficiency +elo 7$pert *evel ,. ho
H H H H H H
Anne$es , and 11 stipulate service provider or airline oversight of personnel language proficiency.
2&+
I$!-O69C!IO$
2.1.1 -he purpose of this chapter is to e$plain and ela+orate on the &tandards and Recommended 'ractices =&AR's> related to language use in aeronautical radiotelephony communications and to provide an e$planation of the principles underlying the ICAO language proficiency requirements. -he information contained in this chapter is intended to +e useful to administrators of civil aviation authorities. airlines. and air traffic service providers. Information specifically relating to the *anguage 'roficiency Requirements ; the :olistic 9escriptors and Rating &cale ; ill +e of use to training managers. language trainers and assessors. 2.1.2 -he &AR's relating to language use for aeronautical radiotelephony communications that adopted +y the ICAO Council in Barch 2%%" are found in Anne$ 1 ; Personnel LicensingE Anne$ Operation of Aircraft- 'art I and 'art IIIE Anne$ 1% . Aeronautical Telecommunications- <olume Communication Proce(ures inclu(ing those )ith PA"! statusE and Anne$ 11 ; Air Traffic !ervices Appendi$ A>. ere , ; II ; =see
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'&' Anne$ 1
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements 1.2.1.1 L 1.2.1./ Appendi$ =*anguage 'roficiency Requirements> Attachment =Rating &cale> ".1., ).2.1.,.2.1.1 ).2.1.2.1 and ).2.1.2.2 ).2.1.).2 L ).2.1.).) 2.2/.1 and 2.2/.2
Anne$ ,. 'art I Anne$ 1%. <olume II
Anne$ 11
2.1." Other language!related information and guidance material are contained in the Proce(ures for Air "avigation !ervices . Air Traffic Management ='A3&!A-B. 9oc ####>. Chapter 12. and in the Manual of Ra(iotelephony =9oc 1#"2> in the 5ore ord and in Chapter 1. 1.2. In summary. the ICAO language proficiency requirements6 @ strengthen the requirement for 7nglish to +e provided +y air navigation service providers for international flights +y upgrading it from the level of a Recommendation to that of a &tandard =Anne$ 1%>E establish minimum skill level requirements for language proficiency for flight cre s and air traffic controllers =Anne$ 1>E introduce an ICAO language proficiency rating scale applica+le to +oth native and non! native speakers =Anne$ 1>E clari/y the requirement for the use of +oth plain language and phraseologies =Anne$es 1 and 1%>E standardi e on the use of ICAO phraseologies =Anne$ 1%>E reco((end a testing schedule to demonstrate language proficiency =Anne$ 1>E and provide for service provider and operator oversight of personnel compliance =Anne$es , and 11>.
@ @ @ @ @ @
2.1.# -he language!related &AR's can +e +roadly categoriDed into three types6 Anne$ 1% &AR's clarify hich languages can +e used for radiotelephony communicationsE Anne$ 1 &AR's esta+lish proficiency skill level requirements as a licensing prerequisiteE and Anne$es , and 11 provide for service provider and operator responsi+ility. 2.1.) -he language requirements and scale ere developed for use in assessing speaking and listening proficiency in the particular conte$t of aviation communications. &pecifically developed for aeronautical radiotelephony communications. they may find applica+ility in a ider conte$t ithin aviation. -he requirements ere also developed for use in assessing language proficiency in a variety of languages. not 4ust in the 7nglish language. 2&2 A$$E8 +0 SA-.s -E#A!E6 !O .-OFICIE$C< -E?9I-E;E$!S
-he &AR's contained in Anne$ 1%. <olume II =reproduced in Appendi$ A>. lay the foundation for the language proficiency requirements. stipulating that 7nglish +e made availa+le for international radiotelephony communications. -he key changes +rought a+out +y the Anne$ 1% amendments ere6
Chapter '* ICAO !tan(ar(s an( Recommen(e( Practices concerning Language Proficiency Requirements a> +> stipulating the use of ICAO phraseology specificallyE clarifying that +oth phraseology and plain language proficiency are requiredE strengthening the provisions that 7nglish +e made availa+le.
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and c>
2&1
ICAO .>-ASEO#OG<
-he first important feature of Anne$ 1% language!related &AR's is that greater emphasis is placed on the importance of the use of ICAO phraseologies. By clarifying in an ICAO &tandard that the use of ICAO phraseologies is required. the need for &tates and individuals to ensure that their use of phraseology conforms to ICAO phraseology is emphasiDed. -he use of different phraseologies in different geographical areas increases the chances that communications ill +e misunderstood. -his particular danger is aptly illustrated hen different +ut similar phraseologies are used in some regions. Any deviation from ICAO standardiDed phraseologies presents an o+stacle to the +est possi+le communication.
2&4
9SE OF .#AI$ #A$G9AGE
-he second sentence in Anne$ 1%. <olume II. ).1.1.1. esta+lishes as an ICAO &tandard hat has previously +een implicit in a num+er of ICAO &AR's and e$plicit in ICAO guidance. i.e. the need for plain language proficiency as a fundamental component of radiotelephony communications. 8hile the &tandard in ).1.1.1 specifies the need for plain language proficiency in addition to phraseologies. it in no ay should +e interpreted as suggesting that plain language can suffice instea( of ICAO phraseologies. ICAO phraseologies should al ays +e used in the first instance. -he &tandard in ).1.1.1 is unam+iguous on the requirement to use ICAO phraseologies in all instances in hich they are specified. It is not possi+le. ho ever. to develop phraseologies to cover every conceiva+le situation. 8hen plain language is required. it should +e delivered in the same clear. concise. and unam+iguous manner as phraseologies. for e$ample. in emergencies or unusual situationsE to clarify or ela+orate on instructionsE or hen the need to negotiate information or instructions arises. 8hile the &tandard in ).1.1.1 identifies and formaliDes the need for the use of plain language. it should in no ay +e interpreted as a licence to FchatG or other ise ignore the formal and informal protocols that govern the use of phraseologies. A full e$amination of the relationship +et een phraseologies and plain language and an e$planation of the intended role of ICAO phraseologies are presented in Chapter /.
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#A$G9AGE !O "E 9SE6
2.).1 In Anne$ 1%. it is stipulated that radiotelephony communications shall +e conducted either in the language of the station on the ground or in 7nglish. and that 7nglish shall +e made availa+le hen pilots are una+le to use the language of the station on the ground. -he upgrading of provisions governing the use of language for radiotelephony communications from a Recommendation to a &tandard emphasiDes the important link +et een communications and safety. In Anne$ 1%. in 3ote 1 to ).2.1.2.1. it is clarified that the language of the ground station may +e different from the national language of the &tate. and that &tates in a particular region may also agree that a regional. common language +e required. -he &tandards in ).2.1.2 mean. in effect. that local. national. and regional languages can +e used for radiotelephony communications. +ut that 7nglish shall also al ays +e availa+le at those stations serving routes and airports used +y international air services. As an e$ample. &panish is spoken as the national language in &tates from Be$ico.
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through Central America and throughout much of &outh America. 5or international flights in such &tates. &panish or 7nglish can +e used. +ut 7nglish must +e made availa+le. International pilots flying in this airspace may use either 7nglish or &panish. =-he proficiency requirements governing the use of either language are defined in Anne$ 1.> 7nglish has long played the role of a de facto common language for international aviation. -he ne provisions formaliDe that role.
ICAO provisions do not in any ay limit the use of a national. regional. or local language +ut recogniDe the practical requirement for 7nglish to +e availa+le for the many pilots ho do not speak the national language of a particular &tate =see also Chapter />.
Annex 1: SAR s re"uirements
relate!
to
proficiency
2.).2 'rovisions governing the use of the language=s> used for radiotelephony communications previously consisted of an Anne$ 1 &tandard requiring that controllers =+ut not the flight cre > demonstrate kno ledge of Fthe language or languages nationally designated for use in air!ground communications and a+ility to speak such language or languages ithout accent or impediment hich ould adversely affect radio communicationG. Although the intent of the provisions as clear. e$plicit guidance. +oth in the &AR's and in guidance material. is no offered on hat the Fa+ilityG to speak a language means. 2.)." -he strengthened language proficiency requirements adopted in 2%%" impact on the use of any language used for international radiotelephony communications and clarify hat level of proficiency is appropriate. 8hen more than one language can +e used for radiotelephony communications. then all languages must +e governed +y the same proficiency requirements. -he requirements also introduce testing requirements that apply equally to flight cre and air traffic controllers. as ell as. in varying degrees. to station operators. navigators. and flight engineers. Anne$ 1 requirements found in 1.2.1 deserve careful e$amination. -a+le 2!1 outlines the applica+ility dates of the provisions.
aragraphs 1#2#$#3
1#2#$#1%
1#2#$#2
an!
2.).# -he &AR's in 1.2.1.1. 1.2.1.2 and 1.2.1.". hile requiring flight cre and air traffic controllers to demonstrate language proficiency. do not specify a level of required proficiency as em+odied in the Rating &cale. In essence. the t o &tandards at 1.2.1.1 and 1.2.1.2 echo the previous provisions in Anne$ 1 regarding language proficiency. hile e$tending the provisions to most flight cre and some navigators. requiring that they demonstrate the a+ility to speak and understand hatever language is used for radiotelephony communications. A similar Recommended 'ractice at 1.2.1." refers to the advisa+ility that flight engineers. and glider and free +alloon pilots should have language proficiency. In these three provisions. a specific level of required language is not indicated. 2uidance on appropriate assessment methods and methodologies can +e found in Chapters ) and , of this manual.
aragraphs 1#2#$#& an! 1#2#$#': (evel & 2.).) 'aragraphs 1.2.1.# and 1.2.1.) introduce specified proficiency level requirements. -hese requirements are found in a set of holistic descriptors in the Appendi$ to Anne$ 1 and Operational *evel # in the ICAO Rating &cale contained in the Attachment to Anne$ 1. Commentary and additional information a+out the level requirements found in the holistic descriptors and Rating &cale are provided in later sections of this chapter.
Chapter '* ICAO !tan(ar(s an( Recommen(e( Practices concerning Language Proficiency Requirements
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2.)., 'aragraphs 1.2.1.# and 1.2.1.) refer to a level of proficiency as descri+ed in *evel # of the Rating &cale. :o &tates ensure that personnel demonstrate proficiency in this case may vary to some e$tent +ut. again. must +e related to language proficiency rather than kno ledge a out language and. additionally. must +e directly linked to the ICAO Rating &cale. 7$plicit testing requirements are descri+ed in Chapter ,. 2.)./ Although the heaviest training and testing +urden ill fall in the area of 7nglish!as!a!second! language use. the language proficiency requirements apply to any language used in international aeronautical radiotelephony communications. +ut not. naturally. to any language used in domestic operations. aragraphs 1#2#$#6 re"uirements an! 1#2#$#): Recurrent testing
2.).0 -he &tandard at 1.2.1., and the Recommended 'ractice at 1.2.1./ support the &AR's in 1.2.1.# and 1.2.1.). -he &tandard at 1.2.1., stipulates that personnel ho demonstrate language proficiency +elo 7$pert *evel , on the ICAO Rating &cale shall +e formally evaluate( =or tested> at intervals. -he Recommended 'ractice at 1.2.1./ indicates a schedule for re!testing. and 3ote 1 clarifies that testing is not required of anyone. native or non!native speaker. ho is a+le to demonstrate language proficiency at 7$pert *evel ,. 2.).1 As ith the study of many other human characteristics. it has proven difficult to isolate and study all of the factors that influence language use6 its acquisition. development. or loss. 8hile there is much that is kno n a+out human language. there still remain many unans ered questions. One such question concerns language loss. It is kno n from e$perience and practical o+servation that language loss occurs. 9eterioration to some degree or another in the language proficiency of individuals ho do not use their second or foreign language for a long time is a common e$perience. 8hat is not kno n is at hat rate such loss occurs. or at hat point language loss does not occur. 8hile loss of a second or foreign language is a commonly o+served occurrence. people do not normally lose fully acquired first languages =+arring disa+ility or in4ury>. 2.).1% -he ICAO minimum proficiency requirements descri+ed in Operational *evel # do not require FnativeG or Fnative!likeG proficiency. As Operational *evel # is significantly +elo 7$pert *evel ,. it can +e assumed that language loss can occur in individuals ith *evel # proficiency. -herefore. a &tandard requiring recurrent language testing and a Recommended 'ractice recommen(ing a schedule for re!testing ere introduced into Anne$ 1.
-he ICAO minimum proficiency requirements descri+ed in Operational *evel # do not require FnativeG or Fnative!likeG proficiency.
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!>E ICAO #A$G9AGE .-OFICIE$C< -E?9I-E;E$!S I$ A$$E8 +A A..E$6I8 A
2.,.1 -he language proficiency requirements apply to speaking and listening proficiency only and do not address the a+ility to read or rite. -he case that pilots and air traffic controllers need reading or riting proficiency to some degree has +een made and noted. +ut at this point in time. speaking and listening proficiency ere seen as the areas needing more critical address.
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2.,.2 -he ICAO *anguage 'roficiency Requirements consist of a set of holistic descriptors =Appendi$ to Anne$ 1> and Operational *evel # of the ICAO Rating &cale =Attachment to Anne$ 1>. Both are reproduced in Appendi$ A to this manual. 5ive holistic descriptors provide all!em+racing characteristics of proficient speakers and esta+lish some conte$t for communications. -he Rating &cale descri+es the discrete features of language use. =F:olisticG refers to the communicating person as a F holeG. in contrast to the descriptors in the Rating &cale hich instead e$amine individual. discrete features of language use.> In some sense. a language proficiency rating scale may +e thought of as a guide to good 4udgement. a first important step to ards applying greater consistency orld ide in the language standards to hich pilots and air traffic controllers are held.
-he holistic descriptors and descriptors in the Rating &cale are designed to convey a notion of a standard to +e used as a frame of reference for teachers and assessors to +e a+le to make consistent 4udgements a+out pilot and controller language proficiency.
2&4 *olistic !escriptors
-A6IO!E#E.>O$E CO;;9$ICA!IO$S
2./.1 Proficient spea1ers shall communicate effectively in voice&only (telephone2ra(iotelephone) an( in face&to&face situations. Radiotelephone communications lack the facial cues. +ody language. and listening cues found in usual face!to!face situations. Communications ithout such cues are considered to +e more difficult and challenging. requiring a higher degree of language proficiency. than face!to!face interactions. In addition. other features of radiotelephone communications make it a unique kind of communicative event. for e$ample6 ; ; ; -he sound quality may +e poor. ith distracting sounds. ith a
-he communicative orkload of the air traffic controller or a pilot may +e heavy. corresponding need for efficiency and +revity.
In addition to their communicative tasks. pilots must also attend to all of the tasks involved in operating their aircraft.
2./.2 Proficient spea1ers shall communicate on common- concrete- an( )or1&relate( topics )ith accuracy an( clarity* Conte$t is an important consideration in communications. and an individualCs language proficiency may vary in different conte$ts. -his holistic descriptor attempts to limit the domain of the communicative requirements to ork!elated topicsE that is. air traffic controllers and flight cre personnel are e$pected to +e a+le to communicate a+out issues common to their field of orkplace kno ledge. At the same time. proficiency should not +e limited to memoriDed phraseologies +ut should range across a relatively +road area of ork!related communicative domains. Chapter / introduces many topics and domains appropriate to the ork!related requirements of pilot and air traffic controller communications. It is not a complete and e$haustive list. ho ever. +ut merely a guide to curriculum development. and the assessment of radiotelephony communications should not +e limited solely to those topics. 2./." Proficient spea1ers shall use appropriate communicative strategies to e#change messages an( to recogni3e an( resolve misun(erstan(ings (e*g* to chec1- confirm- or clarify information) in a general or )or1&relate( conte#t* &trategic competence has +een identified +y a num+er of linguists as an important part
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of hat defines language proficiency or competency. One aspect of strategic competence important to air traffic controllers and flight cre s is the a+ility to recogniDe and resolve potential misunderstandings. e.g. having strategies to check for comprehension in a meaningful ay. such as asking for a read +ack. 7qually important is the a+ility to rephrase or paraphrase a message hen it is apparent that a message as not understood. &ometimes the phraseology F&ay againG should +e understood as a request for clarification rather than repetition. Air traffic controllers and flight cre s should understand that silence does not al ays indicate comprehension. On the part of native!speaking air traffic controllers and flight cre s. strategic a areness can include an appreciation of the threats presented +y cross!cultural communications and a sensitivity to strategies to confirm comprehension. 2./.# Proficient spea1ers shall han(le successfully an( )ith relative ease the linguistic challenges presente( y a complication or une#pecte( turn of events that occurs )ithin the conte#t of a routine )or1 situation or communicative tas1 )ith )hich they are other)ise familiar* One of the more challenging events not only in second language use situations +ut also in all communications is hen the une$pected happens. :uman 5actors e$perts have emphasiDed the threat of letting our Fe$pectationsG hinder our interpretation of reality. &ometimes. a complication or an une$pected event can lead to a communication +reakdo n. It is important for air traffic controllers and flight cre s to have sufficient language proficiency and the strategic skills to manage a dialogue through any une$pected event. It is the nature of controllers and pilots to adhere to strictly defined procedures and regulations and yet to +e a+le. hen confronted ith a ne situation. to demonstrate su+stantial fle$i+ility in their response. 2./.) Proficient spea1ers shall use a (ialect or accent )hich is intelligi le to the aeronautical community* -he issue of dialect and accent is very comple$ and ithout simple ans ers. +ut it is nonetheless managea+le at a practical level hen common sense and good 4udgement are applied. A first and natural response to this holistic descriptor is to inquire )hich dialects or accents ould +e considered intelligi+le. -he +est ans er is to take a look at ho this issue has traditionally +een handled among native speaker controller populations. In the (nited Jingdom. for instance. a great variety of regional dialects and differences e$ist. Air traffic control applicants and trainees are informally screened for use of a dialect appropriate to the international aviation conte$t. A determination of hat constitutes a strong regional dialect or marked accent is +ased entirely on the e$tensive e$perience and good 4udgement of the trainer or assessor. 8hen an individual demonstrates a strong regional dialect or marked accent. one determined to +e easily understood only +y those most familiar ith the dialect. that individual is counselled to use a dialect more idely accepta+le or is provided ith additional elocution or speech training. :umans are kno n to modify speech patterns for any num+er of reasons. often unconsciously. in order to ensure acceptance into a particular group. in hich group identity is marked +y use of language in a particular ayE or +ecause of the influence of ne . regional speech patterns on previously learned patterns. or. particularly in a second language use conte$t. in response to not +eing understood. Another e$ample of an informal +ut orka+le accent or dialect FpolicyG can +e seen in large international 7nglish language television or radio ne s agencies. Broadcasters on international ne s channels e$hi+it a range of not only first!language accents and dialects +ut also second!language 7nglish accents. +ut they are al ays understood +y their audiences. Agencies such as the British Broadcasting Corporation =BBC> or the Ca+le 3e s 3et ork =C33> do not have formal policies a+out accepta+le dialects or accents among their +roadcasters. at least not pu+licly availa+le policies. +ut it is clear that some sort of informal screening for dialects or accents is applied. +auses of communication brea,!o-n bet-een .nglish-as-a-secon!-language spea,ers 2./., In her +ook The Phonology of $nglish as an International Language. the British linguist ?ennifer ?enkins has +egun the comple$ task of analysing the causes of communication +reakdo ns +et een 7nglish!as!a!second!language speakers. 8hile the findings are too e$tensive to include here. highlighting 4ust a fe of the most pertinent research findings is very useful in the conte$t of the communicative needs of
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pilots and air traffic controllers. It is important to understand that the traditional models of FnativeG pronunciation used in many traditional 7nglish teaching conte$ts can no longer +e considered valid +ecause the 7nglish language cannot +e seen as F+elongingG to any of the ma4or. traditional. first!language. 7nglish! speaking countries. 7nglish is a first language or idely used national language in appro$imately si$ty countries and is an important second language in many more countries. -here are. in fact. more speakers of 7nglish as a second or foreign language than as a first language. and most of the conte$ts in hich 7nglish is used occur among t o or more speakers of 7nglish as a second or foreign language. In this conte$t. in hich 7nglish has a clear role as an international language. traditional 7nglish teaching in hich first! language speakers ere used as the model for pronunciation no longer makes sense. Bost users of 7nglish ill not +e communicating ith a native speaker of 7nglish +ut ith another 7nglish!as!a!second!language speaker. and very fe adult language learners achieve so!called Fnative!likeG pronunciation. 'art of the importance of the research is to point out that Fnative!likeG pronunciation is not only unlikely +ut also unnecessary. 2././ Buch of the general pu+lic attitude to dialect or accent is a matter of +ias. ith some accents favoured and others perceived negatively. &uch +ias. ho ever. is attitudinal and not supported +y linguistic kno ledgeE that is. there is no single language or dialect or accent that is inherently +etter or orse than any other. +ut popular attitudes to accent variety are difficult to dislodge. 2./.0 &econdly. it as determined that. in an 7nglish!as!a!second!language conte$t. speakers often have a general lack of shared +ackground kno ledge. -his means that pronunciation +ecomes even more important hen t o non!native 7nglish speakers are communicating. 8hile Fnative!likeG pronunciation is neither likely nor desira+le. mutually comprehensi+le pronunciation is desira+le and. in the conte$t of aviation communications. necessary. 2./.1 If the FnativeG speaker as model and 4udge of appropriate dialect and accent is discarded. then ho is eligi+le. one might ask. to determine intelligi+ility@ If the aeronautical community is considered as one to hich an applicant gains admission through the demonstration of any num+er of competencies determined to +e important to the community. then language use is simply another competency. Based on their e$tensive e$perience. coupled ith some standardiDed guides to qualifications. pilot and air traffic controller trainers and assessors use good 4udgement to make decisions regarding the readiness of applicants to enter the field. A similar methodology can +e applied to the use of language. -he issue of Fdialect or accent hich is intelligi+le to the aeronautical communityG is indeed a comple$ issue. It can. ho ever. +e managed ithin the aeronautical community in a similar manner to ho native!speaker proficiency has +een managed thus far. and ho trainers assess other competencies and skills6 ith common sense and good 4udgement. coupled ith the ICAO Rating &cale as a guide. An additional healthy dose of tolerance for a ide variety of accents and dialects is recommendedM =&ee Chapter , for a more complete treatment of language proficiency rating and the role of Fguided good 4udgementG.>
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ICAO -A!I$G SCA#E
2.0.1 -he ICAO Rating &cale contained in the Attachment to Anne$ 1 delineates si$ levels of language proficiency ranging from 're!elementary =*evel 1> to 7$pert =*evel ,> across si$ areas of linguistic description6 pronunciation. structure. voca+ulary. fluency. comprehension. and interactions. -he num+er of levels as determined as sufficient to sho adequate progression in developing language proficiency ithout e$ceeding the num+er of levels +et een hich people are capa+le of making meaningful distinctions. It is not an Fequal intervalG scaleE the amount of time required to progress +et een levels ill vary. i.e. moving from 7lementary *evel 2 to 're!operational *evel " may take longer or more training than moving from Operational *evel # to 7$tended *evel ).
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2.0.2 -here are essentially t o types of language proficiency rating scales6 those hich use a Fcan doG approach and those hich descri+e specific features of language use. -he ICAO Rating &cale uses the latter approach and is in a form familiar to any professional language teaching or testing specialist =see Chapter #. *anguage -raining and Radiotelephony Communications. for a description of appropriate qualifications>. 3onetheless. a list of language functions and communicative tasks common to controller and pilot communications is also provided as training support in other sections of this manual. 2.0." It is important to note that the Rating &cale does not refer to FnativeG or Fnative!likeG proficiency. a philosophical decision that FnativeG speech should not +e privileged in a glo+al conte$t. All participants in aeronautical radiotelephone communications must conform to the ICAO proficiency requirements. and there is no presupposition that first!language speakers necessarily conform. An additional reason for avoiding the use of the term FnativeG language or referring to a FnativeG speaker is +ecause of the proven difficulty in defining 4ust precisely hat a native speaker is. a topic ell covered in ?enkinCs ork. -he term Fnative speakerG is essentially only useful hen e are referring to monolingual speakers. that is. to those individuals ho speak only one language. :o ever. monolingualism is no longer the norm in the orld at large. Bilingualism and multilingualism are conventional in many. if not most. nations and cultures. In a multilingual conte$t. it can +ecome difficult to clarify ith precision hat is or is not any one individualCs native language +ecause there may legitimately +e more than one. 2.0.# Raters can assume that the descriptors at one level presuppose any skill or feature descri+ed in the preceding level. -hat is. it is assumed that anyone a arded a particular rating level demonstrates proficiency +etter than the descriptors contained in each level +elo . 5ailure to comply ith descriptors in one category in one level indicates that the ne$t lo er proficiency level should +e a ardedE i.e. a personCs proficiency rating level is determined +y the lo est rating level assigned in any particular category. -his is essential +ecause the Operational *evel # descriptors are developed as the safest minimum proficiency skill level determined necessary for aeronautical radiotelephony communications. A lo er score on any one feature indicates inadequate proficiencyE for e$ample. pilots ith Operational *evel # ratings in all areas e$cept. say. pronunciation may not +e understood +y the air traffic controllers ith hom they must communicate.
An individual must demonstrate proficiency at *evel # in all categories in order to receive a *evel # rating.
2&B
A$$E8ES 3 A$6 ++
&tandards in Anne$ ,. 'arts I and II. and Anne$ 11 stipulate that aircraft operators and air traffic service providers must ensure that their personnel comply ith the language proficiency requirements as specified in Anne$ 1.
'&%7 !able 2,+&
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements #anguage pro/iciency re0uire(ents Anne' + Applicability dates
-hese provisions came into effect on 2/ 3ovem+er 2%%" and are +ecoming applica+le progressively. -his progressive application is the result of the Council decision to make the part of the &tandard related to testing requirements applica+le five years after adoption and of the application of Article #2 of the Convention on International Civil Aviation that provides some FgrandfatherG rights for e$isting licence holders. Air tra//ic operators controllers and aeronautical station
As of 2/ 3ov. 2%%"
Applicants for and holders of an air traffic controller or aeronautical station operator licence shall demonstrate the a+ility to speak and understand the language used for radiotelephony communications. -he *icensing Authority of each ICAO Contracting &tate determines the ay in hich the a+ility is demonstrated. -he demonstration of the a+ility to speak and understand the language used for radiotelephony communications shall +e done in accordance ith the holistic descriptors =Appendi$ to Anne$ 1> and the rating scale =Attachment to Anne$ 1>. -hose demonstrating language proficiency +elo the 7$pert *evel =*evel ,> ill +e formally re!evaluated at intervals in accordance ith their individual proficiency level. ICAO recommends that the interval +e , years for those at the 7$tended *evel =*evel )> and " years for those at the Operational *evel =*evel #>.
As of ) Barch 2%%0
Aeroplane and helicopter pilots As of ) Barch 2%%# Applicants for an aeroplane or helicopter pilot licence shall demonstrate the a+ility to speak and understand the language used for radiotelephony communications. -he *icensing Authority of each ICAO Contracting &tate determines the ay in hich the a+ility is demonstrated. :olders of aeroplane or helicopter pilot licences issued +efore ) Barch 2%%# shall demonstrate the a+ility to speak and understand the language used for radiotelephony communications. -he demonstration of the a+ility to speak and understand the language used for radiotelephony communications shall +e done in accordance ith the holistic descriptors =Appendi$ to Anne$ 1> and the rating scale =Attachment to Anne$ 1>. -hose demonstrating language proficiency +elo the 7$pert *evel =*evel ,> ill +e formally re!evaluated at intervals in accordance ith their individual proficiency level. ICAO recommends that the interval +e , years for those at the 7$tended *evel =*evel )> and " years for those at the Operational *evel =*evel #>.
As of ) Barch 2%%0
As of ) Barch 2%%0
Flight navigatorsC 5light navigators ho are required to use the radiotelephone a+oard an aircraft shall demonstrate the a+ility to speak and understand the language used for radiotelephony communications. Glider and /ree balloon pilots and /light engineersC -here is no language proficiency &tandard applica+le to these categories of personnel. :o ever. Anne$ 1. Chapter 1. 1.2.1.". contains a Recommendation that reads6 F8light engineers- an( gli(er an( free alloon pilots shoul( have the a ility to spea1 an( un(erstan( the language use( for ra(iotelephony communications*G A
Chapter 1 #I$G9IS!IC A7A-E$ESS
=ey concepts H H H H -he first principle of good radiotelephony technique is adherence to ICAO standardiDed phraseologies. -he +urden of improving radiotelephony communications should +e shared +y native and non!native speakers. An alert a areness of cross!cultural and cross!linguistic communicative threats is essential to safe radiotelephony communications. 'ilots and controllers should6 H H H H avoid 4argon. slang. and idiomatic e$pressions. +e clear. concise. and direct. and speak slo ly and clearly.
3ative and e$pert 7nglish language speakers can familiariDe themselves ith the challenges faced +y non!native speakers and adopt strategies that facilitate cross!cultural and cross!linguistic comprehension.
1&+
GE$E-A#
".1.1 -his chapter outlines some key features of language use and communication. highlighting some trigger points for miscommunication. and provides +oth techniques for improved cross!cultural communication in 7nglish +et een speakers of different native languages and a revie of good radio techniques. An a areness of the dangers inherent in voice communications. particularly in cross!cultural communications. ill assist native 7nglish!speaking air traffic controllers and pilots to more fully appreciate the challenges faced +y speakers of 7nglish as a second language. ".1.2 Bost humans use language readily and usually successfully ithout much cognitive kno ledge a+out the nature of language. Because language is mostly unselfconsciously used to accomplish daily tasks. not much thought is given to the actual comple$ity of language. 9avid BcBillan. in his graduate thesis FBiscommunications in Air -raffic ControlG. points out that the ease ith hich e use language=s> to communicate in our daily lives and the usual lack of serious consequences for miscommunication mask the fragility of human language as a vehicle for clear communications. -he apparently simple use of language +&%
+&'
actually requires a sophisticated interaction of comple$ processes. and our usually successful daily e$perience ith language +elies its comple$ity. Breakdo ns occur for any num+er of reasons. for e$ample6 ; ; ; ; t o ords may sound the sameE hich
there may +e dramatic pronunciation differences. even among native speakers. cause miscommunicationE a speakerCs message may +e too indirect so that the intent is missedE or a speaker may have inadequate familiarity communicate effectively.
ith the language and so is una+le to
In daily life. miscommunication occurs +ut rarely results in anything other than minor inconvenience. minor em+arrassment. or lost time. In air traffic control communications. ho ever. the stakes are dramatically higher and communication errors have the potential for far more serious consequences. &u+sequent to an accident in 11// here miscommunication as identified as a contri+uting factor. ICAO pu+lished changes to phraseologies and procedures +ased on lessons learned from an analysis of the communications prior to the accident. 3onetheless. miscommunication continues to occur decades later. as numerous incidents and a num+er of other high!profile accidents in the intervening years attest. ".1." As fraught as natural human language is ith error!potential. there is no other communication medium that +etter serves the purposes of human communication. 8hile data link applications are improving. and some e$perts hope that they ill mitigate the need for a common language. there are reasons hy data links ill not eliminate the requirement for pilots and controllers to have good language proficiency. 5irstly. they are not yet sufficiently developed for universal use in all applications. &econdly. they require language reading proficiency. and translation technology also remains unproven in the face of the rigorous demand for relia+ility. 5inally. flight cre s and controllers ill al ays need natural language proficiency in case of data link equipment failure. Alternative measures to circumvent the need for common language proficiency similarly fall short of safety requirements6 interpreters on the flight deck or in the control room add an additional layer +et een the t o key agents ; controller and pilot ; further complicating communication. In routine situations. the use of an interpreter might suffice. +ut in unusual circumstances or during an emergency. any procedure that slo s do n communication +ecomes unaccepta+ly cum+ersome and perhaps even dangerous. -herefore. left ith human language as our +est vehicle for pilot and controller communications. the ICAO language proficiency requirements seek to improve communications to the e$tent possi+le.
1&2
$A!I:E A$6 $O$,$A!I:E S.EA=E-S
".2.1 -he ICAO language proficiency requirements apply to native and non!native speakers alike. As 7nglish is the most commonly used language for international aviation communications. many non!native speakers of 7nglish ill require language training to improve their language proficiency. 3onetheless. the +urden for improved communications should not +e seen as falling solely on non!native speakers. 3ative speakers of 7nglish. too. have a fundamentally important role to play in the international efforts to increase communication safety. and much of the information contained in this chapter is aimed at native speakers interacting ith non!native speakers. Improving radiotelephony safety is no small matter. requiring concerted effort and idespread cooperation. and all pilots and controllers ill +enefit from an improved understanding of ho language functions. ith a focus on strategies that aid comprehension and clarity. Additionally. an ethical o+ligation arises on the part of native speakers of 7nglish. in particular. to increase their linguistic a areness and to take special care in the delivery of messages.
Chapter +*
Linguistic A)areness
+&+
".2.2 8hen the original principles of radiotelephony communication ere esta+lished. emphasis as placed on the requirement for international cooperation in developing a solution to the pro+lems of voice communication. Although the o+4ectives laid out in the original document have +een supplanted +y advances in linguistic understanding. the call for close international cooperation remains. -he +urden can +e shared in a num+er of ays6 a> Contracting &tates can ensure that their use of phraseologies aligns as closely as possi+le ith ICAO standardiDed phraseologies. 3ative and other e$pert users of 7nglish can acquire an a areness of the dangers of. and learn strategies to improve. cross!cultural communications. 3ative and other e$pert users of 7nglish can refrain from the use of idioms. colloquialisms. and other 4argon in radiotelephony communications and can modulate their rate of delivery. 3ative speakers are under the same o+ligation as non!native speakers to ensure that their variety of 7nglish is comprehensi+le to the international aviation community. 7nglish!speaking organiDations can invest in the development of high!quality. aviation! related 7nglish language learning materials. &ome 7nglish!speaking organiDations. airlines or training centres may ish to e$plore ho they might provide cost!efficient 7nglish language learning opportunities to code share partners or other airlines at minimal cost.
+>
c>
d>
e>
f>
".2." One of the startling aspects of communication errors is that it is one of the fe areas hich can +e readily corrected ithout high!tech input. Biscommunication can. and does. occur not only +et een non! native speakers +ut also +et een native speakers of the same language. Biscommunication +et een native speakers can occur as a result of a linguistic error or feature =am+iguity. homophony. etc.> or as a result of human carelessness =poor enunciation. sloppy microphone ork. too much data in a single transmission. or impatience>. issues e ill e$amine in this chapter. Biscommunication can also occur +et een non!native speakers or +et een a native speaker and non!native speaker as a result of these issues. in addition to other sources of error specific to non!native 7nglish use.
1&1
ICAO .>-ASEO#OG<
".".1 5or the purposes of the discussion here. it is enough to point out that the introduction of ICAO language proficiency requirements. in hich the use of 7nglish as the common language of international radiotelephony communications is em+odied as an ICAO &tandard. offers an opportunity to reinforce strict adherence to standard ICAO phraseology. -here is much anecdotal evidence of the difficulties caused +y the use of non!standard phraseology. particularly for users of 7nglish as a second. or additional. language. ".".2 It is vital that +oth native and non!native speakers conform to ICAO standardiDed phraseology hich has +een so carefully and painstakingly developed over the last fifty years. -he use of ICAO standardiDed phraseology is no em+odied as an ICAO &tandard =Anne$ 1%. <olume II. ).1.1.1> hich reads6 FICAO standardiDed phraseology shall +e used in all situations for hich it has +een specified. Only hen standardiDed phraseology cannot serve an intended transmission. plain language shall +e usedG.
+&,
"."." 7fforts must +e made ithin individual Contracting &tates to ensure that their use of phraseology conforms specifically to ICAO &tandards. At the present time. there are nota+le differences in a num+er of &tates. *et us consider for a moment ho the use of non!ICAO phraseologies presents an unnecessary hindrance to safe international operations. -he follo ing e$ample as provided +y a senior airline authority to a revie committee.
Consi(er an aeroplane on an instrument approach in lo) visi ility at a large international airport any)here in the )orl(* 8or )hatever reason- the captain elects to initiate a go&aroun( )hile still in the clou(s* It is a regulatory requirement that air traffic control e notifie( as soon as practical that the aeroplane is e#ecuting a go&aroun(- ut this critical ra(io transmission to the to)er may e phrase( in any num er of )ays (epen(ing on the airline or the !tate of registry of the aeroplane- or for a myria( of other reasons9 the pilot coul( report a :go&aroun(;- a :misse( approach;- a : al1e( approach;- or :a an(on approach;* If non&stan(ar( phrases or <argon are use(- an event )hich unfortunately occurs more often than it shoul(- then the controller an( other pilots in the vicinity might hear :)e=re on the go;- or some other regional <argon* In this case- )hile the actions of the flight cre) )ithin the coc1pit may e clear an( the cre) may perform the manoeuvre as a team- their intentions may not e clearly un(erstoo( y those on the ra(io frequency- inclu(ing other aeroplanes in the imme(iate vicinity as )ell as the controller responsi le for provi(ing separation*
".".# 8hile perfect communication may never +e achieved. communication can +e greatly improved +y agreeing to use. herever possi+le. the same phraseologies. 5or voice communications to provide the level required for safe operations. the use of a single standardiDed ICAO phraseology must +e emphasiDed. -his may mean a re!orientation for controllers or pilots ho may have +ecome accustomed to either non! ICAO phraseologies or. perhaps. a la$ity regarding the use of ICAO phraseologies. -hose controllers and pilots so affected need simply consider the efforts required +y non!native 7nglish!speaking counterparts to acquire 7nglish language proficiency at the ICAO Operational *evel # in order to understand the value of conforming to ICAO phraseologies e$clusively and of maintaining careful. e$pert radiotelephony techniques.
1&4 CO$C9--E$! $EE6 FOCA-EF9# 9SE OF .#AI$ #A$G9AGE ".#.1 Although the careful use of ICAO phraseologies is one means to increased communication safety. no set of phraseologies. ho ever e$tensive. can account for the +readth of human communicative need. even ithin the relatively constrained environment of air traffic control communications. In all those situations for hich phraseologies cannot suffice. of urgency. emergency. or other non!routine +ut normal circumstances. controllers and pilots ill use plain language. An e$ample of a normal. non!urgent communication hich ould require plain language is given in this e$cerpt from an actual transcript. as t o aircraft are descending to ards the airfield6 F8hoCs ahead@ (s or the Air 7urope@G In this case. there appear to +e no ICAO phraseologies to cover this request for information. 8hile ICAO phraseologies should al ays +e used in the first instance. there ill al ays +e situations. some routine. for hich phraseologies do not e$ist.
Chapter +*
+&/
".#.2 -he ICAO language proficiency requirements in the Appendi$ to Anne$ 1 detail the requisite language characteristics for the use of +oth phraseologies and plain language. -hey are intended as guidance on the use of plain language.
1&2
S#A$GA DA-GO$ A$6 I6IO;S
".).1 *anguage communicates more than message contentE use of language also communicates. generally on a su+!conscious level. information a+out group identity. status and rank. emotions. and attitudes. *anguage also serves to esta+lish relations or to alleviate +oredom or stress. &lang. 4argon. and idioms are similar in that they consist of ords or phrases hich have a specialiDed use. ith a significance other than the logical or o+vious significance. &lang and 4argon have more pe4orative connotations. ith 4argon. associated ith professional use of languages. +eing considered less pe4orativeE idioms may +e relatively free of social connotations. /argon ".).2 &tandardiDed ICAO phraseology is sometimes referred to as a kind of 4argon. a specialiDed code specific to air traffic controllers and flight cre sE yet. as a formaliDed code. ICAO phraseology does not serve the same function as informal 4argon. Rather. phraseology has the specific technical function of ensuring efficient and safe communications. Informal 4argon or anything else hich may make comprehension more difficult is isely avoided. given the potential consequences of misunderstandings ithin the R-5 environment. 0!ioms ".)." &imilar to 4argon. +ut usually ithout any pe4orative connotation. idioms are only understood as a hole phrase. the significance of hich is one step removed from any logically derived meaning. An e$ample is Fto take offG. It is difficult to see the logical relationship +et een a plane Ftaking offG and a person. for e$ample. Ftaking offG a hat or coat. &imilarly. there is nothing inherently logical a+out using the phrase Fcan you make the run ay@G Although there may not +e anything inherently rong ith using such a phrase in the appropriate conte$t. speakers should +e a are of the difficulties hich second language users may e$perience in understanding idioms. especially as idioms constitute a large part of our normal communications. Avoiding idioms results in clear and easier!to!understand speech. ".).# Clarity. conciseness. and correctness are goals of air traffic control communications. -he purpose of phraseologies is to reduce the possi+ility for am+iguity and to facilitate efficiency. 5or all the many circumstances here phraseologies do not apply. the use of plain language should achieve the same goals as phraseology. Avoiding idioms henever possi+le and +eing a are of the difficulty they may present help make plain language clearer. Overall. an a areness of the differences +et een 4argon and idioms and of their sometimes useful +ut possi+ly complicating role in communications ill help pilots and controllers communicate more safely across linguistic and cultural +arriers.
1&3
F9$C!IO$ A$6 -EGIS!E-
".,.1 >e specific- e#plicit- an( (irect* An understanding of the role of language function and register ill clarify the importance of using language hich is specific. e$plicit. and direct hen communicating
+&0
across a linguistic +arrier. A communicative function relates to the intention of the speaker. e$pressed +y a ver+ of communication. A speaker can convey an intended function through a variety of language forms. 5or e$ample. the language function of Frequesting an actionG could +e e$pressed in any of the follo ing forms6 a> +> c> d> e> f> Bring me the file. Could you +ring me the file@ 8ould you hand me that@ 'ass that here. 8here is the file@ :o a+out that file@
".,.2 Register refers to the differing use of language in differing conte$ts. 5or e$ample. a speaker ill use one particular register hen making formal presentations and another hen speaking to close friends or family. Registers are characteriDed +y the use of voca+ulary and structural or grammatical differences. -he differing forms used in the e$amples a+ove are governed in part +y the register. in decreasingly informal order. 5unction. form. and register are important concepts for air traffic controllers and pilots to have at least a passing familiarity ith +ecause a num+er of accidents and incidents have +een attri+uted to either a controller or pilot using less direct forms to communicate some concern. hich. in part. +ecause of the indirect form. as either misunderstood or ignored. -hese situations are ell covered in te$t+ooks on cre resource management. An e$ample is a co!pilot asking the pilot. F:o a+out those flaps@G to e$press his concern that the flaps are not far enough e$tended for take!off. 5ar +etter to state concerns e$plicitly6 F8e should e$tend the flaps furtherG or FAre the flaps e$tended correctly@G ".,." (tterances should e$plicitly state the function of the communication. especially hen attempting to clarify or alleviate a concern in the mind of the speaker. An e$ample in everyday life is to ask. F'lease turn on the lightsG rather than a more indirect request. F:o a+out some light@G In air traffic control communications. controllers and pilots can ensure greater clarity ith e$plicit statements. &tate the topic of concern e$plicitly. Be direct rather than indirect.
1&4
.-O$9$CIA!IO$A 6IA#EC! A$6 ACCE$!
"./.1 Clear pronunciation ; In native!speaker to native!speaker communications. speakers can use the conte$t to assist understanding. and it has +een common practice for language teachers to encourage students to use conte$t to aid comprehension. Research has found. ho ever. that second language speakers of 7nglish rely much more heavily on pronunciation. rather than conte$t. to understand. -he implications of this for improving radiotelephony communications are t o!fold6 the role of pronunciation in the ICAO *anguage 'roficiency Rating &cale must +e given high priority. and all speakers must move to ards pronunciation patterns accepta+le to the larger international aeronautical community. 8hile accent can sometimes +e difficult to control. speakers can control intelligi+ility +y moderating the rate of speech. limiting the num+er of pieces of information per utterance. and providing clear +reaks +et een ords and phrases. &peakers should also +e careful to avoid the simplification of sound clusters. "./.2 ?ialect an( accent are comple$ issues. A great deal of language teaching has focussed on the FnativeG speaker as the role model for pronunciation. :o ever. the linguistic community has more recently recogniDed that the notion of a monolithic native speaker is misleading. as there is a ide variety among
Chapter +*
+&4
native speaker accents and dialects. -his is especially true ith 7nglish as it continues to +e used on a glo+al level. As 7nglish +ecomes an increasingly common international language. any sense of o nership hich 7nglish!speaking countries may have felt has disappeared. 7nglish. perhaps more than any other language. +elongs to the orld. -hose interested in reading more a+out 7nglish as an International *anguage may refer to the list of references for +ooks and articles hich e$plore this role more fully =see Appendi$ 7>. "./." An e$ample of the important and practical contri+utions that linguists can make to the field of aviation 7nglish training and testing can +e found in the consideration of the myth of so!called FstandardG dialects. ?ust as the development of aviation 7nglish language training and testing programmes is made more effective and efficient ith qualified language teaching professionals at the helm. so too does the issue of dialect highlight the importance of +ringing qualified language teaching professionals into assessment activities. -he ICAO language proficiency requirements call for proficient speakers to Fuse a dialect or accent hich is intelligi+le to the aeronautical communityG. -his can +e understood to signal that all speakers. +oth native and non!native. must take care to acquire an internationally understood accent or dialect. It has +een pointed out that the use of a native speaker as a role model for pronunciation not only is misleading = hich native speaker variety should you use@> +ut also sets up learners to fail. as adult language learners do not generally acquire any sort of native ; like pronunciation. A +etter aim for language learners is mutual intelligi+ility. -he question of hich accents are intelligi+le to the international aeronautical community. hile difficult on the one hand to ans er ith precision. points to the legitimate role of F4udgingG in language assessment. -he aeronautical community ill use +est 4udgement a+out appropriate accent and dialect against the +ackground of kno ledge and e$perience in aviation operations. &uch informal +ut informed 4udgements a+out accent and dialect are already used in a num+er of professional applications today. including aviation training. "./.# One e$ample of an effective +ut unofficial policy on accent and dialect can +e seen in the 7nglish +roadcast ne s industry. A num+er of years ago. large television ne s net orks hired individuals speaking only a limited num+er of so!called FprestigeG 7nglish dialects. In recent years. ho ever. it is common to hear a much ider range of 7nglish dialects and non!native accents among ne scasters. Although the ne s agencies do not appear to have formaliDed language testing requirements or a formal policy on accepta+le accent. some informal policy o+viously operates to ensure that ne scasters speak a dialect and accent easily understood +y the great ma4ority of listeners. 7nglish!speaking controller training organiDations have traditionally operated in a similar fashionE trainers may note informally through training contact ith trainees hen someone demonstrates a strong regional dialect. requiring e$tra training or FelocutionG lessons in some cases. In such cases. good 4udgement as used in determining the appropriate accent. -here is no Fglo+al 7nglish language authorityG to esta+lish a single Faccepta+leG accent. It ould not +e possi+le to esta+lish one in any case. for any language. as variety in language use is unavoida+le. and language is too comple$ a phenomenon for linguists to precisely map out hich features of language use make it most idely intelligi+le. &ome linguists are researching the issue of intelligi+ility. +ut the comple$ity of the issue makes such research of little practical value at this time. Instead. participants in cross!cultural communications are +etter served +y acquiring an a areness of the challenges of cross!cultural communication. an openness to accommodating different accents and dialects. and techniques for recogniDing and negotiating communication +reakdo ns.
1&5
C-OSS,C9#!9-A# CO;;9$ICA!IO$
".0.1 -here are a num+er of features of radiotelephony communication that make it particularly challenging to speakers of 7nglish as a foreign language. 5irstly. many people consider communicating in another language quite stressful. &peaking a foreign language ith a highly proficient or native speaker of the language can +e an intimidating e$perience. &econdly. radiotelephony communication is a+sent of any
+&5
visual clues. making communication even more difficult. since. in face!to!face communications. much is communicated through non!ver+al channels. including +ody language and facial e$pression. 5inally. some studies indicate that stress negatively affects language performance. 5lying and controlling aeroplanes are. to some degree. inherently stressful activities. Consequently. flying or controlling an aeroplane hile communicating across linguistic +arriers on a radiotelephone. devoid of visual clues. +rings a num+er of stress!inducing factors to the communication process. ".0.2 In this conte$t. if native speakers are simply a are of the challenges faced +y speakers of 7nglish as a foreign language =75*>. they can take greater care in their speech. 3ative and highly proficient speakers can. for e$ample. focus on keeping their intonation neutral and calm. admittedly difficult at +usy control areas +ut a good strategy to calm the language an$iety of an 75* speaker. -hey can take particular care to +e e$plicit. rather than indirect. in their communications and train themselves a ay from the use of 4argon. slang. and idiomatic e$pressions. -hey can ask for read+acks and confirmation that their messages have +een understood. and they can attend more carefully to read+acks in cross!cultural communication situations. taking greater care to avoid the pitfalls of Fe$pectancy.G a topic ell covered in :uman 5actors literature. Additionally. a slo er rate of delivery seems to make speech more comprehensi+leE therefore. taking care to moderate speech rate is a common sense approach to improving communications.
1&B
S9;;A-<
Implementation of the ICAO language proficiency requirements cannot realistically completely eliminate all sources of miscommunication in radiotelephony communications. Rather. the goal is to ensure. as far as possi+le. that all speakers have sufficient proficiency in the language used to negotiate for meaning. 8hile communication errors ill pro+a+ly never completely go a ay. disciplined use of ICAO phraseology. compliance ith the ICAO language proficiency requirements. alert a areness of the potential pitfalls of language. and an understanding of the difficulties faced +y non!native 7nglish speakers ill ena+le pilots and controllers to more readily recogniDe communication errors and ork around such errors.
Chapter 4 #A$G9AGE !-AI$I$G A$6 -A6IO!E#E.>O$< CO;;9$ICA!IO$S
=ey concepts H H H H H H *earning a language is a great deal more comple$ than the familiar use of our o n native language in our daily lives often leads us to +elieve. An important first step in the esta+lishment of efficient and cost!effective language learning programmes is the selection of appropriately and adequately qualified teachers. Aeronautical su+4ect matter e$perts should colla+orate and effective programmes. ith language teachers to develop accurate
Aeronautical communication involves more than phraseologies alone. Bany factors influence the language learning process. It is difficult to predict ho particular individual ill require to reach the ICAO Operational *evel # proficiency. long any
-here are no short cuts to language learning. -ime. motivation. and mature effort are al ays required. 8ell!developed programmes can ensure the +est progress through the use of relevant materials and effective methods. Adherence to the standards set +y a num+er of professional language teaching associations +est guarantees effective programmes.
4&+
I$!-O69C!IO$
-he introduction of strengthened ICAO provisions for language proficiency for flight cre s and air traffic controllers reinforces the need ithin the civil aviation industry to ensure the esta+lishment and continued development of effective and efficient language training programmes. OrganiDations may opt to develop or enhance internal language training programmes. or they may decide to contract ith commercial language training organiDations to provide the service. -he purpose of this chapter is to guide those having responsi+ility for the development and implementation of language programmes for flight cre s and air traffic controllers. -his chapter ill address teacher qualifications and learner progress. In addition. other topics that ill assist &tates. training esta+lishments. training managers and instructors in the selection or development of suita+le training curricula. sylla+i and materials ill +e e$plored.
,&%
,&' 4&2
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements #A$G9AGE #EA-$I$G
#.2.1 'eople tend to have strong opinions a+out language learning. perhaps +ecause every human +eing. +arring severe disa+ility. speaks at least one language. Net. language is a great deal more comple$ than our familiar use of language in our daily lives often leads us to +elieve. Academic research reveals that a good deal of Fcommon isdomG a+out language learning is inaccurate. An e$ample is the commonly held +elief that children learn ne languages more easily than do adult learners. 5indings +y language acquisition researchers do not entirely su+stantiate thisE studies indicate that hile adolescents sho some advantage over +oth adults and children. given the same set of circumstances =e.g. programme duration. and amount of time spent in language learning activities>. adults have learning strategies that afford them +etter progress than do young children. e$cept in pronunciation ; early acquisition appears to have +eneficial effects. 8hile this is not to say that age does not affect language learning at all. factors other than age ; personality. access to the language. or motivation ; may have at least as strong an influence. #.2.2 -his is 4ust one e$ample of common isdom applied to language learning that results in some hat inaccurate perceptions. Another illustration can +e seen in the perception that Fanyone ho speaks a language can teach a languageG. &imilarly. a +it of ishful thinking applied to language learning sometimes results in learners searching for a Fmagic +ulletG. leaving themselves open as possi+le prey of promoters of so!called Fne methods for quick and easy language learningG.
*anguage teaching is a professional activity that requires specialiDed training.
#.2." Contrary to such notions lies reality6 language teaching is a professional activity that requires specialiDed training. *anguage teaching is further distinguished from other teaching activities +ecause of the unique nature of language learning6 a comple$ +lend of skill. kno ledge. and cultural a areness. com+ining physical components ith mental and communicative processes. 3o su+stitute for effort and time has +een found in the endeavour to learn ne languages. In fact. the tendency to apply conventional isdom to language learning issues sometimes results in the assignment of inadequately prepared individuals to the task of developing. implementing or selecting language training programmes. -hus. the resulting inappropriate classroom activities ill +e inefficient. leaving language learners frustrated and unprepared. *anguage teachers are facilitators ho are trained to effectively communicate ho language orks. to organiDe and deliver interesting and engaging lessons. and to accurately assess proficiency. Based on their professional a areness of ho humans learn foreign languages. they design classroom activities that encourage and allo the learners to interact ith the language. #.2.# In contrast to a great deal of traditional language teaching. hich focussed on fill!in!the!+lank. grammar!type e$ercises. more recent linguistic and language acquisition research has led to an interest in more student!centred. interactive classroom approaches designed to increase learnersC communicative competence in the language. 8hile not ignoring the role of grammatical kno ledge. classroom activities focus on providing learners ith opportunities to interact ith the language in order to engage all of the elements that constitute language use. Activities can include open!ended role plays. missing!gap games. or any meaningful. conte$t!centered activity dra ing learners into an active engagement ith the language. 2rammar teaching in communicative classrooms is done in a meaningful conte$t. One result of incorporating linguistic research into language teaching programmes. +esides an argua+le improvement to language learning. is that the language learning classroom has +ecome a more interesting. lively. and engaging place to +e.
Chapter ,*
Language Training an( Ra(iotelephony Communications 4&1 #A$G9AGE !-AI$I$G .-OG-A;;E 6E:E#O.E- A$6 I$S!-9C!O?9A#IFICA!IO$S
,&+
#.".1 -he notion that Fanyone ho speaks 7nglish can teach 7nglishG is incorrect. -he research into ho humans acquire languages addresses a full range of issues important to the esta+lishment of efficient language training programmes. An appropriately prepared individual familiar ith adult language acquisition theories and research. pedagogical innovations. testing doctrine. and linguistic principles can +est guide the development of language training programmes in line ith current research. -herefore. the first important consideration in the development of efficient and effective language training programmes is the designation of an appropriately prepared individual ho can direct the task of cross!cultural issues and ho has a commitment to continued professional development. respect for the student. and an a+ility to engage and motivate students.
-he +est qualified language programme managers and instructors have an academic +ackground in language teachingE e$pertise ith aviation communications. and communicative language teaching e$perience. in addition to personal attri+utes important to teaching6 sensitivity to and a areness of cross!cultural issues. a commitment to continued professional development. respect for the student. and an a+ility to engage and motivate students.
0nstructor "ualifications #.".1.1 Language acquisition* *anguage instructors or language training programme developers need a familiarity ith the findings of recent language acquisition research and ith current language learning theory. An understanding of ho adults acquire a second language. hat factors influence language acquisition. and the role of formal instruction in language acquisition are e$amples of important +ackground kno ledge for language instructors. #.".1.2 Linguistics* *anguage instructors need to understand +asic principles a+out language and need a cognitive a areness of ho language functions. A linguistic a areness. including kno ledge of historical influences on a language. allo s instructors to respond to student inquiries a+out the grammatical. le$ical and phonological systems. An appreciation of sociolinguistic theory provides insight into the role of dialect and issues of language identity. #.".1." Pe(agogy* *anguage instructors should +e familiar ith a variety of language teaching methods and techniques. ith principles of curriculum development. and ith the notions of learner style and motivation. Instructors and curriculum developers should +e a+le to link the approach used to an underlying theory of language and language learning and should +e a+le to design a programme =course o+4ectives. sylla+us. activities>. Because of the dearth of aviation!specific language learning materials. aviation 7nglish teachers should also +e adept at developing their o n materials. #.".1.# In addition to formal training in the areas listed a+ove. it is important to remem+er that teaching is a skill in its o n right. 7ffective teachers kno ho to engage their studentsE they create learner!centred lessons. monitor their o n effectiveness. continue to develop their skills and kno ledge professionally. and kno a+out and use a variety of reference and teaching resources. #.".1.) Language proficiency* 8hile language instructors naturally ill ant to have achieved a competent level of proficiency themselves in order to teach effectively. and this level can +e esta+lished in relation to the level of students they are teaching. there is no reason to suppose that FnativeG speakers make
,&,
+etter language teachers. 3on!native instructors can. for e$ample. +ring their first!hand e$perience of learning a second language to +ear on their teaching. Although the ICAO Rating &cale may have applica+ility in other instances. it as developed specifically ith the communicative needs of pilots and air traffic controllers in mindE it does not address reading or riting proficiency. or grammatical kno ledge. all important skills and kno ledge sets for teachers. Other specifically developed rating scales or associated tests may +e more +eneficial in determining an appropriate level of language proficiency for language instructors. 1eacher programmes preparation
#.".2 An organiDation can ensure that language training personnel have e$pertise in the areas descri+ed a+ove +y selecting language specialists ho typically have graduate!level qualifications in language teaching. several yearsC e$perience ith adult learners. and familiarity ith aviation su+4ect matter. Bany 7nglish teaching preparatory programmes are availa+le. commonly referred to as -eaching 7nglish as a &econd *anguage =-7&*>. -eaching 7nglish as a 5oreign *anguage =-75*>. or -eaching 7nglish to &peakers of Other *anguages =-7&O*>. &imilar programmes may +e kno n as 5oreign *anguage 7ducation programmes. &econd *anguage Acquisition =&*A> &tudies. &econd *anguage &tudies. Applied *inguistics programmes. or other language!teaching programmes =F?apanese as a &econd *anguageG. for e$ample>. In some parts of the orld. qualified language teachers earn university degrees in 5oreign *anguage -eaching or -raining. ith a requirement to master t o foreign languages. &uch 7nglish language teaching preparatory programmes can +e found at the certificate. diploma. masterCs or doctorate levels. &hort courses may +e offered +y a variety of pu+lic and private institutions leading to a certificate or diploma. *onger courses are offered +y universities leading to a post!graduate certificate in education or a masterCs degree in. for e$ample. Applied *inguistics or another closely related field. 'rogrammes that are not closely related +ut may appear to +e so to the lay pu+lic include 7nglish literature or other language literature programmes. #."." 7ffective 7nglish language training programmes tend to seek instructors ho have a com+ination of an educational +ackground in one of the areas listed a+ove and practical e$perience in 7&* teaching. at an appropriate level. allo ing for a certain amount of trade!off +et een education and ork e$perience6 that is. practical and progressively responsi+le ork e$perience may su+stitute for advanced educational degrees. particularly hen the individuals have +een self!motivated to educate themselves a+out current principles of language teaching and learning. Additionally. less e$perienced or less ell! prepared instructors can +e guided under the e$perienced hand of a supervisor teacher =see -a+le #!1>. Differences bet-een programmes certificate% !iploma% an! master !egree
#.".# -he difference +et een certificate. diploma. advanced university and masterCs degree programmes lies mainly in the degree of preparation they offer. -he shorter courses. usually certificate programmes. typically offer +et een 1%% and 1)% hours of training. A masterCs degree programme or advanced university degree programme ill last one or t o years +eyond the university +achelor programme. As an e$ample. the -7&O* Certificate offered +y one British institution is descri+ed as a practical. ork!related qualification hich is a first step in learning to teach 7nglish to adults. -he diploma and masterCs degree programmes offered at the same institution are descri+ed as ena+ling individuals to take up professional roles in teacher training. management. course design. testing. CA** =computer!aided language learning>. and language education research. -he British Association of -7&O* Oualifying Institutions recommends assigning ork and teaching responsi+ilities in line ith an individualCs +ackground preparation and e$perience. In +rief. holders of a -7&O* Certificate are prepared to teach a class under the careful guidance of a +etter qualified supervisorE they may or may not +e adequately prepared to engage in sustained materials or curriculum development. depending on the amount of e$perience gained. An
Chapter ,*
Language Training an( Ra(iotelephony Communications
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individual ith a -7&O* 9iploma and e$perience or ith a masterCs degree in -7&O* should +e a+le to engage fully in material and programme curriculum development. in the supervision of other instructors. or in programme management.
Aviation speciali2ation
content
#.".) 7&* teachers can +est teach aviation 7nglish if they are familiar ith the content material. -hey can gain familiarity in a num+er of ays6 +y e$perience in aviation. +y e$perience in aviation 7nglish teaching. or through a short course designed to provide such familiarity =a flight ground school course. for e$ample>. 8ith an introduction to aviation content. teachers e$perienced in 7nglish for specific purposes should +e a+le to select. modify. and e$ploit content appropriate to the classroom needs of students. Optimum aviation 7nglish training solutions are developed consistently over time. ith committed and qualified individuals motivated to stay the long course of aviation 7nglish materials development and ith continued support from su+4ect matter e$perts =&B7>. Because aviation technical familiarity is not gained overnight. more so than in other 7nglish language teaching endeavours. organiDations ill ant to invest in talented. capa+le teachers ho ill +e a+le to commit to long!term materials development pro4ects. #."., Alternatively. a very useful aviation 7nglish teaching solution is found in the pairing of a qualified 7nglish language teacher ith an aviation su+4ect matter e$pert. -he role of the &B7 in the language classroom is to guide the selection of and verify the accuracy of aviation contentE the role of the trained language specialist is to arrange for language learning to occur in the conte$t of the aviation content provided +y or monitored +y the &B7. &uch partnerships have +een found to +e among the most effective technical 7nglish language teaching approaches.
A sub3ect matter expert alone is not enough #."./ 8hat has not +een found to +e effective is relying on aviation technical e$perts alone to provide the optimal environment for language learning to occur. 8hile individuals ith flight e$perience or an air traffic control +ackground make valua+le =and necessary> su+4ect matter e$perts to facilitate language teaching. the task of teaching language classes or developing appropriate language learning materials should +e delegated to language teaching e$perts and material developers. -he role of aviation e$perts in the aviation language teaching environment is to guide the language teacher to ards appropriate content material and to maintain a high degree of technical accuracy in the language learning materials. Aviation e$perts ith instructional e$perience ill make the +est FpartnersG. a+le to contri+ute most positively to the language training.
Aviation technical e$perts can support and facilitate aviation 7nglish teaching. *anguage teaching. ho ever. should +e conducted +y qualified language teachers.
#.".0 -he selection of appropriately and adequately prepared individuals to develop andIor instruct in language training programmes is an important first step in the esta+lishment of efficient and cost!effective programmes. Attempting to economiDe in the selection of teacher or programme developer is likely to cost far more in the long term than selecting persons ho are appropriately qualified. 5or additional information on programme standards. please refer to &ection #./ and Appendi$ 9.
,&0 !able 4,+&
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements Aviation English ?uali/icationsC A range o/ 0uali/ications
>est @ery goo( Minimum
+* Aviation English teacherA ad(inistratorA and (aterial developer BasterCs in *anguage -eaching6 H 7&* academic 1 qualifications H H -eaching 7nglish as a &econd *anguage =-7&*. -7&O*>. or Applied *inguistics. or 5oreign *anguage 7ducation or related field H H 7&* teaching e$perience H H H H BachelorCs degree in foreign language training. or 2raduate diploma in -7&*. etc.. or (niversity degree P e$tensive 7&* teaching e$perience ith clear evidence of commitment 2 to field Aviation 7nglish programme 7nglish for specific purpose teaching 7&* teaching in an accredited university or language school H H *anguage teaching e$perience. or 3o previous teaching e$perience accepta+le hen teaching under close supervision of e$perienced teacher ell ith &B7 H H Certificate in -7&*. or (niversity degree =initial teaching should +e done under close supervision of e$perienced teacher>
Aviation 7nglish programme "P years
Aviation communications 7&* material development 7&* administrative e$perience
'ilot or controller e$perience
Radiotelephony familiarity =through aviation 7nglish " apprenticeship or e$perience>
A+ility to ork
Aviation 7nglish material development ith communi! cative or interactive approach Aviation 7nglish programme administration
4
7&* material development ith communicative or interactive approach 7&* programme administration Aviation or 7&* programme involvement
2* #anguage test !evelopment
Academic
'h.9. in Applied *inguistics ith specialiDation in language testing
BasterCs in Applied *inguistics P
BasterCs in Applied *inguistics or -7&O* P
e$perience developing. and conducting research on. secondIforeign language tests Radiotelephony familiarity
a+ility to ork ith other e$perts A+ility to ork ell ith &B7
Aviation 1* SubEect (atter e'perts Aviation communications 'rofessional. international. radiotelephony e$perience , =professional pilot or controller>
:ighly e$perienced commercial or private pilots ith international e$perience
*icensed pilot ith international a areness
4* Other possible aviation English tea( (e(bers Computer!aided training and / instructional design 'rofessional specialist academic qualifications 7$tensive and proven specialist e$perience &pecialist e$perience
Chapter ,*
1.
,&4
-he usual academic qualification required for native 7nglish!speaking teachers across 3orth America. 8estern 7urope. Australia and 3e Qealand is a masterCs degree in -eaching 7nglish as a &econd *anguage =-7&*> or some other closely related field. such as Applied *inguistics. In other parts of the orld =e.g. Russia. 7astern 7urope. and much of Asia>. the academic qualification to +ecome a language teacher is usually a +achelorCs degree in foreign language training. One advantage that teachers from such programmes have is that they have succeeded in attaining a rigorously high degree of language proficiency in at least one foreign language. and often t o. Other Flanguage!relatedG academic fields =such as 7nglish *iterature. Comparative *iterature. Communications. -ranslationIInterpretation studies. Comparative *inguistics or FpureG *inguistics> do not focus on language teaching or language learning and are not relevant qualifications for language teachers. &imilarly. hile some 7&* teaching degrees are housed in education departments. other fields of academic education. such as 7ducation. 7ducational -echnology. International &tudies. and Cross!cultural &tudies. are not directly related to language teaching. Additional qualifications include cross!cultural e$pertise or sensitivity. international second language learning e$perience. and. of course. an enthusiasm for teaching. ork e$perience. multilingualism.
2. -he field of 7nglish as a &econd *anguage is relatively ne . ith higher degree programmes only developing in the 11/%s and later. A num+er of e$cellent teachers entered the field in the 11/%s +efore the e$istence of such programmes +ut have pursued professional development through other means. evidenced through. for e$ample. mem+ership in professional associations. pu+lished research or presentations. and professional self!development in the field. ". Radiotelephony familiarity is essential for aviation 7nglish teaching. 7&* teachers can gain familiarity ith radiotelephony communications through a variety of means6 +y taking flight lessons or o+server flightsE through an apprenticeship ith an aviation 7nglish master teacherE through e$perience in teaching aviation 7nglishE through interactions ith professional aviators and controllers. through reading idely and other self!educational schemesE and through the use of simulators and soft are programmes. 8hen 7&* instructors do not have aviation 7nglish familiarity. it is important that they ork closely ith a su+4ect matter e$pert. -he qualifications for test interlocutors and raters are naturally different from those necessary for test development team mem+ers and leaders. -raining in test familiarity and rater cali+ration is necessary for all interlocutors and raters. &ee Chapter # for more information on rater qualifications. -he higher the stakes of a test event. the more important the input of highly qualified and e$perienced e$perts in test development. International e$perience is important +ecause international radiotelephony communication is often different from local communication practices. Bost importantly. kno ledge of ICAO phraseology is essential. In the development of aviation 7nglish materials. hether they +e te$t!+ased materials or a computer!aided medium. a qualified and e$perienced 7&* teacher or material developer is an essential part of the team. Instructional design technology e$pertise is an important part of a material developing team +ut does not su+stitute for the language learning kno ledge that an 7&* specialist +rings.
#.
).
,.
/.
,&5 4&4
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements CO$!E$!C GE$E-A# A$6 A:IA!IO$, S.ECIFIC E$G#IS> #A$G9AGE !-AI$I$G
#.#.1 A second consideration in the esta+lishment. development. or selection of language programmes addresses content and methodology. After careful selection of language teaching and programme management personnel. the ne$t decision ill concern hat should +e taught and ho . OrganiDations ishing to provide language training programmes for personnel ill have the option of developing and offering their o n programmes or contracting ith an outside agency to provide courses. or a com+ination of +oth. Regardless of the option chosen. the content of the courses in the programme. the curriculum. and the methodological approach are important. #.#.2 7nglish for specific purposes =7&'> is an approach to language teaching that focusses programme content on su+4ects. topics. and issues of direct interest to learners. 7&' training is driven +y hat learners need to (o in 7nglish and focusses principally on those features of the language hich are required to undertake a particular task. A more narro ly focussed. learner!centred approach to teaching 7nglish. 7&' aims to help learners esta+lish partial competence in a given. usually ork!specific domain. such as =+roadly> science. technology. or medicine. or =more narro ly> +anking. mechanical engineering. or aviation. 7nglish for aviation learning and teaching activities focus on the language needed to function in various aviation conte$ts. 1he role of phraseologies 4 A cautionary note #.#." 8hat is the relationship of aviation 7nglish and phraseologies to FgeneralG 7nglish@ It may +e useful to consider aviation 7nglish. radiotelephony 7nglish. and phraseologies as increasingly smaller su+sets ithin the larger category of Fthe 7nglish languageG. H Aviation $nglish* 8e can define aviation 7nglish as a comprehensive +ut specialiDed su+set of 7nglish related +roadly to aviation. including the FplainG language used for radiotelephony communications hen phraseologies do not suffice. 3ot restricted to controller and pilot communications. aviation 7nglish can also include the use of 7nglish relating to any other aspect of aviation6 for e$ample. the language needed +y pilots for +riefings. announcements. and flight deck communicationE or the language used +y maintenance technicians. flight attendants. dispatchers. or managers and officials ithin the aviation industry. Ra(iotelephony $nglish (RT8$)* A su+!category of aviation 7nglish. radiotelephony 7nglish is the language used in radiotelephony communications. It includes +ut must not +e limited to ICAO phraseology and can require the use of FgeneralG 7nglish at times. A list of pilot and controller language functions found in Appendi$ B ela+orates the use of radiotelephony 7nglish. F'lain languageG refers most often to hat e are calling here radiotelephony 7nglish +ut also may require FgeneralG 7nglish. ICAO phraseology* -he standardiDed ords and phrases approved for radiotelephony communications +y ICAO have +een developed over years and represent a very narro . specialiDed and rigid su+set of language.
#.#.# A more thorough discussion on aviation 7nglish can +e found in Chapter /E it should +e emphasiDed here that flight cre s and air traffic controllers need to acquire phraseologies. certainly. +ut aviation 7nglish training should not +e limited to phraseologies. *anguage proficiency is an intricate interplay of kno ledge. skills. and competence. requiring much more than memoriDation of voca+ulary items. BemoriDation of ICAO phraseologies alone does not constitute language proficiency and is an
Chapter ,*
,&6
unsafe practice. Aviation 7nglish training for flight cre s and air traffic controllers. then. necessarily includes practice ith phraseologies +ut also necessarily includes a +roader focus on aviation!related 7nglish.
BemoriDation of ICAO phraseologies alone does not constitute language proficiency and aviation 7nglish training should not +e limited to phraseologies.
1he role .nglish
of
5general6
#.#.) If e keep in mind that specialiDed aviation 7nglish is +uilt upon proficiency in general 7nglish and that individuals entering the aviation environment ith a high level of proficiency in FgeneralG 7nglish =native speakers andIor e$pert users of the language> readily acquire the specialiDed 7nglish voca+ulary and phraseologies needed for efficient and safe radiotelephony communication. it is reasona+le to e$pect that FgeneralG 7nglish programmes and courses may +e an appropriate preface to learning aviation 7nglish. at the lo er levels. -his is to say that FgeneralG 7nglish programmes and learning activities can play a valua+le role and are a legitimate language learning activity for flight cre s and controllers. -his is important in part +ecause much support for FgeneralG 7nglish learning e$ists6 many programmes. instructors. te$ts. and multimedia products are readily and economically availa+le to support general 7nglish learning. 1he case for aviation .nglish 4 Safety an! efficiency #.#., As has +een sho n. there is a role for FgeneralG 7nglish teaching and learning. :o ever. a strong case for aviation!focussed 7nglish language teaching and learning at all skill levels presents itself. +ased on the safety!related o+4ectives and learner motivation. As increased air safety is the motivating factor +eneath any initiative. including the esta+lishment of provisions for language proficiency in civil aviation. it is important that language training programmes address appropriate needs ithin the domain of aviation operational communications. Aviation 7nglish specialists. individuals ith the requisite applied linguistic +ackground as descri+ed a+ove. as ell as an earnest familiarity ith or e$perience in the requirements of aviation communications. can +est and most efficiently achieve an organiDationCs safety! related language proficiency o+4ectives. A case stu!y #.#./ As an e$ample of the insight that linguists can +ring to +ear on our understanding of aviation communications and the consequential implications for training is the case of a message uttered +y the first officer in one of the t o aircraft involved in a catastrophic collision. :is use of the phrase F e are no at take!offG as interpreted +y the aerodrome controller to mean that the aircraft as aiting at the take!off point. &u+sequent events demonstrated that the first officer in fact meant that the aircraft had already started the take!off roll. *inguistic analysis of this accident customarily attri+utes the am+iguity of the phrase to linguistic interference from the speakerCs mother tongue hich allo ed the use of a preposition =equivalent to 7nglish FatG> associated ith the infinitive form of a ver+ to e$press the notion of an action +eing performed at the moment of speaking. -his is not the case in 7nglish. -he data in this case certainly support the notion that a +etter mastery of +asic 7nglish synta$ +y the first officer at that moment in time ould have helped to alert the controller to the impending collision. :o ever. a closer look at the pro+lem raises certain dou+ts a+out ho clear!cut this solution actually is. -he 7nglish language does in fact allo phrases on the model A- P 3O(3 to e$press the notion that the speaker is currently participating in an activity =consider for
,&%7
e$ample Fat playG. Fat orkG. Fat lunchG>. -o e$tend this language pattern to the action Ftake!offG is therefore not entirely unreasona+le. 8hat as missing in the first officerCs kno ledgeIuse of 7nglish as the a areness that such phrases may sit astride a semantic Ffault!lineG =C(RR73- AC-IO3 vs. C(RR73'O&I-IO3> hich is of critical importance to the specific domain of aircraft movements on the ground. -he pro+lem here is that ithout this domain!specific kno ledge. a teacher of general 7nglish may see no urgent reason to focus attention on the am+iguity of phrases like Fat take!offG. -his is all the more true since teachers of the general language tend to focus their corrections on the ma4or areas of grammatical usage =overall sentence structures. ver+!tense contrasts. etc.>. #.#.0 In addition to specific cases. anecdotal feed+ack from controllers involved in communications! related incidents has dra n attention to the more general pro+lem of the impact of general language training from an intermediate level up ards. It ould seem that +y focussing on some of the finer points of grammar or the le$icon =voca+ulary> during training. non!native users of 7nglish can +ecome inappropriately concerned ith manipulating certain features of the language and are thus hampered in their a+ility to use the language clearly and rapidly in operational situations. It ould therefore appear that attainment of a recogniDed level of FgeneralG 7nglish ill fail to meet the requirements for safe communications in that they may +e either insufficient ith regard to the specific constraints pertaining to the conte$t of aircraft operations or in e$cess of operational linguistic needs and. as such. potentially disruptive to safe communications. #.#.1 Indeed. in support of the case and anecdotal evidence descri+ed a+ove. some language researchers contend that FgeneralG language competence does not e$ist. that language proficiency al ays occurs in conte$t. and that language competence e$ists only in specific conte$ts. 1he secon! motivation case for aviation .nglish 4 (earner
#.#.1% Aviation 7nglish learning activities. focussed on ork!related tasks. ill +e of high interest to the learner. increasing learner motivation. 5or +usy professionals. especially those ho have already acquired +asic proficiency in 7nglish. lessons and learning activities focussed on the language they need on the 4o+ ill +e seen as more efficient. As a cautionary note. ho ever. it should +e understood that aviation 7nglish is not a magic +ulletE aviation 7nglish learning ill not necessarily +e a faster method of learning the appropriate 7nglish. :o ever. it ill likely more readily engage the learner. keeping motivation high. +ontent-base! learning language
#.#.11 Content!+ased language learning may +e a solution for organiDations ishing to optimiDe economy of training costs +y integrating other aviation training needs ith language training. 7vidence that incorporating su+4ect matter content into language learning activities. or using language learning as a vehicle for learning content. has pedagogical merit. not only from the point of vie of improved language acquisition. +ut also as regards learner motivation. Content!+ased language instruction is appropriate to aviation professionals +ecause the language +ecomes the vehicle for learning meaningful and appropriate contentE language learning is not seen as au$iliary to other aviation training. +ut as integrated ith aviation training. 0mplementation programmes of aviation content-base! language
#.#.12 -he implementation of content!+ased language programmes for flight cre s and air traffic controllers can +e accomplished through a colla+oration +et een 7&*!certified language specialists and aviation specialists. &uch classes may +e co!developed. and even co!taught. ith the 7&* specialists
Chapter ,*
,&%%
providing linguistic support to the aviation content. Appropriate classroom activities of an aviation content! +ased language programme ill +e familiar to Cre Resource Banagement trainers6 a focus on task!+ased activities. pro+lem!solving. team!+uilding e$ercises. role play and simulations.
4&2
"ASIC .-I$CI.#ES OF #A$G9AGE #EA-$I$G
#.).1 -here has +een a great deal of research in linguistics and language acquisition. ith many professional organiDations. university programmes. seminars. +ooks and 4ournals devoted to language acquisition and teaching. particularly to the teaching of 7nglish as a second language. &ee Appendi$ 7 for a listing of useful and readily availa+le resources. -his section aims to outline some very +asic precepts a+out language learning in order to guide language programme administrators in esta+lishing reasona+le e$pectations and programme guidelines. Beyond the +asic information provided here. a language specialist ith a +road +ackground can apply research more readily to individual organiDational conte$ts. .xpecte! learner progress: .S cut is not a short
#.).2 -he selection of course content is importantE for aviation professionals. 7&' or content!+ased language instruction is the most appropriate and more efficient and effective approach. It should +e made very clear. ho ever. that such courses do not represent a short cut to language competence. Outside of academia. language training providers often encounter unrealistic e$pectations on the part of clients and sponsors ho ant short!term language training solutions. a Fmagic +ulletG for language learning. *anguage learning activities can certainly +e more or less effective. +ut there are simply no magic. quick!and!easy language learning techniques or programmes to su+stitute for a serious and mature commitment of time and effort. -o understand hy promises of miraculous language learning are al ays false. consider that even if it ere possi+le to memoriDe many ords in a short space of time = ith +oredom as only one of the long!term dra +acks of this method>. the a+ility to say something is only one part of hat it means to speak a language. 8eeks spent memoriDing a large num+er of ords or phrases does not prepare learners to understand all that they may hear. *earning a language involves not only learning ho to say something +ut also understanding hat you hear. .xpecte! progress learner
#.)." It is very important for programme sponsors and managers to have a realistic sense of hat is considered as usual progress in language learning. It should +e noted at the outset that any guide to e$pected progress can only +e very general. as learner progress is affected +y any num+er of factors and ill +e highly individual. *anguage learning is a comple$ interaction of a num+er of factors. involving academic linguistic kno ledge. cultural information. and communicative skills. &ome of the factors influencing the rate of language learning include the follo ing6 H $nvironment* One of the ma4or factors influencing language learning progress appears to +e environment. Bore specifically. research suggests language learning in an FimmersionG or -arget!*anguage =-*> environment is more effective and efficient than language learning in an isolated environmentE that is. learning 7nglish in an 7nglish!speaking host country is effective. Time* -ime spent on language learning tasks has an o+vious impact. -he more time individuals are immersed in language learning activities. the more quickly they acquire language skills.
,&%' H
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements Personality* 8hile it is not possi+le to generaliDe the effect of personality on language learning. evidence suggests that certain personality traits hich facilitate language learning might increase an individualCs success. e.g. +eing unafraid of appearing foolish and +eing illing to take risks. Learner style* Researchers have concluded that learners differ in their preferred learning styles and make +etter progress hen the methodology used matches their preferred learning style. 'rogrammes can accomplish this +y offering an array of learning options. e.g. computer!aided self!access programmes. classroom activities. role plays and simulations. 8irst language literacy an( e(ucational ac1groun(* -he degree of literacy of learners in their first language ill impact learner style and the degree to hich classroom materials are a help or a hindrance to learning. Motivation* *earners ith intrinsic =internal> motivation may learn more efficiently than learners ith purely e$ternal motivating factors.
#.).# Other factors include a learnerCs current level of language proficiency. attitude to the target language culture. study ha+its. and the degree of cultural isolation. *o- long !oes it ta,e7 #.).) &tudents and administrators often ant to kno . Fho long ill it takeG for a student to progress from point A to point B. Clearly. in consideration of the large num+er of factors hich impact language learning. it is impossi+le to predict ith great accuracy ho long any one individual ill require. :o ever. some general guidelines can +e dra n from research and from practical e$perience. One informal rule of thum+ in the field of language teaching for academic purposes holds that +et een 1%% and 2%% hours of language learning activities are required for any measura le improvement in a+ility. One large professional association hich regulates language institutes asserts that Fit is not unrealistic to e$pect students ho +egin at the lo est levels to require a full calendar year of intensive language study to reach levels of proficiency sufficient to +egin academic orkG =3A5&A 'rinciples. from the Association of International 7ducators>. A full year of intensive language study ould equal appro$imately 1 %%% to 1 #%% hours of study. #.)., Additional research from the (nited &tates 9efence *anguage Institute. an organiDation ith many yearsC e$perience teaching pilots and air traffic controllers. indicates that appro$imately 1, eeks of intensive study focussing solely on listening and speaking proficiency. or appro$imately )%% hours of study. are required for a language learner to move from a level 1 to a level 2 on the 9efence *anguage InstituteCs Inter!agency *anguage Roundta+le =I*R> scale. #.)./ 8hat can +e dra n from this evidence is that tightly focussed. aviation!specific speaking and listening curricula ill likely produce more efficient results than more generaliDed approaches.
4&3
-O#E OF CO;.9!E-,"ASE6 .-OG-A;;ES
-he role of computers in language learning. like the role of computers in other kinds of learning and training situations. is relatively ne and likely to increase. -he important point to remem+er. ho ever. is that language is essentially a+out communication. -he computer is another tool to support training. not a ne ay of training. -o the e$tent that computers can mimic the human a+ility to interact and communicate. as
Chapter ,*
,&%+
ell as provide learners ith the opportunity to practice the language on their o n =self!access activities>. computers have an o+vious value. Computers can facilitate live. human teacher!to!student interaction +ut may not yet +e a+le to replicate interaction that requires speaking as ell as listening a+ility. particularly in the conte$t of aviation communications. 4&4 .-OG-A;;E S!A$6A-6SC 7I6E :A-IE!< I$ .-OG-A;;E ?9A#I!<
8hether organiDations elect to develop their o n. internal 7nglish language programme or to su+contract ith a third!party language training provider. initial and ongoing programme evaluation ill +e an important aspect of quality control. Chapter , outlines a set of professional standards that ensure quality. In selecting a language training provider. it is important to note that 7nglish language teaching is very much an unregulated industry. ith only very recent efforts +eing made to accredit 7nglish language teaching programmes in 7urope. the (nited &tates and Canada. -here is no universal licencing e$aminer authority regulating language teacher training or certification. and there is ide variety in programme and teacher quality. As the foundation for programme quality. 7nglish language teaching programmes should adhere to standards esta+lished for this purpose +y a num+er of professional associations as outlined +roadly in this chapter. =Appendi$ 9 contains additional information on programme standards.> 4&5 A66I!IO$A# FAC!O-S
#.0.1 &ome additional factors that affect programme quality concern instructor ork environment. particularly instructor responsi+ilities. Because aviation 7nglish teaching is so highly technical and specialiDed. an 7nglish!as!a!second!language instructor needs a some hat lengthy apprenticeship in order to gain familiarity ith the technical requirements of radiotelephony communications. -here are relatively fe 7nglish teachers prepared to manage the technical requirements of teaching pilots and air traffic controllers. 8hen an organiDation has access to such instructors. their value to the organiDation should not +e underestimated. as they may +e difficult to replace. #.0.2 Reasona+le teaching loads can range from a usual academic load of t elve to fifteen hours per eek for instructors ho manage administrative. research. curricular or other duties. to t enty hours per eek for instructors ithout research or significant administrative responsi+ilities +eyond usual class preparation and student counselling duties. to as many as t enty!five hours per eek for instructors ho are orking ith fully prepared curricula and class materials and ho carry no material development. class preparation. or any other administrative responsi+ilities. #.0." -ime +uilt into the year for professional development activities. to carry out research or attend seminars or conferences. keeps instructors a+reast of current research and enthusiastic a+out their teaching. 4&B S9;;A-< OF "ES! .-AC!ICE I$ A:IA!IO$ #A$G9AGE !-AI$I$G
-here are many varia+les in language learning progress and ide programme quality in a largely unregulated industry. Clients and students of the academic or Fgeneral purposeG language teaching community at large may +e a+le to afford a ide range of programme quality. as they face fe er time constraints and are generally in the early part of a career path. :o ever. professionals ithin the aviation community affected +y the ICAO language proficiency requirements are in the middle of their careers and face rigid time pressuresE they need to attain ICAO Operational *evel # language proficiency as quickly as possi+le. As such. the aviation industry merits the most efficient language training availa+le. A
Chapter 2 CO;.#IA$CE 7I!> ICAO #A$G9AGE .-OFICIE$C< -E?9I-E;E$!S

=ey concepts H H H H H (ntil ) Barch 2%%0. &tates may continue to use procedures they currently have in place to assess 7nglish proficiency of flight cre s and controllers. -he relative facility to assess proficiency at the e$pert level allo s fle$i+ility in the assessment is made. *icensing authorities should require a specialiDed evaluation =or test> of those demonstrate 7$pert proficiency. 'hraseologies!only testing is not appropriate. 9emonstration of actual speaking and listening a+ility is required. ay the
ho do not
2&+
I$!-O69C!IO$
).1.1 -he purpose of this chapter is to provide guidance to &tate aviation authorities. airlines. air navigation service providers =A3&'s>. and training esta+lishments on the various ays to ensure compliance ith the ICAO language proficiency requirement. It covers three ma4or topics6 a> +> c> Compliance ith Anne$ 1 &tandards 1.2.1.1 and 1.2.1.2 =general proficiency requirements that do not refer to the level of the rating scale>E 9emonstration of proficiency at the e$pert levelE and 9emonstration of proficiency at *evels # and ).
).1.2 8hile the evaluation of language proficiency according to the ICAO language proficiency rating scale is only required as of ) Barch 2%%0. there are good reasons to start formal evaluation of language proficiency earlier6 a> Recruitment* It is likely that most air traffic service providers and airlines ill ant their ne recruits to meet the language proficiency requirements as a prerequisite for recruitmentE >enchmar1ing* -he esta+lishment of the training programme required to +ring e$isting staff to the appropriate level ould require an accurate assessment of the level of language proficiency of e$isting staffE and ?ea(line* -o +e prepared for the ) Barch 2%%0 deadline. /&%
+>
c>
/&' 2&2
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements CO;.#IA$CE 7I!> A$$E8 + S!A$6A-6S +&2&B&+ A$6 +&2&B&2
).2.1 7ven +efore the introduction of the ICAO requirements. most &tates had esta+lished procedures to ensure that flight cre s had kno ledge of the 7nglish language +efore +eing allo ed to fly in airspace here 7nglish as required. &imilarly. &tates have typically had measures to ensure 7nglish language proficiency in air traffic controllers. Any measures or procedures to ensure compliance ith Anne$ 1 &tandards 1.2.1.1 and 1.2.1.2 that are not +ased on the ICAO proficiency scale and holistic descriptors ill have to +e replaced +y ) Barch 2%%0 hen Anne$ 1 &tandards 1.2.1.# and 1.2.1., +ecome applica+le. (ntil then. &tates can continue to use e$isting measures. keeping in mind that speaking and listening proficiency in +oth phraseologies and plain language should +e assessed. ).2.2 -hese e$isting procedures ill continue to +e appropriate for glider and free +alloon pilots and flight engineers according to the Recommended 'ractice in Anne$ 1. 1.2.1.". Additional guidance on appropriate language assessment methods and methodologies is found in Chapter ,.
2&1
6E;O$S!-A!IO$ OF .-OFICIE$C< A! !>E E8.E-! #E:E#
).".1 *anguage proficiency at F+oth endsG of a proficiency scale is relatively easy to discern. It is not difficult to recogniDe F7$pertG or FnativeG or Fnative!likeG proficiency. and for that reason the assessment at *evel , does not necessarily need to +e carried out +y a language testing specialist. 3ative speakers of the language should +e considered e$pert speakers provided they use a dialect or accent that is intelligi+le to the aeronautical community. 7$pert speakers also include multilingual speakers ho include the language as one of their FnativeG languages. and foreign!language speakers ho have acquired 7$pert proficiency. through either educational +ackground. e$tensive ork e$perience in the language. or some other e$tensive contact ith the language. Recognition of F7$pertG proficiency can +e +ased on the documentation of such e$periences. or it can occur during training or as part of the evaluation of training. -he person responsi+le for documenting F7$pertG language proficiency does not need to +e a specialist +ut should +e familiar ith the relevant applica+le &tandards and should +e a+le to recogniDe hen there is a need to refer the applicant to specialiDed language testing. ).".2 Although the relative facility to assess proficiency at the 7$pert level allo s fle$i+ility in the ay the assessment is made. the demonstration of language proficiency is an element of the formal process that leads to ard the issuance of a pilot or an air traffic controller licence. It is therefore important that each &tate esta+lish appropriate procedures and ensure that the results of the assessment are properly documented. hether done through specialiDed testing. through the documentation of appropriate e$perience in the language. or on the +asis of o+servation of 7$pert proficiency during training.
2&4
6E;O$S!-A!IO$ OF .-OFICIE$C< A! #E:E#S 4 A$6 2
).#.1 Bet een the t o poles of F7$pertG and F're!elementaryG proficiency. it +ecomes more difficult to distinguish +et een levels. and so. formaliDed. professional assessment is required +oth for the initial assessement as ell as for the recurrent evaluation required under Anne$ 1. 1.2.1.,. *icensing authorities should require a specialiDed evaluation =or test> of those ho do not demonstrate 7$pert proficiency. &uch speakers may include native speakers ho demonstrate a regional dialect or accent that is not readily intelligi+le to the international aeronautical communityE speakers ho demonstrate a speech impedimentE or foreign!language speakers ith less than 7$pert proficiency.
Chapter /* Compliance )ith ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements
/&+
).#.2 It is useful to understand the circumstances into hich the ICAO language proficiency requirements have +een introduced. in the conte$t of 7nglish language testing and training. 8ithout an ICAO &tandard clarifying the level of proficiency required. it has +een difficult for the industry to invest in 7nglish language training. As a result. the ICAO &AR's concerning language proficiency requirements introduce a need for high!quality and aviation!specific language training materials and programmes +eyond hat is currently availa+le and call for the development of academically sound. high!quality. aviation! appropriate language testing services. Chapter , ill revie . in detail. the issue of aviation language testing.
Chapter 3 A:IA!IO$ #A$G9AGE !ES!I$G

=ey concepts H H H H H H H H H -he ICAO language proficiency requirements point to ards an aviation conte$t for testing. 'hraseologies!only testing is not appropriate. 'roficiency tests of actual speaking and listening a+ility are required. Indirect tests of grammatical kno ledge. reading. or riting are not appropriate.
-ests hich test proficiency in another specific!purpose conte$t =academics or +usiness> are not appropriate. F2eneral purposeG proficiency tests may +e appropriate in some conte$ts. +ut professional pilots and controllers should +e tested on their ork!related language proficiency. F2eneral purposeG or language tests developed for other purposes may +e useful for pre!training assessment or for pre!screening. 5or licensing purposes. a test must evaluate proficiency according to the criteria esta+lished in the ICAO language proficiency requirements. Computers are currently +etter suited to facilitate the delivery and administration of language proficiency tests than to rating or assessment in the high!stakes aviation conte$t.
3&+
I$!-O69C!IO$
,.1.1 -he purpose of this chapter is to provide guidance to &tate aviation authorities. airlines. air navigation service providers =A3&'s>. and training esta+lishments in the selection or development of suita+le. effective language tests as &tates seek to comply ith ICAO language proficiency and testing requirements. A particular o+4ective of this chapter is to help ensure that the language assessment measures and language tests developed for the civil aviation industry are relia+le. valid. and practical. ,.1.2 &AR's in Anne$ 1 require that flight cre s and controllers demonstrate language proficiency at the ICAO Operational *evel =*evel #>. Anne$ 11 and Anne$ , assign responsi+ility to air traffic services providers and aircraft operators. respectively. to ensure that their personnel meet ICAO language proficiency requirements. -esting serves t o purposes6 it fulfils ICAO provisions requiring that pilots and controllers demonstrate language proficiency sufficient for safe and efficient radiotelephony communications. and it provides +enchmarks +y hich the effectiveness of language training and language learning may +e evaluated. 0&%
0&'
,.1." Improving radiotelephony communications requires three things6 ICAO setting proficiency requirementsE good quality. aviation!specific language training programmesE and appropriate assessment tools or tests. -he language proficiency requirements in the Appendi$ to Anne$ 1 esta+lish the minimum skill level requirements and the &AR's in Anne$ 1. &ection 1.2.1. esta+lish testing requirements. -he esta+lishment of testing proce(ures is addressed +y the ICAO provisions in so far as they stipulate that speaking and listening proficiency must +e evaluated. and not. for e$ample. reading a+ility. grammatical kno ledge. or voca+ulary in isolation of conte$t. 8hile the ICAO language proficiency requirements esta+lish testing requirements. the development of tests and testing procedures is left to &tates. airlines. and training organiDations. ith the &tate Aviation Authorities maintaining oversight responsi+ility. :o ever. language speaking proficiency tests require that certain specific procedures +e used. and this requirement ill guide the implementation or development of tests for aviation language proficiency.
3&2
!ES! O:E-:IE7
,.2.1 It is misleading to talk a+out Fa testG or Fthe testG for aviation language proficiency assessment. Rather. hat is needed are testing services hich can provide the ongoing development of any num+er of tests for the industry. ith ongoing and continual development of ne items for different versions of a num+er of tests. A need for language testing may occur at a num+er of points in time in the career of a pilot or air traffic controller6 as a screen for pre!training selectionE for diagnostic purposes or as a progress check during trainingE or as a licensing requirement in fulfilment of ICAO Anne$ 1 requirements. 9ifferent tests ill +e needed at different points in the training process6 for e$ample. language tests for a+ initio pilot and controller trainees ill necessarily +e different from a language test targeting the specific!purpose language skills of professional pilots and controllers. ,.2.2 -ests can +e categoriDed as high stakes depending on ho significantly they impact the life of the candidate or other stakeholders. 8hen the results of a particular test determine or limit professional and career options. the stakes are high for the candidates. As an e$ample. a single classroom test developed +y a classroom teacher in a course hich provides multiple assessment opportunities ill have less long!term impact on the life of the candidate than ill a comprehensive e$am. the results of hich ill determine hether the candidate graduates or not. In such a case. the comprehensive e$am can +e considered as a high!stakes e$am. hile the single classroom test ould not qualify. ,.2." -he development of appropriate language testing and assessment options for the aviation industry is a matter of particular importance for t o reasons6 language testing ithin the aviation industry is a case of very high!stakes testing. and the language test industry is a relatively unregulated industry.
3&1
>IG> S!A=ES ith ICAO Anne$ 1
,.".1 A num+er of factors make language proficiency testing for compliance licensing requirements a case of e$ceptionally high!stakes testing.
,.".2 !afety* -he safety of airline passengers depends in no small measure on the effectiveness of pilot and air traffic controller communications. 8hen radiotelephony communications are in 7nglish. then it is quite o+vious that the 7nglish language proficiency of the participants needs to +e sufficientE this is the rationale underlying ICAO language proficiency requirements for all languages used for international radiotelephony communications. Relia+le. effective. legitimate testing systems are required to ensure that pilots and controllers have adequate levels of 7nglish language proficiency.
Chapter 0*
Aviation Language Testing
0&+
,."." Career* -he outcome of the language test ill impact on the career of pilots and controllers. 'ilots and controllers operating internationally need to demonstrate compliance ith the ICAO language proficiency requirements. -hose ho do not may +e denied a licence to operate internationally. a consequence hich can have severe professional repercussions not only on the career of an individual pilot or controller +ut also on an airline or air traffic service provider. ,.".# $conomic factors* &tates. airlines. and service providers scarcely have money to aste on inadequate or unproven tests. -he economic repercussions on airlines or air traffic service providers could +e severe if pilots and controllers are denied a licence to operate internationally +ecause of non!compliance ith the ICAO language proficiency requirements. ,.".) *anguage testing for licensing purposes needs to +e of the highest cali+re. and yet. this need occurs ithin a language testing industry hich is. on the hole. self!regulating ; there is no independent accrediting agency to hich all testing products must apply for accreditation or certification. and no licence is required for a Flanguage testerG. -his. coupled ith +oth a general pu+lic una areness of the appropriate academic qualifications for language testers and a idespread notion that Fanyone ho can speak 7nglish can teach 7nglishG. leaves the industry open to investment in poor quality or other ise inappropriate tests. ,."., 5or these reasons. the responsi+ility is on all participants and stakeholders ; testers. test developers. and test users ; involved in aviation language testing to ensure that the language proficiency tests they select. provide. or develop for the aviation industry are valid. relia+le. effective. and appropriate. -est developers. administrators. and providers. in particular. are accounta+le to the stakeholders6 to the pilots and controllers taking their testsE to the airlines and air navigation service providers contracting for the testing. and to the passengers relying on the individual language skills of the airline pilots and air traffic controllers.
3&4
!>E SO#9!IO$C E!>ICS A$6 A CO6E OF .-AC!ICE
,.#.1 Because of the high!stakes nature of language testing ithin the aviation industry. it is particularly critical that developers and providers of language tests to the aviation industry maintain high quality +y conscientious adherence to good language testing principles and practices. -he International *anguage -esting Association =I*-A> is one non!commercial. non!profit organiDation of language testing professionals dedicated to the improvement of language testing throughout the orld. In 2%%%. I*-A mem+ership adopted the I*-A Code of 7thics for language testers =see Appendi$ 9>. -est users and developers can refer to the I*-A Code of 7thics as guidance to ensure that their test development and testing practices maintain high standards. ,.#.2 In addition to a code of ethics guiding test developers and end!users. there is also a need for a code of ethical practice. Net it has proven some hat difficult to develop a universally applica+le code of practice. and there are indications that this code is +est developed in recognition of local cultural or industry practice. One local code of ethics. from the ?apan Association of *anguage -esters. is provided as a sample in Appendi$ 9.
3&2 1est !evelopment
"ES! .-AC!ICE FO- #A$G9AGE !ES!I$G I$ A:IA!IO$
,.).1 Best practice in language test development can +e said to occur hen representatives from all stakeholders participate in the process6 pilots. controllers. administrators. operational trainers and aviation
0&,
language trainers. guided +y and orking ith applied linguists ith a specialist +ackground in language test development. 5ollo ing +est practices. the input of qualified linguists is particularly important in the development of a high!stakes test. ,.).2 *anguage testing. like language teaching. has +enefited from the findings of language researchers and theorists ho +ring their e$pertise in applied linguistics to +ear on the field of language testing and test developmentE a list of language testing resources appears in Appendi$ 7. -ests prepared ithout the e$pert input of professional test developers can +e adequate for diagnostic purposes. e.g. in order to place someone ithin a training programme or to 4udge progress. +ut the need for relia+ility and validity in the aviation licensing conte$t is so high. ith careers and possi+ly lives at stake. that authorities and administrators should turn to language test development professionals in order to ensure that the tests used or developed for compliance ith ICAO language proficiency standards ill provide relia+le and valid results. ,.)." OrganiDations can ensure the development or selection of appropriate. valid. and relia+le tests +y relying on the input and recommendations of personnel ith. at a minimum. the more rigorous of the +ackground qualifications in 7nglish as a &econd *anguage or Applied *inguistics. as detailed in Chapter #. for the development of language tests. Additionally. organiDations ill isely ant to select language test developers ith additional e$pertise in language testing6 solid e$perience in language testing andIor an advanced graduate degree in the field. 8hile there are no licence requirements for language test development professionals. a ell!qualified language test developer. in addition to holding an advanced university degree =masterCs or doctoral degree> in one of the language teaching fields =7nglish as a &econd *anguageE -eaching 7nglish as a &econd *anguageE 5oreign *anguage 7ducationE Applied *inguisticsE or &econd *anguage Acquisition>. ill also +e a+le to demonstrate some or all of the follo ing qualifications6 evidence of professional involvement in the fieldE documented involvement in research in language testing or previous e$perience in language testing. and a demonstra+le kno ledge of +oth historical and recent developments in language testing research. Other participants in the testing process. test administrators or raters. for e$ample. need not adhere to this stringent set of qualifications for the developers of a high!stakes licensing test.
Subse"uent steps
important
test
!evelopment
,.).# Other essential elements of the test development process. ith input from all stakeholders. include riting test specificationsE deciding test method and contentE developing test itemsE trialling test itemsE analysing the resultsE revising test itemsE re!trialling the test and test itemsE validating the testE esta+lishing a rating procedureE esta+lishing a rater training process and a quality control process. and esta+lishing record!keeping administrative functions.
1esters an! raters ,.).) -here is evidence that laypersons or ine$pert raters =that is. people ith no academic training or qualifications in language teaching or testing> can make adequate 4udgements a+out language proficiency. particularly in a FpassG or Fno passG sense. -he participation of operational e$perts. pilots and controllers or trainers in the rating process can add operational integrity to the process. as ell as provide technical accuracy. :o ever. candidates ho do not FpassG a high!stakes test ill ant. and ill deserve. accurate information a+out ho their performance fell short of the target performance and in hat areas they should focus their efforts to improve performance. Because language testing for licensing requirements ill impact the professional careers of the candidates. test raters should +e a+le to identify deficiencies in performance and guide candidates to ards language learning activities that ill improve their language proficiency and.
Chapter 0*
0&/
hence. language test performance. -his is the sort of information that qualified language teachers and testers can provide to candidates. Best practice in language proficiency assessment calls for at least t o trained and cali+rated raters. at least one of hom is a language teacher.
3&3
!ES!I$G SE-:ICES
,.,.1 Although it is common to speak a+out the need for Fan 7nglish testG. it is not an entirely accurate conceptual frame ork in hich to discuss language testing needsE it is more accurate to address the need for Ftesting servicesG. A single test cannot meet the requirement to assess the language skills of the many pilots and controllers. even ithin a single administration or organiDation. ho must comply ith ICAO language proficiency requirements. A testing service. either in!house or outsourced. that can continually provide ne test items andIor a large num+er of raters and administrative services is required. ,.,.2 A second important point hich +ears emphasiDing is that any test ill contain a measure of error ; no single test can ever provide a perfectly accurate representation of a personCs language a+ilities. -herefore. the +est testing practice ill +e. henever possi+le. to use multiple measures or assessments of an individualCs language proficiency. i.e. considering scores on a standardiDed test along ith other evidence of language proficiency6 for e$ample. instructor assessments. classroom performance. and on!the!4o+ evaluation. Additional factors that can contri+ute to a fair assessment include documented time in 7nglish educational or ork environments and intervie s. Appropriate testing aviation language
,.,." Regarding testing methodology. there are critical characteristics of an appropriate testing system in the conte$t of aviation language testing. -he test must6 a> +> c> d> +e a proficiency test of speaking and listeningE +e +ased on the ICAO Rating &cale and holistic descriptorsE test speaking and listening proficiency in a conte$t appropriate to aviationE and test language use in a +roader conte$t than in the use of ICAO phraseologies alone.
,.,.# 'erhaps the most significant contri+ution of language acquisition and language testing research of recent decades is in the development of theoretical approaches to the understanding of language proficiency upon hich testing regimes may +e developed. 8hile there is more than one theory addressing the nature of language and of language acquisition. and there is no certainty that any single theory is correct. there are some general principles upon hich language tests may +e constructed. -hat test developers may rely on a theory of language as a foundation to test development is an improvement over earlier language testing methodologies hich relied solely on intuition or on the historical tradition of teaching and testing *atin grammar. *anguage research more recently. for e$ample. has centred on the communicative aspects of language use rather than on kno ledge of specific grammatical or le$ical features. in the attempt to characteriDe hat language is. -he interest in communicative approaches to language teaching has led to dramatic revision in language testing practices. ith the introduction of testing methods designed to assess language skills (irectly. ,.,.) 8hereas recent research has led to the development of communicative language teaching approaches. many traditional language tests ere indirect. -ypically in traditional tests. discrete grammar
0&0
points ere tested. usually through multiple choice questions in a series of unrelated sentences. through test items requiring the candidate to identify an error in a series of unrelated sentences. or through ritten translation e$ercises. &uch tests are sometimes characteriDed as +eing Fo+4ectiveG. in so much as they attempt to assign a num+er score to an individualCs language proficiency. If. ho ever. e investigate the test development process. it is easy to question the supposed o+4ectivity of such multiple choice!type tests +y e$amining ho it is that the particular items and questions on that test ere selected from the infinite num+er of potential items availa+le. 8ho decides hich 1%% or so items ill +est characteriDe language proficiency and ho is that decision taken@ Indirect tests do not test language skills (irectly. +ut instead test discrete features of the language thought to underlie language skills. that is. kno ledge a out language. ,.,., Communicative or proficiency tests. on the other hand. are intended to evaluate ho an individual is a+le to actually use language. and they refer to a scale of proficiency rather than a num+er score. In a proficiency test. a panel of trained raters assigns the test!taker to a level on a scale of level descriptors. -he more directly test performance is related to target performance. the more a test can +e considered a proficiency test. 5or e$ample. test administrators interested in an individualCs speaking skills ould arrange for an assessment of that individualCs performance on a speaking task. &peaking skills are (irectly assessed during an intervie or conversation or role play or are +ased on a recorded sample of actual speech. -he focus in a proficiency test is on appropriateness and success of communication rather than grammatical accuracy. 2rammatical accuracy might +e considered only so far as it impedes communication. for e$ample. +ut evaluating an individualCs grammatical kno ledge ould not +e the test o+4ective. ,.,./ 'roficiency tests are administered (irectly. through face!to!face contact +et een tester and test! taker. or semi&(irectly. through recorded speaking prompts and recorded responses.
3&4 !ES!I$G O-A# .-OFICIE$C< A$6 !>E ICAO #A$G9AGE .-OFICIE$C< -A!I$G SCA#E ,./.1 Are direct assessments of language proficiency su+4ective@ A fe comments a+out the use of rating scales and the notions of Fo+4ectivityG and Fsu+4ectivityG are arranted. In the academic literature on language testing. there are a num+er of terms associated ith practices of language proficiency assessment6 testing. measuring. assessing. evaluating. and diagnosing. A term less commonly used in discussions of language testing methodology is F4udgingG. In this section. e ill consider the role of good. e$perienced. ise and guided 4udgement in language testing. ,./.2 *anguage proficiency testing has its origins in the teaching and testing of *atin grammarE common testing e$ercises included grammar translation e$ercises. voca+ulary Ffill!in!the!+lankG. and ver+ transformation e$ercises. -he modern development of language testing is closely associated ith the rise of interest in psychometric measurement. ith an emphasis on precise measurement. In the attempt to o+tain o+4ective measurements of language a+ility. the focus of the field of psychometrics!testing techniques required counta+le test items. As a result. language tests developed from the psychometric tradition tended to focus on kno ledge a+out language rather than actual language performance. Interested readers may refer to Bernard &polkskyCs Measure( Aor(s for a history of language testing. ,./." One result of such testing techniques as that diplomats in the (nited &tates diplomatic services ho had scored ell on traditional language tests ere not a+le to effectively use the language in the field. -he apparently o+4ective language tests in use ere not a+le to accurately predict the a+ility of the test!taker to actually use the language in practice. -hese concerns spurred a search for tests that ould more accurately reflect an individualCs actual a+ility to perform. -he Oral 'roficiency Intervie technique. ith its accompanying and. in many ays. ground!+reaking rating scale. as developed +y a consortium of
Chapter 0*
0&4
interests. &ince then. language proficiency rating scales have +een much used in the direct assessment of speaking proficiency. +oth through oral intervie techniques and through semi!direct test samples. ,./.# -he use of a rating scale requires that certain conditions +e met. 5irstly. a community of users must agree upon a set of criteria upon hich FadmissionG to the community ill +e +ased. -he rating scale should reflect those criteria. and the community must agree to the use of the rating scale. &econdly. a +ody of ell!informed and e$perienced raters should +e formed. -he e$perience and the +ackground of the raters must +e such that they inspire trust and can gain the confidence of +oth the community and the candidates ho ish to 4oin the community. -he raters must reflect the values of the community and understand the criteria and the conte$t in hich the criteria occur. -hey must also agree upon standardiDed procedures for the implementation of the criteria. -hese e$perienced and trained raters commit to +est practice. as outlined in codes of ethics and good practice. Both the standardiDed procedures and compliance ith codes of ethics and practice require evidence that every practical and reasona+le measure has +een taken to ensure test effectiveness and fairness =relia+ility and validity>. After these conditions are met. then the rating scale is used to make informed 4udgements a+out candidates. Direct an! proce!ures semi-!irect testing
,./.) 9irect and semi!direct tests of language proficiency differ in their format. primarily in the elicitation of tasks. 9espite their different attri+utes. +oth live and recorded proficiency testing procedures share a common purpose6 the direct assessment of an individualCs speaking andIor listening a+ilities. -he primary difference +et een direct and semi!direct testing techniques lies in ho speech samples are elicited. Direct proce!ures testing
,./., In direct testing procedures. the candidate interacts either ith a tester directly or ith other candidates hile +eing o+served +y a tester. Candidates are asked to perform language tasks +ased on some set of elicitation prompts. Candidates may +e asked to engage in a conversation!like intervie ith a tester. or they may +e asked to perform in a role play. either ith a tester or ith another test candidate. -he performance is either o+served and assessed in real time. or it may +e recorded for later evaluation. ,././ One +enefit of direct testing is that the test tasks can +e made more natural or more communicative. as the candidates interact either ith one another or ith an interlocutor. 9irect testing tends to +e more time! and human resource!intensive than semi!direct testing. On the other hand. an advantage of direct testing is that. +ecause each test is a unique interaction +et een the tester and the candidate. there is an infinite supply of test prompts availa+le. -here is also less likelihood of o+taining rehearsed speech samples. hich may not +e indicative of a candidateCs true proficiency level. 7ven ith numerous test forms. recorded. semi!direct tests can quickly +ecome compromised. Semi-!irect proce!ures testing
,./.0 In semi!direct testing procedures. speech samples are elicited +ased on pre!recorded =and there+y standardiDed> promptsE this is a significant +enefit in that every test!taker receives the same prompts. ensuring. perhaps. a greater degree of fairness. Another advantage is that the test can +e administered in an audio or computer la+oratory so that a larger num+er of test candidates can +e tested at the same time. for later assessment. 8hile traditional semi!direct testing procedures have +een tape! recorded. the use of computer technology for semi!direct testing opens ne possi+ilities for role play. simulation. and human interaction.
0&5 roficiency tests
,./.1 In +oth testing formats. the speech sample elicited may +e recorded for later rating. although in direct testing procedures. the speech sample is most often evaluated Fin real timeG. In fact. either audio or video recording of the test performance is strongly recommended for verification and record!keeping purposes. &ee -a+le ,!1 for a comparison +et een direct and semi!direct testing. ,./.1% Important to +oth methods of testing is that test candidates are asked to use language in one situation as evidence of their a+ility to perform in other. natural language settings. &uch tests. +oth direct and semi!direct. elicit speech samples hich may +e 4udged for proficiency in speaking and listening. 9espite their different attri+utes. +oth direct and semi!direct proficiency!testing procedures share a common purpose6 the direct assessment of an individualCs language speaking or listening a+ility.
9irect. communicative proficiency tests of speaking and listening a+ilities are appropriate assessment tools for the aviation industry and ill allo organiDations to determine hether flight cre s and air traffic controllers are a+le to meet the ICAO language proficiency &tandards. ,./.11 Reading tests. grammar tests. riting tests. voca+ulary tests. or any such Fpen and paper onlyG tests =or their computeriDed versions> may have a role to play in the overall assessment of an individualCs language kno ledge or may +e useful for placement purposes +ut cannot +e considered to provide evidence of speaking proficiency. according to the ICAO language proficiency requirements. =A listening test may. of course. have a Fpen and paperG element. in response to recorded listening prompts.> !able 3,+& Possi le prompts2format :uman interaction Ans er questions Role!play &core later -est many candidates at a time Interact ith other test candidates -ime to administer &tandardiDed prompts =eliminates intervie erItester differences> Co(parison bet%een direct and se(i,direct testing ?irect Nes Nes Nes Nes =+ut usually done FliveG> 3o Nes Bore time R Infinite variety of prompts +ecause of unique nature of each testerIcandidate interaction
R
!emi&(irect 3o Nes Nes. in limited fashion Nes Nes 3ot usually *ess time Nes 3e prompts must continually +e developed
-he Oral 'roficiency Intervie in the (nited &tates does not use standardiDed prompts. Intervie ers are. ho ever. trained in elicitation techniques. so that some degree of standardiDation is achieved. although not to the same degree. naturally. as ith semi!direct testing prompts. Other tests. such as I7*-&. hich include a live intervie as part of the test. may make use of standardiDed prompts.
Chapter 0*
0&6
-ests that do not evaluate speaking andIor listening skills directly. either through direct interaction or through an audio! or video!taped e$change. are not appropriate to meet the requirements of the ICAO language proficiency testing guidelines.
8se an! misuse of a test ,./.12 -o underscore the importance of selecting appropriate tests. it is helpful to consider the consequences of inappropriate test use. All commercially availa+le tests have +een developed for a specific use. It is important for any potential user to inquire a+out hat the original intended use of the test as and then to compare that purpose ith the ICAO language requirements to see to hat e$tent they are similar or not. All tests have a F ash!+ackG effectE that is. an effect on training. Candidates and learners naturally ant to engage in activities that ill help them FpassG the test. If the test assesses kno ledge a+out language rather than a ility to use the language. then learners ill ant to learn a+out the language rather than engage in learning activities that increase their proficiency. ,./.1" As an e$ample. the use of =or possi+le misuse of> one idely availa+le test of 7nglish used for university admission decisions should +e considered. -he -O75* is one of the most ell!kno n academic 7nglish tests availa+le commercially and is a useful tool in the academic conte$t for hich it as developed. It as developed as a screen for international applicants to American universities and measures academic listening skills. academic reading skills. and kno ledge a+out grammar. -he -O75* does not yet include a speaking component. (niversities in the (nited &tates usually require a minimum 1/" -O75* score =or 21" -O75* score for a computer version> or an equivalent score on a num+er of other similar standardiDed tests. &ome flight training schools. ho ever. unsure of ho to other ise comply ith 7nglish language proficiency requirements set +y the (nited &tates 5ederal Aviation Administration. have taken their cue for checking 7nglish proficiency from American academic practice. requiring international flight applicants to su+mit -O75* scores as evidence of 7nglish language proficiency. Although those flight schools requiring -O75* scores are clearly making an effort to ensure 7nglish proficiency and 5AA compliance in the +est ay they kno ho . unfortunately this is a case here Fany test at allG is 3O- +etter than Fno testG. -he -O75*. an effective test of 7nglish skills for academic ork. is not an appropriate measure of 7nglish! speaking proficiency for the specialiDed environment of aviation communications. 3o inferences a+out speaking a+ility can +e made from a -O75* score. particularly in the conte$t of aeronautical communications. &ome students ith -O75* scores higher than 1/" may have very limited speaking a+ility. and some students ith -O75* scores lo er than 1/" may speak 7nglish quite ell. Although the -O75* listening section may have some limited value. no studies have +een made to demonstrate that a high score on the academic listening -O75* section indicates proficient interactive speaking a+ility. particularly in the conte$t of flight training. -he -O75* as not intended to +e. and is not useful as. a screen for applicants into flight training programmes. Indeed. relying on -O75* scores often causes t o pro+lems for flight schools6 admitting students to flight programmes ho do not have sufficient listening and speaking skills for safe flight or efficient training hile disqualifying other students ho do have sufficient listening and speaking skills for safe flight training +ut hose lo er than 1/" -O75* scores do not demonstrate this. ,./.1# -his case of the misuse of a ell!kno n test hich has +een sho n to +e a relia+le and valid instrument in the conte$t for hich it is intended. +ut hich has negative consequences hen used in a different conte$t. is a good e$ample of the importance of selecting or developing a test appropriate to the testing requirements. 8ell!kno n and good e$isting tests. such as the -O75*. -O7IC and I7*-&. ere developed for other language testing conte$ts and do not specifically relate to the aviation conte$t.
0&%7
+orrelations to other% existing language proficiency rating scales ,./.1) A num+er of ell!kno n and idely availa+le 7nglish language tests e$ist. and it is tempting to ant to correlate the ne ICAO *anguage 'roficiency Rating &cale ith results from one or more of these e$isting tests. so that an ICAO level Fmeans somethingG. another ay of asking that the ICAO requirements +e moved into an already familiar conte$t. It ould certainly +e convenient if an ICAO Operational *evel # could +e said to +e FequalG to a certain score on any num+er of e$isting tests. -he usually informal availa+ility of various ta+les offering correlation +et een certain tests +elies the difficulty of the task. and test companies themselves are usually more cautious a+out making correlations. as test equivalence is a comple$ matter. ,./.1, In the first instance. tests are usually different from one another in hat they set out to evaluate. 5or e$ample. many popular and availa+le tests do not test speaking proficiency. a requirement for any testing designed to meet ICAO requirements. Other tests may include a speaking andIor listening element +ut ere designed to test speaking proficiency in a different conte$t. often in the conte$t of university academics or officeI+usiness communications. -he ICAO Rating &cale. in particular. as developed ith the specific requirements of pilot and air traffic control communication in mind. and an assessment process ould ant to address these features of the ICAO descriptors. ,./.1/ It is also reasona+le that other. more Fgeneral!purposeG or Fother!purposeG scales may provide information a+out a F4umping offG point prior to orking to ards ICAO!specific o+4ectives. particularly in the training conte$t =rather than an end!of!training or pre!licensing test>. -o that e$tent. it may +e noted that reference as made to three e$isting language proficiency rating scales in the development of the ICAO scale. all of hich have had many years of use in the assessment of the 7nglish language proficiency of pilots and air traffic controllers6 the passIfail 7(ROCO3-RO* '7*A scaleE the level # in the scale from the Scole 3ationale de lCAviation Civile =73AC>E and a 2PI2P on the (.&. Inter!agency *anguage Roundta+le =I*R> scale.
3&5 GE$E-A#,.9-.OSE A$6 S.ECIFIC,.9-.OSE #A$G9AGE !ES!I$G ,.0.1 :aving esta+lished the importance of a code of ethics and +est practice for testing and having laid the ground ork for identifying or developing appropriate language tests for pilots and controllers. testing administrators =providers or developers> ill ne$t need to consider content. -he provisions of the ICAO language proficiency requirements that address test content are as follo s6 H H H Anne' +0A :olu(e IIA Chapter 2A 2&+&+&+ refers to the need for +oth phraseologies and plain languageE Anne' +A Appendi'A holistic descriptors 2 +>. 2 c>. and 2 d> refer in turn to F ork!related topicsG. F ork!related conte$tsG. and Froutine ork situationGE and Anne' +A Attach(entA under <oca+ulary and Comprehension. refers to F ork!related topicsG.
,.0.2 -he o+4ective of the ICAO language proficiency requirements is to ensure that flight cre and air traffic controllers have sufficient language proficiency in hatever language they use for radiotelephony communications to manage all of the potential communicative needs related to pilot and controller communications. ranging from routine phraseologies. to routine communications not encompassed +y phraseologies. to non!routine situations =aircraft lost or lo on fuel>. to outright emergencies. It is kno n that
Chapter 0*
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pilots and controllers can memoriDe phraseologies. and it is kno n that phraseologies are often not sufficient. and so it is clear that a language test for aviation communications should not +e limited to testing kno ledge of phraseologies. ,.0." -he purpose of direct or semi!direct language testing is to elicit a speech sample for assessment in order to make predictions or generaliDations a+out future language use. It follo s. then. that a language test for the aviation industry should replicate as far as possi+le the ork!related communicative requirements. In addition. e$perience sho s that professional pilots and air traffic controllers ant to +e. and even insist on +eing. tested on the language they need on the 4o+. ,.0.# 2eneral!purpose 7nglish testing attempts to evaluate language proficiency regardless of the place or manner in hich it as acquired. It is person!oriented and topic!independent. &pecific!purpose 7nglish language testing seeks to evaluate a test!takerCs a+ility to perform tasks in ays that closely appro$imate 4o+!related tasks. It is mission!oriented and may +e more limited in scope. 'roponents of general!purpose 7nglish testing hold that language a+ility is not significantly constrained +y conte$t. and that inferences a+out future language a+ility in one conte$t can +e made from language performance in another conte$t =a conversation or intervie . for e$ample>. ,.0.) 8hile e tend to talk in terms of Fspecific!purposeG testing versus Fgeneral!purposeG testing. it is more accurate to posit all tests on a specificity continuum. Challenges to the notion of general!purpose language testing have +een made on the grounds that all language testing is conducted in one conte$t or another and that there is little value to the notion of general competence +ecause. it is argued. language competence ever only e$ists in relation to specific conte$tsE i.e. all language use occurs in a conte$t and the conte$t impacts test performance. Rather than a strict division +et een t o types of tests. a continuum of specificity for language tests is posited. ith all language tests falling some here on the continuum from very general to very specific. A specific!purpose test has +een defined as one in hich test content and methods are derived from an analysis of a specific!purposed target language use situation. ,.0., In the unique conte$t of pilot and controller communication. it is evident that +oth types of proficiency tests ; general purpose and aviation!specific ; may have a role. ith. ho ever. t o cautionary notes. a> Aeronautical radiotelephony communications are +ased in large part on standardiDed phraseologies. :o ever. in addition to une$pected emergency or urgency situations. there are many non!routine +ut not necessarily unusual circumstances that are not covered +y phraseologies. An appropriate speakingIlistening test designed to assess compliance ith the ICAO language proficiency requirements ill not +e limited to testing kno ledge of standardiDed phraseologies +ut ill assess a +roader range of communicative a+ilities. A speaking or listening test developed for another conte$t may not +e appropriate to the conte$t of aviation communications.
+>
,.0./ -he content of a proficiency speaking test. or the degree of aviation specificity. ill +e determined in part +y at hat point in the training or career the test is given. 3aturally. if the language proficiency of candidates is assessed +efore they have received aviation training. then a specific!purpose test requiring kno ledge of aeronautical radiotelephony communications is not appropriate. -here is a need for a num+er of different testsE for e$ample. a language test appropriate for a+ initio pilots or controllers ill +e different from that required +y professional pilots or controllers A useful model may include a test comprised of a mi$ of +oth aviation!specific content alongside less aviation!specific content. &uch a test ould ensure that the training content remains strongly guided +y performance o+4ectives. It also gives face validity to the testing process in that it involves A-C professionals as testers alongside the language specialists. -he less specific content =or more general content> gives access to a ider sample of student
0&%'
speechIinteraction and allo s training to focus on a ider variety of language conte$ts so as to maintain interest and motivation. In addition. if e assume that all language use occurs in a conte$t and the conte$t impacts test performance. then the conte$t is important. 8hy should pilots or controllers +e tested. say. on their a+ility to descri+e a favourite movie. or to order piDDa. hen hat they need to +e a+le to do is to safely negotiate all communicative language functions related to flying and controlling aeroplanes.
3&B
CO;.9!E-,ASSIS!E6 #A$G9AGE !ES!I$G
,.1.1 Computer!aided training =CA-> or. in language training. computer!aided language learning =CA**> creates ne possi+ilities for +oth training and testing. and there have +een some interesting recent developments. 5irst. ho ever. it is useful to distinguish the role that computers can have in the administration of language tests from a potential role computers may have in the assessment of language proficiency. -he application of computers in the delivery of tests is far!reachingE computeriDed tests may. for e$ample. allo for a com+ination of role play or simulation ith easy. practical delivery to a much greater degree than previously possi+le. ,.1.2 (sing computers to rate speech. ho ever. entails a distinct group of considerations. -he attractions of using computers to rate speech are o+vious6 reducing cost and time constraints. -he ICAO language proficiency requirements em+odied in the holistic descriptors and rating scale ere developed ith the specific requirements of radiotelephony communications in mind. 7ach facet of the rating scale is as important as any other. and any test or test procedure or test rating method must take into account each facet of the Rating &cale and each holistic descriptor. It is very difficult. for instance. to esta+lish a degree of authentic interactivity or to evaluate the quality of interactions through computeriDed rating. It is apparent that computeriDed voice recognition technology. hile having legitimate application in a num+er of instances. is not yet relia+le to the degree necessary in aviation language testing. One 7(ROCO3-RO* study on the suita+ility of computeriDed voice recognition technology found that the technology as still insufficiently relia+le for the safety requirements of aviation communications. -here may. ho ever. +e a role for computeriDed ratings at lo er levels of language proficiency testing. as screens for training programmes. for instance. ,.1." -he Oral 'roficiency Intervie is a general!purpose proficiency test used +y many governmental agencies in Australia. Canada. and the (nited &tatesE and the '7*A. developed +y 7(ROCO3-RO*. is an aviation!specific 7nglish language proficiency test designed for student air traffic controllers. An e$amination of ho these t o speakingIlistening tests are used in aviation is contained in Appendi$ C.
3&+0
S9;;A-<
*anguage testing has a central role to play in aviation safety. -he field of language testing is a profession in its o n right. ith professional associations. standard!+earing organiDations. commercial interests. and professional training organiDations. It is +eyond the scope of this manual to include the full +readth of useful and important information availa+le. A list of useful resources is included in Appendi$ 7 for further guidance. :o ever. &tate aviation authorities. airlines. air navigation service providers and training esta+lishments can ensure that language tests hich are developed to meet the need of the aviation industry to fulfil the requirements of ICAO language proficiency &tandards are sufficient. appropriate. and fair +y adhering to the minimal guidelines esta+lished in this manual. A
Chapter 4 A:IA!IO$ #A$G9AGE A$6 AE-O$A9!ICA# -A6IO!E#E.>O$< CO;;9$ICA!I:E #A$G9AGE F9$C!IO$S
=ey concepts H -here are three distinct roles of language as a factor in aviation accidents and incidents6 H H H H (se of phraseologies 'roficiency in plain language (se of more than one language ill support curriculum development for aviation language programmes6
-he follo ing information H H H H
Aeronautical communicative language functions Inventory of events and domains 'riority le$ical domains Aviation language tasks
4&+
I$!-O69C!IO$
-he o+4ective of this chapter is to provide an introduction to aviation language and to a set of aeronautical communicative language functions. found in Appendi$ B to this manual. It is meant to +e of particular use to language teachers orking in the aviation field.
4&2
#A$G9AGE AS A FAC!O- I$ A:IA!IO$ I$CI6E$!S A$6 ACCI6E$!S
1he function of language in aviation communication safety /.2.1 Accident investigators usually uncover a chain of events lining up in an unfortunate order to finally cause an accident. and language simply +ecomes one link in the chain of events. In some instances. the use =or misuse> of language has contri+uted directly or indirectly to an accident. At other times. language is a link hich e$acer+ates the pro+lem. -he purpose of the ICAO language proficiency requirements is to
4&%
4&'
ensure that the language proficiency of flight cre s and air traffic controllers is sufficient to reduce miscommunications as much as possi+le and to allo pilots and controllers to recogniDe and solve potential miscommunications hen they do occur. In short. language should +e a tool to identify and help solve a potential pro+lem +efore it +ecomes a disaster. rather than +eing one more attention!demanding o+stacle. Rather than language playing a contri+uting role. the o+4ect of ICAO language proficiency requirements is for language to play a pro+lem!alleviating or pro+lem!avoiding role. /.2.2 *anguage has three distinct roles in accidents and incidents6 a> +> c> 0ncorrect phraseologies in the use of phraseologiesE in the use of plain languageE and in the use of more than one language in the same environment. use of
/.2." An incorrect use of phraseology has contri+uted. in some instances. to an accident or incident. -he purpose of using phraseologies is to promote clarity and +revityE standardiDed phraseologies are developed to avoid am+iguity. 5or phraseologies to have the most significant safety impact. all parties need to use the same. ICAO phraseologies. -he importance of disciplined adherence to ICAO phraseologies is ela+orated upon in Chapter ". 0na!e"uate proficiency plain language
/.2.# 8hile incorrect application of phraseologies has +een determined to +e a contri+uting factor in some accidents. a lack of general proficiency in the language used for radiotelephony communications is more often cited as having played a contri+uting role. -he controller last in contact ith the 7nglish!only speaking cre hich strayed off course and crashed into a mountainside ackno ledged to accident investigators that the flightCs position reports ere incongruent ith here he understood their position to +e. :o ever. +y his o n admission. he lacked plain 7nglish proficiency to clarify his dou+ts or to notify the cre that they may have +een off course. /.2.) -he purpose of phraseologies is to provide clear. concise. unam+iguous language to communicate messages of a routine nature. 8hile standardiDed ICAO phraseologies have +een developed to cover many circumstances. mainly routine events +ut also some predicta+le emergency or non!routine events. it is important to +e clear that it as never intended for phraseologies to fully suffice for all pilot and controller communication needs. It is idely ackno ledged +y operational and linguistic e$perts that no set of standardiDed phraseologies can fully descri+e all possi+le circumstances and responses. Role of illustrate! plain language
/.2., 8hile it is idely recogniDed that a need for plain language may quickly arise during emergency or unusual situations. the critical role of plain language in more or less routine situations is less recogniDed outside the relatively small circle of applied linguists ho specialiDe in aviation communications. In fact. in addition to the need for plain language hich is readily ackno ledged to occur during unusual or emergency situations. plain language is a requirement in many everyday situations. 'ilots and controllers frequently need to share information or to negotiate a variety of matters. Consider. as an e$ample. the follo ing e$change6
Chapter 4* Aviation Language an( Aeronautical Ra(iotelephony Communicative Language 8unctions A-C6 'ilot6
4&+
Bidland 5ive 3ovem+er Qulu 2ood morning Radar contact 'roceeding into Jerky <ectoring %2. 9irect Jerky %2 Bidland 5ive 3ovem+er Qulu Can e keep high 5or the time. yes.
speed@ A-C6
/.2./ 8hile it is ackno ledged that this transcript of actual A-C communication represents imperfect use of availa+le phraseology. it is also true that there is no e$ample of ICAO phraseology for this pilotCs request for permission TFCan e keep high speed@GU. As such. this is an e$ample of a situation that can occur hich calls on plain language proficiency in order to meet the communicative requirements of the task at hand. /.2.0 Of course. the most critical need for plain language proficiency arises during urgent or emergency situations. hen inadequate language proficiency simply +ecomes another +arrier to the successful conclusion of a flight. One analysis of a pilot and controller dialogue in hich a light. general aviation aircraft could not lo er its landing gear reveals that fully ,% per cent of the dialogue required Fplain languageG. An e$amination of the transcripts of the dialogue highlights the important role that plain language proficiency plays in resolving a pro+lem. A-C6 'ilot6 A-C6 gear. 'ilot6 A-C6 'ilot6 A-C6 Nou ill let me kno a+out your intentions for the main landing gear.
(9 8ilco. 8eCll try to let the gear do n again and if it remains up and ICm una+le to release the nose gear then eCll land ith all three up. Roger. &o if you ish you may come for a go around and visual check of your landing Okay. Roger. (9 have you got the field in sight@ (9 Affirm. Roger. Nou ill . . . you landing gear check. ill pass over the field and make a lo pass over the run ay 21 for
/.2.1 -hese communications further illustrate the large role plain language can play in resolving an unusual or une$pected situation. /.2.1% On the other hand. as important as plain language proficiency is. it must +e equally clear that according to ICAO &tandards =Anne$ 1%. <olume II. ).1.1.1>. plain language is an option only hen ICAO phraseologies are not availa+le. ith a clear emphasis on the requirement to adhere to ICAO phraseologies henever applica+le. In fact. ith increased pressure for non!native 7nglish users to demonstrate adequate levels of 7nglish language proficiency. proficient speakers of 7nglish. in a areness of the special challenges faced +y non!native 7nglish speakers. can accommodate this challenge +y re!committing to ICAO phraseologies and disciplined radiotelephony techniques and +y developing an a areness of cross! cultural communication difficulties. a matter ela+orated upon in Chapter ". 8se of languages t-o
/.2.11 -he use of t o languages in the same environment can lead to a lack of situational a areness for flight cre s ho do not understand all the languages used for radiotelephony in that airspace. It has
4&,
+een cited as a contri+uting factor in several accident reportsE ho ever. the esta+lishment of a single! language radiotelephony environment that ould rely only on the 7nglish language faces several challenges. It ould require all users of airspace to have a sufficient kno ledge =ICAO Operational *evel #> of the 7nglish language. -he ne ICAO language proficiency requirements ill certainly improve levels of language proficiency in aviation. +ut it is dou+tful that the current level of 7nglish proficiency among pilots and air traffic controllers orld ide ould permit the implementation of such a policy ithout e$cluding a large num+er of currently active pilots. It must also +e recogniDed that there are significant national. cultural. economic. and organiDational impediments that make such a move impractical. Because language use is so closely tied to a communityCs sense of national and cultural identity. language policies al ays require sensitive management. 8hile the implementation of a single!language radiotelephony environment on a orld ide +asis is not realistic in the short and mid!term. a num+er of non!native 7nglish!speaking ICAO Contracting &tates. free to set policies more stringent than ICAO &tandards. have implemented measures that either require or encourage the use of 7nglish only. at least in +usy international sectors.
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AE-O$A9!ICA# CO;;9$ICA!I:E #A$G9AGE F9$C!IO$S
/.".1 -o select content to ork ith is often a difficult task for instructors and curriculum specialists. particularly in a language learning programme. -he purpose of this section is to provide guidance to 7nglish language curriculum and material developers in the selection of appropriate programme content. ith reference to the aeronautical communicative language functions identified +y researchers at the Scole 3ational de lCAviation Civile in 5rance =see Appendi$ B>. /.".2 -he goal of many kinds of training programmes is for the student to learn or master a specific su+4ect matter content. In a language training programme. ho ever. the goal is to acquire skill or competency in using a language. -he su+4ect matter is the language itself. In some respects. language learning is similar to an athletic training programme in that success depends not so much on memoriDing or learning a particular +ody of kno ledge. +ut rather. on the incremental development of a skill set. +ased on progressive familiarity ith a language. In language training. as in the development of athletic skills. there is no su+stitute for time and effort. By using a language. one learns the language. Instruction in a language class merely points the ay. focussing the learnerCs attention on some particular aspect of the language. clarifying use and offering opportunities to use the language. /."." Bany traditional 7nglish language learning programmes have attracted a variety of students ith individual motivations for learning 7nglish6 some intend to enter academic programmes hich require the use of 7nglishE others ant to learn or improve their 7nglish for +usiness purposes. and still others may ant to learn 7nglish simply for the pleasure of it. In such programmes. the content of the course is simply the vehicle through hich learners gain access to opportunities to use and practice the language. 5aced ith a ide variety of learner +ackgrounds. interests. and motivations. teachers and material developers often developed language lessons around a variety of high!interest general content material. hoping to appeal to a ide variety of interests. /.".# In specific!purpose language training. on the other hand. an advantage is that learners share a common interest and motivation for learning the language. -he fact that people typically learn +etter hen the content is related to their personal or ork life can +e e$ploited +y instructors and material developers in specific!purpose language programmes. Content relevant to the interests and ork requirements of the students can +e selected. As an e$ample. consider a typical F7nglish for +ankingG programme. A goal of the students may +e to learn 7nglish in order to communicate successfully ith customers. In order to help students achieve that goal. the instructor ill likely present a variety of +anking! and +usiness!related content materials on hich class ork can focusE some of the classroom e$ercises ill focus on role!playing customer conversation. hile other classroom time ill +e spent isely on reading or discussing other
Chapter 4* Aviation Language an( Aeronautical Ra(iotelephony Communicative Language 8unctions
4&/
+anking!related materials. -his is important for t o reasons. 5irstly. language learning happens hen learners are presented ith a +readth of comprehensi+le input. A ider variety of related materials offers learners the +est opportunity for acquisition of the target language features. &econdly. it is important that learners are provided ith a rich variety of input +ecause of the nature of human interactionsE it is not possi+le to forecast every possi+le utterance that a speaker may encounter. -hese principles are equally applica+le to teaching aviation 7nglish. even in the comparatively restricted environment of radiotelephony communications.
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S.ECIFIC,.9-.OSE #A$G9AGE !EAC>I$G
/.#.1 -he communicative approach to language teaching involves learning language +y +eing involved in tasks that require its use. One ay of organiDing a communicative language teaching curriculum is through a focus on the communicative functions of language. &pecific professional su+4ect areas have specialiDed genres. specialiDed voca+ulary. and a possi+le focus on specific parts of the grammar. -o aid training organiDations in the development of an appropriate 7nglish language training curriculum for pilots and air traffic controllers. a su+set of those communicative language functions hich are of particular relevance to radiotelephony communications has +een identified. /.#.2 In 7nglish language training programmes developed for pilot and air traffic control instructors. programme material developers can capitaliDe on the common interest and motivation of the learners. 7ven at very lo levels. learners ill +e motivated +y aviation!related materials. +oth +ecause such materials ill +e of high interest to the learners and +ecause such material ill +e seen as relevant to their ork.
4&2 AE-O$A9!ICA# #A$G9AGE F9$C!IO$SA E:E$!SA 6O;AI$S A$6 !AS=S /.).1 -o assist programme. curriculum. and material developers. several resources to guide training content are provided in Appendi$ B6 a> +> c> d> e> Aeronautical communicative language functions ; a list of language functions commonly used +y controllers and pilots in the course of their orkE Inventory of events an( (omains ; an inventory of events and related domains characteriDe the routine and non!routine day!to!day ork of controllers and pilotsE List of priority le#ical (omains ; a list of le$ical domains communicative needs of controllers and pilotsE hich
hich are most pertinent to the
List of language tas1s ; a list of common language tasks performed +y controllers +ased on an e$tensive needs analysis of controller communicative tasksE and List of common- $nglish four&)or( clusters applied to aviation communications.
/.).2 It should +e emphasiDed again. ho ever. that language learning should not focus e$clusively on phraseologies or functions or on any list of possi+le controllerIpilot utterances. Controllers and pilots require a facility ith the natural use of a language. -he resources found here are meant as aids to curriculum and material development. useful so that language training is more relevant. efficient. and of high interest to the learnersE these resources. ho ever. are not meant to constitute the sole content of a programme.
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/.)." -he ICAO!identified communicative language functions in Appendi$ B specify the communicative tasks in hich pilots and controllers frequently engage. -he inventory of events and domains suggests usual routine and non!routine topics upon hich pilots and controllers ill +e called to communicate. -he list of language tasks is a separately derived list hich analyses pilotIcontroller communications from a slightly different perspective. and the list of priority le$ical domains is useful to point the ay to ards relevant voca+ulary. -aken together. this set of information provides more insight into the communicative needs of pilots and controllers. /.).# 8hereas the aeronautical communicative language functions. events. domains and tasks specify the communicative tasks in hich pilots and controllers frequently engage. the language proficiency requirements. including the holistic descriptors and rating scale. define the proficiency level at hich the functions should +e performed.
4&3 CO;;9$ICA!I:E F9$C!IO$S I$ -A6IO!E#E.>O$< CO;;9$ICA!IO$S /.,.1 -he communicative function of an utterance corresponds to the speakerCs intention in producing a given messageE for e$ample. the intention may +e to request information. to thank. or to deny approval. &ince intentions are inherently linked to the activities that are +eing undertaken +y the speakers. it is evident that those tasks hich are peculiar to the 4o+s of pilots and controllers ill give rise to a limited range of communicative functions occurring ith a high degree of frequency. (anguage forms functions an! language
/.,.2 -he correct interpretation +y a listener of an utterance relies on cues provided +y the grammatical structures =ver+ tense. affirmative or negative form. etc.> and prosodic forms used +y the speaker associated ith the immediate conte$t of the utterance and the shared kno ledge of the participants. In addition. conte$t and situational cues further support interpretation. /.,." It is true to say that there is no one!to!one relationship +et een these structures or forms and the functions they e$press. A single function can +e e$pressed +y several different grammatical forms. hile the same grammatical form can +e employed to e$press a variety of functions. /.,.# 3onetheless. in approaching the teaching of grammatical structures +y ay of the communicative functions that dominate in a given activity. it is possi+le to focus on the most pertinent structures for a given target use of language. thus saving the learnersC time and ena+ling language trainers to suit their pedagogical activities to the real needs of the learners. 9rouping communicative functions of ra!iotelephony into broa! categories /.,.) -he dominant functions in a pilot!controller dialogue are presented in the follo ing checklist. -he functions have +een grouped into four categories corresponding to their role in carrying out A-C and piloting tasks. -hese categories are6 a> +> Communicative functions directed to ards triggering actionsE Communicative functions directed to ards sharing informationE
Chapter 4* Aviation Language an( Aeronautical Ra(iotelephony Communicative Language 8unctions c> Communicative functions directed to ards managing the pilot!controller relationshipE Communicative functions directed to ards managing the dialogue.
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and d>
/.,., -he Ftriggering actionsG category is the core function of pilot!controller communications. &upporting the core is the Fsharing informationG category in the sense that appropriate actions can only +e triggered hen the pilot and controller are in possession of sufficient shared information a+out the current situation. -he t o last categories play a su+ordinate mediating role ith regard to the first t o. /.,./ -he individual functions in each +road category are la+elled in the checklist at Appendi$ B ithout making reference to specific pilotIcontroller topics such as clearances to take off. flight plan changes or radar identification. All of these functions and their associated language forms can +e usefully learned and practised +y referring to general topics in the conte$t of everyday communication. Specific functions features of communicative
/.,.0 9ue to the different roles of the pilot and controller ithin the overall conte$t of their activity. some functions are typically uttered e$clusively +y one or the other. -hese functions are marked ='> or =C> in the checklist in Appendi$ B. Other functions ; marked ='IC> ; may +e uttered +y either speaker in the course of their e$changes. In the training conte$t. this distinction ill determine hether given functions need to +e learned for comprehension. for production or for +oth comprehension and production. /.,.1 Conte$tual factors may result in certain functions +eing more or less FmarkedG for different attitudes. such as politeness or insistence. -hese markers. hich may +e le$ical =FpleaseG> or grammatical =FCould you possi+ly give me . . .@G>. as ell as the language structures for the +asic functions. need to +e learned and practised. /.,.1% Bany communicative functions are paired ith one anotherE e.g. a given function =e.g. request permission> is commonly ad4acent to another given function =e.g. give permission> in the conte$t of an e$change. -hese paired relationships are indicated in the checklist +elo +y displaying related functions in t o columns. ractical uses functions of the chec,list of
/.,.11 -he primary purpose of the checklist is to ena+le language course planners and teachers to formulate linguistically appropriate o+4ectives for training and testing. 8hile the checklist is not e$haustive. its coverage has +een cross!checked against the pu+lished results of a num+er of linguistic and :uman 1 5actors studies of pilot!controller communications.
1. -he studies referred to are6 ; Aviation -opics &peech Act -a$onomy =A-&A-> in 9evelopment of a Coding 5orm for Approach ControlI'ilot <oice Communications =9O-I5AAIAB!1)I1)>. O. 'rinDo V -. Britton. Office of Aviation Bedicine. 111). ; &ylla+us checklists in Recurrent 7nglish *anguage -raining for Air -raffic Controllers. C. 2odmet V ?. Bell. 9irection de la 3avigation AKrienne. 93A0 =5>. 111/. ; '7*A6 &pecific -est O+4ectives in 'roficiency -est in 7nglish *anguage for Air -raffic Controllers =:(B.7-1.&-%)."%%%!2(I!%1>. A. 7nright. 7urocontrol. 1111. ; *anguage tasks in Air -raffic Control 7nglish *anguage 'ro4ect =A-C7*'> 16 Identifying Basic 7nglish *anguage 'roficiency for International Air -raffic Controllers =5R!7A99!11!,2>. R. Ramos. R. Chatham. 2. :enning. &. -homas V :. Bogilka. :umRROI5AA. 1111.
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/.,.12 Additionally. the a+ility for all language users to attri+ute functional la+els to spoken messages is of more than academic importance. -he development of this skill is of particular importance in facilitating the processes of preventing andIor resolving misunderstandings and the reporting of previous communications. -his a+ility can +e developed +y matching the functional la+els of the checklist ith actually occurring utterances in recordings or transcripts of radiotelephony communications. -he sample +elo illustrates this concept in practiceE the e$cerpt is taken from an authentic dialogue +et een a controller and pilot and illustrates an analysis of functions and the grammatical forms ith hich they are associated. in this particular conte$t. +ommunicative functions
8unctions (an( category in )hich function is foun()
Actual (ialogue Bordeau$ this is 2B7(9 OJ. (9. *oud and clear. (9 T1U you are no ten miles from the airfield. T2U north of the airfield. T"U NouCll let me kno a+out your intentions for the main landing gear.
8orm (or structure)
1. 2iving information =CA- 2> 2. 2iving clarification =CA- "> ". Asking a+out intentions =CA- 2.2>
1. 'resent tenseE preposition 2. 7lliptical repetition ". 9eclarative phraseE mounting intonation #. 5uture tense ). If clause Be una+le P infinitive
(9. 8ilco. T#U 8eCll try to let the gear do n again and T)U if it remains up and ICm una+le to release the nose gear then eCll land ith all three up. Roger. &o T,U if you ish you may come for a go around and visual check of your landing gear.
#. &tate intentions =CA- 2.2> ). 'redict future actionIevent =CA- 2.2> &uggest a course of action =CA- 1.">
,. Conditional proposition Bodal P ver+
Chapter 5 A66I!IO$A# S9..O-! FO!EAC>I$G A$6 #EA-$I$G

=ey concepts H 5actors hich improve language learning6 H H H H immersion in the target language ell!qualified instructors a content!+ased approach intensive periods of study
5&+ .nsuring progress goo!
!O !>E !EAC>E-
0.1.1 Although the list of possi+le influencing factors is potentially limitless. and learner progress highly individual. there are some features of the language learning process that can +e pointed to as +eing very useful. 5or e$ample. it appears that the length of time a learner spends in a Ftarget!languageG immersion environment has a positive effect on language acquisition and pronunciation. Opportunities to interact in the target language is one key to successful language learning. *earners have a need to interact directly and frequently ith the target language. particularly ith speakers ho understand and can reveal ho the language orks hen questioned. -he opportunity to negotiate for meaning and to hear corrective feed+ack in measured doses supports language learning efforts. &imilarly. there is a need for a lot of target language materials so that learners have lots of comprehensi+le input. 0.1.2 5actors that seem to make the process more effective and efficient are immersion in the target language. ell!qualified instructors leading the process. a content!+ased approach. and opportunities to practice and use the language. In addition. intensive periods of study and instruction appear more +eneficial than smaller doses of language training over a longer time!frame. Delivery 0.1." *anguage instruction can take many forms6 learners may engage in traditional. classroom! taught courses. face!to!face ith an instructor. part!time or full!time. in their home country or in the immersion environment provided +y an 7nglish!speaking host countryE they may participate in Internet 7nglish language coursesE or they may make use of self!access resources6 video or computer!aided language learning programmes. 2iven the +usy schedules of most aviation professionals and the need for 5&%
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language learning to continue on an ongoing +asis. the +est language training solution ill pro+a+ly +e a com+ination of multiple course delivery optionsE learners can improve 7nglish language proficiency +y participating in a num+er of language instruction environments. 'roviding multiple learning options and environments ill also play into preferred learner styles. :etho! 0.1.# As there are various theories on the nature of language and of language learning. so too there are many corresponding pedagogical approaches to language teaching and learning. *anguage research and theory in the last decades have caused a shift in language teaching a ay from grammar!translation and audio!lingual methods. approaches developed ithout any theoretic underpinnings. 8hile it is not the intent or function of this manual to recommend any one language teaching approach over another. an effective approach ill include a consistent focus on pronunciation ith emphasis on intelligi+ility =+eing a+le to pronounce a ord clearly enough to +e understood>. communica+ility =+eing a+le to use the targeted 7nglish speech features. so oneCs speech can +e assimilated and responded to quickly and correctly>. self! monitoring and self!correction. 0.1.) Activities should include the follo ing focus areas6 a> minimal pairs =applied to language group idiosyncrasies>. sylla+le stress. unstressed sylla+les and ords. thought groups. intonation. num+ers. a++reviations and acronyms. and phonetic alpha+etE a+undant practice ith tasks that require trainees to demonstrate the a+ility to fully participate in conversations a+out themselves and the orld around them. to include descri+ing in concrete terms such as giving instructions and directionsE narrating in the past. present. and futureE and handling situations ith complications =for e$ample. dealing ith loss of luggage. misfiled hotel reservations. inoperative products>E ample opportunities for trainees to speak in FparagraphsG. controlling sentence structure and e$hi+iting pronunciation intelligi+le to native speakers not used to dealing ith non! natives. including pronunciation practice and emphasis on accent reductionE a+undant trainee practice in comprehending everyday 7nglish speech ith only occasional slo ing do n. repetition. and rephrasing. such as conversation ith native speakersE atching 7nglish language +roadcasts and reporting on themE and listening to 7nglish language radio programmes =including short ave>E increasing opportunities for trainees to respond immediately and ithout hesitation to oral questionsE to practice speaking hile collaterally taskedE and to improve comprehension under adverse conditions =such as e$cessive +ackground noise>E and increasing opportunities for trainees. formally and informally. to hypothesiDe and support their opinionsE to deal ith unfamiliar topics and situationsE to provide a+stract e$planationsE to descri+e in detail. and to incorporate an increasingly +road range of high! frequency a+stract voca+ulary and comple$ sentence structure. of a successful language training
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;ther elements programme
0.1., An o+server of an effective language learning programme ill not usually see students sitting in rigid ro s of desks. Because language learning is a+out communicating and +ecause communicating
Chapter 5*
A((itional !upport for Teaching an( Learning
5&+
involves interacting ith others. the +est classrooms ill have a fle$i+le design ith chairs. ta+les. or desks that are easily moved. 9esks fi$ed in rigid ro s make it more difficult for teachers to create an interactive. communicative environment. &mall group ork. circle ork. and stand!up interactions are important activities of the communicative language classroom. 0.1./ Other programme needs. depending on the siDe of the programme. can include a director. an admissions and records officer. a curriculum or academic director. a testing manager. curriculum and material developers. &tudent advising and tutoring are important parts of a programme design. and instructors or administrators should +uild time for student!centred activities and tasks into their day. In intensive programmes. after hours e$tra!curricular activities enrich the learning e$perience.
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!O !>E ;A!E-IA# 6E:E#O.E- A:IA!IO$,S.ECIFIC ;A!E-IA#S
One of the particular challenges facing aviation 7nglish teachers is the relative lack of commercially availa+le and high!quality. aviation!specific language learning materials. (ntil more and +etter quality materials are availa+le. teachers ill need to continue to develop their o n materials. In the meantime. teachers can6 a> make use of authentic general aviation training te$ts such as +asic instructional material for mechanics or pilots. re riting the material here necessary to make their o n language training te$ts. su+scri+e to dedicated aviation magaDines and adapt their articles for language use or use them as authoritative source material for their o n te$ts. o+tain the catalogue from a good general aviation kit supplier. &ign up for their mailing list. -hese catalogues reveal hundreds of titles on aviation su+4ects from FaerodynamicsG to the Fhistory of aviationG. Bany are designed as informative te$ts for non!professionals and. as such. provide e$cellent preparation material for those teachers entering the field of 7&' aviation. -hey can also +e edited and graded to provide ideal classroom te$ts. find the latest video titles on all aspects of aviation from the cockpit training tapes for ''*s to full transatlantic flights on the flight deck of an airliner. -hese can form the +asis of e$cellent training aids or +e used as supplementary material. In addition. many titles are no +eing converted to run on 9<9 and contain e$tra material. such as charts and relevant e$tracts from aircraft manuals. search for other sources. for e$ample6 ;anu/acturersF sales brochuresC -hese are glossy +rochures intended for potential purchasers of aircraft. -hey are very professionally produced and provide very useful. authentic +ut less challenging descriptions of the aircraft. its performance and its characteristics than the flight manual. Civil Aviation Authority publicationsC Bany pu+lications. such as The Airplane from the 5AA. are aimed at novices in the aviation field and as such are very useful for language trainees.
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Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements !O .I#O!S A$6 AI- !-AFFIC CO$!-O##E-SC S!-A!EGIES FO- S9CCESSF9# E$G#IS> #A$G9AGE #EA-$I$G
0.".1 'ilots and air traffic controllers ill need to demonstrate ICAO Operational *evel # proficiency +y 2%%0. :o can you optimiDe your 7nglish language learning process@ 8hile there are no magic +ullets. no miraculous and speedy learning methods ; and you should +e suspect of any programme making such claims ; there are strategies you can use to ma$imiDe the efficiency ith hich you learn 7nglish. *anguage learning is a comple$ process. and there is still much e do not understand. :o ever. there are some principles on hich linguists generally agree. and these principles can guide you to more effective language learning. Bost people can learn a language. and learning some effective strategies ill help ensure success. a> Bn(erstan( that learning a language is more a function of time- effort- an( opportunity than simply one of age* Contrary to much common isdom. some research sho s that. outside of pronunciation. given the same circumstances and opportunities for learning. adults have strategies hich make them +etter language learners than children. 8hile research indicates that after adolescence. our a+ility to acquire a Fnative!likeG accent diminishes. our a+ility to learn to effectively use a language does not. Bost adults can learn a language. 8hile adults ill likely not learn to use a foreign language as ell as a native speaker ill. most adults do not need to speak a foreign language to that degree. Botivation and attitude also play an important role in language learning. >e realistic* ICAO Operational *evel # requirements do not mean that you need to speak 7nglish like a native speakerM Nou donCt need FperfectG grammar to communicate effectively. Nour goal is safe and effective radiotelephony communication. Bn(erstan( that language learning ta1es time* Reputa+le. relia+le programmes never promise quick results +ecause they understand that language learning al ays involves a commitment of time and mature effort. 8hile you may memoriDe #) hours orth of ords. phrases and questions =F8here is the +ank@G>. such learning ill not necessarily ena+le you to understand the ans ers to your memoriDed questions. *anguage learning involves much more than memoriDing phrases. and there are too many individual factors influencing language learning to allo for a precise estimate of time required. 3evertheless. progress ill certainly +e measured in months. not eeks or days =or hoursM>. Choose a programme carefully* -here is no one proven +est method for learning a language. +ut it al ays involves more than memoriDing ords and phrases. 5ocussing mainly on grammar is also not a very effective ay to learn to speak and communicate in a second language. -he misguided notion that Fanyone ho can speak a language can teach a languageG often results in unprepared and ineffective language teaching. Ask a+out teacher and programme coordinator credentials. In addition to language teaching e$perience. do the ma4ority of instructors have academic credentials specifically in language teaching@ Can those ho do not have those credentials demonstrate a commitment to professional development@ Are such instructors guided +y a master teacher or coordinator ho does have appropriate academic credentials@ 8ocus on )hat you nee(* &ince your goal is effective speaking and listening proficiency and +ecause speaking requires human interaction. class time should focus specifically on speaking and listening =using reading and riting as necessary aids to the learning progress>. 5ocus your attention on activities that promote your speaking and listening proficiency. On the other hand. reading at an appropriate level is an e$cellent ay to increase your internal linguistic competence and e$pand your voca+ulary.
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Chapter 5*
A((itional !upport for Teaching an( Learning f>
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Rea(- rea(- rea(* Reading is an activity that you can do anytime. any here. and does not require special technology. (se class time for speaking and listening practiceE outside of class. read as often and as much as possi+le. Loo1 for aviation&specific programmes* 8hile not a short cut to language learning. specifically focussed. aviation 7nglish training ill +e more interesting and ill help you concentrate your learning in areas appropriate to your ork!related needs. 8hat the +est programmes can promise are interesting classes ith relevant material and engaging instructors. Ta1e charge of your learning* -he +est programmes and the +est teachers only supply one half of the necessary equation. *earn a little a+out language learning. Bake 7nglish your ho++y. &eiDe every opportunity to practice 7nglish. Ask questions. -alk. talk. talk. Ta1e ris1s* 9onCt +e afraid to take risks ith the language. Baking mistakes is a necessary part of language learning. Be ready to laugh at your mistakes.
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0.".2 Begin no . +e consistent and steadfast in your efforts. using a variety of opportunities to interact ith 7nglish. and +elieve you ill +e successfulE you ill improve your 7nglish language proficiency. and you ill contri+ute to improving aviation safety.
Appendi' A ICAO SA-.S

.A-! IC E8!-AC!S F-O; ICAO A$$E8ES +A 3A +0 A$6 ++
ANNEX 1 ... &.'.( )anguage proficiency &.'.(.& Aeroplane and helicopter pilots and those flight navigators who are re*uired to use the radio telephone aboard an aircraft shall demonstrate the ability to speak and understand the language used for radiotelephony communications. ote!" Pursuant to Article #$ of the !onvention on $nternational !ivil Aviation% paragraph &!$!'!& does not appl( to personnel )hose licences are originall( issued prior to * +arch $,,# but% in an( case% does appl( to personnel )hose licences remain valid after * +arch $,,-! &.'.(.' Air traffic controllers and aeronautical station operators shall demonstrate the ability to speak and understand the language used for radiotelephony communications. &.'.(.+ Recommendation. .light engineers% and glider and free balloon pilots should have the abilit( to spea/ and understand the language used for radiotelephon( communications! &.'.(., As of - March '../, aeroplane and helicopter pilots, air traffic controllers and aeronautical station operators shall demonstrate the ability to speak and understand the language used for radiotelephony communications to the level specified in the language proficiency re*uirements in the Appendi0. &.'.(.- Recommendation. Aeroplane and helicopter pilots% flight navigators re0uired to use the radio telephone aboard an aircraft% air traffic controllers and aeronautical station operators should demonstrate the abilit( to spea/ and understand the language used for radiotelephon( communications to the level specified in the language proficienc( re0uirements in the Appendi1! &.'.(.1 As of - March '../, the language proficiency of aeroplane and helicopter pilots, air traffic controllers and aeronautical station operators who demonstrate proficiency below the E0pert )evel 2)evel 13 shall be formally evaluated at intervals in accordance with an individual4s demonstrated proficiency level. &.'.(.5 Recommendation. The language proficienc( of aeroplane and helicopter pilots% flight navigators re0uired to use the radio telephone aboard an aircraft% air traffic controllers and aeronautical station operators )ho demonstrate proficienc( belo) the 21pert 3evel (3evel 4) should be formall( evaluated at intervals in accordance )ith an individual5s demonstrated proficienc( level% as follo)s6 a) those demonstrating language proficienc( at the Operational 3evel (3evel #) should be evaluated at least once ever( three (ears7 and b) those demonstrating language proficienc( at the 21tended 3evel (3evel *) should be evaluated at least once ever( si1 (ears! A&%
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ote &!" .ormal evaluation is not re0uired for applicants )ho demonstrate e1pert language proficienc(% e!g! native and ver( proficient non-native spea/ers )ith a dialect or accent intelligible to the international aeronautical communit(! ote $!" The provisions of &!$!' refer to Anne1 &,% 8olume II% Chapter *% )hereb( the language used for radiotelephon( communications ma( be the language normall( used b( the station on the ground or 2nglish! In practice% therefore% there )ill be situations )hereb( flight cre) members )ill onl( need to spea/ the language normall( used b( the station on the ground! ...
APPENDIX REQUIREMENTS FOR PROFICIENCY IN ANGUAGES USED FOR RADIOTE EP!ONY COMMUNICATIONS 2!hapter &, ection &.'.(, refers3
1.
Gene"a#
ote!" The ICAO language proficienc( re0uirements include the holistic descriptors at Section $ and the ICAO Operational 3evel (3evel #) of the ICAO 3anguage Proficienc( 9ating Scale in the Attachment! The language proficienc( re0uirements are applicable to the use of both phraseologies and plain language! To meet the language proficiency re*uirements contained in !hapter &, ection &.'.(, an applicant for a licence or a licence holder shall demonstrate, in a manner acceptable to the licensing authority, compliance with the holistic descriptors at ection ' and with the $!A" "perational )evel 2)evel ,3 of the $!A" )anguage 6roficiency #ating cale in the Attachment. $. !o#i%tic de%c"i&to"%
6roficient speakers shall7 a3 communicate effectively in voice8only 2telephone9radiotelephone3 and in face8to8face situations: b3 communicate on common, concrete and work8related topics with accuracy and clarity: c3 use appropriate communicative strategies to e0change messages and to recogni;e and resolve misunderstandings 2e.g. to check, confirm, or clarify information3 in a general or work8related conte0t: d3 handle successfully and with relative ease the linguistic challenges presented by a complication or une0pected turn of events that occurs within the conte0t of a routine work situation or communicative task with which they are otherwise familiar: and e3 use a dialect or accent which is intelligible to the aeronautical community. ...
Appen(i# A ANNEX '( PART I C!APTER ). ... GENERA
A&+
+.&.1 "perators shall ensure that flight crew members demonstrate the ability to speak and understand the language used for aeronautical radiotelephony communications as specified in Anne0 &. ... ANNEX '( PART III Section II C!APTER 1. ... &.&.+ "perators shall ensure that flight crew members demonstrate the ability to speak and understand the language used for radiotelephony communications as specified in Anne0 &. ... ANNEX 1*( +O UME II C!APTER ,. AERONAUTICA MO-I E SER+ICE +OICE COMMUNICATIONS ,.1 Gene"a# GENERA
ote!" .or the purposes of these provisions% the communication procedures applicable to the aeronautical mobile service% as appropriate% also appl( to the aeronautical mobile satellite service! -.&.& $n all communications the highest standard of discipline shall be observed at all times. -.&.&.& $!A" standardi;ed phraseology shall be used in all situations for which it has been specified. "nly when standardi;ed phraseology cannot serve an intended transmission, plain language shall be used. ote!" :etailed language proficienc( re0uirements appear in the Appendi1 to Anne1 &! ... ,.$ ... -.'.&.' 3anguage to be used -.'.&.'.& The air8ground radiotelephony communications shall be conducted in the language normally used by the station on the ground or in the English language. Radiote#e&.on/ &"oced0"e%
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ote &!" The language normall( used b( the station on the ground ma( not necessaril( be the language of the State in )hich it is located! A common language ma( be agreed upon regionall( as a re0uirement for stations on the ground in that region! ote $!" The level of language proficienc( re0uired for aeronautical radiotelephon( communications is specified in the Appendi1 to Anne1 &! -.'.&.'.' The English language shall be available, on re*uest from any aircraft station, at all stations on the ground serving designated airports and routes used by international air services. -.'.&.'.+ The languages available at a given station on the ground shall form part of the Aeronautical $nformation 6ublications and other published aeronautical information concerning such facilities. ... -.'.&.,.+ Pronunciation of numbers -.'.&.,.+.& <hen the language used for communication is English, numbers shall be transmitted using the following pronunciation7 umeral or numeral element . & ' + , 1 5 / ( Decimal Cundred Thousand
Pronunciation =E8#" <>N T"" T#EE ?"<8er ?$?E $@ EA8en A$T N$N8er DAB8 EE8MA) C>N8dred T">8 AND
ote!" The s(llables printed in capital letters in the above list are to be stressed7 for e1ample% the t)o s(llables in ;2-9O are given e0ual emphasis% )hereas the first s(llable of .O<-er is given primar( emphasis! -.'.&.- Transmitting techni0ue -.'.&.-.& PANS. 2ach )ritten message should be read prior to commencement of transmission in order to eliminate unnecessar( dela(s in communications! -.'.&.-.' Transmissions shall be conducted concisely in a normal conversational tone. ote!" See the language proficienc( re0uirements in the Appendi1 to Anne1 &! -.'.&.-.+ PANS. Speech transmitting techni0ue should be such that the highest possible intelligibilit( is incorporated in each transmission! .ulfilment of this aim re0uires that air cre) and ground personnel should6
Appen(i# A a) enunciate each )ord clearl( and distinctl(7
A&/
b) maintain an even rate of speech not e1ceeding &,, )ords per minute! <hen a message is transmitted to an aircraft and its contents need to be recorded the spea/ing rate should be at a slo)er rate to allo) for the )riting process! A slight pause preceding and follo)ing numerals ma/es them easier to understand7 c) maintain the spea/ing volume at a constant level7 d) be familiar )ith the microphone operating techni0ues particularl( in relation to the maintenance of a constant distance from the microphone if a modulator )ith a constant level is not used7 e) suspend speech temporaril( if it becomes necessar( to turn the head a)a( from the microphone! -.'.&.-., Recommendation. Speech transmitting techni0ue should be adapted to the prevailing communications conditions! -.'.&.-.- PANS. +essages accepted for transmission should be transmitted in plain language or ICAO phraseologies )ithout altering the sense of the message in an( )a(! Approved ICAO abbreviations contained in the te1t of the message to be transmitted to aircraft should normall( be converted into the unabbreviated )ords or phrases )hich these abbreviations represent in the language used% e1cept for those )hich% o)ing to fre0uent and common practice% are generall( understood b( aeronautical personnel! ... -.'.&.1.'.&.& The te0t shall be as short as practicable to convey the necessary information: full use shall be made of $!A" phraseologies. ...
ANNEX 11 C!APTER $. ... $.$1 an20a2e &"o3icienc/ GENERA
'.'5.& An air traffic services provider shall ensure that air traffic controllers speak and understand the language2s3 used for radiotelephony communications as specified in Anne0 &. '.'5.' E0cept when communications between air traffic control units are conducted in a mutually agreed language, the English language shall be used for such communications. ...
A&0 PANS4ATM
C!APTER 1$. P!RASEO OGIES
... 1$.$ GENERA &'.'.& Most phraseologies contained in ection &'.+ of this !hapter show the te0t of a complete message without call signs. They are not intended to be e0haustive, and when circumstances differ, pilots, AT personnel and other ground personnel will be e0pected to use plain language, which should be as clear and concise as possible, to the level specified in the $!A" language proficiency re*uirements contained in Anne0 & D Personnel 3icensing, in order to avoid possible confusion by those persons using a language other than one of their national languages. ...
DDDDDDDD
.A-! IIC
ICAO #A$G9AGE .-OFICIE$C< -A!I$G SCA#E

)/ound in the Attach(ent to Anne' +*
A!/
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1.1
ST9=CT=92 9elevant grammatical structures and sentence patterns are determined b( language functions appropriate to the tas/!
E5&e"t( E5tended and O&e"ationa# e6e#%
32823
P9O = CIATIO Assumes a dialect and>or accent intelligible to the aeronautical communit(!
8OCA?=3A9@
.3=2 C@
CO+P92A2 SIO
I T29ACTIO S
E0pert 1
6ronunciation, stress, rhythm, and intonation, though possibly influenced by the first language or regional variation, almost never interfere with ease of understanding. 6ronunciation, stress, rhythm, and intonation, though influenced by the first language or regional variation, rarely interfere with ease of understanding.
Eoth basic and comple0 grammatical structures and sentence patterns are consistently well controlled.
Aocabulary range and accuracy are sufficient to communicate effectively on a wide variety of familiar and unfamiliar topics. Aocabulary is idiomatic, nuanced, and sensitive to register. Aocabulary range and accuracy are sufficient to communicate effectively on common, concrete, and work8related topics. 6araphrases consistently and successfully. Aocabulary is sometimes idiomatic.
Able to speak at length with a natural, effortless flow. Aaries speech flow for stylistic effect, e.g. to emphasi;e a point. >ses appropriate discourse markers and connectors spontaneously. Able to speak at length with relative ease on familiar topics but may not vary speech flow as a stylistic device. !an make use of appropriate discourse markers or connectors.
!omprehension is consistently accurate in nearly all conte0ts and includes comprehension of linguistic and cultural subtleties.
$nteracts with ease in nearly all situations. $s sensitive to verbal and non8verbal cues and responds to them appropriately.
E0tended -
Easic grammatical structures and sentence patterns are consistently well controlled. !omple0 structures are attempted but with errors which sometimes interfere with meaning.
!omprehension is accurate on common, concrete, and work8 related topics and mostly accurate when the speaker is confronted with a linguistic or situational complication or an une0pected turn of events. $s able to comprehend a range of speech varieties 2dialect and9or accent3 or registers. !omprehension is mostly accurate on common, concrete, and work8 related topics when the accent or variety used is sufficiently intelligible for an international community of users. <hen the speaker is confronted with a linguistic or situational complication or an une0pected turn of events, comprehension may be slower or re*uire clarification strategies.
#esponses are immediate, appropriate, and informative. Manages the speaker9listener relationship effectively.
"perational ,
6ronunciation, stress, rhythm, and intonation are influenced by the first language or regional variation but only sometimes interfere with ease of understanding.
Easic grammatical structures and sentence patterns are used creatively and are usually well controlled. Errors may occur, particularly in unusual or une0pected circumstances, but rarely interfere with meaning.
Aocabulary range and accuracy are usually sufficient to communicate effectively on common, concrete, and work8related topics. !an often paraphrase successfully when lacking vocabulary in unusual or une0pected circumstances.
6roduces stretches of language at an appropriate tempo. There may be occasional loss of fluency on transition from rehearsed or formulaic speech to spontaneous interaction, but this does not prevent effective communication. !an make limited use of discourse markers or connectors. ?illers are not distracting.
#esponses are usually immediate, appropriate, and informative. $nitiates and maintains e0changes even when dealing with an une0pected turn of events. Deals ade*uately with apparent misunderstandings by checking, confirming, or clarifying.
3evels &% $ ad B are on subse0uent page!
Appen(i# A
1.$
P"e4o&e"ationa#( E#ementa"/ and P"e4e#ementa"/ e6e#%
32823
P9O = CIATIO Assumes a dialect and>or accent intelligible to the aeronautical communit(!
ST9=CT=92 9elevant grammatical structures and sentence patterns are determined b( language functions appropriate to the tas/!
8OCA?=3A9@
.3=2 C@
CO+P92A2 SIO
I T29ACTIO S
3evels #% * and 4 are on preceding page! 6re8 operational + 6ronunciation, stress, rhythm, and intonation are influenced by the first language or regional variation and fre*uently interfere with ease of understanding. Easic grammatical structures and sentence patterns associated with predictable situations are not always well controlled. Errors fre*uently interfere with meaning. Aocabulary range and accuracy are often sufficient to communicate on common, concrete, or work8related topics, but range is limited and the word choice often inappropriate. $s often unable to paraphrase successfully when lacking vocabulary. )imited vocabulary range consisting only of isolated words and memori;ed phrases. 6roduces stretches of language, but phrasing and pausing are often inappropriate. Cesitations or slowness in language processing may prevent effective communication. ?illers are sometimes distracting. !omprehension is often accurate on common, concrete, and work8 related topics when the accent or variety used is sufficiently intelligible for an international community of users. May fail to understand a linguistic or situational complication or an une0pected turn of events. !omprehension is limited to isolated, memori;ed phrases when they are carefully and slowly articulated. #esponses are sometimes immediate, appropriate, and informative. !an initiate and maintain e0changes with reasonable ease on familiar topics and in predictable situations. %enerally inade*uate when dealing with an une0pected turn of events. #esponse time is slow and often inappropriate. $nteraction is limited to simple routine e0changes.
Elementary '
6ronunciation, stress, rhythm, and intonation are heavily influenced by the first language or regional variation and usually interfere with ease of understanding. 6erforms at a level below the Elementary level.
hows only limited control of a few simple memori;ed grammatical structures and sentence patterns.
!an produce very short, isolated, memori;ed utterances with fre*uent pausing and a distracting use of fillers to search for e0pressions and to articulate less familiar words. 6erforms at a level below the Elementary level.
6re8 elementary &
6erforms at a level below the Elementary level.
ote!" The Operational 3evel (3evel #) is the minimum re0uired proficienc( level for radiotelephon( communication! 3evels & through B describe Pre-elementar(% 2lementar(% and Pre-operational levels of language proficienc(% respectivel(% all of )hich describe a level of proficienc( belo) the ICAO language proficienc( re0uirement! 3evels * and 4 describe 21tended and 21pert levels% at levels of proficienc( more advanced than the minimum re0uired Standard! As a )hole% the scale )ill serve as benchmar/s for training and testing% and in assisting candidates to attain the ICAO Operational 3evel (3evel #)!
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.A-! IIIC
E8.#A$A!IO$ OF -A!I$G SCA#E

.-O$9$CIA!IO$
-he si$ levels of pronunciation descriptors are applica+le at all levels to native and non!native speakersE that is. FnativeG 7nglish speakers may demonstrate 7lementary *evel 2 proficiency if their regional dialect is so localiDed that it is not readily understood +y those outside of that particular region. On the other hand. speakers hose speech patterns clearly identify them as Fnon!nativeG speakers =having a so!called FheavyG accent> may demonstrate 7$pert *evel , proficiency. as long as they meet the criteria of almost al ays +eing easy to understand +y proficient listeners.
#evel E'pert 3 6escriptors 'ronunciation. stress. rhythm. and intonation. though possibly in/luenced +y the first language or regional variation. al(ost never interfere ith ease of understanding. Additional in/or(ation An 7$pert *evel , speaker may +e a speaker of 7nglish as a first language ith a idely understood dialect or may +e a very proficient second!language speaker. again ith a idely used or understood accent andIor dialect. -he speakersC accent or dialect may or may not identify them as second!language users. +ut the pronunciation patterns of 7$pert speakers or any difficulties. FmistakesG. almost never interfere ith the ease ith hich they are understood. Al ays clear and understanda+le. 7$tended *evel ) speakers demonstrate a marked accent. or localiDed regional variety of 7nglish. +ut one hich rarely interferes ith ho easily understood their speech is. Al ays clear and understanda+le. although. only occasionally. a proficient listener may have to pay close attention. An Operational *evel # speaker also demonstrates a marked accent. or localiDed regional variety of 7nglish. Occasionally. a proficient listener may have to pay close attention to under! stand or may have to clarify something from time to time.
E'tended 2
'ronunciation. stress. rhythm. and intonation. though in/luenced +y the first language or regional variation. rarely inter/ere ith ease of understanding. & & & only so(eti(es inter/ere & & &
Operational 4
Operational *evel # is certainly not a FperfectG level of proficiencyE it is the minimum level of proficiency determined to +e FsafeG for air traffic control communications. 8hile it is not an 7$pert. fully proficient level. it is important to keep in mind that pronunciation. or form. plays the critical role in aiding comprehension +et een t o non!native speakers of 7nglish.
S!-9C!9-E Relevant grammatical structures and sentence patterns are determined +y language functions appropriate to the task. (sers may refer to the communicative aeronautical language functions and to the list of controller communicative tasks in Chapter / of this manual for guidance. *anguage teaching specialists generally categoriDe structural =or grammatical> errors into t o classes6 Fglo+alG and FlocalG. 2lo+al errors are those hich interfere ith meaningE local errors are those hich do not interfere ith meaning.
Appen(i# A
#evel E'pert 3 6escriptors Both +asic and comple$ grammatical structures and sentence patterns are consistently ell controlled. Additional in/or(ation
A&%%
7$pert *evel , speakers do not demonstrate consistent glo+al structural or grammatical errors +ut may e$hi+it fossiliDed local errors.
E'tended 2
Basic grammatical structures and sentence patterns are consistently ell controlled. Comple$ structures are attempted +ut ith errors hich sometimes interferes ith meaning.
7$tended *evel ) speakers demonstrate less control of comple$ grammatical structures than do 7$pert *evel , speakers and may commit glo+al errors from time to time hen using comple$ structures.
Operational 4
Basic grammatical structures and sentence patterns are used creatively and are usually ell controlled. 7rrors may occur. particularly in unusual or une$pected circumstances. +ut rarely interfere ith meaning.
Operational *evel # speakers have good command of +asic grammatical structures. -hey do not merely have a memoriDed set of ords on hich they rely +ut have sufficient command of +asic grammar to create ne meaning as appropriate. -hey demonstrate errors. particularly local errors. +ut infrequent glo+al errors.
:OCA"9#A-< A partial list of voca+ulary domains related to aviation communications is found in Chapter / of this manual. 8hile memoriDing phraseologies is neither an accepta+le means of demonstrating language proficiency nor an effective or recommended language learning strategy. it is undenia+le that conte#t is a relevant factor in language proficiency. -herefore. learning or testing that focusses on. or is designed to elicit voca+ulary related to. aeronautical radiotelephony communications is accepta+le. An appropriate methodology is to train and test in a +road aviation&relate( conte$t. in order to ensure that proficiency ill +e fully adequate in the usually narro constraints of aeronautical radiotelephony communications.
#evel E'pert 3 6escriptors <oca+ulary range and accuracy are sufficient to communicate effectively on a ide variety of familiar and unfamiliar topics. <oca+ulary is idiomatic. nuanced. and sensitive to register. Additional in/or(ation Register refers to those aspects of style. tone. and le$ical choice hich correspond to conte$t and status. One of the more difficult foreign language learning tasks seems to +e acquiring a cultural sensitivity to register.
Another marker of strong proficiency seems to +e the acquisition of. and facility ith. idiomatic e$pressions and the a+ility to communicate nuanced ideas.
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#evel E'tended 2 6escriptors <oca+ulary range and accuracy are sufficient to communicate effectively on common. concrete. and ork!related topics. 'araphrases consistently and successfully. <oca+ulary is sometimes idiomatic.

Additional in/or(ation 7$tended *evel ) speakers may not +e sensitive to register. ith a le$ical range hich may not +e sufficient to communicate effectively in as +road a range of topics as an 7$pert *evel , speaker. +ut a speaker ith 7$tended proficiency ill have no trou+le paraphrasing henever necessary.
Operational 4
<oca+ulary range and accuracy are usually sufficient to communicate effectively on common. concrete. and ork! related topics. Can often paraphrase successfully hen lacking voca+ulary in unusual or une$pected circumstances.
An Operational *evel # speaker ill likely not have a ell! developed sensitivity to register. <oca+ulary is not e$pected to +e idiomatic. A speaker ith Operational proficiency ill usually +e a+le to manage communication on ork!related topics. +ut may sometimes need clarification. 8hen faced ith a communication +reakdo n. an Operational *evel # speaker can paraphrase and Fnegotiate meaningG so that the message is understood.
F#9E$C< 5luency is a difficult concept to define +ut most speakers have an intuitive sense of hat it is. As radiotelephony communications take place in a +usy environment. the communications of air traffic controllers and pilots must not only +e clear. concise. and unam+iguous. +ut responses must +e delivered efficiently and a rapid response time is e$pected. -herefore. for our purposes. FfluencyG is intended to refer to the naturalness of speech production. the degree to hich comprehension is impeded +y any unnatural or unusual hesitancy. distracting starts and stops. distracting fillers =em . . . huh . . . er . . . > or inappropriate silence.
#evel E'pert 3 6escriptors A+le to speak at length ith a natural. effortless flo . <aries speech flo for stylistic effect. e.g. to emphasiDe a point. (ses appropriate discourse markers and connectors spontaneously.
E'tended 2
A+le to speak at length ith relative ease on familiar topics +ut may not vary speech flo devise. Can make use of appropriate discourse markers or connectors.
as a stylistic
Operational 4
'roduces stretches of language at an appropriate tempo. -here may +e occasional loss of fluency on transition from rehearsed or formulaic speech to spontaneous interaction. +ut this does not prevent effective communication. Can make limited use of discourse markers or connectors. 5illers are not distracting.
Appen(i# A CO;.-E>E$SIO$
A&%+
In air traffic control communications. pilots rely on the clear and accurate information provided to them +y controllers for safety. It is not sufficient for air traffic controllers to +e a+le to handle most pilot communicationsE they must +e ready for the une$pected. &imilarly. pilots must +e a+le to understand air traffic controller instructions. especially hen these differ from hat a pilot e$pects to hear. It is during complications in aviation that communications +ecome most crucial. ith a greater reliance upon plain language.
#evel E'pert 3 6escriptors Comprehension is consistently accurate in nearly all conte$ts and includes comprehension of linguistic and cultural su+tleties. Additional in/or(ation
E'tended 2
Comprehension is accurate on common. concrete. and ork! related topics and mostly accurate hen the speaker is confronted ith a linguistic or situational complication or an une$pected turn of events. Is a+le to comprehend a range of speech varieties =dialect andIor accent> or registers.
Operational 4
Comprehension is mostly accurate on common. concrete. and ork! related topics hen the accent or variety used is sufficiently intelligi+le for an international community of users. 8hen the speaker is confronted ith a linguistic or situational complication or an une$pected turn of events. comprehension may +e slo er or require clarification strategies.
As ith all Operational *evel # descriptors. comprehension is not e$pected to +e perfectly accurate in all instances. :o ever. the pilot or air traffic controller ill need to have strategies availa+le hich allo him or her to ultimately comprehend the une$pected or unusual communication. (nmarked or comple$ te$tual relations are occasionally misunderstood or missed. -he descriptors of Operational *evel # under FInteractionsG clarifies the need for clarification strategies. 5ailure to understand a clearly communicated. une$pected communication. even after seeking clarification. should result in the assignment of a lo er proficiency level assessment.
A&%, I$!E-AC!IO$S
'ilots and controllers should +e a are that inappropriate silence may indicate a failure to understand.
#evel E'pert 3 6escriptors Interacts ith ease in nearly all situations. Is sensitive to ver+al and non!ver+al cues. and responds to them appropriately. Additional in/or(ation
E'tended 2
Responses are immediate. appropriate. and informative. Banages the speakerIlistener relationship effectively.
Operational 4
Responses are usually immediate. appropriate. and informative. Initiates and maintains e$changes even hen dealing ith an une$pected turn of events. 9eals adequately ith apparent misunderstandings +y checking. confirming or clarifying.
A pilot or air traffic controller ho does not understand an une$pected communication must +e a+le to communicate that fact. It is much safer to query a communication. to clarify. or even to simply ackno ledge that one does not under!stand rather than allo silence to mistakenly represent comprehension. At the Operational *evel #. it is accepta+le that comprehension is not perfect 1%% per cent of the time hen dealing ith une$pected situations. +ut *evel # speakers need to +e skilled at checking. seeking confirmation. or clarifying a situation or communication.
Appendi' " A:IA!IO$ #A$G9AGE

.A-! IC CO;;9$ICA!I:E #A$G9AGE F9$C!IO$SA E:E$!SA 6O;AI$S A$6 !AS=S ASSOCIA!E6 7I!> A:IA!IO$
-he communicative language functions. events. domains and tasks compiled here are +ased on research +y the 9irection 2KnKrale de lCAviation Civile of 5rance and Scole 3ationale de lCAviation Civile in -oulouse. 5rance. + < +ontroller < ilot += < +ontroller pilot
or
+&
CO;;9$ICA!I:E F9$C!IO$S 6I-EC!E6 !O7A-6S !-IGGE-I$G AC!IO$S +&+ Orders ; Announce compliance ith an order ='> ; Announce non!compliance ith an order ='>
; ; ; ; ;
2ive an order =C> 2ive an amended order =C> 2ive a negative order =C> 2ive alternative orders =C> Cancel an order =C>
+&2 ; Request action +y another CI'
-e0uests and o//ers to act ; Agree to act =CI'> ; &tate reluctanceIun illingness to act =CI'> ; Refuse to act =CI'> ; Accept an offer to act =CI'> ; Refuse an offer to act =CI'>
; Offer to act =CI'>
+&1 ; Request advice ='>
Advice )%ith or %ithout (arGers /or politeness* ; ; ; ; 2ive advice =C> &uggest a course of action =CI'> &uggest a solution to a pro+lem =CI'> &uggest alternative courses of action =CI'>
>&%
>&' +&4
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements .er(issionHapproval )%ith or %ithout (arGers /or politeness and directness* ; 2ive permissionIapproval =C> ; 9eny permissionIapproval =C> ; 5or+id =C> +&2 9ndertaGings ; Agree to undertakingIdecision =CI'>
; Request permissionIapproval ='>
; ; ; ;
(ndertake to give a service =CI'> (ndertake to assist =CI'> (ndertake to contactIrelayIreport =CI'> Announce a spontaneous decision to act =CI'>
2& 2&+ ; Request information =CI'> ; Request a detailed description =CI'>
S>A-I$G I$FO-;A!IO$
In/or(ation concerning present /acts ; 2ive information =CI'> ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; 9escri+e a state =CI'> 9escri+e a changed state =CI'> 9escri+e an unchanged state =CI'> 9escri+e an action in progress =CI'> 9escri+e a process =C> 9escri+e a procedure =C> 9escri+e aimsIprecautions =CI'> 9escri+e the source of a pro+lem =CI'> 9escri+e a visual impression =CI'> Ouote rules
; ; ; ; ;
Ask a+out needsI ishes =CI'> Ask a+out preferences =C> Ask a+out readinessIavaila+ility =CI'> Request reasons =CI'> Request instructions on ho to do ='>
&tate needsI ishes =CI'> &tate preferences ='> Announce readinessIavaila+ility =CI'> 2ive reasons =CI'> 2ive instructions on ho to do =C> Identify =CI'> Announce a pro+lem =CI'>
2&2
In/or(ation concerning the /uture ; Announce an e$pected actionIevent =CI'>
; Ask a+out the e$pected momentIduration of an event =CI'> ; Ask a+out possi+le consequences of an actionIevent =CI'>
; &tate the e$pected momentIduration of an actionIevent =CI'> ; &tate possi+le consequences of an actionIevent =CI'>
Appen(i# > ; Ask a+out intentions =CI'> ; Request prediction =CI'> ; &tate intentions =CI'> ; 'redict a future actionIevent =CI'> ; 8arn =CI'>
>&+
2&1
In/or(ation concerning i((ediate andHor recent past events ; Announce a completed actionIevent having an effect on the present =CI'> ; Announce a change =CI'> ; Announce a nearly completed action =CI'> 2&4 In/or(ation concerning the past ; ; ; ; ; Announce a past actionIevent =CI'> Announce an avoided pro+lemIincident ='> 2ive a report =CI'> 9escri+e a previous communication =CI'> 9escri+e a sequence of past actionsIevents =CI'>
; Ask a+out past events =CI'>
; Request an e$planation of a past action =CI'>
; 2ive an e$planation of a past actionIevent =CI'> ; Indicate deductive reasoning =CI'> 2&2 $ecessity ; &tate necessity =CI'> ; Announce a compulsory action =C> ; Announce an inevita+le actionIevent =CI'> 2&3 FeasibilityHcapacity ; Announce the feasi+ilityIcapacity =CI'> ; Announce the unfeasi+ilityIincapacity =CI'>
; Ask a+out necessity =CI'>
; Ask a+out the feasi+ilityIcapacity =CI'>
1&
;A$AGE;E$! OF !>E .I#O!,CO$!-O##E- -E#A!IO$
; 2reetItake leave =CI'> ; -hank =CI'> ; Complain ='> ; 7$press dissatisfaction =CI'> ; Reprimand =C>
; Respond to greetingIleave!taking =CI'> ; Respond to thanks =CI'> ; ApologiDe =CI'> ; Re4ect complaintIreprimand =CI'>
>&, ; 7$press satisfaction =CI'> ; 7$press concernIapprehension ='>
; Reassure =C> ; 7ncourage =C>
4&
;A$AGE;E$! OF !>E 6IA#OG9E
; ; ; ; ; ; ; ;
3ame addressee=s> =CI'> &elf!correct =CI'> 'araphrase =CI'> Close an e$change Request response =CI'> Check understanding =CI'> Check certainty =CI'> Correct a misunderstanding =CI'> ; Read +ack =CI'> ; Ackno ledge =CI'> ; 9eclare non!understanding =CI'> ; 2ive repetition =CI'> 2ive ; confirmation =CI'>I 2ive dis!confirmation =CI'> 2ive ; clarification =CI'>
; Request repetition =CI'> ; Request confirmation =CI'> ; Request clarification =CI'> ; 2ive clarification =CI'> ; Relay an order =C> ; Relay a request to act ='> ; Relay a request for permission ='>
;;;;;;;;
Appen(i# >
>&/
.A-! IIC E:E$!S A$6 6O;AI$S

-he follo ing inventory of events. domains and su+!domains are some that characteriDe the day!to!day communications of air traffic controllers and pilots. -hese FeventsG represent control situations. routine or non!routine. hich all controllers must +e a+le to handle. 7ach event may require familiarity ith many le$ical domains. to hich are associated related ords.
+& Air(iss)es* distanceIrangeE Airsho%s procedures. Approach delays "elly landing
E:E$!SA 6O;AI$SA A$6 S9"6O;AI$S I$ AE-O6-O;E CO$!-O# Air traffic rulesE avoiding actionE tra4ectoryIflight pathE speedE aircraft characteristicsE position. -raffic informationE activity6 acro+atics. formation flightsE :olding instructionsE holding proceduresE aerodrome circuitE enduranceE diversionIalternateE necessary conditionsE CA- IIIE all! eather landings. Attempted manoeuvresE status of lightsE visual check =lo pass>E position of landing gearE enduranceE fuel remainingE fuel dumpingI4ettisoningE speedE traffic informationE state of run ayE aerodrome environmentE airport installationsE emergency evacuationE emergency slidesIescape chutes. etc.E fire haDardIriskE damageE ground services. 'ositionE quantityE namesItypes of +irdsE +ird scaring in progressE damage to aircraftE delaysE +ird scaring methodsE +ehaviour of +irds. 9isem+arking passengersE diversionE +aggage identificationE fuel dump! ingI4ettisoningE aircraft interiorE cre actionsI+ehaviourE ground servicesE airport installations. CustomsE type of cargoE =perisha+le> organs for transplantE to$ic su+stancesE handlingE packagingE veterinary servicesE police searchE sniffer dogsE load +adly fi$ed or damagedE interceptingE impounding. 2round servicesE aircraft interiorE smokeE asphy$iaE smellsE o$ygen masksE arning lightsE firefighting equipmentE e$tinguishersE in4uriesE +urnsE medical assistanceE fire +rigadeIfiremenE emergency slidesIescape chutesE engine shutdo nE evacuation. Activity on the fieldE fire +rigade training e$ercises and interventionsE vehicles on the fieldE +raking action and visi+ilityE traffic informationE start! upE to ing equipmentE engine checksE remote holding patternE holding pointE run ay infringementE delaysE stuck in the mudE damage caused +y vehicles on the groundE no entry disregardedE collisionsE vehicle or plane +reakdo nE damage to +eaconsE foreign o+4ects =name. description>E pro+lems +oarding or disem+arking passengersE +aggage identificationE means of disem+ark! ingE health servicesE handicappedIsick passengersE parking positionIspace. &ymptomsE first aidE aircraft interiorE type of medical assistanceE medical +ackground of passengersE diversionE airport installationsE ground servicesE
"ird risGHha ard "o(b threatHalertHscare
Cargo proble(sH dangerous goods
Fire on board
Ground (ove(ent incidents
>ealth proble(s
>&0
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements sicknessE discomfortE oundsE epidemicsE medical equipmentE +lood =group. transfusion. etc.>E medical adviceE the human +odyE forensic surgeonE quarantineE food poisoningE foodE vaccinesE medical staffE medicines and artificial lim+s.
Incidents on landing
*ongIshort landingE missed e$itE stuck in mudE eatherE cargo pro+lemsE run ay confusionE +ird or animal haDardE damage to tiresE aircraft +reakdo nE missed approach. 2round staffE controlIoperational staffE effects on traffficE delaysE types of strikeE demonstrationsE sit!ins. A-I& =visi+ility. clouds. etc.>E =thunder> storms. lightningE damage and +reakdo nE sno clearingE gustsE ind shear and micro+urstE minimaE state of run ayE tail ind. cross indE +raking actionE run ay visual rangeE temperature inversionE tur+ulenceE natural disastersE run ay closedE change of run ay. 2o!aroundE minimaE traffic positionE enduranceE reasonsE trafficE proceduresE speed. 'ositionE information on other traffic and activityE duration of dropE drop Done. 'roceduresE airfield installationsE ground services. :ealth pro+lemsE aircraft controls and instrumentsE pilotCs actionsI+ehaviourE airfield environmentE airport installations. 9elaysE slotsE flight plan updatingE computer +reakdo nE no flight planE flight plan conformityE flight plan processingE search and rescueE type of flight plan. <iolentIthreatening +ehaviourE reasons =drunkenness. etc.>E aircraft interiorE damageE eaponsE actions to overpo erE policeIfire rescue team assistance requestedE demandsE ethnic originE physical description of person=s>E political allegiancesE ground servicesE airport installationsE in4uriesI oundsE sto a ays. Approach chartsE proceduresE routingE enduranceE installationsE ground servicesE aircraft +reakdo ns. eatherE airport
Industrial action ;E! )%eather* conditions
;issed approach .arachute Eu(pingH dropping activity .ilot not /a(iliar %ith air/ield .ilotFs te(porary disability .roble(s linGed to /light plan
.roble(s linGed to passengerFs behaviour I unla%/ul in/er/erence
-e,routingHdiversion Special /lights
I*& cali+rationE special test flight proceduresE +anners. +alloons. etc.E ultra! lights. glidersE helicoptersE aerial photographyE high ay atchE firefighting aircraftE supervision of po er linesE military training proceduresE types of military aircraft. A+ortE +irdIanimal haDardsE traffic interferenceE run ay incursionE overheatingE to ingE 10%W turn +ackE run ay e$cursionE cancellation and change of clearanceE pro+lems ith steering gear. engine po erE aircraft +reakdo n.
!aGe,o// incidents
Appen(i# > :F- /lights lostHin di//iculty
>&4 Aerodrome environmentE direction finderE manoeuvres for identificationE endurance pro+lemsE installations at alternateIdiversion fieldE forcedIcrash landingE ground services. Official ceremoniesE protocol =greetings. etc.>E ferry flightE military escortE diplomatic clearanceE country names and nationalitiesE apronIrampE terminalE +oarding and disem+arking of passengersE <I' vehiclesE effects on traffic.
:I. /lights
2&
E:E$!S A$6 6O;AI$S #I$=E6 !O E$,-O9!E AI- !-AFFIC CO$!-O# 9iplomatic clearancesE customs regulationsE civil service departmentsE impounded aircraft. Instrument panelE on!+oard equipmentE pilot ratingE flight planE local place nameE visual landmarksE positionsE directionsE enduranceE aircraft +reakdo nE eather pro+lems. Instrument panelE instrument operationE radio +eaconE positionsIfi$esE noisesIsoundsE smellsE smokeE airport installationsE ground servicesE engine performanceE speedE reliefIhigh groundE actions to solve pro+lemE eatherE fuel dumpingI4ettisoningE flight profileE structural damage =glass. metal>E flight systemsE aircraft controlsE response to controlsE airframeE arning lightsE landing gear. Conflict situationsE traffic loadE aircraft characteristicsE flight profileE eather conditionsE in4uriesE distanceIrangeE pilot manoeuvresE rulesE proceduresE avoiding action. A-C equipmentIsystemsE radar displayE radar performanceE radio operationE previous messagesE relaying messagesE actions to repairE delaysIdurationE telephone lines. Aircraft interiorE search methodsE fuel dumpingI4ettisoningE ground servicesE airport installationsE ground movements. 'ackagingE su+stancesE to$ic su+stancesE animalsE smellsE ca+in equip! mentE load distri+utionE loadingIunloading. 5light plan. AirframeE structural damage =glass. metal. etc.>E response to controlsE de+risE airport installationsE ground servicesE reliefIhigh groundE eather conditionsE aerodynamic +ehaviour. Out+reak of fireE control of fireE damageE aircraft interior. 'arts of the +odyE organsE symptomsE sicknessesE in4uriesI oundsE artificial lim+sE medicineIdrugsE first aidE medical equipmentE medical staffE medical specialistsE vaccinesE quarantine.
Ad(inistrative proble(s Aids /or :F- /lights
Aircra/t breaGdo%ns
Aircra/t pro'i(ity I pilot co(plaints
A!C syste( breaGdo%ns
"o(b scare Cargo proble(sH dangerous goods Change in /light plan Collisions
Fire on board >ealth proble(s
>&5 #acG o/ /uel ;isunderstandings .assenger behaviour I unla%/ul inter/erence
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements Airport facilitiesIinstallationsE ground servicesE high groundE positionsI locationsE enduranceIfuel remaining. 'revious messagesE types of messagesE radio performance. <iolent threatening +ehaviourE drugsE firearmsE in4uriesE mental insta+ilityE nationalitiesE political allegiancesE demands. threatsE ground servicesE medical assistanceE means of calmingE means of overpo eringE flight deck and ca+in personnel. 3ames of peopleE means of relaying. &tate of the traffic on the groundE priority flightsE industrial actionE accidentsE eather conditions on the groundE ground equipment failureE airport installationsE ground servicesE curfe E approach procedures. -ype of aircraftE ferryingE diplomatic personnelE country namesE nationalitiesE aeronautical military slangE military e$ercisesE in!flightImid! air refuellingE pilot manoeuvresE positionsIfi$esE eather conditionsE <5RII5R proceduresE visual flight rulesE airport installationsE ground services. AirspaceE rulesE previous messagesE flight profileE positionsIlocationsE stall levels. Icing pro+lemsE cloudsE struck +y lightningE tur+ulenceE e$ternal parts of aircraftE engine performanceE response to controlsE instrument performanceE alarmsE violent movementsE reliefIhigh groundE flight profileE in4uriesE +lindnessIloss of visi+ility.
-e0uest to relay Special conditions on arrival
Special /lights
9nauthori ed (anoeuvres 7eatherH;E! proble(s
1& Activities on the /ield
O!>E- 6O;AI$S
Change of run ay and patternE ramp vehiclesE sno clearingE s eepingE mo ingE harvestingE closureE opening of run ay access roadsE run ay inspection. -opography =hill. slope. coastline. forest. etc.>E civil engineering = ater. to er. +ridge. pylon. etc.>E high groundIterrainE +uilt!up areasE roads and rail ay linesE po er linesE cardinal pointsE particular local activities =firing range. etc.>E agricultural activities. Aircraft spare partsE systems =o$ygen. hydraulic. electrical. de!icing. etc.>E flight deckIcockpitE controlsE instrumentsE instrument operationE noises and symptoms of malfunctionE transponder pro+lemsE loss of radio contactE malfunctionsE overheating =+rakes. engine. etc.>E fuel dumpingI4ettisoningE landing gearItires. I*&. radar. <OR. etc.E lighting systemsE relia+ility of radio aidsE direction finderE poor visi+ility equipmentE apronsItarmacIrampsE run aysE ta$i aysE length and idth of run ayE parking DoneE holding areaE terminalE cargo areaE +earing strength.
Aerodro(eHair/ield environ(ent
Aircra/t breaGdo%ns
Air/ield /acilitiesH installations
Appen(i# > Ground services
>&6 Opening hoursE availa+ility of services at nightE assistance on the groundE safety altitudeE passengersIpersons on +oardE unservicea+le equipment =stairs. luggage trolleys. etc.>E au$iliary po er unitE de!icingE refuellingE delay due to de!icing or refuellingE +ird scaringE to ingE firefighting methodsE safety servicesE medical assistanceE +aggage handling. 3oise a+atementE departureE approachE all! eather take!off and landingE go!aroundE holding proceduresE land useE curfe E local residents.
.rocedures
;;;;;;;;
>&%7
.A-! IIIC .-IO-I!< #E8ICA# 6O;AI$S

8ords can +e grouped together according to the Fle$ical domainsG to hich they +elong =e.g. ords referring to FfamilyG. to FcinemaG. or to FaircraftG>. In fact. the most recent scientific research into human memory seems to indicate that our +rains actually store voca+ulary in this ay. -hese domains can +e very +road =e.g. FtopographyG> or very narro =e.g. Fcapital citiesG>. -he domains e may need to refer to ill depend on the conte$ts and the activities in hich e are engaged. Belo is a list of priority le$ical domains of Fgeneral 7nglishG for air traffic control. -hese are domains hich are +roadly relevant to air traffic controller and pilot communications. H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H A++reviations. acronyms Animals. +irds Aviation. flight Behaviour. activities Cargo. merchandise. packaging. materials Causes. conditions 2eography. topographical features. nationalities :ealth. medicine *anguage. spoken communications Bodality =o+ligation. pro+a+ility. possi+ility> 3um+ers 'erception. senses 'ro+lems. errors. accidents. malfunctions Rules. enforcement. infringement. protocol &pace. movement. position. distance. dimension -echnology -ime. duration. schedules -ransport. travel. vehicles 8eather. climate. natural disasters
;;;;;;;;
Appen(i# >
>&%%
.A-! I:C #A$G9AGE !AS=S OF AI- !-AFFIC CO$!-O##E-S

+& H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H ;A$AGE AI- !-AFFIC SE?9E$CES
9iscuss traffic management action ith pilot. Ouery pilot for reason and e$tent of deviation. Issue appropriate control instructions to control deviation. Inform others of airspace restrictions imposed or of release of airspace. &equence departures into e$isting traffic. Ouery others regarding deviation. Issue instructions to recover from ground traffic deviation. Receive pilot request for take!off. Issue appropriate departure information. Issue instructions to the pilot to ta$i into position and hold. Issue amended clearance. Issue supplementary information concerning airport operations =e.g. run ay conditions. R<R>. Issue take!off clearanceIcancellation. Receive pilot request for landing instructions. Issue clearance for aircraft to land or clearance for option. Receive notice of aircraft e$ecuting landingIoption. Receive initial radio communication from pilot. <erify pilot has current arrival information. Issue arrivalIdeparture instructions. Issue advisory in regard to non!controlled o+4ect in airspace or movement area. Inform other aircraft of airspace or movement area intrusion +y non!controlled o+4ect. Request response from pilot or operator of non!controlled o+4ect. Request assistance from other sources to esta+lish contact ith non!controlled o+4ect.
>&%' H H H H H H H
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements Issue instructions restricting aircraft activity in affected airspace or movement area. Receive request for temporary use of airspace or movement area. Issue go!around. Receive notice of missed approachIgo aroundItouch!and!goIstop!and!go. Receive ackno ledgment of takeoff. Receive pilot notification of a+orted takeoff. Inform other aircraft of airspace status change.
2& H H H H H H H H H H H
CO$!-O# AI-C-AF! O- :E>IC#E G-O9$6 ;O:E;E$!
Issue instructions to hold at gate. Advise pilot of ground delay. Inform pilot of estimated departure clearance time. Receive and disseminate cancellation of traffic management restrictions=s>. Receive pilot request for push+ackIpo er+ack instructions. Receive pilot request for ta$i instructions. Issue airport condition information. Receive pilot or vehicle operator request for movement in or through movement area. Issue instructions to hold short of ta$i ayIrun ay. 9eny ground movement request. Issue instructions to divert traffic around closed movement area.
1& H H H H
-O9!E O- F#IG>! .#A$
Issue clearance and instructions to pilot. Ouery pilot regarding compliance or conformance ith clearance. Issue clearance through other stations for relay to pilot. Approve or deny clearance request.
Appen(i# > H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H 9etect a pilot or aircraft pro+lem =e.g. hypo$ia>. Conduct radio or radar search for overdue aircraft. Receive pilot notice of declared emergency and determine assistance needed. Receive pilot notice of aircraft having a pro+lem =e.g. overdue. loss of radio contact>. 5or ard contingencyIemergencyIspecial condition information to other stations. Receive flight plan from pilot. Receive ver+ally for arded flight plan. Ouery others a+out flight plan or flight plan amendment. Receive requested flight plan changes. Receive request to cancel I5R. -erminate radio communication ith aircraft. Receive arrival message. Issue change of frequency to pilot. Issue altimeter setting on initial contact as appropriate. <erify aircraft altitude ith pilot. Inform pilot that radar contact is lost or esta+lished. -erminate radar service. Assign +eacon code. Request necessary flight plan information from pilot. Receive notice of special condition or emergency. Inform pilot or vehicle operator of a+normal aircraft or vehicle condition. 9eclare emergency and invoke contingency plan. Issue ta$i instructions to special condition or emergency aircraft. Inform others of special operation. Issue change to &&R +eacon code assignment. &uggest clearance alternatives to pilot.
>&%+
>&%, H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements Issue instructions to pilot for identification turn or transponder response. 'erceive presence of special condition or emergency +y tone of voice. 9iscuss flight planIflight plan amendment. Inform controller or requester of an ina+ility to comply Inform pilot of radar position. Receive request to file flight plan from in!flight pilot. Receive flight plan request and information from recorded phone message. <erify flight plan ith pilot. ith flight planIflight plan amendment request.
Receive request to activate flight plan. Ouery pilot on flight plan closure. Advise pilot of clearance status. Receive ackno ledgment or re4ection of clearance from pilot. 7valuate and inform pilot of alternate routes on the +asis of preference. and pilotIaircraft limitations. Receive pilot requests for airport advisories. Relay the requested advisories to the pilot. Relay airport status to pilot. Relay traffic informationI eather conditions to pilot. eather. aeronautical information. pilot
4& H H H H H H
.E-FO-; SI!9A!IO$ ;O$I!O-I$G
Record airport environmental =e.g. ice on run ay> and system equipment status message. Request pilot report on 3A<AI9 status. Inform pilot of alternate instructions necessary for flight follo ing service. ReceiveIdeny request for flight follo ing. ReceiveIrequest pilot or operator position report. &earch for and verify aircraft or vehicle location.
Appen(i# > H H <erify pilot has current A-I& or inform pilot of current A-I&. InformIrequest pilot to fileIre!file flight plan.
>&%/
2& F H H H H H H H
-ESO#:E AI-C-AF! CO$F#IC! SI!9A!IO$S
Receive notice of potential or actual conflict. Issue traffic advisory or safety alert in regard to aircraft conflictIaircraft pro$imity. Inform pilot or operator hen clear of traffic or non!controlled o+4ect. Issue advisory in regard to restricted airspace pro$imity. Issue advisory or safety alert in regard to routeIlo RequestIreceive pilot notice of traffic in sight. Issue advisory in regard to airspaceImovement area violation. Issue approval or instructions for ground movement. altitude situation.
3& H H H H H H H H H H H
ASSESS 7EA!>E- I;.AC!
ReceiveIrequest eather information from other aircraft. Issue eather advisory or update to other aircraft.
5ormulate eather +roadcast. Record scheduled eather report or advisory in specified format.
Broadcast scheduled and unscheduled eather report or advisory on prescri+ed radio frequencies. Receive request for pilot +riefing. Brief pilot on eather data in specified format. InformIverify pilot has received information on haDardous eather. 'rovide pilot ith other requested information. 3otify pilot <5R not recommended if conditions Advise pilot of flight atch capa+ility. arrant.
>&%0 H H H H Advise pilot of A-C delays.
Inform pilot of frequency and station for filing pilot eather reports. 'rompt pilot for additional data. Baintain clear and uniform speech pattern hile +roadcasting. 4& -ES.O$6 !O E;E-GE$CIES A$6 CO$69C! E;E-GE$C< .-OCE69-ES
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
Communications. Receive pilot request for emergency services. Request information from pilot on nature of emergency situation. Inform pilot to squa k //%% if emergency declared. Request aircraft contact appropriate A-C unit and inform pilot to return to frequency if una+le to contact A-C unit. -ake appropriate action to resolve emergency situation. Request aircraft information to determine altitude. heading. and airspeed of lost aircraft. Advise if altitude or heading change is needed and maintain <5R. Advise to ad4ust gyro ith magnetic compass. Inform pilot of aircraft position. Receive pilot request for guidance to airport. Issue course instructions and advisories to pilot. Advise pilot of airport information. 'rompt pilot for in!flight information. <erify pilot is on a flight plan. Advise pilot of minimum flight altitude =B5A>. Inform pilot of lost communications procedures. 5& ;A$AGE SEC!O- O- .OSI!IO$ -ESO9-CES
H H
5or ard deletion of previous su+stitute routing. 5or ard 3A<AI9 status to others.
Appen(i# > H H H H H H H 5or ard notice of communication status. 5or ard ne frequency assignment to pilot or another controller.
>&%4
Receive notice of alternate communication path. Issue alternate communication for air or ground transmissions. Ouery hether others are receiving pilotCs transmissions. Receive request to manipulate airport or ta$i ay lighting system. 9eny request to manipulate airport lighting system.
;;;;;;;;
>&%5
.A-! :
A& !>E !O. 220 FO9-,7O-6 C#9S!E-S I$ S.O=E$ E$G#IS>
+
An analysis of the top 2)% spoken four! ord clusters graded +y function =quantity. time. location> ith e$amples placed in an aviation training conte$t in most cases. -he most frequent phrases in the spoken corpus are at the top of the list. +& .hrase a lot of people a lot of the quite a lot of a +it of a the rest of the a lot of money a little +it of an a ful lot of per cent of the got a lot of a little +it more a lot of things think a lot of ?9A$!I!<
A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent A lot of people first learn to fly in flying clu+s. 8e ill spend a lot of the time practicing turns.
Nou ill do quite a lot of Ftouch and goCsG during your +asic training. 8e had a +it of a pro+lem ith the landing gear. ?ohn is having a +it of a struggle ith his instrument scans. 8eCll spend the rest of the flight practicing navigation techniques. 5light training costs a lot of money so . . . 8e need to gain a little +it of FheightG +efore the ne$t manoeuvre. -here seem to +e an a ful lot of clouds to the est.
A+out 0% per cent of the course consists of ground instruction. 8e havenCt got a lot of time +efore the eather closes in.
NouCll need a little +it more rudder to keep the turns coordinated. A lot of things can go rong during a +adly planned approach.
a> I think a lot of ine$perienced pilots make mistakes through overconfidence. +> I donCt think a lot of these charts. =-hey are not very good.>
a great deal of a lot of ork
I shall spend a great deal of time talking a+out airmanship. Nou need a lot of ork to get your navigation up to standard.
get a lot of a certain amount of
Nou onCt get a lot of time for +riefings during commercial operations. 8e shall spend a certain amount of time familiariDing you instrument panel. ith the
1. B. Bc2rath. Adapted from The Top '/7 8our Aor( Clusters in !po1en $nglish- adapted to aviation +y ?ane 8illis. Aston (niversity. (nited Jingdom. 2%%".
Appen(i# > .hrase that a lot of in a lot of the hole of the kno a lot of A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent Remem+er that a lot of incidents occur +ecause pilots fail to take account of adverse eather conditions. In a lot of cases. eather!related incidents involve e$perienced pilots. -oday. the hole of the lesson ill +e devoted to the stall. ICm sure you kno a lot of reasons
>&%6
hy it is important to do a pre!flight check.
of a lot of some of the things a hundred per cent quite a +it of to a certain e$tent a couple of days a lot of these hell of a lot a lot of a lot of that a lot of other to a lot of the last couple of some of the other +ecause a lot of got a +it of spend a lot of like a lot of in the last fe most of the in some of the done a lot of
I can think of a lot of e$amples
here poor airmanship has led to accidents.
-his is a list of some of the things you must remem+er to check. -his system is not a hundred per cent relia+le at lo temperatures.
NouCll need quite a +it of po er to overcome the e$tra drag produced +y the flap. 9rag can +e reduced to a certain e$tent +y the cleanliness of the aircraft surface. -hese eather conditions can sometimes last for a couple of days.
8e shall perform a lot of these manoeuvres during our training. -here is not a hell of a lot you can do if you suffer a total electrical failure. It ill mean a lot of e$tra orkload as you locate a suita+le diversion. ork ill fall on the co!pilot.
A lot of that
-here are a lot of other causes of fatigue +esides lack of sleep. 8hile your +attery lasts. you controllers. -he last couple of landings ill have to speak to a lot of air traffic ere much +etter.
&ome of the other landings this morning ere unsatisfactory. Nou ere rushed on final +ecause a lot of time as taken +y the +riefing.
On the ne$t approach remem+er you have got a +it of a cross ind to contend ith. 9onCt spend a lot of time trimming the aircraft. *ike a lot of +eginners. you spend too much time looking at the instruments. In the last fe minutes you have hardly looked out of the indo at all.
Bost of the people in your situation make the same mistake. In some of the later manoeuvres you the instruments. ill need to concentrate on
By that time. you ill have done a lot of visual flying.
>&'7 .hrase of some of the to some of the quite a fe of
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent Remem+er that the second pilot ill take care of some of the orkload.
Nou have a tendency to refer to some of the instruments and to ignore others. -his has caused quite a fe of the pro+lems you have +een having.
a lot of pro+lems some of the people quite a num+er of doing a lot of 4ust a little +it the ma4ority of people a lot of good
A lot of pro+lems of handling are due to poor anticipation. 9onCt orry. &ome of the people I have taught ere orse than you.
-here are quite a num+er of things to consider hen planning an approach. 8e shall +e doing a lot of instrument flying in the ne$t fe Nou ere 4ust a little +it high on the glide path. -he ma4ority of people prefer to stay high for o+vious reasons. a> A lot of good pilots consistently fly a high approach. +> <isual navigation onCt do a lot of good if you are in cloud. eeks.
see a lot of ninety per cent of spent a lot of that some of the a +it of money make a lot of a hole lot of
8e see a lot of students ho fail their tests for this reason. 3inety per cent of go!arounds are due to a +adly managed approach. Nou spent a lot of time +riefing for the approach and so delayed contacting approach control. -his meant that some of the approach actions ere rushed. Nou saved a +it of money on fuel +y missing out the last reporting pointM Nou havenCt got time to make a lot of fine ad4ustments to trim and speed during an instrument departure. -here are a hole lot of checks to +e carried out in a short time. Nou have only got a couple of minutes +et een take!off and the first reporting point. Nou must learn to control your rate of clim+. =rate of clim+. rate of descent. rate of turn> people In our airline. you ill meet quite a fe school. In the ne$t couple of minutes. you your 7-A for Avignon. -here is a people ho have trained at this
got a couple of the rate of quite a fe
the ne$t couple a hole range
ill have to call A-C and give them
hole range of topics in the CRB sylla+us.
lot of people in
A lot of people in aviation had never heard of CRB until a fe years ago.
Appen(i# > .hrase little +it of a the num+er of people A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent It came as a little +it of a shock to some of the people ho ere asked to acquire a CRB qualification. -he num+er of people applying to take these courses is greater than the training schools can cope ith.
>&'%
2& .hrase the end of the end of the day in the middle of a couple of years a lot of time most of the time a couple of eeks
!I;E
A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent By the end of the flight. you ill have learned to coordinate turns properly.
At the end of the day. every pilot feels tired. It is not a good idea to change frequencies in the middle of a transmissionM 2ive it a couple of years and youCll +e a+le to fly a perfect radial. 8e have spent a lot of time on your navigation ; itCs time to move on. 8e spent most of the time talking to air traffic. Nou should +e ready for your test in a couple of eeks.
clock in the morning the +eginning of the the middle of the a fe years ago a couple of times in the first year a long time ago a couple of days to the end of to ards the end of a aste of time It as to ards the end of the clim+ that e noticed the lo as a complete oil pressure. 2ive it a couple of days and your response times ill +e much faster. At the +eginning of the test your concentration andered slightly. By the middle of the test you ere more in control. CRB as not part of the aviation sylla+us until a fe years ago.
A couple of times I didnCt understand
hat the controller as saying.
In the first year you ill study only ground su+4ects.
-hat lesson progress.
aste of time. -he student made no noticea+le
the last fe years the second orld ar quite a long time
-here have +een many changes to air traffic flo management in the last fe years.
It took us quite a long time to clim+ to our assigned level.
>&'' .hrase couple of years ago in a couple of the end of this end of the year the first a fe orld ar
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent
In a couple of minutes you ill need to contact 2reno+le approach. Before the end of this turn. check your rate of descent. By the end of the year. I e$pect to +e promoted to captain.
eeks ago
8e received notification of the upgrade a fe It ill take a couple of months for the
eeks ago.
a couple of months lot of the time couple of eeks ago
ork on the run ay to +e completed.
-odayCs flight pattern.
as unproductive. 8e spent a lot of the time in a holding eeks ago that ICd +e going on holiday. as going to give up flyingM
I mentioned a couple of
the end of that a couple of hours a long time to this point in time in the early days a num+er of years end of the eek
At the end of that lesson he announced that he It took a couple of hours to repair the radio.
It took a long time to de!ice the aircraft this morning. At this point in time 4et aircraft. e have no plans to e$tend the run ay to accommodate
In the early days there as only a grass run ay here. It took a num+er of years to finally persuade the organiDation to upgrade.
in the third year in the old days the start of the a period of time a couple of minutes In the old days. pilots normally soloed after a couple of hours. Remem+er. at the start of the take!off run. your rudder ill +e ineffective. It takes a period of time for the gyro to spin up to speed. -his period can +e up to a couple of minutes or possi+ly more.
1& .hrase the end of the to go to the in the middle of
#OCA!IO$
A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent ICd like you to ta$i right to the end of the run ay. I ant you to go to the B7- office and request the eather. Our aircraft is parked in the middle of the apron.
Appen(i# > .hrase used to go to the other side of to go +ack to the top of the the middle of the go +ack to the the +ack of the ant to go to in front of the the +ottom of the other side of the the other ay round A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent 8e used to go to 2reno+le to practise instrument approaches +ut not any more. -he refuelling point is on the other side of run ay "1. 8e may have to go +ack to *ondon if
>&'+
e cannot restart the third generator.
&tay at least 1 %%% feet a+ove the top of the clouds. -ry to keep the aircraft in the middle of the ta$i ay. ICd like us to go +ack to the +eacon for the ne$t part of the e$ercise. *ife 4ackets and flares are sto ed at the +ack of the aircraft. I ant us to go to Royanne for the ne$t part of our training. -a$i in and park in front of the fuel pumps. -he glide slope antenna is situated on the +ottom =underside> of the aircraft. -he to er is on the other side of the run ay from the hangars. Remem+er. po er ; Attitude ; -rim. 3ot the other ay roundM
to the end of to ards the end of the end of this going +ack to the the front of the the front page of to go to a got to go to in the +ack of to get to the to go in the the end of that the side of the side of the road 8hen e get to ards the end of the run ay. ta$i the aircraft left onto the grass. At the end of this ta$i ay. trim to the right. ICm going +ack to the operations room to fetch my clip+oard. -he front of the aircraft should +e facing a ay from the hangar. On the front page of the manual it states quite clearly that this aircraft is non! aero+aticM ICd like us to go to a quiet piece of airspace to practise some general handling. 3o e have got to go to the B7- office to get the latest eather details.
8e need some +allast in the +ack of the aircraft for trim. -o get to the terminal +uilding e need to follo ta$i ays AI and C".
-he manuals are supposed to go in the large container at the side of the flight deck. 8e need to fly to the end of that area of forest +efore making our turn. 'osition the aircraft nose!in to the side of the parking area for your run!ups.
>&', .hrase the right!hand side in the (nited &tates to go through the go do n to the front page of the the centre of the to go to ork off the top of anted to go to the left!hand side in the long run the edge of the the other end of to go do n to
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent In a helicopter. the captain sits on the right!hand side of the aircraft.
ICd like to go through the procedure once again to make sure that you understand it. 3o . perhaps plan. e should go do n to the operations room and file our flight
*ine the aircraft up ith the centreline of the run ay.
It is especially important to clear any sno 8e anted to go to 2lasgo
and ice off the top of the our minima.
ing.
+ut the airport is +elo
'assengers sitting on the left!hand side of the aircraft Bont Blanc. In the long run it doesnCt matter Jeep the aircraft
ill +e a+le to see
hether your initial flight training as on 4ets.
ell clear of the edge of the run ay and ta$i ays.
At the other end of the aviation spectrum from the /#/ there are the microlights. 8e are planning to go do n to 3ice for the eekend.
Appen(i# > "& !>E !O. 220 FO9-,7O-6 C#9S!E-S I$ S.O=E$ E$G#IS> "-O=E$ 6O7$ "< F9$C!IO$ +& .hrase a mem+er of the a friend of mine the name of the to get a 4o+ to ork in the I6EA!IO$A# )general* A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent :e is not a mem+er of the aeroclu+. A friend of mine recently failed his medical test. It is important to kno the name of the recruitment manager at the airline.
>&'/
ItCs not easy for a ne ly qualified pilot to get a 4o+ on 4ets. Nou have to ork in the lo end of the market for several years.
a copy of the a piece of paper the quality of the the siDe of the in the process of a cup of tea the first thing that the history of the in charge of the in a position to
Al ays carry a copy of the aircraftCs papers hen flying near the +order. It may only +e a piece of paper. +ut it could avoid a lot of pro+lems if you have to force land in the neigh+ouring country for any reason. -he quality of the instruction can greatly influence the progress of a student. -he siDe of the propeller on an aircraft is usually determined +y ma$imum rpm. 8hen you are in the process of checking the oil level. check also for loose hoses or pipes in the engine compartment. eak
-he first thing that you should do in any emergency situation is not panic. -he history of the aero engine has. until relatively recently. largely +een determined +y military requirements. ICll +e in charge of the radio and navigation aids for the first leg of the flight. 8hen I am in a position to assist you. I ill do hat I can to help.
2& .hrase in the sense of in relation to the Fre0uency
6EFI$I$G
A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent ICd like you to control the aircraft +etter in the sense of maintaining heading and altitude. 8eight is as important an element. in relation to the stalling speed of an aircraft. as the angle of attack.
>&'0 1& .hrase a hell of a a +it of a a +it of an -here ;O6IF<I$G
A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent as a hell of a ind +lo ing from the south est.
8e had a +it of a pro+lem starting our port engine this morning. ItCs a +it of an e$aggeration to say that e nearly crashedM
4& .hrase the same sort of in that sort of in the sort of the same kind of e$actly the same thing same sort of thing
;A!C>I$G -E#A!IO$S A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent
-he same sort of attention to detail is required +y pilots and +rain surgeons. I have never +een in that sort of situation myself so I cannot advise you on hat to do. If I ere in the sort of situation you are in. I ould get professional help. e tried to land at
ItCs the same kind of thing that happened hen Carcassonne ; loss of communication on approach.
7$actly the same thing happened to a colleague of mine in -unisia. If the same sort of thing had happened to a student. it could have had serious consequences.
2& .hrase in terms of the in the sense that of the sort of in the case of the people in the of the people that
S.ECIFIE-S )noun plus de/ining ite(* A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent
-here is no difference +et een these t o aircraft in terms of the engine po er. -hey are different only in the sense that one has a retracta+le undercarriage. -his is typical of the sort of mistake that students make at this stage of the course. In the case of a faulty generator. s itch off all non!essential circuits. such as arning lights. -he people in the ca+in ere totally una are of the emergency. 3inety!five per cent of the people that studied at this school are no ith international carriers. flying
Appen(i# > .hrase the nature of the in the sort of of the things that the sort of things sort of thing that in a in the ay that ay that :e fle the aircraft in a A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent -he nature of the electrical pro+lem as not immediately o+vious.
>&'4
8e found ourselves in the sort of situation that you normally only read a+out in horror stories. One of the things that I can never remem+er is the procedure for signalling loss of all communications. -he sort of things that make me angry are negligence and lack of preparation.
ay that demonstrated his professional piloting skills. ay that he could get his message across to
-here as a sort of magic in the students.
of the fact that the fact that the in such a ay
8e ere all conscious of the fact that he as an inspired instructor. -here as no dou+ting the fact that the gyro had failed shortly after take!off. ay that he never failed to get lost ithin fifteen
:e navigated in such a minutes. :e
of the kind of in the form of to the fact that sort of things that of that sort of the sort of person the kind of thing the ay that the
as a prime e$ample of the kind of pilot ho ould never reach old age.
Instruction as administered in the form of sharp el+o s in the ri+s hen you did something rong and stern silence hen you did something right. 8e attri+uted this to the fact that he had learned his flying in the 5oreign *egion. -he sort of things that made him smile minor engine fires on start!up. ere e$tremely hard landings and
-he +enefit of that sort of instructor is that the student never suffers from overconfidence.
-his is the kind of thing I al ays teach my students to avoid. -he ay that the aircraft as +ehaving gave rise to the suspicion that taken off ith the tie!do n still attached to the tail. -he indscreen as shattered +ut other parts of the aircraft undamaged +y the heavy hailstorm. e had
other parts of the
ere largely
>&'5 3& .hrase to make sure going to get a going to go to to get rid of get rid of the to get hold of going to get the trying to get a used to live in going to make a :E-" G-O9.S
A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent I ant you to make sure that everything in the ca+in is secure. ICm going to get a eather forecast for Barseilles. 8eCre going to go to Royanne first and &t. 7tienne second. 8e may have to get rid of some fuel if e have to divert to our alternate. on the upper surface of the
Bake sure you get rid of all the ice and sno ing.
ICll try to get hold of the mechanic to check the fuel drains. ICm no going to get the latest eather for Carcassonne.
ICve +een trying to get a fi$ from the 39B. Is it unservicea+le@ I used to live in Bordeau$ +efore I moved to *yon. ICm going to make a final attempt to contact 2reno+le.
4& .hrase in the first place to go +ack to to get to the going +ack to the to come +ack to the other thing that going to say that ant to go +ack
!E8!9A#
A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent In the first place. you should not have started to ta$i ithout permission. &econdly. you should have got clearance +efore crossing run ay /AM -o go +ack to hat I as saying earlier a+out lift vectors . . .
ICd like to get to the point here e start to discuss the po er curve . . . 2oing +ack to the point I made yesterday regarding the po er settings for the descent . . . -o come +ack to my previous point a+out the po er curve . . . -he other thing that I should mention here is the need to temperatures during the clim+. atch engine
Before you asked your question. I as going to say that you should al ays keep an eye on your temperatures during clim+s. I no ant to go +ack to my previous topic for a moment in order to clarify a couple of points . . .
Appen(i# > .hrase 4ust like to say I ant to talk to the first thing that A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent Before I conclude. I should 4ust like to say one thing in relation to poor eather flying . . . I ant to talk to you today a+out an important element of air legislation. Before em+arking on any flight. the first thing that you should consider is the eather.
>&'6
5& .hrase in order to get
;A-=E-S OF C#A9SE -E#A!IO$S A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent
In order to get an accurate eather report for your destination. you should request the latest B7-AR or +etter still contact the aerodrome directly.
B& .hrase in the same ay the only thing that
6ISCO9-SE :A#9E
A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent 8eight counteracts lift in the same ay that drag counteracts speed. 'ossi+ly the only thing that does not affect either speed or lift is the colour of the aircraft. As a matter of fact. a +ad paint 4o+ can also increase drag considera+ly. In a different ay. the aerofoil section and the ing area can influence lift.
=as> a matter of fact in a different ay
off the top of =head> in a sense that
I cannot remem+er the formula off the top of my head. A high lift aerofoil increases lift in the sense that it increases the pressure differential +et een the upper and lo er surfaces of the ing.
+0& .hrase the end of the =day> nice to talk to =you> the num+er to ring
>IG>#IG>!I$G AGE$6A O- .9-.OSE A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent
>&+7 .hrase to get in touch that sort of thing that kind of thing this sort of thing the sort of thing a sort of a that sort of stuff in the ay of in a sort of this kind of thing those sort of things that type of thing 4ust sort of like . . . a kind of a in the sort of of the kind of that kind of stuff these sort of things
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent
Nou ill learn all a+out lift and that sort of thing in aerodynamics lectures. <olcanic eruptions can +e severe haDards to aircraft in flight. 5ortunately. that kind of thing doesnCt happen often. 8hile a cyclone can massively disrupt airline schedules in the 5ar 7ast. this sort of thing is rare in 7urope. -he sort of thing that is more likely to interfere 7urope is industrial action. A ith airline schedules in
illy! illy is a sort of small localiDed cyclone found in hot climates.
Nou ill learn all a+out that sort of stuff in your B7- lectures. -here is nothing in particular that I can give you in the avoiding illy illies. &uper!cooled ay of advice a+out
ater is like ice in a sort of suspended animation. altitudes . . .
Nou donCt tend to find this kind of thing at lo
Nou may think that those sort of things are unlikely to +e a pro+lem in 7urope. Nou may convince yourself that that type of thing couldnCt happen to you. =colloq.> Nou 4ust sort of like feel very invulnera+le in an aircraft . . . =colloq.> ItCs like +eing in a kind of a suit of armour . . . Nou never e$pect to find yourself in the sort of situation +eing descri+ed here. :ave you any idea of the kind of action a pilot could take in these circumstances@ =colloq.> &ome young pilots e$press the vie that filling in logs and that kind of stuff is the least interesting part of learning to fly. -hese sort of things may +e +oring +ut they are very important aspects of safety.
++& .hrase the most important thing a good idea to the +est ay to
O.I$IO$HA!!I!96E
A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent -he most important thing to remem+er is that every rule has its origin in someoneCs +ad e$perience in the past. ItCs a good idea to try to avoid +eing the person responsi+le for having ne rules added to the +ook. -he +est ay to do this is to follo the e$isting rules e$plicitly.
Appen(i# > +2& .hrase nice to talk to no no no no yes yes yes yes yeah yeah yeah yeah thanks very much indeed okay thanks very much 4ust trying to think kno the sort of I$!E-.E-SO$A#II$!E-AC!IO$A# A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent
>&+%
trying to think of
+1& .hrase the point of vie point of vie of
S!A!9S ;A-=I$G
A practical e'a(ple /ro( an aviation environ(ent
that point of vie
Appendi' C CASE S!96IES I$ A:IA!IO$ #A$G9AGE !ES!I$G

+& O-A# .-OFICIE$C< I$!E-:IE7 )O.I* !ES!I$G
1.1 -he oral proficiency test intervie . hich is normally administered face!to!face =+ut can +e accomplished +y telephone for simulated realism related to the pilotIcontroller language environment> and ith t o certified raters. lasts from "% minutes to an hour. It assesses the candidateCs listening comprehension and speaking proficiency and takes into consideration factors such as fluency. grammar. pronunciation. voca+ulary. and a+ility to successfully ork through various linguistic tasks. It consists of a arm!up. to include auto+iographical informationE level checks. to assess a+ility to perform linguistic tasks at a +ase levelE level pro+es. to determine a+ility to perform linguistic tasks at the ne$t higher +ase levelE and a ind do n. 1.2 -he intervie is rated on the (.&. Inter!agency *anguage Roundta+le =I*R> 11!point scale of proficiency. from %. no functional proficiency. to ). educated native!speaker proficiency. ith plus levels =%P. 1P. 2P. "P. #P> assigned to those people ho demonstrate inconsistent proficiency at the ne$t higher level. 7$amples of speaking proficiency levels are6 F F at the :7; level9 no functional a+ility to communicateE no topics addressa+leE and unintelligi+le speechE at the :%; level9 a+ility to create ith the languageE participate in short conversationsE satisfy +asic survival needsE get into. through. and out of simple situationsE ask and ans er questionsE and +e understanda+le to native speakers used to dealing ith foreignersE at the :'; level9 a+ility to fully participate in casual conversationsE give instructionsE report on current. past and future activitiesE handle situations ith complications related to concrete topics such as ork requirements. family. and travelE and +e understanda+le to a native speaker not used to dealing ith foreignersE at the :+; level9 a+ility to converse formally and informally a+out concrete and a+stract topicsE hypothesiDe. support opinions. and resolve pro+lem situationsE speak a+out unfamiliar situationsE and think consistently in the target languageE at the :,; level9 a+ility to tailor language to fit the audienceE counsel. persuade. and negotiateE represent a point of vie on all topics normally pertinent to professional needsE and +e nearly equivalent to that of an educated native speaker.
2&
.E#A .-OFICIE$C< I$ E$G#IS> #A$G9AGE FO- AI- !-AFFIC CO$!-O# 2&+ "acGground
2.1.1 In the 110%s. 7uropean air traffic controllers +ecame increasingly concerned that the proficiency of the 7nglish language used in aeronautical communication +et een pilots and controllers as far from C&%
C&'
ideal and varied quite considera+ly from &tate to &tate. In the late 11/%s and early 110%s. a num+er of highly pu+liciDed aircraft accidents. in hich language as a contri+utory factor. raised pu+lic concerns a+out safety. In ?une 1100. 7(ROCO3-RO* organiDed the first 7nglish language orkshop held at the Institute of Air 3avigation &ervices in *u$em+ourg. -he orkshop concluded that air traffic controllers should demonstrate a predetermined level of kno ledge of and skills in the 7nglish language. especially in listening. pronunciation and comprehension. to ena+le them to carry out their tasks in such a manner as to contri+ute positively to the safety of air traffic. 2.1.2 A pro4ect supervision team comprising mem+ers from eleven 7uropean &tates as esta+lished in 111% to monitor and guide test development. 7(ROCO3-RO* contracted the British Council in ?anuary 1112 to design a suita+le test. 9evelopment. under the supervision of 7(ROCO3-RO*. as completed in 9ecem+er 111# and as follo ed +y a period of successful evaluation ith the participation of more than "%% student controllers. 2&2 !he .E#A test
2.2.1 '7*A ; 'roficiency in 7nglish *anguage for Air -raffic Control ; is designed to reflect a range of tasks undertaken +y air traffic controllers +ut ith specific focus on language rather than operational procedures. -o meet this requirement. a level of proficiency in general 7nglish is necessary. equivalent. for e$ample. to the Cam+ridge 5irst Certificate =(nited Jingdom> intermediate level. prior to commencing the specialiDed air traffic control =A-C> 7nglish training. -he test is also specifically constructed to +e administered to student controllers 4ust prior to the completion of institutionaliDed training. 2.2.2 -o achieve effective communication. a strict adherence to pu+lished ICAO radiotelephony phraseology is required. and in addition. students have to display the a+ility to produce messages in natural language. in +oth usual and unusual situations. that necessitate departure from ICAO phraseology. -he appropriate linguistic response must +e made to a message transmitted +y a pilot. It is important to resolve misunderstandings in communication that may +e due to limited language competency. noise andIor distortion. or to a stress!induced situation. 2.2." In the '7*A test. there are three compulsory papers and one optional paper. A pass is required in each of the compulsory papers. 2.2.".1 5or +oth 'aper 2 and 'aper " of the '7*A test. descriptive language rating scales. aligned to the ICAO language proficiency standard *evel #. are used to determine a candidateCs level of 7nglish language proficiency. 2.2.".2 Paper % . Listening comprises 0 sections and 0" test items =the first three are not rated> in +ooklet form. -he candidate listens to recorded pilot messages and rites the required information =short te$t responses> in the space provided. &ome sections are played t ice. It is not a test of ritten 7nglish and the candidate is not penaliDed for grammatical errors. -est duration is appro$imately #% minutes. 2.2."." Paper ' . Oral Responses presents the candidate ith a series of "2 charts =the first t o are not rated> depicting aerodrome. approach radar or en!route radar environments. -he positions of aircraft on each chart are indicated +y appropriate sym+ols. -he aircraft in communication ith the controller =candidate> is highlighted. 5or each chart. the candidate listens to a recorded pilot message and then makes an appropriate response hich is recorded =for later analysis>. A trained rater grades the candidateCs responses for language performance and for the appropriateness of the response. Appropriateness is safety!related. -he recording is played once. -est duration is a+out 2% minutes.
Appen(i# C
C&+
2.2.".# Paper + . Oral Interaction is presented in t o phases on a one!to!one +asis +et een the candidate and a trained interlocutor. Communication is not visual. ith the candidate +eing seated +ehind a screen or ideally in another room. In phase 1. the interlocutor plays the role of a pilot e$periencing a developing unusual situation. -he candidate is the controller ho must ascertain and understand the pro+lem +eing e$perienced +y the pilot. In phase 2. the candidate is required to +rief the A-C supervisor =the interlocutor> a+out the unusual situation and may +e asked to confirm and clarify information. 2.2.".) -he scenarios in 'aper " do not require the candidate to provide separation +et een aircraft or to have kno ledge of local A-C procedures. Candidates are rated on their a+ility to understand and clarify a pro+lem communicated +y a pilot. -est duration is appro$imately 1) minutes. 2.2."., Paper , . Rea(ing is an optional paper containing ,% items of typical te$t ould come across in their ork. hich controllers
2&1
-ating scales
-he rating scales applica+le to 'aper 2 and 'aper " of '7*A have evolved to +e aligned ith the ICAO &tandards for the language proficiency of pilots and controllers =*evel # on the ICAO rating scale>. -he main characteristics of the rating scales are6 a> '7*A requirement for pronunciation remains slightly more stringent than -erminological consistency of descriptors is ensured. e.g.6 plain language =ICAO> intelligi+leIintelligi+ility =ICAO>
ICAOCs. +> 1> 2> c>
9escriptors referring to specific features of the '7*A oral sections are retained6 1> 2> "> phraseology formulaic phraseology impact on safety
d>
'7*A 'aper 2 =Oral Responses> is rated for6 1> 2> "> #> )> ,> /> appropriateness of response =safety!related> language performance features overall language performance fluency pronunciation voca+ulary phraseology
C&, e> '7*A 'aper " =Oral Interaction> is rated for6 1> 2> "> #> )> ,> /> 0> overall language performance comprehension interaction fluency pronunciation voca+ulary grammar structure phraseology 2&4 Conclusion
-he '7*A test is ell suited to serve the glo+al A-C community in meeting the language proficiency requirements for aeronautical communications in designated international airspace.
Appen(i# C
C&/
GGG
GGG
Appendi' 6 S!A$6A-6S FO- #A$G9AGE !-AI$I$G A$6 !ES!I$G

+& !-AI$I$G .-OG-A;;E S!A$6A-6S
1.1 Bany programmes follo the idely accepted professional standards for language teaching. &uch programmes +ase curriculum decisions on research and accepted theoretical approaches and hire properly qualified instructors ho are a+le to interact pleasantly and professionally ith students. demonstrating +oth an enthusiasm for teaching and respect for the students. Ouality programmes provide professional development opportunities for instructors. encouraging and supporting their involvement ith professional associations and organiDations. -hey limit teaching contact hours to +et een an ideal of t elve or fifteen hours per eek and a ma$imum of t enty hours per eek. there+y providing opportunity and time for instructors to keep a+reast of professional developments and research. -hey monitor teaching effectiveness. seek student feed+ack on programme effectiveness and take time to educate students a+out language learning strategies. 1.2 Additionally. successful programmes tend to share a num+er of other programming and service characteristics6 e$tra!curricular language supporting activitiesE a strong system of programme and student accounta+ilityE and content!+ased instruction. 1." A demonstra+le and ell!articulated adherence to professional standards ensures the +est possi+le learning environment. As long as language teaching remains largely unregulated. organiDations and individuals should carefully investigate programme qualities +efore committing resources. A num+er of professional associations pu+lish standards to guide programme quality. e.g.6 a> +> c> American Council on the -eaching of 5oreign *anguages 'rogram &tandardsE British Council 7nglish in Britain Accreditation &cheme :and+ookE and Commission on 7nglish *anguage 'rogram Accreditation 'rogram &tandards.
2& #A$G9AGE !ES!I$G S!A$6A-6S !>E I$!E-$A!IO$A# #A$G9AGE !ES!I$G ASSOCIA!IO$ )I#!A* CO6E OF E!>ICS -he International *anguage -esting Association =I*-A> is a non!profit professional association dedicated to improving language!testing practices orld ide. -he I*-A Code of 7thics is reprinted +elo . ith the permission of the I*-A Board. as a guide for quality test development and use.
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CODE OF ET!ICS FOR T!E INTERNATIONA
ANGUAGE TESTING ASSOCIATION
Adopted at the annual meeting of I3TA held in 8ancouver% +arch $,,,. This, the first !ode of Ethics prepared by the $nternational )anguage Testing Association 2$)TA3, is a set of principles which draws upon moral philosophy and serves to guide good professional conduct. $t is neither a statute nor a regulation and it does not provide guidelines for practice, but it is intended to offer a benchmark of satisfactory ethical behavior by all language testers. $t is associated with a separate !ode of 6ractice 2in progress3. The !ode of Ethics is based on a blend of the principles of beneficence, non8maleficence, Hustice, a respect for autonomy and for civil society. This !ode of Ethics identifies ( fundamental principles, each elaborated on by a series of annotations which generally clarify the nature of the principles: they prescribe what $)TA members ought to do or not do, or more generally how they ought to comport themselves or what they, or the profession, ought to aspire to: and they identify the difficulties and e0ceptions inherent in the application of the principles. The Annotations further elaborate the !ode4s sanctions, making clear that failure to uphold the !ode may have serious penalties, such as withdrawal of $)TA membership on the advice of the $)TA Ethics !ommittee. Although this !ode derives from other similar ethical codes 2stretching back into history3, it does endeavor to reflect the ever changing balance of societal and cultural values across the world, and for that reason should be interpreted by language testers in conHunction with the associated !ode of 6ractice. All professional codes should inform professional conscience and Hudgement. This $)TA !ode of Ethics does not release language testers from the obligations and responsibilities laid on them by other !odes to which they have subscribed or from their duties under the legal codes, both national and international, to which they may be subHect. )anguage testers are independent moral agents and sometimes they may have a personal moral stance, which conflicts with participation in certain procedures. They are morally entitled to refuse to participate in procedures, which would violate personal moral belief. )anguage testers accepting employment positions where they foresee they may be called on to be involved in situations at variance with their beliefs have a responsibility to ac*uaint their employer or prospective employer with this fact. Employers and colleagues have a responsibility to ensure that such language testers are not discriminated against in their workplace. The !ode of Ethics is instantiated by the !ode of 6ractice 2currently under preparation by $)TA I'..,J3. <hile the !ode of Ethics focuses on the morals and ideals of the profession, the !ode of 6ractice identifies the minimum re*uirements for practice in the profession and focuses on the clarification of professional misconduct and unprofessional conduct. Eoth the !ode of Ethics and the !ode of 6ractice need to be responsive to the needs and changes within the profession and, in time, these !odes will re*uire revision in response to changes in language testing and in society. The !ode of Ethics will be reviewed within five years, or earlier if necessary.
P"inci&#e 1 )anguage testers shall have respect for the humanity and dignity of each of their test takers. They shall provide them with the best possible professional consideration and shall respect all persons4 needs, values and cultures in the provision of their language testing service.
Appen(i# ? Annotation F
?&+
)anguage testers shall not discriminate against nor e0ploit their test takers on grounds of age, gender, race, ethnicity, se0ual orientation, language background, creed, political affiliations or religion, nor knowingly impose their own values 2for e0ample social, spiritual, political and ideological3, to the e0tent that they are aware of them. )anguage testers shall never e0ploit their clients nor try to influence them in ways that are not related to the aims of the service they are providing or the investigation they are mounting. e0ual relations between language testers and their test takers are always unethical. Teaching and researching language testing involving the use of test takers 2including students3 re*uires their consent: $T A) " #EK>$#E respect for their dignity and privacy. Those involved should be informed that their refusal to participate will not affect the *uality of the language tester4s service 2in teaching, in research, in development, in administration3. TCE > E "? all forms of media 2paper, electronic, video, audio3 involving test takers re*uires informed consent before being used for secondary purposes. )anguage testers shall endeavor to communicate the information they produce to all relevant stakeholders in as meaningful a way as possible. <here possible, test takers should be consulted on all matters concerning their interests.
F F
P"inci&#e $ )anguage testers shall hold all information obtained in their professional capacity about their test takers in confidence and they shall use professional Hudgement in sharing such information. Annotation F $n the face of the widespread use of photocopied materials and facsimile, computeri;ed test records and data banks, the increased demand for accountability from various sources and the personal nature of the information obtained from test takers, language testers are obliged to respect test takers4 right to confidentiality and to safeguard all information associated with the tester8test taker relationship. !onfidentiality cannot be absolute, especially where the records concern students who may be competing for admissions and appointments. A careful balance must be maintained between preserving confidentiality as a fundamental aspect of the language tester4s professional duty and the wider responsibility the tester has to society. imilarly, in appropriate cases, the language tester4s professional colleagues also have a right to access data of test takers other than their own ion order to improve the service the profession offers. $n such cases, those given access to data should agree to maintain confidentiality. Test taker data collected from sources other than the test taker directly 2for e0ample from teachers of students under test3 are subHect to the same principles of confidentiality. There may be statutory re*uirements on disclosure, for e0ample where the language tester is called as an e0pert witness in a law court or tribunal. $n such circumstances, the language tester is released from his9her professional duty to confidentiality.
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)anguage testers should adhere to all relevant ethical principles embodied in national and international guidelines when undertaking any trial, e0periment, treatment or other research activity. Annotation F )anguage testing progress depends on research, which necessarily involves the participation of human subHects. This research shall conform to generally accepted principles of academic in*uiry, be based on a thorough knowledge of the professional literature: and be planned and e0ecuted according to the highest standards. All research must be Hustified: that is proposed studies shall be reasonably e0pected to provide answers to *uestions posed. The human rights of the research subHect shall always take precedence over the interests of science or society. <here there are likely discomforts or risks to the research subHect, the benefits of that research should be taken into account but must not be used in themselves to Hustify such discomforts or risks. $f unforeseeable harmful effects occur, the research should always be stopped or modified. An independent Ethics !ommittee should evaluate all research proposals in order to ensure that studies conform to the highest scientific and ethical standards. #elevant information about the aims, methods, risks and discomforts of the research shall be given to the subHect in advance. The information shall be conveyed in such a way that it is fully understood. !onsent shall be free, without pressure, coercion or duress. The subHect shall be free to refuse to participate in or to withdraw from, the research at any time prior to publication of research results. uch refusal shall not Heopardi;e the subHect4s treatment. pecial care shall be taken with regard to obtaining prior consent in the case of subHects who are in dependent relationships 2for e0ample, students, the elderly, proficiency challenged learners3. $n the case of a minor, consent shall be obtained from a parent or guardian but also from the child if he is of sufficient maturity and understanding. !onfidential information obtained in research shall not be used for purposes other than TC" E specified in the approved research protocol. 6ublication of research results shall be truthful and accurate. 6ublication of research reports shall not permit identification of the subHects who have been involved.
F F F
F F
F F F F F F
P"inci&#e 7 )anguage testers shall not allow the misuse of their professional knowledge or skills, in so far as they are able. Annotation F )anguage testers shall not knowingly use their professional knowledge or skills to advance purposes inimical to their test takers4 interests. <hen the progress of the tester4s intervention is not directly to the benefit of the test
Appen(i# ?
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takers 2for e0ample when they are asked to act as trial subHects for a proficiency test designed for some other situation3, its nature shall be made absolutely clear. F Non8conformity with a society4s prevailing moral, religious etc values, or status as an unwelcome migrant, shall not be the determining factor in assessing language ability. <hatever the legal circumstances, language testers shall not participate, either directly or indirectly in the practice of torture or other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment 2see Declaration of Tokyo &(5-3.
P"inci&#e , )anguage testers shall continue to develop their professional knowledge, sharing this knowledge with colleagues and other language professionals. Annotation F !ontinued learning and advancing one4s knowledge are fundamental to the professional role: failure to do so constitutes a disservice to test takers. )anguage testers shall make use of the various methods of continuing education that are available to them. These may involve participation in continuing language testing programmes and professional conferences, and the regular reading of relevant professional publications. )anguage testers shall take the opportunity to interact with colleagues and other relevant language professionals as an important means of developing their professional knowledge. )anguage testers shall share new knowledge with colleagues by publication in recogni;ed professional Hournals or at meetings. )anguage testers shall be e0pected to contribute to the education and professional development of language testers in training and to the drawing up of guidelines for the core re*uirements of that training. )anguage testers shall be prepared to contribute to the education of students in the <$DE# language professions.
P"inci&#e ' )anguage testers shall share the responsibility of upholding the integrity of the language testing profession. Annotation F )anguage testers shall promote and enhance the integrity of their profession by fostering a sense of trust and mutual responsibility among colleagues. $n the event of differences of opinion, viewpoints should be e0pressed with candour and respect rather than by mutual denigration. )anguage testers develop and e0ercise norms on behalf of society. As such theirs is a privileged position which brings with it an obligation to maintain appropriate personal and moral standards in their professional practice, and in those aspects of their personal life which may reflect upon the integrity of that practice.
?&0 F F
)anguage testers who become aware of unprofessional conduct by a colleague shall take appropriate action: this may include a report to the relevant authorities. ?ailure to uphold this !ode of Ethics will be regarded with the utmost seriousness and could lead to severe penalties including withdrawal of $)TA membership.
P"inci&#e 1 )anguage testers in their societal roles shall strive to improve the *uality of language testing, assessment and teaching services, promote the Hust allocation of those services and contribute to the education of society regarding language learning and language proficiency. Annotation F F F F F )anguage testers have a particular duty to promote the improvement of language testing provision9services in that many of their test takers are disenfranchised and lack power on account of their non8native speaker status. )anguage testers shall be prepared by virtue of their knowledge and e0perience to advise those responsible for the provision of language testing services. )anguage testers shall be prepared to act as advocates and Hoin with others in ensuring that language testing test takers have available to them the best possible language testing service. )anguage testers shall be prepared to work with advisory, statutory, voluntary and commercial bodies that have a role in the provision of language testing services. )anguage testers shall take appropriate action if services, by reason of fiscal restriction or otherwise, fall below minimal standards. E0ceptionally, language testers may have to dissociate themselves from such services provided that this is not harmful to their test takers. )anguage testers shall be prepared to interpret and disseminate relevant scientific information and established professional opinions to society. $n so doing, language testers shall clarify their status as either spokespersons for a recognised professional body or not. $f the views e0pressed are contrary to those generally held, they shall so indicate. $t is reasonable for language testers to make scientifically substantiated contributions to public debate on sensitive socio8political issues, such as race, disadvantage and child rearing. )anguage testers shall differentiate between their role as educators based on professional knowledge and their role as citi;ens. $n fulfilling their responsibilities under this principle, language testers shall take care to avoid self8promotion and the denigration of colleagues. )anguage testers shall make clear that they do not claim 2and are not seen to claim3 that they alone possess all the relevant knowledge.
F F F F
P"inci&#e 8 )anguage testers shall be mindful of their obligations to the society within which they work, while recognising that those obligations may on occasion conflict with their responsibilities to their test takers and to other stakeholders.
Appen(i# ? Annotation F
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<hen test results are obtained on behalf of institutions 2government departments, professional bodies, universities, schools, companies3 language testers have an obligation to report those results accurately, however unwelcome they may be to the test takers and other stakeholders 2families, prospective employers etc3. As members of the society in which they work, language testers should recognise their obligation to the testing re*uirements of that society, even when they may not themselves agree with them. <here their disagreement is of sufficient strength to *ualify as a conscientious obHection, they should have the right to withdraw their professional services.
P"inci&#e 9 )anguage testers shall regularly consider the potential effects, both short and long term on all stakeholders of their proHects, reserving the right to withhold their professional services on the grounds of conscience. Annotation F As professionals, language testers have the responsibility to evaluate the ethical conse*uences of the proHects submitted to them. <hile they cannot consider all possible eventualities, they should engage in a thorough evaluation of the likely conse*uences and, where those conse*uences are in their view professionally unacceptable, withdraw their services. $n such cases, they should as a matter of course consult with fellow language testers to determine how far their view is shared, always reserving the right, where their colleagues take a different view, to make an individual stand on the grounds of conscience.
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Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements #A$G9AGE !ES!I$G S!A$6A-6S !>E DA.A$ #A$G9AGE !ES!I$G ASSOCIA!IO$ )D#!A* CO6E OF .-AC!ICE
-he ?apan *anguage -esting Association =?*-A> has developed a draft Code of 'ractice for local use. It as developed +y 'rofessor Randy 5isher for ?*-A and is reprinted +elo . ith the permission of ?*-A. as a guide for the development of other codes of practice.
T!E : TA CODE OF GOOD TESTING PRACTICE
-a%ic Con%ide"ation% 3o" 2ood te%tin2 &"actice in a## %it0ation% &. The test developer4s understanding of Hust what the test, and each sub8part of it, is supposed to measure 2its construct3 must be clearly stated. '. All tests, regardless of their purpose or use, must be valid and reliable to the degree necessary to allow the decisions based on their results to fair to the test takers. Aalidity refers to the accuracy of the inferences that are drawn from the test results. $f, for e0ample, the test purports to be measuring the ability to use English in business communication, the test is valid to the degree it does in fact measure that ability. Cowever, the ability to use English in business communication is a construct. The test developer must spell out Hust what that construct is or what it consists of. The test can only be valid if the test construct is a complete and accurate picture of the skill or ability it is supposed to measure. To summari;e Messick &((1, construct validity depends on the degree to which positive answers can be given to the following five *uestions. &. Does our construct and our implementation of it, include all and only the necessary elementsL '. Do we have these elements correctly weightedL +. Do these elements interact in the same way in the test task and in real world performanceL ,. Does our scoring scheme evaluate the test performance in the same way real8world performance is evaluatedL -. $s there anything about our test that will cause the test takers, or a portion of them, to perform in a less than optimal fashionL #eliability refers to the consistency of the test results and Messick4s si0th *uestion addresses this issue. &. Are the results generali;ableL a. Are the results comparable across timeL b. Are the results comparable across settingsL
Re%&on%i;i#itie% o3 te%t de%i2ne"% and te%t <"ite"% &. A test designer must begin by deciding on the construct to be measured before deciding how that construct is to be operationali;ed. '. "nce the test tasks have been decided, their specifications should be spelled out in detail. +. The work of the item writers needs to be edited before the items are pretested. $f pretesting is not possible, the items should be analysed after the test has been administrated but before the results are reported. Malfunctioning or misfitting items should not be included in the calculation of individual test takers4 reported scores.
Appen(i# ?
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,. %rading check sheets or rubrics must be prepared for test tasks re*uiring hand scoring. These check sheets or rubrics must be tried out to demonstrate that they permit reliable evaluation of the test takers4 performance. -. Those doing the grading should be trained for the task and both inter and intra8rater reliability should be calculated and published. 1. Test materials should be kept in a safe place and handled in such a way that no test taker is allowed to gain an unfair advantage over the other test takers. 5. !are must be taken to assure that all test takers are treated in the same way in the administration of the test. /. %rading procedures must be carefully followed and score processing routines checked to make certain that no mistakes have been made. (. The test results should be reported in a way that allows the test taker and other stakeholders to draw the correct inferences from it.
O;#i2ation% o3 in%tit0tion% &"e&a"in2 o" admini%te"in2 .i2. %ta=e% e5am% $nstitutions 2schools, companies, certification bodies, etc.3 developing and administering entrance, certification, or other high stakes e0aminations must utili;e test designers and item writers who are well versed in current language testing theory and practice and have native or near native competence in the language being tested. $tems written by non8native speakers of the language being tested must be checked by competent native speakers. #esponsibilities stakeholders7 to test takers and related
Eefore the test is administered. The institution should provide all potential test takers with ade*uate information about the nature of the test, the construct 2or constructs3 the test is attempting to measure 2$deally this should include any evidence and arguments showing that the test tasks are in fact measuring what they are claimed to measure.3, the way the test will be graded, and how the results will be reported. At the time of administration. The institution shall provide facilities for the administration of the test that do not disadvantage any test taker. Test administration materials should be carefully prepared and proctors trained and supervised so that each administration of the test can be uniform, assuring that all test takers receive the same instructions, time to do the test, and access to any permitted aids. $f something occurs that calls into *uestion the uniformity of the administration of the test, the problem should be identified and any remedial action to be taken to offset the negative impact on the effected test takers should be promptly announced. At the time of scoring. The institution shall take the steps necessary to see that each test taker4s e0am paper is graded accurately and the result correctly placed in the data8base used in the assessment. There should be on8going *uality control checks to assure that the scoring process is working as intended.
?&%7 "ther considerations.
$f a decision must be made on candidates who did not all take the same test or the same form of a test, care must be taken to assure that the different measures used are in fact comparable. E*uivalence must be demonstrated statistically. $f more than one form of the test is used, inter8form reliability estimates should be published as soon as they are available. O;#i2ation% o3 t.o%e &"e&a"in2 and admini%te"in2 comme"cia##/ a6ai#a;#e e5am% $n addition to the obligations placed on any test designer and on those preparing high stakes e0aminations, developers and sellers of commercially available e0aminations must7 &. Make a clear statement as to what groups the test is appropriate for and for which groups it is not appropriate. '. Make a clear statement of the construct the test is designed to measure in terms a layperson can understand. +. 6ublish validity and reliability estimates for the test along with sufficient e0planation to allow potential uses to decide if the test is suitable in their situation. ,. #eport the results in a form that will allow the test users to draw correct inferences from them and make them difficult to misinterpret. -. #efrain from making any false or misleading claims about the test. 1. 6roduce a test manual available to the public which7 &. E0plains the relevant measurement concepts so that they can be understood by non8specialists. '. #eports evidence of the reliability and validity of the test. +. Describes the scoring procedure and, if multiple forms e0ist, steps taken to assure consistency of results across forms. ,. E0plains the proper interpretation of test results and any limitations on their accuracy. Re%&on%i;i#itie% o3 0%e"% o3 te%t "e%0#t% 6ersons who utili;e test results for decision making must7 &. >se results from a test that is sufficiently reliable and valid to allow fair decisions to be made. '. Make certain that the test construct is relevant to the decision to be made. +. !learly understand the limitations of the test results on which they will base their decision. ,. Take into consideration the standard error of measurement 2 EM3 of the device that provides the data for their decision. -. Ee prepared to e0plain and provide evidence of the fairness and accuracy of their decision making process.
Appen(i# ? S&ecia# con%ide"ation% $n norm8referenced testing &. The characteristics of the population on which the test was normed must be reported so that test users can determine if this group is appropriate as a standard to which their test takers can be compared $n criterion referenced testing &. The appropriateness of the criterion must be confirmed by e0perts in the area being tested. '.
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ince correlation is not a suitable way of determining the reliability and validity of criterion referenced tests, methods appropriate for such test data must be used.
$n computer adaptive testing &. The sample si;es must be large enough to assure the stability of the $#T estimates. '. Test takers and other stakeholders must be informed of the rationale of computer adaptive testing and given advice on test taking strategies for such tests.
Appendi' E
.A-! IC -EFE-E$CES
Aviation #anguage -his list of articles hich e$amines the use of language in aeronautical radiotelephony communications is not intended to +e e$haustive* Burnfield. ?. and R. Ro+ert. Air Traffic Control $nglish Language Pro<ect- @ol* %9 I(entifying >asic $nglish Language Proficiency for International Air Traffic Controllers. Report prepared for the (.&. 5ederal Aviation Administration +y the :uman Resources Research OrganiDation. Ale$andria. <irginia. (.&.A. 1111. Burnfield. ?. and R. Ro+ert. Air Traffic Control $nglish Language Pro<ect- @ol* '9 An Analysis an( @ali(ation of Language Proficiency Measurement Mo(els* Report prepared for the (.&. 5ederal Aviation Administration +y the :uman Resources Research OrganiDation. Ale$andria. <irginia. (.&.A. 1111. Burnfield. ?. and R. Ro+ert. $nglish Language Proficiency of International Air Traffic Controllers9 A revie) an( Cui(elines for Appropriate Measures. Report prepared for 5AA. 2%%%. Cardosi. J. B. An Analysis of $n Route Controller&Pilot @oice Communication. &pringfield. <irginia. (.&.A. 3ational -echnical Information &ervice. 111". Chatham. R.. 2. :enning. :. Bogilka. R. Ramos. and &. -homas. Language Tas1s in Air Traffic Control $nglish Language Pro<ect (ATC$LP)6 I(entifying >asic $nglish Language Proficiency for International Air Traffic Controllers* =5R!7A99!11!,2>. :umRROI5AA. 1111. Cushing. &. 8atal Aor(s9 Communications Clashes an( Airplane Crashes* (niversity of Chicago 'ress. 111#. Cushing. &. Plane !pea1ing. <$R>ATIM9 The Language Duarterly* <ol. XXI. 3o. 2. Autumn. 111#. Cushing. &. F'ilot!Air -raffic Control Communications6 ItCs 3ot =Only> 8hat Nou &ay. ItCs :o 8light !afety ?igest* 5light &afety 5oundation. ?uly 111). Nou &ay It.G
9ay. B. F&afe Radiotelephony 9emands 2ood 9iscipline from all 'ilots and ControllersG. ICAO Eournal. <olume )/. 3o. ". 2%%2. 5oushee. :. C. and R. *. :elmreich. F2roup interaction and 5light Cre 9. C. 3agel =7ds.>. Fuman 8actors in Mo(ern Aviation =1101>. performanceG. In 7. *. 8iener V
2oguen. ?. and C. *inde. F*inguistic methodology for the analysis of aviation accidents. -echnical reportG. "A!A Contractor Report 55'/,- Moffett 8iel(- CA9 "A!A Ames Research Center* =110">.
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:elmreich. R. ?. and *. B. &e$ton. FAnalyDing cockpit communication6 -he *inks +et een *anguage. 'erformance. 7rror. and 8orkloadG* Bniversity of Te#as Team Research Pro<ect- ?epartment of Psychology- The Bniversity of Te#as at Austin- Austin- Te#as- B!A. Fuman 8actors Cui(elines for Air Traffic Management (ATM) !ystems* ICAO 9ocument 1/)0!A3I1,,. 2%%%. Fuman 8actors Training Manual* ICAO 9ocument 1,0"!A3I1)%. 1110. ICAO Eournal. <olume )1. 3um+er 1. 2%%#. International Civil Aviation $nglish Association- 'roceedings of the 0th International &eminar. 8arsa . 'oland. 'roceedings pu+lished +y the Centre de linguistique applique of the (niversity of 5ranche! Comte. 2%%2. Janki B. 2. and -. '. Bark. FCommunication and Cre Resource Banagement in Cockpit Resource BanagementG. ($(s* $arl L* Aiener- >ar ara C* Gan1i an( Ro ert L* Felmreich)* Janki B. 2. FA -raining 'erspective6 7nhancing -eam 'erformance -hrough 7ffective CommunicationG In B. 2. Janki V O. <. 'rinDo =7ds.>. Procee(ings of the Metho(s H Metrics of @oice Communications Aor1shop- (%66/)* *inde. C. =1100>. F-he qualitative study of communicative success6 'oliteness and Accidents in Aviation 9iscourseG. Language in !ociety %4- =">. "/)!"11. Bathe s. 7. F'rovisions for proficiency in common aviation language to +e strengthenedG. ICAO Eournal<olume ),. 3um+er ". 2%%1. p. 2#L2,. Bathe s. 7. F*anguage 'roficiency6 7ffective language training for pilots and air traffic controllersG. ICAO Eournal. <olume )0. 3um+er #. 2%%". p. /L1. Bc2rath. B. FAviation 7nglish -raining Baterials and Resources.G 'resented at the 0th International Aviation $nglish Association !eminar. 8arsa . 'oland. &eptem+er 2%%2. Bc2rath. B. :The Top '/7 four )or( clusters in spo1en $nglish- a(apte( to aviation*; Adapted from the original research of ?ane 8illis. Aston (niversity. (J. 2%%". Reprinted ith permission. Bell. ?. F*anguage -raining and -esting in Aviation 3eed to 5ocus on ?o+!&pecific Competencies.G ICAO Eournal. <olume )1. 3um+er 1. 2%%#. Bell. ?. F8hat is 3ot &tandard in Real Radiotelephony@G 'resented at the #th International Civil Aviation $nglish Association 8orum- 'aris. 5rance- 3ovem+er 1111 and reprinted in this manual ith permission of the author. Bell. ?. FStude des Communications <er+ales entre 'ilote et Controleur en &ituation &tandard et 3on! &tandardG. 9octoral dissertation in linguistics. (niversity du Birail. -oulouse. 5rance =and Scole 3ationale de lCAviation Civile. Centre dCStudes de la 3avigation AKrienne> 1112. Bell. ?. and C. 2odmet. Aeronautical Ra(iotelephony Communicative 8unctions* 9irection de la 3avigation AKrienne. 93A0 =5>. 111/ and reprinted in Appendi$ B to this manual. ith permission.
Appen(i# $
$&+
Borro . 9.. A. *ee. and B. Rodvold. FAnalysis of pro+lems in Routine Controller!'ilot Communications. InternationalG Eournal of Aviation Psychology- + (,)- '5/&+7'- %66+. Borro . 9E A. *ee. and B. Rodvold. FAnalysis of pro+lems in Routine Controller!'ilot Communications. In. Banaging the Bodern Cockpit -hird :uman 7rror Avoidance -echniques Conference 'roceedingsG. Aarren(ale PA9 !ociety of Automotive $ngineers- Inc. 9ec. 111%. 111". Borro . 9.. and B. Rod old. Communications issues in Air Traffic Control. In B.J. =1110>. Borro . 9.. and B. Rod old and A. *ee. F3onroutine transactions in controller!pilot communicationG. ?iscourse Processes. 1/=2>. 2")!2)0. =111#>. 'hilips. 9. F*inguistic security in the syntactic structures of air traffic control 7nglishG. $nglish Aorl(&Ai(e%'(%)- %7+&%',. =1111>. 'rinDo. O. <. and -homas 8. Britton. Civil Aeromedical Institute. 5AA. Oklahoma City. Oklahoma /"12). F5inal Report6 9evelopment of a Coding 5orm for Approach ControlI'ilotG. @oice Communication* ?OT28AA2AM&6/2%/* 'rinDo. O. <. FAn analysis of voice communication in a simulated approach control environmentG. Oklahoma City. OJ6 8AA Civil Aerome(ical Institute* ("IT! "o* ?OT28AA2AM&642%4)* (%665)* 'rinDo. O. <. F9ata!linked pilot reply time on controller orkload and communication in a simulated terminal optionG. Oklahoma City. O.J6 8AA Civil Aerome(ical Institute ("IT! "o* ?OT28AA2AM&7%25)* ('77%)* 'rinDo. O. <. and -. 8. Britton. FA-CI'ilot voice communications6 A survey of the *iteratureG. ("IT! "o* ?OT28AA2AM&6+2'7)* =111">. Ramos. R. A.. ?. *. Burnfield. R. *. Chatham. 2. :enning. &. -homas. and :. Bogilka. FAir -raffic Control 7nglish *anguage 'ro4ect =A-C7*'> I6 Identifying +asic 7nglish language proficiency for international air traffic controllersG. =:umRRO 5inal Report 5R!7A99!11!,2>. Ale#an(ria- @A9 Fuman Resources Research Organi3ation. =1111>. &um+y. 8. :. -he control!to er language6 A case study of a specialiDed language in action. *anguage and &peech. "6 ,1!/%. 11,%. F-echnical Analysis of A-C Controller to 'ilot <oice Communication ith Regard to Automatic &peech Recognition &ystems.G 77C 3ote 3o. %1I2%%1. $BROCO"TROL $#perimental Centre* Eanuary '77%. <atnsdal. A. O. A register analysis6 -he language of air traffic control. Occasional Papers in !ystematic Linguistics- @ol* %. 110/. <erhaegen. B. F&afety issues related to language use have come under scrutinyG. ICAO Eournal- /0(')-%/& %4- +7. =2%%1>.
$&, #inguistics
-he literature on linguistics and on language learning. teaching. and testing is vast. Only a small sampling of a fe useful orks is listed here. including those te$ts referred to in this manual. A >i liography on Language Testing has +een compiled and pu+lished +y -he ?ournal *anguage -esting (pdate. ith the International *anguage -esting Association =I*-A>. Alderson ?. C.. C. B. Clapham and 9. 8all. :*anguage -est Construction and 7valuationG* Cam! +ridge (niversity 'ress. Cam+ridge. 111). Bachman. *. 5. F5undamental Considerations in *anguage -estingG* O$ford (niversity 'ress. O$ford. 111%. 9avies. A. F'rinciples of *anguage -estingG. >asic >lac1)ell. 111%. 9ouglas. 9. FAssessing (niversity 'ress =2%%%>. languages for specific purposesG. Cam+ridge. 7ngland6 Cam+ridge
5ulcher. 2. F&ome 'riority Areas for Oral *anguage -estingG. Language Testing Bp(ate- 1)6 "1!#/. =111#>. :utchinson. -. and 8. Alan. F7nglish for &pecific 'urposesG. A Learning&centere( approach* Cam+ridge (' 11/* ?enkins. ?. F-he 'honology of 7nglish as an International *anguageG* O$ford (niversity 'ress- O#for(. 2%%%. ?ohnson. B. F-he art of 3on!Conversation6 A Ree$amination of the <alidity of the Oral 'roficiency Intervie G. Iale BP. 2%%1. Barinova!-odd. &tafka. 2. F-hree Bisconceptions a+out Age and *earningG. =>ra(for( Marshall- Catherine $* !no)&Farvar()* Tesol Duaterly +,2&pring 2%%% p. 11. &polksky. B. FBeasured 8ordsG. O#for(* BP. 111).
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.A-! IIC 7>A! IS $O! S!A$6A-6 I$ -EA# -A6IO!E#E.>O$<J

&tandards of language use in aeronautical radiotelephony need to +e productive =+eing concise hile avoiding misunderstandings> +ut also accepta+le to users. 7$amples of naturally occurring non!standard usage can provide valua+le clues to hat should or can +e standardiDed. Only +y comparing many instances of real language use +y different individuals in similar situations is it possi+le to get an accurate idea of the nature of non!standard variations. -his part presents advance results of the analysis of the 7nglish parts of a corpus of recorded en!route RI=/ %%% pilot and controller messages>. Attention is dra n to the different levels of variation and the types of variation o+served in a selection of message types ith a vie to esta+lishing a sound +asis for the definition of standards. It ill also +e pointed out that some message categories are not taken into account in the official phraseologies.
+& +&+
I$!-O69C!IO$
-outine versus non,routine
1.1.1 3umerous recent official reports. articles in aviation 4ournals. and linguistic studies have dra n attention to the influence of radiotelephony communications in 7nglish on the outcome of aviation incidents. *anguage errors have +een cited as primary causes or aggravating factors hen things start to go rong in the air or on the ground. 1.1.2 8hile studies of non!routine situations point users and trainers to the =all too important> danger areas in radiotelephony. they cannot provide the overvie of the conte$tual and psychological factors that determine language requirements. hich are needed for language planning at all levels. from the creation of official procedures to language training in local esta+lishments. 1.1." Consistent patterns of usage in routine communications can provide us ith valua+le information a+out the communicative needs of pilots and controllers. hile o+served variations in the formulation of similar messages. or in the organiDation of the dialogue. can allo us to make informed decisions a+out their accepta+ility in safety critical conte$ts.
+&2
7hy study non,standard routine radiotelephony co((unicationsJ
1.2.1 -he aim here is not. initially. to dra attention to variations as e$amples of non!standard phraseology. It is assumed that all forms of language =choice of ords. uses of synta$. intonation. stress> are translations of individual communicative needs. -his translation is occasionally carried out consciously +ut. for the most part. takes place at unconscious levels. particularly in the resolution of pro+lems in real time.
$&0

1
1.2.2 -he underlying assumption is that all needs are of equal value . Before deciding hether a given need and its linguistic e$pression should +e taken into account in the definition of standards. e ill need to see6 a> +> hether it is idely represented among the usersE and ith the +asic requirements of clarity and concision.
hether it is in potential conflict
1.2." ICAO documents provide the norms for orld ide communications in the most commonly occurring situations of air navigation. -hese do not constitute a code +ut a restricted su+!language derived from an already e$isting natural languageE this is +oth its strength and its eakness. As a su+!language. it has +enefitted from resources of the ider language from hich it is derived to meet the requirements of changing technology. Bodifications to the recommendations in the early 110%s took into account lessons learned from o+served misunderstandings =e.g. restrictions on the use of the ord FclearedG. and conversion of FaffirmativeG to FaffirmG to avoid confusions ith FnegativeG hen only the final sylla+le is heard>. It has proven to +e a fle$i+le and easily usea+le tool. 1.2.# It is. ho ever. and for the very same reasons. an unpredicta+le tool. It is difficult for users in some circumstances to dissociate it from the needs e$pressed +y the ider language. In addition. e ill o+serve that some commonly occurring messages in RI- are not catered to +y the phraseology. that the recommendations themselves provide contradictory norms. and that in these cases. users make use of their =varia+le> command of the source language to get their message across. >hat norms7 are the
1.2.) Before attempting to identify cases of Fnon!standardG usage. it is necessary to define the norms for standard usage. :o ever. even in the highly standardiDed orld of air traffic control. this is +y no means an easy task. 1.2., -he ICAO &tandards mentioned in 1.2." ould seem to +e an o+vious candidate for e$ternal norms. +ut these may or may not +e adopted in their entirety +y Contracting &tates = ho must nevertheless notify ICAO of any differences that they intend to adopt>. and this leads to small differences of phraseology from one country to another. 8ithin one country. local conditions. such as traffic patterns and A-C equipment. can lead to the creation of a specialiDed phraseology to cover cases not included in ICAO recommendations. 5inally. ithin one orkplace =ground station or airline>. idiosyncratic changes to phraseology may +ecome a local norm. 1.2./ Alternatively. one could +ase the analysis on internal norms ; that is to say. on norms that are inherent to the corpus itself. In this case. it is the frequent patterns of language use that esta+lish the norm for a given message type. *ess frequent patterns may +e interpreted as deviations from this norm. +ut they may. in some cases. constitute evidence of the need to create a ne message type. 1.2.0 It is these internal norms that have +een adopted in our study as a starting point for an analysis of the corpus. O+served patterns of language use ill su+sequently +e compared ith the official
1. &uch needs =apart from the fundamental requirement of communicating information and instructions clearly and concisely hile avoiding am+iguity> ill +e as diverse as emphasiDing a particular part of the message. linking up ith previous messages. +eing polite. e$pressing urgency. authority. displeasure. etc.. maintaining conversational rhythm. displaying group mem+ership. &ome of these needs may +e in conflict ith each other ; the use of a minority 4argon to display group mem+ership may disregard the requirement for clarity.
Appen(i# $
$&4
procedures esta+lished +y the 5rench 9irection 2KnKrale de lCAviation Civile in the document ProcJ(ures (e la Ra(iotJlJphonie K l=Bsage (e la Circulation AJrienne =92ACI&IA 110)>.
2&
.-ESE$!A!IO$ OF !>E S!96< 2&+ ObEectives and (ethods
2.1.1 -he study initially involved the collection of an e$tensive corpus of recorded conversations +et een a variety of pilots and controllers in 7uropean airspace during the en!route phase of flight. -hese conversations ere recorded +oth on the ground =0 sectors> and in the air =1, complete flights>. -hey took place in 7nglish and in 5rench and involved 7nglish. 5rench. 'ortuguese and &panish controllers. 2.1.2 -hese conversations ere su+sequently transcri+ed and divided into num+ered turns =uninterrupted utterances +y one speaker> and num+ered speech acts =individual messages ithin each turn>. -he resulting te$t as then used to create a data+ase of speech acts. 2.1." headings6 -he primary aims of the study are to analyse characteristics of en!route RI- under t o a> utterance characteristics6 ; ; +> hat messages are formulated@ =semantic and pragmatic features> hat are the different linguistic formulations of the same message@ =le$ical. syntactical and prosodic variation>
interaction characteristics6 ; ; ; ; ho ho ho are messages distri+uted throughout the dialogue@ are messages sequenced and linked ithin turns@ =turn structure> are messages sequenced and linked +et een turns@ =e$change structure>
hen do the different speakers tend to initiate e$changes@
2.1.# In addition. e have collected information a+out the e$tra!linguistic conte$t of each speech act to ena+le us to investigate the situational varia+les that may have a direct effect on linguistic features. Among these varia+les. e have paid particular attention to6 ; ; ; ; traffic density professional qualification of speaker nativeInon!native speaker status phase of flightItype of sector
$&5 2&2 !he database
2.2.1 -he data+ase has +een constructed using the ORAC*7 relational data+ase management system. -he query language is &O* '*(&. 2.2.2 -he principal ta+le of the data+ase contains the te$t of speech acts of the corpus =one speech act for each ro of the ta+le> and. in ad4acent columns. the results of a manual analysis of the speech acts consisting of the follo ing6 a> speech act meaning6 ; ; ; ; ; +> illocutionary force =giving instructions. requesting information. greeting. etc.> topic =flight level. route. eather. etc.>
su+!topic =clim+. descend. maintain> additional components =modalisation. qualification> communication pro+lems
speech act formulation6 ; ; ; ; ; ; ; language used syntactic structure ellipsis prosodic marking cohesive devices hesitation phenomena conformity to phraseology
c>
dialogue structure6 ; ; ; ; sequential structure of the turns and speech acts relationships +et een acts ithin a turn =su+ordination>
e$change structure =initiation. reaction> relationships +et een e$changes
=-he analysis of the dialogue structure is +ased on recent ork done in the area of discourse analysis. and in particular on the model developed +y linguists orking ith 'rofessor 7ddy Roulet in 2eneva.>
Appen(i# $ 2.2." concerning6 ; ; ; ; 2.2.# analysis6 ; ; Other ta+les in the data+ase contain situational information speakers =nationality. e$perience. etc.> flights =type of aircraft. route. eather conditions. etc.>
$&6
control sectors =traffic density. geographical location. etc.> recordings =date. time. etc.> Oueries of the data+ase allo t o principal types of
e$traction of the te$t of speech acts according to specified criteria or com+inations of 2 criteria frequency counts of speech acts in the data+ase
2.2.) 8hile the minimum unit of analysis is the speech act. it is nonetheless possi+le to carry out an analysis of the individual items of voca+ulary = ord counts and ord searches> using the same query language and other soft are tools. 2&1 Statistical presentation o/ the corpus -he corpus is constituted as follo s6 *ength <oca+ulary -otal num+er of speech acts 3um+er of different speech acts 3um+er of different utterances -otal num+er of e$changes ; initiated +y pilot ; initiated +y controller 1# ""% ords 1 "%" distinct ords , 0)% 2)% " #,1 2 1)) 020 1 "2/
=9ialogue in 7nglish represents appro$imately /% per cent of these totals.> "ote* . 8igures are compile( from utterances that inclu(e num er2letter sequences- place names an( aircraft operator names* These varia les )ill e e#clu(e( from utterances in later counts in or(er to give a more accurate vie) of variations*
2. 5or e$ample. it is possi+le to display all clim+ instructions given +y the controllers represented in the data+ase and to group them according to such varia+les as native!speaker status. density of traffic. and syntactic structure.
$&%7 1& 1&+
Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements SO;E -ES9#!S OF !>E A$A#<SIS A breaGdo%n o/ the co((unicative tasGs
Analysis of the speech acts reveals that only one!third. in the form of instructions and information. are directly concerned ith the management of aircraft movements. hile t o!thirds are devoted to the management of the communication itself. -hirty!three per cent of the total num+er of acts are turn! management acts ; that is. they serve to identify ho is speaking to hom. A further 2, per cent manage the different means of communication +et een pilot and controller =radio frequencies. transponder codes. radar contact> and ) per cent are FrepairsG. serving to clarify misunderstandings. &uch a high proportion of Fconversation a+out the conversationG may seem surprising. +ut this reflects the tenuous nature of the links +et een aircraft and ground stations. and the very real risks of confusion.
1&2
#evel instructions )controller*
".2.1 Instructions to clim+. descend or maintain level are among the most frequent speech acts of the controller =2/0 occurrences in our corpus ; 1".) per cent of all controller messages>. ".2.2 -he +asic syntactic pattern for formulating these instructions is6 <7RB ':RA&7 P 5*I2:- *7<7* 'ARAB7-7R ".2.2.1 -here is. ho ever. a great deal of variation in the formulation of each of these t o elements. 8hile in the ma4ority of occurrences the ver+ phrase uses the imperative form of the ver+s Fclim+G. FdescendG. FmaintainG or FcontinueG. a significant num+er =",> use complete or a++reviated passive forms of the ver+s FclearedG and FreclearedG. =-he use of the terms FcontinueG and FreclearedG is an e$ample of a " idespread tendency for speakers to ackno ledge links ith preceding discourse.> In four cases. the ver+ is omitted entirely or replaced +y a prepositional phrase =F9o n to . . .G>. hereas in three cases +oth Fclim+G and FmaintainG are used in the same message. ".2.2.2 -he flight level parameter is also su+4ect to e$tensive variation. In )# occurrences. most of hich are instructions to maintain level. the parameter consists simply of the flight level num+er. hile in a further 1% occurrences there is no e$plicit mention of the parameter at all =FBaintainG>. In these cases. the instruction is in response to a message from the pilot in hich the present flight level has +een stated. Once again. and this time through ellipsis. the controller esta+lishes a link ith the preceding discourse ; and saves time. ".2.2." Another form of variation is the addition of a preposition +et een the ver+ phrase and the parameter ; including FtoG. notorious for its possi+le confusion ith the num+er Ft oG =FClim+ to " ) %G is attested in the corpus>. Other additions are the adver+ial elements FimmediatelyG. FinitiallyG and F=for the> time +eingG. 8hile the first has official status as a marker of urgency. the t o others seem to +e frequent enough =20 occurrences> to constitute an element of unofficial phraseology here+y speakers can inform
" . -he fact that phraseology is presented as a list of discrete messages means that this communicative need is not catered for. Other signs of its importance for speakers are6 other ver+s prefi$ed +y Fre!GE the addition of Fno G to some instructionsE the use of linking ords =FandG. FsoG. etc.. Fyou can if you ishG>E ords ith deictic reference =Fthis radar headingG. FthatCll +e finalG> . 8hile some of these devices may +e seen as ays of economiDing on language. and there+y achieving conclusion. another communicative need may +e at ork here. namely. +y e$ercising mastery of the discourse. speakers may +e ensuring the listenerCs confidence in their mastery of the situation.
Appen(i# $
$&%%
the addressee of their plans for the future. In this case. controllers reassure pilots as to their intention to provide further instructions and there+y forestall further questioning from pilots. ".2.2.# -he positioning of these adver+ials in the message is varia+le. FInitiallyG occurs +oth in medial =+et een the ver+ phrase and the flight level parameter> and final positions ; nine and eight occurrences. respectively. -hree out of the eight occurrences of F=for the> time +eingG are in the initial position. All three occurrences of FimmediatelyG are in the medial position. -he tendency to avoid the initial position for adver+ials =the position recommended +y phraseology for FimmediatelyG and similar ords> may +e due to cognitive preferences in the ordering of elements andIor to considerations of sentence rhythm. ".2.2.) Only "1 per cent of all FlevelG instructions in 7nglish are standard ith respect to phraseology. In these cases. native speakers sho a higher level of standardiDation =#, per cent of utterances are standard> than non!native speakers. It should +e pointed out that official procedures are contradictory on the use of the preposition FtoG in front of flight level parameters. since +oth FC*IBB =or 97&C739> =level>G and FCO3-I3(7 C*IBB =or 97&C73-> -O =level>G are proposed. 1&1 .resent level in/or(ation )pilot*
".".1 Information given +y the pilot to the controller concerning flight level may concern the present or future level. -he corpus contains 2## speech acts of this type in 7nglish =1# per cent of all pilot messages>. of hich 2%% concern a present level. ".".2 -he most frequent syntactic pattern is made up of a ver+less statement of the flight level parameter. :o ever. this pattern accounts for only a slim ma4ority =), per cent> of the occurrences. and consistent patterns of variation can +e o+served. "."." As in controller instructions. there may +e omission of the marker Fflight levelG =0" occurrences> or omission of the ord FflightG =)# occurrences>. -his latter variant gives rise to potentially am+iguous utterances like Flevel 2 1 %G. here the ord FlevelG can +e considered as an ad4ective descri+ing the aircraftCs current flight attitude or as a noun identifying the aircraftCs current level regardless of its attitude. ".".# -he addition of a prepositional or ver+ phrase in front of the flight level parameter is a very common feature of these messages =1%/ occurrences> and can +e interpreted as a need for the pilot to add to his information a+out the aircraftCs current vertical position. an indication of the aircraftCs current vertical movement. ".".) <er+ phrases are usually in the ver+PI32 form. and prepositional phrases can +e grouped according to notions ith reference to a fi$ed point6 ; ; ; ; ; FatGE FmaintainingG ="# occurrences>6 no change of level. no change of attitude FlevellingG =" occurrences>6 no change of level. change of attitude FreachingGE FapproachingGE Fcoming toG =11 occurrences> FcrossingGE FpassingG =1/ occurrences>6 change of level. no change of attitude FleavingGE :out ofG =2) occurrences>6 change of level. change of attitude
".".).1 -his ould seem to +e a idely felt communicative need for pilots. for hich no message type is officially provided. A certain consensus e$ists on terminology. +ut each different notion is e$pressed +y more
$&%'
than one variant. Indeed. one controller informed us that he interprets differently the utterances FApproaching flight level 2 ) %G and FReaching flight level 2 ) %G. 8hile the latter is a simple statement of current movement and level. the former is a gentle reminder +y the pilot that a further clim+ or descent clearance is e$pected. ".".).2 &i$ty!eight per cent of the utterances use non!standard phraseology. message type. 1&4 Indirect speech acts hich specifies only one
".#.1 -he e$ample of the different interpretations of FapproachingG and FreachingG points to the infrequent. +ut consistently present. phenomenon of speech acts that are Fnot hat they seemG. or FindirectG speech acts. -hese have the linguistic form of one type of speech act =e.g. Fgiving informationG> +ut are interpreted +y listeners as a different type of speech act =e.g. Frequesting actionG>. 7veryday conversation provides a multitude of indirect speech acts. hich are often associated ith attempts at Fface!savingG. i.e. preserving oneCs reputation or dignity. &peakers may Fface!saveG for themselves and for the listeners +y formulating a request in such a ay that the listenersC freedom of action is not impinged upon. hile # diminishing the em+arrassment of a possi+le refusal. -he mechanisms that result in listeners making correct inferences a+out the true intention +ehind such speech acts are comple$ and su+4ect to error ; +ut they are highly dependent on all participantsC kno ledge of the relevant conte$t. ".#.2 Indirect speech acts are common enough in our corpus to merit close e$amination. -here are #0 occurrences. of hich #" are pilot messages. 3ot surprisingly. they are most frequent here the speakers are using their native language. and they mostly concern requests for levels and routes that are not in the flight plan. -he variety and length of some of the utterances. and their punctuation +y hesitation noises. +etray the difficult nature of the pro+lemM ; ; ; ; ; FCan you give us some idea as to euh hen e can euh e$pect higher level@G
F8e could go to the euh -oulouse <OR. tango oscar uniform.G FIf 5l is availa+le. e ould +e o+liged.G
F$ is standing +y for 5l should it +ecome availa+le.G FIs there any chance of 5l@G
".#." Common features of these utterances are that they are disguised as messages giving or requesting information. and that they make use of a modal element e$pressing the notion of feasi+ility or ) capa+ility. One is tempted to conclude that the official procedure for requesting a clearance =R7O(7&C*IBB . . .>. hich is definitely a direct speech act. does not al ays correspond to imperatives felt +y pilots to save faceM
# . FBrr. itCs cold in hereG is more likely to +e interpreted as a request for the listener to close a indo . or at least to give permission to the speaker to do so. than as a simple piece of information or the starting point of a chat a+out the eather. ) . -his notion seems to +e an important one for pilots and controllers to e$press in their messages. since it is a component of #" speech acts in the corpus. =Other common modal notions are those of ishes and future likelihood.> Official phraseology is not clear on this point as it provides more than one syntactic pattern for RI- users to model other messages on6 11.2.".# =c> CA3 NO( C*IBB . . . @ 11.".# =+> A9<I&7 I5 AB*7 -O CRO&& . . . @
Appen(i# $
$&%+
".#.# -aken out of conte$t. such messages are difficult to interpret. :o ever. a small minority =# occurrences here 5rench is +eing spoken as a native language> remain am+iguous even in conte$t. leaving the agreed status of the speech act uncertain. -hey are all requests from the controller to the pilot a+out the a+ility of the pilot to accelerate or turn. C. <ous pouveD accKlKrer la descente vers )%@ va. LC9 Coul( you accelerate the (escent to /7M go*N '. Affirmatif madame. On y P9 Affirmative- ma(am* Let=s
".#.) -he messages use a declarative synta$ and are marked as questions +y rising intonation only. In the e$ample a+ove. the pilot replies t ice6 once to the request for information and once to the implicit instruction. 1&2 Co((ents
8e have seen that language variation. +oth internally and in relation to e$ternal norms. is a constant feature of routine RI-. &ome variations may +e 4udged to +e insignificant. hile others have definite implications for the mutual understanding of intentions. -raining should sensitiDe users to these areas. 1&3 Conclusion
".,.1 -he follo ing dialogue =attested in the corpus> takes place +et een t o native speakers of 7nglish in the lo er airspace in the vicinity of a ma4or airport. - o aircraft are descending to ards the airfield6 1 2 " # ' C ' C euh 5o$ Charlie hoCs ahead euh us or 2olf Nankee@ ell youCre neck and neck euh6 e can euh keep a high speed in the descent if you ant us to euh yeah I donCt kno ho the -BA are going to plan this you can if you ish youCre the +oss ell theyCll +e the +oss hen you get do n there euh I ICm 4ust sort of keeping you apart for the moment (nderstood
) , /
' C '
".,.1.1 8hile this conversation ill no dou+t meet ith the disapproval of phraseological purists. it serves to underline the fact that. through radiotelephony. and despite the careful precautions of air navigation +odies at all levels. the respective roles of pilot and controller are lia+le to undergo frequent renegotiation. ".,.1.2 It is also a striking e$ample of the kind of strain put on non!native speakers of 7nglish as they try to visualiDe surrounding traffic hile listening in on the radio.
$&%,
".,.2 Bany variations can +e seen in the variety of communicative needs. apart from the stated aims of concision and clarity. It is these needs that must +e evaluated +efore official language standards are decided on and. if necessary. ne message categories are created. In any case. the needs can provide valua+le input for the language training of pilots and controllers.
E$6

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Doc 9835 AN/453

Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficienc !e"uirement#

Approved by the Secretary General and published under his authority

First Edition 2004

International Civil Aviation Organi ation

RECORD OF AMENDMENTS AND CORRIGENDA

+,+ 1!1 1!" 1!#

#.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................ #.2 *anguage learning..................................................................................................................... (iii)

Chapter 2& ).1 ).2 )." ).#

Aviation #anguage !esting&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&

Appendi' C& 1. 2. Appendi' 6& 1. 2. ".

C,+ C!1 C!1 6,+ 9!1 9!1 9!0

Appendi' E& 'art I. 'art II.

E,+ 7!1 7!)

#. All &tates and organiDations have a role to play in improving communications.

Co(pliance %ith ICAO #anguage .ro/iciency -e0uire(ents

Aviation #anguage !esting

Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements

"AC=G-O9$6 !O S!-E$G!>E$E6 ICAO #A$G9AGE .-OFICIE$C< -E?9I-E;E$!S

Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements

Anne$ ,. 'art I Anne$ 1%. <olume II

9SE OF .#AI$ #A$G9AGE

#A$G9AGE !O "E 9SE6

Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements

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Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements

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Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements

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Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements

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*anguage teaching is a professional activity that requires specialiDed training.

Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements

Language Training an( Ra(iotelephony Communications

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Aviation 7nglish programme "P years

Aviation communications 7&* material development 7&* administrative e$perience

'ilot or controller e$perience

Radiotelephony familiarity =through aviation 7nglish " apprenticeship or e$perience>

2* #anguage test !evelopment

'h.9. in Applied *inguistics ith specialiDation in language testing

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:ighly e$perienced commercial or private pilots ith international e$perience

*icensed pilot ith international a areness

Language Training an( Ra(iotelephony Communications

Language Training an( Ra(iotelephony Communications

1he role .nglish

Manual on the Implementation of ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements

Language Training an( Ra(iotelephony Communications

BasterCs in Applied inguistics or -7&O P