Global Xpress 3.0 - Pilots Fluency - ICAO

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Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

GLOBAL XPRESS 3.0
I C AO M O D U L E
Bem-vindos a bordo do curso Global Xpress 3.0 módulo ICAO! Este

material será o seu Q.R.H (Quick Reference Handbook) para sua
aprovação na prova de proficiência do SDEA - “Santos Dumont
English Assessment”.
A PILOTS FLUENCY é uma empresa com foco em Inglês Aeronáutico, pioneira no
Brasil, em cursos preparatórios online (via voip) e presenciais. Já atuamos há mais
de 8 anos no mercado, tendo mais de 2 000 pilotos treinados, mais de 10 000
horas de preparação e um percentual de mais de 87% de aprovação no Santos
Dumont English Assessment.
Somos uma Equipe de Profissionais da Aviação (SMEs) e Profissionais de Língua
Estrangeira (ELEs), liderados pelo fundador Petter Zugaib. Nossos profissionais são
qualificados em Exames como TOEFL, IELTS e fazem cursos de aperfeiçoamento
linguístico ao menos uma vez por ano.
No Global Xpess 3.0 módulo ICAO fizemos uma coletânea e adaptação de
materiais e recursos de várias fontes como The Aviation Herald, ANAC,
SkyBrary.aero - o site número 1 de material aeronáutico de onde grande parte
do material deste livro foi retirado, entre outras.
O SKYbrary é um website de conhecimento aeronáutico sobre segurança
relacionado às operações de voo, gerenciamento de tráfego aéreo e segurança
da aviação em geral. É também um portal, um ponto de entrada comum, que
permite aos usuários acessar os dados de segurança disponibilizados nos sites de
várias organizações de aviação - reguladores, provedores de serviços, indústria.
SKYbrary foi iniciado pela EUROCONTROL em parceria com diversas outras
organizações mundiais, como a ICAO e outras.
Adicionalmente, foram criados materiais voltados especificamente ao teste em
questão, baseados na nossa experiência com os alunos ao decorrer dos anos e de
acordo com os respectivos feedbacks.

PETTER ZUGAIB
Empresário, especialista em Inglês Aeronáutico e
Fundador da PILOTS FLUENCY, Petter é o pioneiro em
ensino de Inglês para Aviação a distância no Brasil.
Criador do Método Global Xpress 3.0, um curso de Inglês
voltado para a aviação que leva o piloto do nível
elementar à aprovação no ICAO Test em menos de 12
meses. Além disso, Petter é casado, pai de duas filhas e
mora em Belo Horizonte.
MARCELO OLIVEIRA MEINICKE

Marcelo estudou inglês por 10 anos em escola privada, a
qual lhe deu a base e estrutura da língua inglesa. Neste
meio tempo, realizou intercâmbio em Bristol na Inglaterra,
onde ampliou seu conhecimento geral e cultural da língua
inglesa. Lá, realizou o exame de Cambridge e obteve o
FCE (First Certificate in English).
Marcelo é piloto comercial formado em Ciências
Aeronáuticas pela Universidade FUMEC, e logo após ter
se formado realizou o curso preparatório para a prova
do SDEA na Pilots Fluency onde, logo mais, iniciou seu
trabalho como “Language Instructor”. Desde então, Marcelo já auxiliou diversos
alunos a obterem a aprovação no SDEA e agora está compartilhando suas
experiencias através deste material.

Starred contents ( ) are important subjects of the SDEA test. Nevertheless, all other contents should be read to
improve vocabulary and fluency.
1. ICAO TEST DEFRAGMENTED – A PROVA DESFRAGMENTADA ...................... 7

2. ESCALA DE NÍVEIS DE PROFICIÊNCIA LINGUÍSTICA DA ICAO ..................... 18
3. PRONUNCIATION....................................................................................................... 25
3.1 ICAO Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet ....................................................................... 25
3.2 The Most Mispronounced Words ...................................................................................... 27
4. FLUENCY ..................................................................................................................... 30
4.1 Discourse Markers ................................................................................................................. 30
5. STRUCTURE ............................................................................................................... 37
5.1 Structure Checklist................................................................................................................. 37
5.2 Index Of Phrasal Verbs ........................................................................................................ 41
6. VOCABULARY ............................................................................................................ 45
6.1 Aviation Vocabulary............................................................................................................... 45
6.2 Idiomatic Expressions........................................................................................................... 51
7. THE WORLD OF AVIATION IN TOPICS .................................................................. 55
7.1 A Typical Day as a Short Haul Commercial Airline Pilot ...................................... 55
7.2 Aircraft Aging ........................................................................................................................... 61
7.3 Aircraft Ground De / Anti-Icing ...................................................................................... 65
7.4 Aircraft Ground Running ...................................................................................................... 69
7.5 Ballooning Activity ............................................................................................................. 73
7.6 Belly Landing ...................................................................................................................... 77
7.7 Bird Strike ............................................................................................................................ 81
7.8 Cockpit Automation and Technology .......................................................................... 84
7.9 Contained and Uncontained Engine Failure ................................................................. 87
7.10 Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) ............................................................................. 90
7.11 Dangerous Goods ............................................................................................................... 94
7.12 Drones ................................................................................................................................ 99
7.13 F.O.D (Foreign Object Debris and Damage) ............................................................ 104
7.14 Fatigue .................................................................................................................................. 108
7.15 Ferry Flying .......................................................................................................................... 112
7.16 Fire in The Air ................................................................................................................. 119
7.17 Flight Deck Security .......................................................................................................... 123
7.18 Flight Simulators ........................................................................................................... 126
7.19 Fuel Management.............................................................................................................. 132
7.20 Golden Age of Aviation .................................................................................................... 135
7.21 Ground Handling ................................................................................................................ 140

7.22 Hot Spot ................................................................................................................................ 144
7.23 Hydraulic Loss ............................................................................................................... 147
7.24 In-Flight Icing....................................................................................................................... 150
7.25 Laser Interference in Aviation........................................................................................ 153
7.26 Level Bust............................................................................................................................. 157
7.27 Loss of Cabin Pressurization .................................................................................... 160
7.28 Loss of Communication .............................................................................................. 164
7.29 Low Cost Carriers .............................................................................................................. 167
7.30 Medical Emergencies ....................................................................................................... 172
7.31 Microbursts .......................................................................................................................... 176
7.32 Non-Avian Wildlife Hazard.............................................................................................. 179
7.33 Pilot Fitness to Fly ......................................................................................................... 183
7.34 Pilot Incapacitation ....................................................................................................... 188
7.35 Pilots Shortage ................................................................................................................... 192
7.36 Runway Excursion ........................................................................................................ 196
7.37 Runway Incursion ......................................................................................................... 199
7.38 Sandstorm ....................................................................................................................... 202
7.39 Situational Awareness ..................................................................................................... 205
7.40 Tail Strike ......................................................................................................................... 208
7.41 Turbulence ...................................................................................................................... 213
7.42 Unlawful Interference ....................................................................................................... 218
7.43 Unruly Passengers ............................................................................................................ 223
7.44 Volcanic Ashes .............................................................................................................. 227
7.45 Wind Tunnels ...................................................................................................................... 231
8. GENERAL EXERCISES ........................................................................................236
8.1 100+ ICAO TEST QUESTIONS ...................................................................................... 236
Simple Present Questions ..................................................................................................... 236
Simple Past Questions............................................................................................................ 237
Present Perfect Questions..................................................................................................... 238
Present Continuous Questions ............................................................................................ 239
Future – Will Questions .......................................................................................................... 240
Future – Going to Questions ................................................................................................. 241
Opinion Questions .................................................................................................................... 242
Statements .................................................................................................................................. 244
8.2 PICTURE DESCRIPTION EXERCISES ...................................................................... 245
8.3 PICTURE COMPARISON EXERCISES ...................................................................... 259
8.4 LISTENING ............................................................................................................................ 264
Aviation Herald News Report................................................................................................ 264
8.5 VOCABULARY ..................................................................................................................... 279
Vocabulary Check .................................................................................................................... 279
Vocabulary Practice Exercises............................................................................................. 289
8.6 STRUCTURE EXERCISES .............................................................................................. 300
8.7 STANDARD PHRASEOLOGY EXERCISES .............................................................. 304
9. MOCK TEST PRACTICE BY PILOTS FLUENCY .................................................327

10. AUXILIARY SOURCES INDICATION ...................................................................339
11. SOURCES ................................................................................................................340

1. ICAO TEST DEFRAGMENTED – A Prova Desfragmentada
Aqui será abordado e discutido cada parte do Santos Dumont English Assessment
(SDEA), nova versão lançada a partir de 2017. Atualmente o teste consiste em 4
partes:
1. AVIATION TOPICS;
2. INTERACTING AS A PILOT;
3. UNEXPECTED SITUATIONS;
4. PICTURE DESCRIPTION.
Cada parte dessa prova foi criada estrategicamente para que os examinadores
possam avaliar a Interação – “Interactions”, Pronúncia – “Pronunciaton”, Estrutura
– “Structure”, Compreensão – “Comprehension”, Vocabulário – “Vocabulary” e a
Fluência – “Fluency” do piloto candidato.
Ansiedade e nervosismo aqui podem e, provavelmente, serão inimigos do candidato,

logo elas deverão ser controladas. Todos os “raters” (examinadores) sabem o quão
importante o ICAO é na profissão do piloto. Atualmente não é possível entrar em
empresas aéreas, empresas de táxi aéreo e até aviação executiva sem termos o ICAO
em nosso currículo, portanto, os examinadores possuem um bom senso na hora de
avaliar cada um, pois dificilmente é visto alguém entrar na sala para iniciar o teste sem
estar nervoso e/ou ansioso. Durante a prova, é preciso estar confiante e pensar
positivamente sempre, independentemente da situação que você tenha dificuldade,
pois se você não acreditar em você mesmo, quem irá, não é mesmo?
1st Part: AVIATION TOPICS
Na primeira parte do teste, Aviation Topics, o examinador tem o primeiro contato com
o candidato e ele tenta deixar você menos ansioso. Serão feitas algumas perguntas
ao piloto, podendo ser perguntas de cunho pessoal ou não, como por exemplo a
pergunta clássica: “why did you decide to become a pilot?” (Por que você decidiu se
tornar piloto?).
Esse é o momento em que o piloto deverá mostrar suas primeiras impressões ao

examinador. Como assim, devo mostrar minhas primeiras impressões ao
examinador?! Calma, nós te explicamos.

Nessa parte você consegue “fugir” um pouco do padrão e utilizar o seu vasto
conhecimento da língua inglesa. Você deve explorar a pergunta feita pelo examinador
e tentar utilizar um vocabulário técnico e geral robusto e, se possível, idiomático. É
interessante falar o quanto você conseguir, mas não preciso dizer que cada aluno
deve respeitar os seus limites, quero dizer, cada um deve explanar e explorar sua
resposta conforme seu conhecimento. Não queira usar estruturas difíceis e/ou
expressões idiomáticas que ouviu falar, porém que não saiba utilizá-las ou que
queira adequar à sua fala, pois a sua resposta irá soar estranho e talvez sem
sentido, tão logo o examinador irá anotar tudo o que você estiver discursando.
Acredite, eles anotam tudo (tanto os pontos negativos, como os positivos
também).
Por que fugir um pouco do padrão? Digo, mesmo com um novo modelo de prova e
sendo permitido ao examinador uma certa “flexibilidade” para indagações, o restante
da prova segue um modelo de comunicação padrão da fraseologia, onde não é
possível e interessante ao candidato utilizar um vocabulário muito idiomático, pois não
se deve sair muito do “Standard Phraseology”, a chamada fraseologia padrão em
inglês.
Não tente decorar as perguntas que você conheça, pois a decoreba aqui não funciona!
Como dito anteriormente, o examinador agora tem uma flexibilidade, logo se ele notar
que sua resposta foi decorada ele poderá te fazer uma “follow-up question” que seria
uma pergunta adicional sobre o tema. Tenha em mente que uma “follow-up question”
nem sempre é muito interessante para sua avaliação. Não obstante, quando
decoramos algo e em seguida é feita uma pergunta adicional tendemos a errar
estruturas mais simples, pois ficamos mais nervosos e ansiosos, e acabamos
entrando na chamada situação inesperada.
O ideal é você conhecer um pouco sobre vários temas existentes e ter a capacidade
de levar a pergunta para o seu lado. Como assim? Dentro de uma pergunta você deve
ter a habilidade de discursar sobre o tema principal e falar um pouco sobre um outro
tema que você saiba, podendo até citar exemplos que você conheça. Vou te dar um
exemplo:
Pergunta Exemplo: “What are the possible outcomes of a bird strike?” (quais os
possíveis resultados de uma colisão com pássaros?).

There are too many consequences that a bird strike scenario may create to the pilot
and considering that a bird could easily be ingested into the engine therefore leading
to an engine flameout, this is a serious and dangerous situation that pilots have to deal
with. First of all, a bird could collide with the windshield of an aircraft and possibly hit
one or both the pilots as it will break through the existing glass on the aircraft’s
windshield, creating a pilot incapacitation scenario. Now, considering the situation
where the bird got sucked by the engines, there was a case that this happened, and
the pilot had no options but to land on the Hudson River. This case got really famous
as the pilot succeeded in ditching the aircraft without any casualties.
Bem, este é um exemplo de uma resposta bem estruturada e com um vocabulário

rico, tanto no inglês técnico como no geral. Mas é evidente que em uma resposta
escrita temos mais tempo para pensar e corrigir nossos erros, logo temos que ter a
capacidade de criar uma resposta falada rápida e coesa, onde consigamos manejar a
situação.
Finalmente, após respondida as perguntas iniciais, seguimos para a segunda parte da

prova, “Interacting as a Pilot”.
2nd Part: INTERACTING AS A PILOT
Aqui entramos no mundo da fraseologia padrão o qual o candidato se posiciona como

o piloto de uma aeronave cuja a call sign é padrão, ANAC 123. Nesta parte da prova
existem 5 situações onde o candidato deverá interagir com os áudios que irá escutar.
Comumente as situações seguem um padrão: primeiramente é passado a situação e
um áudio o qual você deverá cotejar.
Após cotejar as informações do áudio, o examinador te dará uma situação que você
deverá reportar para o controlador e, em seguida, escutar a comunicação/áudio do
controlador. Depois do áudio, o piloto precisa cotejar as informações novamente.
Algumas informações dos áudios podem possuir transições, saídas e/ou chegadas
com alguns nomes estranhos, mas você não é obrigado a cotejá-los com o nome
correto, apenas reporte as informações importantes e o nome da saída/ transição/
chegada/ ponto de notificação que conseguiu escutar e entender.
Tendo feito isso, o examinador te faz a pergunta: “what did the controller say?” (o que
o controlador disse?).

Para responder a essa pergunta você deverá usar o Reported Speech, que nada
mais é do que repetir as informações faladas por alguém para outro alguém de uma
maneira simples. Não devemos esquecer de usar o “backshift” que é a parte que
colocamos os tempos verbais utilizados no seu tempo adequado passado. (Exemplo:
Present Simple se torna Past Simple; Present Continuous se torna Past Continuos,
etc).
Exemplo:
• ATCO: ANAC 123, São Paulo Center. Roger, climb to FL090, turn right heading
060 and contact São Paulo Center on frequency 124.90.
What did the controller say?
• The controller instructed me to climb to climb to FL090 and to turn right heading
060. He also instructed me to contact São Paulo Center on frequency 124.90.
Após essa pergunta, a primeira situação acaba e se inicia uma segunda, normalmente
seguindo o padrão de estruturação que foi dito anteriormente para as situações
seguidas 2 e 3. Nas situações 4 e 5 há algumas mudanças: ao invés do examinador
te dar um problema para interagir com o controlador, você terá uma imagem para
identificar o principal problema para então reporta-la propriamente.
Alguns examinadores podem também realizar algumas perguntas extras sobre as

situações, isto inclui o que foi falado anteriormente, a flexibilidade dos examinadores.
Não devemos esquecer de abordar o note taking strategies, que são as estratégias
de anotações que cada aluno deve criar para conseguir anotar as situações e
informações que lhe são dadas. Exemplo: climb - ; descent - ; turn right/left - ,
etc.
Após as 5 situações, entramos na parte 3 da prova, Unexpected Situations.
3rd Part: UNEXPECTED SITUATIONS
Entramos agora na parte da prova em que muitos alunos reportam ter dificuldades
devido à extensão dos áudios e, às vezes, pelos sotaques existentes. Aqui o candidato
piloto terá 3 situações inesperadas de emergência e em cada uma delas há um diálogo
entre um piloto e um controlador. O call sign aqui não é ANAC 123 mais, sendo um
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diferente do que estamos acostumados, podendo variar de LATAM XXX a China
Eastern XXX, por exemplo.
Nessa parte da prova o aluno piloto não deve se portar como piloto, como foi feito
anteriormente, ele deverá reportar o que ele entendeu em cada situação com suas
próprias palavras usando o Reported Speech. Muitos perguntam se é necessário
anotar o call sign do piloto que está comunicando e a resposta é: não. Não é preciso
copia-lo, porém para os alunos que almejam um ICAO Level 5 é interessante, pois
demonstra que você tem uma compreensão diferente dos candidatos ao Level 4.
Entretanto, caso não consiga entender o call sign não se atenha a ele, pois você irá
perder tempo tentando escutá-lo, logo perderá informações seguintes do áudio que
são de extrema importância.
Após ter sido reportado o que o candidato entendeu da comunicação, será feita uma
pergunta pelo examinador sobre o tema da situação. Aqui deverá ser dada uma
resposta completa como uma qualquer, com boa estrutura, vocabulário e pronúncia.
Algumas perguntas podem ser bem técnicas e que às vezes possamos não ter
conhecimento sobre, então, o que fazer?
Bem, não deixar de falar é o segredo. Em questões como essa entraremos nos Fillers
que são os famosos enchedores de linguiça, como: Hmm.... You know... I mean...
Well... Etc. Não necessariamente os Fillers serão sempre pontos negativos, eles
poderão ser usados, contanto que não interfiram no entendimento da resposta do
candidato pelos examinadores.
Exemplo:
• What are the procedures in case of a hydraulic loss?

• Actually, I am not really sure of the standard procedures in case of a hydraulic
loss as I am not very familiar with this type of operations on an aircraft, however
I would say that the pilot got to use the S.O.P’s, QRH which is short for quick
reference handbook and, finally, the AFM, Aircraft Flight Manual. Probably the
pilot also has some memorized items in case of such a situation.
Como pode ser percebido, não fui a fundo nos procedimentos padrões por não os
conhecer, porém não deixei de falar nem usar uma estrutura e vocabulário
interessante e não entrei nos Fillers.
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Seguindo, após dizer o que entendeu e responder à pergunta da situação 1, será feita
as situações 2 e 3 no mesmo modelo. Porém, ao final das 3 situações de emergência
o candidato terá que comparar todas as situações que escutou em termos de
severidade, possíveis soluções e maneiras de prevenção. Não há mistérios, basta
usar os comparativos e superlativos para comparar as situações. Devo lembrar que
todas as situações devem ser citadas.
Uma maneira que permite ao aluno uma fácil visualização das situações é criar
estratégias de anotações, o note taking strategies. Isso pode variar de aluno pra
aluno, porém costumo dizer que é interessante em cada situação que o aluno escutou
escrever em negrito ou em cima da situação x, o problema principal da ocorrência
para que depois, na parte de comparação, pode ser facilmente visualizado esse
problema sem perder tempo para dar a resposta, o que auxilia e nos dá pontos na
parte de interação, com respostas rápidas.
Por exemplo, ao escutar cada situação que está sendo dada, anote quem começa o
diálogo (piloto ou controlador), se possível, o “call sign”, informações principais de
formas abreviadas e o problema principal em negrito ou sublinhado, pois quando o
examinador pedir para comparar as situações escutadas, será mais fácil para você
identificar o principal problema de cada uma, logo você perderá menos tempo,
podendo ganhar pontos por uma interação e resposta mais rápida.
Situação Exemplo:
MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY. MIAMI CENTER, GLOBAL 123, WE ARE

EXPERIECING A SUDDEN DEPRESSURIZATION DUE TO BOTH ENGINES
FLAMEOUT. REQUEST VECTORS TO THE NEAREST SUITABLE AIRPORT.
GLOBAL 123, ROGER. I UNDERSTOOD YOU ARE DESCENDING TO A LOWER

LEVEL DUE TO DUAL ENGINE FLAMEOUT THAT CAUSED A
DEPRESSURIZATION. I WILL GIVE YOU VECTORS TO ORLANDO INT. AIRPORT.
DO YOU NEED MEDICAL ASSISTANCE UPON ARRIVAL?
Example of note taking strategy:
• Sit. 1 – Global 123, emerg., sudn. Dep., 2 eng. Flameout, rqst. Vctrs. Nrst.
• Mia. Ctr., understood all info., vctrs Orlando int., ask medc. Ass.?
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Após ter anotado as informações de maneira abreviada, você irá reporta-las para o
examinador da maneira que você entendeu. Não se esqueça de um detalhe muito
importante: suas informações devem ser anotadas de uma forma clara para que você
consiga lê-las depois, então é importante ter uma grafia que você entenda, caso
contrário você irá se dificultar mais ao invés de se ajudar.
Feito essa comparação, o examinador pode realizar algumas perguntas extras ou não.
4th Part: PICTURE DESCRIPTION AND DISCUSSION
Finalmente, a parte 4 da prova: descrição de figura e discussão. Aqui o piloto terá uma
imagem e um breve tempo para pensar e, então, começar a descrevê-la. Muitos
pensam apenas em dividir a imagem em partes como: background, main focus e
foreground. Não é errado fazer isso, contanto que você consiga explorar a imagem,
quero dizer, é preciso dizer não só o que você consegue ver, porém é muito importante
pensar fora da caixa e criar situações que não estão claramente na imagem.
Por exemplo, criar situações que podem ter levado àquela aeronave a se acidentar e,
ainda, o que irá acontecer em seguida, pois assim você consegue utilizar um amplo
vocabulário, e os examinadores conseguem avaliar os tempos verbais em questão:
passado simples, presente simples e futuro simples. Aqui podem e devem ser usadas
advérbios, verbos modais, marcadores de discursos e clusters. Para os mais
avançados, devem ser usadas expressões idiomáticas, tempos verbais mais
complexos, marcadores de discursos mais complexos, etc.
É possível que o examinador peça para você criar uma história breve sobre a situação
em questão, porém não há muitos reportes sobre isso. É comum, após a sua
descrição, o examinador te fazer algumas perguntas do tipo: what do you think
happened before this picture was taken? (o que você acha que aconteceu antes
dessa foto ter sido tirada?) ou ainda, what do you think will happen next? (o que
você acha que irá acontecer em seguida?). Ainda pode ser feita mais umas perguntas
relacionadas ao tema da foto, então esteja preparado para responder a muitas
perguntas. Como falado anteriormente, se não tem conhecimento sobre, não se
embole, tente manter a sua fluência com assuntos conhecidos e similares.
Caso o candidato não tenha entendido a pergunta feita é possível pedir uma
clarificação: could you clarify / rephrase the question?
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Nota: a clarificação também e válida para as outras perguntas das outras partes do
teste.
Vamos dar um exemplo de uma descrição de figura, conforme abaixo:
Well, first off, this is a very difficult situation to be dealt with by pilots, because
icing conditions could cause catastrophic scenarios, as it strongly decreases
the aircraft performance, reduce the lift force, increase the drag resistance force,
therefore creating an environment for an accident to occur. In a situation like
this, the pilot must perform the de-icing procedures, which will remove all the
existing ice and frost from the aircraft. Later on, and prior from takeoff, it is
recommended to apply anti-icing chemicals to protect the airplane from ice
buildup.
There also other aircraft in a similar situation in the background. Probably, after
this picture was taken, the pilot will assess the situation to decide whether he
will be capable of flying or not.
Após as perguntas terem sido feitas, o examinador irá ler uma afirmação, o statement,
e irá te perguntar a que ponto você concorda ou discorda dele e por qual motivo. Os
statements podem ser extensos e talvez você possa ter dificuldade em sua
compreensão. Seja bem claro com o examinador: caso você não tenha entendido,
peça uma clarificação: I’m not sure if I truly understood the statement, could you
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clarify / rephrase it? (não sei se eu realmente entendi a afirmação, você poderia
repeti-lo / reformulá-lo?). Caso não tenha escutado direito, peça para o examinador
repeti-lo: I couldn’t listen to you very clear, could you repeat the statement
please? (eu não pude escutá-lo muito bem, você poderia repetir a afirmação, por
favor?).
Para sair um pouco do padrão de respostas dadas, em questão de statement, vamos

tentar usar estruturas diferentes, pois habitualmente os examinadores escutam I
agree / I disagree with this statement because... (eu concordo / eu discordo desta
afirmação porquê...). Eles querem saber a que ponto você concorda ou não com eles,
logo, vamos tentar enfatizar utilizando diferentes estruturas, como as abaixo:
• I completely agree – (eu concordo completamente);

• I couldn’t agree more – (eu não poderia concordar mais);
• I totally agree – (eu concordo totalmente);
• I agree in parts – (eu concordo em partes);
• I couldn’t disagree more – (eu não poderia discordar mais);
• I totally disagree – (eu discordo completamente);
• I completely disagree – (eu discordo completamente).
Como pode ser visto, esses são modelos simples, porém podem fazer a diferença.
Você consegue notar a diferença quando um aluno utiliza um modelo deste no
momento em que ele diz se concorda ou não com a afirmação ao invés de usar um
simples “eu concordo”?
Não obstante, após o aluno ter dissertado sobre a afirmação, o examinador pode,
ainda, fazer uma nova pergunta sobre o tópico abordado e cabe a você, responde-la
nos conformes: boa estrutura, pronúncia, fluência e interação.
Finalmente, como todos esperavam, chegamos ao final da prova. Agora, cabe ao

examinador avaliar a sua performance durante toda a prova para que no fim o
candidato possa ser avaliado como avançado (L5), operacional (L4) ou pré-
operacional (L3).
15

IMPORTANT NOTES: PARAPHRASING, REPHRASING, CLARIFYING &
CONFIRMING.
• PARAPHRASING:
Segundo o CambridgeDictionary.org, parafrasear é repetir algo escrito ou falado

utilizando palavras diferentes da palavra original de uma forma que o significado
original se torna totalmente claro. O método do “paraphrasing” é algo positivo que os
examinadores tomam nota, pois mostra que você consegue explicar um certo
vocabulário utilizando outras palavras.
Portanto lembre-se de uma coisa importante: caso não saiba ou não se lembre de
uma palavra sempre tente parafrasear esta palavra.
• REPHRASING:
Alguns alunos podem ter dificuldade em entender certas perguntas e/ou statements
dados pelos examinadores. Nesse caso cabe ao aluno pedir ao examinador que ele
refaça a pergunta/afirmação utilizando outras palavras que não as que foram
utilizadas originalmente. Normalmente durante um “rephrasing” o examinador irá
utilizar um vocabulário e estruturas mais simples, facilitando o entendimento para o
aluno.
Exemplo:
o Examiner: After September 11th there were too many changes in aviation
regarding airport security and safety measures at airports. In your opinion,
what procedures have changed that prevented and is preventing nowadays
security breaches like the one that happened in September 11th?
o Candidate: I’m sorry, I couldn’t clearly understand what you have just asked
me, could you rephrase it, please?
o Examiner: Sure. In your opinion, what procedures changed in aviation after
September 11?
• CLARIFYING & CONFIRMING:
Muitas vezes na fraseologia perdemos algumas informações dadas pelos

controladores, talvez devido à má pronúncia, instruções longas e confusas ou mesmo
16

falta de atenção. Durante o teste, principalmente na parte 2 da prova, Aviation Topics,
onde o aluno irá interagir como piloto, é importante usar o Clarify e o Confirm.
Quando pedimos por uma clarificação queremos obter um entendimento claro e

completo do que o falante quer comunicar. Uma confirmação é utilizada quando se
quer ter certeza de que realmente foi entendida a instrução / informação.
Conforme o exemplo a seguir, a palavra Confirm é a fraseologia padrão para solicitar

clarificação: “Controle, solicito clarificação ou verificação: confirme, a pista está livre?”
Durante o teste, quando o candidato for interagir como piloto, ele poderá receber
perguntas do controlador como a situação exemplo a seguir:
o Examiner: After takeoff you noticed that your primary flight display has gone
blank. Report the situation to the controller and say your intentions. Then
interact.
o Candidate: Center, ANAC 123, after takeoff our primary flight display has gone
blank, we request vectors for an immediate return.
o Controller: ANAC 123, Brasilia Center. You are cleared to return to Brasilia
Airport, I’ll give you priority to land. Confirm, your navigation display has
gone blank?
o Examiner: Brasilia Center, Negative, our primary flight display failed and is now
blank. Cleared to return to Brasilia, priority landing. ANAC 123.
A seguir há uma tabela da escala de níveis de proficiência linguística da ICAO, onde

podem ser observados os quesitos desejáveis de cada candidato em cada aspecto
avaliado (pronúncia, estrutura, vocabulário, fluência, compreensão e interações).
17

2. ESCALA DE NÍVEIS DE PROFICIÊNCIA LINGUÍSTICA DA ICAO
Abaixo há uma tabela criada pela ICAO (Doc 9835, Manual on the Implementation of
ICAO Language Proficiency Requirements) e adaptada pela ANAC que informa os
requisitos mínimos que são exigidos de candidatos para aprovação na prova do SDEA
(Santos Dumont English Assessment), lembrando que o mínimo para aprovação é o
nível 4 (operacional) e a nota final será baseada na performance de cada tópico
avaliado, sendo eles: pronúncia (pronunciation), estrutura (structure), vocabulário
(vocabulary), fluência (fluency), compreensão (comprehension) e interações
(interactions). A tabela é autoexplicativa, porém vamos explicar cada item aqui.
Pronúncia:
A pronúncia de cada pessoa poderá variar de região para região devido ao sotaque
regional de cada estado que pode ser diferente e isso não é um problema, pois os
examinadores sabem que essas variantes existem, no entanto, para um candidato ser
considerado nível 4 nesse quesito, a pronúncia, intensidade e entonação podem
apenas algumas vezes interferir na facilidade de compreensão. Por exemplo, a
palavra “gravar” em inglês é “record”, e a palavra registro (de informações) também
é escrito “record”, então, como saber a diferença quando alguém a usa? Ambas as
palavras são escritas iguais, no entanto a pronúncia varia de acordo com o significado
de cada uma delas no contexto. E esse é um erro que pode interferir na facilidade de
compreensão, caso a pronúncia não seja adequada ao contexto.
Outro erro que também é considerado um erro de pronúncia e que muitas vezes
acontece é quando o candidato tenta juntar a língua inglesa e a portuguesa na
tentativa de criar uma palavra, que na maioria das vezes não existe ou não é
adequada.
Portanto, se essa interferência na compreensão ocorra frequentemente, o candidato
não será considerado operacional, porém se isso acontecer com apenas algumas
palavras durante toda a sua prova, você poderá ser considerado nível 4 ou, ainda, 5
em pronúncia, dependendo da sua performance em geral.
Estrutura:
Aqui será avaliado a questão gramatical do candidato, referente aos tempos verbais
utilizados em cada situação. Conforme a tabela abaixo, para o candidato ser
18

considerado operacional em estrutura ele deverá ter um conhecimento e bom controle
das estruturas verbais mais básicas, como o “present simple, past simple”, “simple
future”, “modal verbs”, etc. Assim como na pronúncia, erros em estrutura podem
acontecer, especialmente quando o candidato se depara a uma situação inesperada,
no entanto, se esses erros raramente interferirem no significado e entendimento, ele
terá uma performance operacional, nível 4. Um candidato a um nível avançado usará
estruturas simples controladamente e tentará usar estruturas mais complexas além
das citadas aqui, como “present perfect, past perfect, present continuous, past
continuous, phrasal verbs”, etc., sendo aceitável erros.
Para evitar erros gramaticais ao responder perguntas, deve-se prestar bastante
atenção ao tempo verbal que está sendo usado e repeti-lo na resposta. Por exemplo,
se o tempo verbal da pergunta é no passado, deverá ser usado o passado para
responde-la e assim em diante.
Example:
“How was your first solo flight?”
“My first solo flight was such a good experience as I could fly by my own….”
Vocabulário:
Nesse quesito é avaliado o vocabulário geral e, principalmente, o aeronáutico, como
estamos lidando com uma prova de inglês técnico de aviação. Aqui é muito importante
que o vocabulário desconhecido seja parafraseado e parafrasear nada mais é que
dizer uma certa palavra que às vezes não lembramos ou desconhecemos, a partir de
outras.
Se o aluno consegue desenvolver e, de uma maneira geral, parafrasear um
vocabulário satisfatório e suficiente para cada pergunta e situação, ele será
considerado nível 4.
Para atingir o nível avançado, o aluno deve parafrasear constantemente e o seu
vocabulário deve ser, às vezes, idiomático. O que significa vocabulário idiomático?
Não importa qual a língua, é fato que todos os idiomas possuem expressões
idiomáticas que são usadas pelos nativos e muitas das vezes as palavras não podem
ser traduzidas ao pé da letra, pois o significado não será o mesmo. Por exemplo, nós
brasileiros usamos muitas expressões no dia-a-dia, como: “vai chover canivete”, “vou
chutar o balde”, “bater as botas”, etc. Assim como a nossa, a língua inglesa possui
diversas expressões idiomáticas e não há como aprendê-las sem as conhecer e
19

colocá-las em nossas conversas no dia-a-dia, ou seja, pela prática. Colocamos alguns
exemplos de expressões idiomáticas aqui para que você possa coloca-las em prática.
A partir da adequação da utilização dessas expressões idiomáticas, paráfrase e
riqueza de vocabulário durante o teste, o candidato pode ser considerado avançado
(nível 5) em vocabulário.
Vale lembrar que deve ser respeitada cada parte do teste, pois como dito
anteriormente, não cabe a utilização de expressões idiomáticas em partes da prova
que são voltadas para fraseologia padrão.
Fluência:
Para o candidato obter nível 4 em fluência ele deverá manter a fala em um ritmo
apropriado em assuntos gerais, ou seja, manter sua fala sem pausas longas e
gaguejos. Durante sua performance poderá ocorrer perda de fluência quando
deparado a uma situação inesperada e é possível que o candidato utilize os “fillers”,
como dito anteriormente. Caso o candidato faça uso destes, o entendimento para o
ouvinte não deve ser interferido e o examinador não deve ser distraído, caso contrário,
sua performance será considerada nível 3.
Ademais, um candidato operacional consegue fazer uso limitado de marcadores de
discurso ou os “discourse markers”. Abordaremos esse tópico com exemplos mais
adiante, no entanto, de uma maneira resumida, os marcadores de discurso são
excelentes recursos para conectar e administrar a nossa fala, deixando-a mais
precisa.
Já um candidato nível 5 em fluência consegue fazer uso apropriado desses
marcadores de discurso e consegue sustentar a sua fala por um longo período de
tempo, com certa facilidade em tópicos que ele possui familiaridade.
Compreensão:
A compreensão é relativa ao entendimento do candidato sobre as perguntas feitas e
às situações que ele deverá escutar e confrontar ao longo do teste, principalmente
nas partes 2 e 3 do SDEA. Um candidato nível 4 consegue, geralmente, compreender
sem problemas tópicos comuns e relacionados ao trabalho com sotaques que são
facilmente compreendidos por um público internacional. Quando o candidato se
depara com situações inesperadas ou com sotaques mais difíceis e não muito claros
20

ele terá dificuldades no entendimento, logo sua compreensão será mais lenta,
podendo ser necessário um pedido de clarificação.
Já o nível avançado possui uma compreensão precisa em tópicos comuns,
conseguindo identificar e entender uma vasta gama de sotaques e dialetos diferentes.
Interações:
Interação quer dizer comunicação entre pessoas, logo se o candidato consegue ter
uma interação rápida e coesa, quero dizer, respostas rápidas, apropriadas e
informativas ao longo do teste onde ele consiga também inserir o examinador em suas
interações, ele poderá ter performance de um nível 5 (avançado). Além disso, esse
candidato possui um melhor controle na conduta e direção da conversa, quando
comparado a um nível operacional.
No entanto, um candidato ao nível 4 em interações dispõe, de uma maneira geral, de
respostas mais lentas, porém apropriadas, sabendo lidar com situações inesperadas,
conseguindo checar e clarificar as informações.
21

(Source: anac.gov.br)
22

(Source: anac.gov.br)
23

EFFECTIVE ANSWERS CHECKLIST
 Strategy 1 – Be sure you understood 100% of the question.

 Strategy 2 – Ask for clarification if needed.
 Strategy 3 – Pay attention to the WH questions.
 Strategy 4 – Understand the core topic of the question
 Strategy 5 – Provide immediate, appropriate and informative answers 100% of the
time.
 Strategy 6 – Use the paraphrase skill when lacking vocabulary, it shows to the
examiners you have a wide range of vocabulary.
 Strategy 7 – Give examples.
 Strategy 8 – Answer according to your experience and vocabulary.
 Strategy 9 – (when interacting as a pilot) if you have listened to the audios more
than twice but you still haven’t understood, you may interact like this: “ATCO, this
is ANAC 123, please say again”. Although you would still lose points for lacking
comprehension, your interaction would still be appropriate.
24

3. PRONUNCIATION
3.1 ICAO Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet

(Source: ICAO, Annex 10 Radiotelephony Procedures, Volume ll, Chapter 5., 2001)
Abaixo há uma tabela criada pela ICAO do alfabeto aeronáutico e a pronúncia

aproximada de cada um. Há também uma representação latina para que se fique mais
fácil pronunciar o alfabeto padrão de radiotelefonia para os latinos. Conforme indicado
pela ICAO, no alfabeto latino há sílabas sublinhadas que indicam onde deve ser a
entonação da palavra.
Approximate pronunciation
International Latin alphabet
Letter Word Phonetic Convention representation
A Alfa 'ælf AL FAH

B Bravo 'br:'vo BRAH VOH
C Charlie 't:li or CHAR LEE or
':li SHAR LEE
D Delta 'delt DELL TAH
E Echo 'eko ECK OH
F Foxtrot 'fBkstrBt FOKS TROT
G Golf gulf GOLF
H Hotel ho:'tel HO TELL
I India 'indi IN DEE AH
J Juliett 'd_u:liet JEW LEE ETT
K Kilo 'ki:lo KEY LOH
L Lima 'li:m LEE MAH
M Mike mik MIKE
N November no'vembe NO VEM BER
O Oscar 'Bsk OSS CAH
P Papa pe'p PAH PAH
Q Quebec ke'bek KEH BECK
R Romeo 'ro:mio ROW ME OH
S Sierra si'er SEE AIR RAH
T Tango 't ængo TANG GO
U Uniform 'ju:nifB:m or YOU NEE FORM or
'u:nifBrm OO NEE FORM
V Victor 'vikt VIK TAH
W Whiskey 'wiski WISS KEY
X X-ray 'eks'rei ECKS RAY
Y Yankee 'j ænki YANG KEY
Z Zulu 'zu:lu: ZOO LOO
Note.— In the approximate representation using the Latin alphabet, syllables to be emphasized are underlined.
TABLE 1 – RADIOTELEPHONY PROCEDURES, ICAO, Annex 10, Volume ll, Chapter 5. 2001.
25

Note — “The pronunciation of the words in the alphabet may vary according to the language
habits of the speakers. In order to eliminate wide variations in pronunciation, posters illustrating
the pronunciation desired are available from ICAO.”
Basta escutarmos uma transmissão de fraseologia padrão em inglês que poderá ser
percebido que alguns números não são pronunciados como devem ser pronunciados
no inglês geral.
De maneira a evitar que os números informados pelos pilotos e controladores

estrangeiros possam ser confundidos com certas palavras, o que levaria a um erro de
interpretação que poderia causar até mesmo um acidente, também foi criada pela
ICAO uma tabela padronizada de pronúncia para cada número, conforme abaixo:
Numeral or
Pronunciation
numeral element
0 ZE-RO
1 WUN
2 TOO
3 TREE
4 FOW-er
5 FIFE
6 SIX
7 SEV-en
8 AIT
9 NIN-er
Decimal DAY-SEE-MAL
Hundred HUN-dred
Thousand TOU-SAND
TABLE 2 – RADIOTELEPHONY PROCEDURES, ICAO, Annex 10, Volume ll, Chapter 5. 2001.
Note.— “The syllables printed in capital letters in the above list are to be stressed; for example,
the two syllables in ZE-RO are given equal emphasis, whereas the first syllable of FOW-er is
given primary emphasis.”
Conforme a nota acima estabelecida pela ICAO, as sílabas que estão em maiúsculo
são as sílabas que devem ser enfatizadas durante a pronúncia. Quando há mais de
uma sílaba em maiúsculo ambas deverão ter ênfase igual na pronúncia.
Pode haver também uma variação na pronúncia de cada letra e número, pois cada
speaker possui uma variação de pronúncia influenciada pela região onde mora, a
chamada variação regional. No entanto, essa variação não será um problema para
aqueles que conseguirem pronunciar uma palavra com intensidade, ritmo e entonação
corretos, mesmo que às vezes esse conjunto interfira no significado e compreensão
das palavras (considerado um Level 4 em pronúncia). Caso esse conjunto interfira
26

frequentemente na compreensão e significado das palavras, você poderá receber
um Level 3 em pronúncia.
3.2 The Most Mispronounced Words
Um dos pontos onde muitos podem ter dificuldade e, consequentemente, interferir no

resultado do teste é a pronúncia de palavras na língua inglesa. A pronúncia dessas
palavras pode ser interferida pela língua materna ou variação regional sem nenhum
problema, porém ela não pode interferir na compreensão e, caso isso ocorra com
frequência, o candidato será considerado como pré-operacional (L3) em pronúncia.
Devido a isso, como auxilio para aqueles que se dedicam ao estudo da língua inglesa
e focado no teste do SDEA (Santos Dumont English Assesment), foi criado pela ANAC
(Agência Nacional de Aviação Civil) um documento onde podem ser encontradas as
principais palavras mal pronunciadas pelos pilotos candidatos durante o teste,
conforme as palavras a seguir. Na tabela a seguir, além das palavras sugeridas pela
ANAC foram adicionadas palavras que julgamos serem as que os alunos possuem
maior dificuldade em pronunciar durante o curso na Pilots Fluency.
Recomendamos ao aluno acessar um site eletrônico para que ele possa conferir a
pronúncia correta destas palavras. Atualmente existem diversos sites de dicionários
online, porém vamos indicar aqui o site do Cambridge Dictionary
(dictionary.cambridge.org) que é uma excelente ferramenta para consulta. Indicamos
que o aluno, antes de escutar a pronúncia correta da palavra através do site, pronuncie
a palavra em voz alta para depois escutá-la. Desta maneira poderá ser percebido
como era a pronúncia dele para depois, se necessário, corrigi-la.
Disponibilizamos os áudios de cada palavra abaixo para que você possa escutar e
repetir corretamente a pronúncia. Lembramos que algumas palavras podem ter uma
pronúncia diferente, pois a língua inglesa usada na Inglaterra muitas vezes possui um
sotaque e entonação diferente, tão logo variando da pronúncia americana.
27

1. Accomplished 60. Evacuation 120. Poor visibility
2. Advantage 61. Exactly 121. Position
3. Affirmative 62. Example 122. Pressure
4. Aircraft 63. Expect 123. Pressurization
5. Airplane 64. Expedite 124. Priority
6. Airport 65. Experience 125. Private
7. Alternate 66. Extinguish 126. Probably
8. Altimeter 67. Extinguisher 127. Procedure
9. Approach 68. Failure 128. Process
10. Approximately 69. Feet 129. Profession
11. Around 70. Fire 130. Radar
12. Assistance 71. First 131. Radio
13. Authority 72. Flight 132. Responsibility
14. Auxiliary Power Unit 73. Flight attendant 133. Responsible
(APU) 74. Frequency 134. Resume
15. Bird 75. Fuel 135. Right
16. Board 76. Fuel Consumption 136. Roll
17. Both 77. Fumes 137. Roster
18. Cabin 78. Fuselage 138. Route
19. Captain 79. Gear 139. Rudder
20. Career 80. Heading 140. Runway
21. Catering 81. Heart 141. Safety
22. Chopper 82. Helicopter 142. Said
23. Clear 83. Hotel 143. Schedule
24. Cleared 84. Hydraulic 144. Severe
25. Cockpit 85. ILS (Pronounce each 145. Situational
26. Colleague letter: I.L.S). Awareness
27. Confirm 86. Immediate 146. Smoke
28. Contact 87. Immediately 147. Squawk
29. Continue 88. Indicator 148. Structure
30. Control 89. Injure 149. Study
31. Controller 90. Injuries 150. Suitable
32. Copilot 91. Instruction 151. Tail
28

33. Course 92. Instructor 152. Taxiway
34. Cracked 93. Instruments 153. Temperature
35. Crew 94. Intermittent 154. Things
36. Cruise 95. Issues 155. Think
37. Damage 96. It 156. Thousand
38. Dangerous 97. Item 157. Thrust
39. Debris 98. Knot 158. Thrust Lever
40. Departure 99. Landing 159. Tow
41. Depressurization 100. Leakage 160. Traffic
42. Descend 101. Left 161. Training
43. Descent 102. Main 162. Turbulence
44. Destination 103. Maintain 163. Tyre/tire
45. Develop 104. Maintenance 164. Uncontrollable
46. Different Mechanic 165. Unfortunately
47. Difficult 105. Medical 166. Unreliable
48. Difficulty 106. Most 167. Unruly
49. Dispatcher 107. Mountain 168. Unstabilized
50. Ditch 108. Much Approach
51. Divert 109. Necessary 169. Vehicle
52. Due to 110. Negative 170. Visibility
53. Emergency 111. Nose 171. Visual
54. Engine 112. Officer 172. Weather
55. Engineer 113. Oil 173. Wheel
56. Enough 114. Onboard 174. Wind shear
57. Epileptic Seizure 115. Oxygen 175. Windshield
58. Equipment 116. Panel 176. Wing
59. Established 117. Person 177. With
118. Pilot 178. Within
119. Police 179. Without
29

4. FLUENCY
4.1 Discourse Markers
As discussed above we all now know that during the test the candidates will be asked
to answer many questions given by the examiners, so it is up to the test taker to give
them a full and complete answer, including great vocabulary, pronunciation and, of
course, some linking between the sentences, also known as discourse markers.
Discourse markers are words or phrases like anyway, right, okay, as I say, to begin
with, etc. We use them to connect, organize and manage what we say or write or to
express attitude. (Cambridge Dictionary)
‘Connectors’ are used to link large groups of words: phrases and sentences. You can
also use them to connect paragraphs to give them coherence.
An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. For

example: She swims quickly. Although many adverbs end “ly” lots do not (e.g., fast,
never, well, very, most, least, more, less, now, far, and there).
Modals (also called modal verbs, modal auxiliary verbs, modal auxiliaries) are special
verbs which behave irregularly in English. They are different from normal verbs like
"work, play, visit..." They give additional information about the function of the main verb
that follows it. They have a great variety of communicative functions. Ex: may, might,
must, have to, could, can, should.
There is a list below with a bunch of interesting structure to be implemented by the

students in their sentences, make sure to use at least one of them in each answer.
• COMPARE AND CONTRAST:
1. HOWEVER – (CONTUDO)
This restaurant has the best kitchen in town. However, their staff is quite rude.
2. IN CONTRAST – (EM CONTRASTE)
30

House prices have gone up this year. In contrast, car prices seem to be stagnating.
3. NEVERTHELESS – (MESMO ASSIM)
I was in so much pain I didn’t want to get up in the morning. Nevertheless, I went to
football practice as usual.
4. NONETHELESS – (NÃO OBSTANTE)
I don’t think Sean has serious behavioral problems. Nonetheless, I’ll talk to him first
thing in the morning.
5. YET – (AINDA)
I’ve asked you a thousand times not to leave your dirty socks on the floor. Yet, you
keep doing it.
6. ON THE OTHER HAND – (POR OUTRO LADO)
England has the best language schools. On the other hand, it has the worst weather.
7. INSTEAD OF – (AO INVÉS DE)
I prefer to go out with Mike instead of going out with Jim.
8. THIS PICTURE… WHEREAS THE OTHER… (ESSA FIGURA… ENQUANTO A

OUTRA...)
In this picture there is a severely damaged aircraft, with its engine completely
destroyed whereas the other there is an intact plane, without any damage.
• SIMILARITY
1. LIKEWISE – (DA MESMA FORMA)
You can’t give your phone number to every man who asks for it. Likewise, you can’t go
out with everyone who fancies you.
2. SIMILARLY – (SIMILARMENTE)
You’re not allowed to use your phone here. Similarly, you have to switch it off when
you’re in the library.
3. CORRESPONDINGLY – (CORRESPONDENTEMENTE)
She’s an excellent photographer. Correspondingly, her paintings are works of art.
31

• RESULT
1. AS A RESULT – (COMO RESULTADO)
I’ve done a healing course. As a result, I’ve been able to cure my neighbor’s sick cat.
2. AS A CONSEQUENCE – (COMO CONSEQUÊNCIA)
Zack has skipped school on many occasions. As a consequence, he has failed his
French test.
3. THEREFORE – (PORTANTO)
We’re going to experience some meteor showers in the next few days. Therefore, the
number of miraculous self-healings will rise.
• SEQUENCING
1. FIRST, FIRSTLY, FIRST OF ALL, IN THE FIRST PLACE – (PRIMEIRO,

PRIMEIRAMENTE, EM PRIMEIRO LUGAR)
First of all, I’d like to talk about the benefits of having a pet pig.
2. TO BEGIN WITH – (PARA COMEÇAR)
To begin with, pet pigs are cleaner than dogs.
3. SECOND, SECONDLY, IN THE SECOND PLACE – (SEGUNDO,

SEGUNDAMENTE, EM SEGUNDO LUGAR)
Secondly, their impressive numeracy skills must be mentioned.
4. THIRD, THIRDLY, IN THE THIRD PLACE – (TERCEIRO, TERCEIRAMENTE, EM

TERCEIRO LUGAR)
In the third place, you can always count on your pet to perform some tricks for you
when you’d like to impress a pretty girl.
7. ALSO – (TAMBÉM)
Also, they don’t eat much.
8. BESIDES – (ADEMAIS/ALÉM DE)
Besides not eating much, they won’t ever chew on your electric cords.
9. IN ADDITION – (EM ADIÇÃO)
32

In addition, they can be taught to feed themselves if you allow them access to your
pantry.
10. FURTHERMORE – (ALÉM DISSO, ADEMAIS)
Furthermore, they make wonderful walking buddies.
11. MOREOVER – (ALÉM DISSO, ADEMAIS)
Moreover, they’ll show you the way home when you’re drunk.
12. FINALLY – (FINALMENTE)
Finally, dogs are fantastic guards. No burglar would ever have the heart to hurt a dog.
13. LAST, LASTLY, LAST OF ALL – (ÚLTIMO, POR ÚLTIMO, ÚLTIMO DE TODOS)
Last of all, pilots should be aware of the risks and hazards when performing an
emergency descent.
• ORDER OF IMPORTANCE
1. MOST IMPORTANTLY – (MAIS IMPORTANTE)
I’d like to talk to you about how to keep calm at your workplace. Most importantly, never
go to the canteen while your boss is there.
2. PRIMARILY – (PRINCIPALMENTE)
You’ll have to focus on your immediate surroundings. Primarily, on your computer

screen.
3. MOST SIGNIFICANTLY – (MAIS SIGNIFICATIVAMENTE)
Most significantly, avoid eye-contact at all costs.
4. ESSENTIALLY, BASICALLY (usually spoken) – (ESSENCIALMENTE,

BASICAMENTE)
How can I put this? Essentially, having an affair with one of your colleagues should be
the last thing on your mind.
• EXAMPLIFICATION
1. FOR EXAMPLE – (POR EXEMPLO)
33

To solve this problem, you might want to try making small gestures. For example,
making your spouse’s favourite meal for dinner or giving him a massage after a tiring
day.
2. TO ILLUSTRATE – (PARA ILUSTRAR)
Misunderstandings can be highly destructive. To illustrate, if your spouse sees you with
a friend of the opposite sex in a café, he might not understand why he hasn’t been
invited and demand an explanation.
• EXPLANATION
1. THAT IS TO SAY, THAT IS – (ISTO É)
Keep romance alive. That is to say, don’t let your love life fall into routine.
2. IN OTHER WORDS – (EM OUTRAS PALAVRAS)
Don’t be unsociable. In other words, go out and make some friends.
3. I MEAN – (QUERO DIZER)
John has managed to get over Jane. I mean, he’s started seeing other women.
• EMPHASISING
1. AS A MATTER OF FACT – (NA REALIDADE/DE FATO)
I love sleeping with my pet pig. As a matter of fact, I can’t fall asleep unless he’s in my
bed.
2. IN FACT – (NA VERDADE)
I told them not to invite Rachel to the party. In fact, I was the only person who saw what
a party pooper she really was.
3. ACTUALLY – (NA REALIDADE)
I think it would be a good idea to send her some flowers. Actually, you should get her
a hundred orchids.
4. INDEED – (DE FATO)
He may be the best-dressed man around. Indeed, he has a really good taste in fashion.
• FOCUSING AND LINKING
34

1. AS FAR AS I AM CONCERNED – (PELO QUE SEI)
As far as I am concerned, an emergency landing may lead to fatal injuries.
• CONCLUSION
1. IN CONCLUSION – (EM CONCLUSÃO)
In conclusion, it may be said that pigs make the best pets.
2. BRIEFLY SPEAKING – (BREVEMENTE FALANDO)
Meeting my boss at the pub was an interesting experience. In brief, it was a disaster.
3. IN SUMMARY – (EM SUMA)
In summary, it may not be the best idea to frequent the same pubs as your boss.
4. TO SUM UP – (RESUMINDO)
To sum up, some people are better suited to working from home than others.
• ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
2. ALWAYS, FREQUENTLY – (SEMPRE, FREQUENTEMENTE)
I am always learning something new during my English classes.
3. USALLY, VERY OFTEN – (USUALMENTE, MUITAS VEZES)
Usually, I wake up at 06 am and go to work at 7 am.
4. NEVER, RARELY – (NUNCA, RARAMENTE)
Jhon is always late. He rarely comes to class on time.
• AGREEING OR DISAGREEING
1. I COMPLETELY AGREE - (EU CONCORDO COMPLETAMENTE)

I completely agree with this statement / sentence as flying IFR is easier than flying
VFR, because an IFR flight is controlled whereas a VFR flight is not.
2. I COULDN’T AGREE MORE – (EU NÃO PODERIA CONCORDAR MAIS)

I couldn’t agree more with this statement / sentence as flying IFR is easier than flying
VFR, because an IFR flight is controlled whereas a VFR flight is not.
35

3. I TOTALLY AGREE – (EU CONCORDO TOTALMENTE)
I totally agree with this statement / sentence as flying IFR is easier than flying VFR,
because an IFR flight is controlled whereas a VFR flight is not.
4. I AGREE IN PARTS – (EU CONCORDO EM PARTES)

I agree in parts with this statement / sentence. Although an IFR flight is controlled,
pilots need to pay more attention to the flight as their situational awareness may be
reduced.
5. I COULDN’T DISAGREE MORE – (EU NÃO PODERIA DISCORDAR MAIS)

I couldn’t disagree more with this statement / sentence, because flying VFR is easier
than flying IFR. When pilots fly under visual flight rules they are fully aware of the terrain
and traffic in their surroundings.
6. I TOTALLY DISAGREE – (EU DISCORDO COMPLETAMENTE)

I totally disagree with this statement / sentence because flying VFR is easier than flying
IFR. When pilots fly under visual flight rules they are fully aware of the terrain and traffic
in their surroundings.
7. I COMPLETELY DISAGREE – (EU DISCORDO COMPLETAMENTE)

I completely disagree with this statement / sentence because flying VFR is easier than
flying IFR. When pilots fly under visual flight rules they are fully aware of the terrain
and traffic in their surroundings.
• SPECULATING
1. IT’S HARD TO SAY BUT I THINK… (É DIFÍCIL DIZER MAS IMAGINO...)
It’s hard to say but I think the pilot was suffering from a cardiac arrest, therefore he
passed away during the flight.
2. IT LOOKS LIKE A . . . (ISTO SE PARECE COM…)
This accident looks like the one that happened with captain Sully where he managed
to ditch the aircraft on the water.
3. I WOULD SAY / ASSUME . . . (EU DIRIA / ASSUMIRIA…)
I would assume that after this picture was taken, the aircraft will continue to fly normally
as none of its structures were severely damaged.
36

5. STRUCTURE
5.1 Structure Checklist
ICAO L4 ICAO L5 ICAO L6

BASIC COMPLEX COMPLEX
STRUCTURES STRUCTURES STRUCTURES
ARTICLES
ex: a, an, the, etc


ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
Ex: Always, Generally, Usually,

Often, Sometimes, Seldom, Never,

etc.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
Ex: more dangerous than, easier 

than, smaller than, etc.
DISCOURSE MARKERS
Actually, Basically, Anyway, (and)

yeah (more and more frequent),
Listen, I mean, Let’s see/Let me
see, Like, Oh, Now, Okay, So,
Well, You know, You see, You
know what I mean, It is true, Of 
course, But, Still, (and) by the way,
Besides, Another thing is, On top of
that, So, Then, First(ly),
Second(ly), etc., First of all, In the
first/second place, Finally, In the
end, In short.
MODAL VERBS
EX: Can, May, Must, Have Got to,

Should, Ought to, Would, Could, 
Might, Needn’t, Don’t, Have to,
Mustn’t.
NUMBERS (CARDINAL AND
ORDINAL)
Ex: one, first,


two, second, three, third, etc.
PASSIVE VOICE
Simple present - You are told that

you must follow the flight rules. 
Simple past - I was instructed to
check the brakes.
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POSITION OF DIRECT AND
INDIRECT OBJECTS: 
Ex: Bob sent some flowers to his
girlfriend.
Bob sent his girlfriend some flowers 
QUESTION WORDS FOR
DESCRIBING PEOPLE AND
THINGS AND FOR REQUESTING
INFORMATION. 
Ex: What? Who? Which? Why?
Where? How?
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Ex: Who, which, whose, etc


TENSES
• Present simple Ex: I do

• Present continuous Ex: I am doing
• Past simple Ex: I did
• Past continuous Ex: I was doing
• Present perfect simple Ex: I have
done 
• Present perfect continuous Ex: I
have been doing
• Simple future tense Ex: I will go to
Miami.
• Future Going to Ex: I am going to
study for this test
THERE TO BE
• Present: There is a Citation Bravo

at the apron.
• Past: There was a Boeing at that
hangar yesterday.

• Future: There will be some
difficulty for you to immediately find
the Taxiway Echo.
ADJECTIVES
Gradable and ungradable

adjectives.
Fairly angry (gradable).
Totally amazed (ungradable).
Prepositions after adjectives.  
Angry about, afraid of, etc.
Adjectives + that clause or to +
infinitive.
Enough, sufficiently, too + adjective
The sooner the better, etc.
38

ADVERBS AND
CONJUNCTIONS
• Comment adverbs
Ex: apparently, frankly, rightly
• Viewpoint adverbs
Ex: biologically, ideologically,
morally
• Adverbial clauses of time
Ex: before, until, after, as soon as,
before,
when, while, hardly, no sooner,
scarcely
• Giving reasons
Ex: seeing that, since, in as much  
as, due to,
owing to, with so many people ill
CLAUSES
• Relative clauses.
• Participle clauses:
-ing, -ed and being -ed
• Participle clauses with adverbial
meaning.
 
Ex: Opening her eyes, the baby
began to cry.
Ex: Formed 25 years ago…
Ex: next month the aviation club …
CONDITIONALS
Real and unreal, all tenses.

 
DISCOURSE MARKERS
Mind you, On the whole, Broadly

speaking, By and large, Certainly,
May, stressed “Do”, On the one
hand, On the other hand, While,
Whereas, However, Even so,
Nonetheless, Nevertheless, All the
same, Although, Though, Even
though, If, In spite of, Despite,
Incidentally, Moreover,
 
Furthermore, In addition,
Additionally, (and) what is more,
Therefore, As a result,
Consequently, (Quite) on the
contrary, To begin with, To start
with, For one thing, For another
thing, In conclusion, Briefly
speaking… etc.
INFINITIVES AND GERUNDS
 
39

Ex: you have to leave the room
now.
Ex: Leaving this room you will get
to the main hall
MODALS
• Will and would to show

willingness, likelihood and certainty
• Will and would to show habits
 
• Modals + past participle to
express criticism or regret.
NOUNS
Compound nouns
Uncountable nouns with zero  
article
e.g. good advice
PASSIVE VOICE
Present / perfect / past perfect /  

future continuous forms in general.
PHRASAL VERBS
They wanted to get the meeting

over with.
The programmer’s lack of success
could be put down to poor
 
management.
Boeing came in for a lot of criticism
over their new plan.
QUANTIFIERS
One of + plural
One of the best things
Each (of) and every + singular verb
 
except when follows the noun or
pronoun it refers to.
QUESTIONS
Reporting questions
Negative questions
 
Question tags
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
ex: Herself, himself, themselves

• One and ones ex: There’s my car
— the green one.
• So ex: I think so. Ex: So I hear.
 
• Do so ex: She won the
competition in 1997 and seems
likely to do so again.
40

• Such - ex: Such behavior is
unacceptable in most schools.
REPORTED SPEECH
Ex: They promised that they would

help him the next day.  
Ex: He told me it wasn't going to be
ready by Friday.
VERB TENSES
Past Perfect
Ex: I had done
Past perfect continuous
Ex: I had been doing
Present continuous
Ex: For the future  
Future continuous
Ex: I will be doing
Future perfect
Ex: I will have been doing
The future seen from the past
was going to, etc.
5.2 Index Of Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is “a phrase that combines a verb with a preposition or adverb or both
and that functions as a verb whose meaning is different from the combined meanings
of the individual words” (merrian-webster). Below there is a big list of phrasal verbs
that are very important to be used in our everyday conversation.
• Account for – make up a proportion • Bring forward – do sooner.

of. • Bring in – introduce something new.
• Add to – increase. • Bring off – succeed.
• Add up – increase, form a total. • Bring out – publish; release.
• Back up – support. • Bring round – revive
• Branch out – do something different. • Bring up – raise child; raise topic.
• Break into – become involved in. • Build on – use as a foundation
• Break in [to] – enter building by • Buildup – increase.
force. • Carry on – continue.
• Bring about – cause. • Carry out – do task.
• Bring back – remind of memories; • Catch on – become popular.
return item.
41

• Catch up on – do after delay. • Get down – descend.
• Check through – look for mistakes. • Get (someone) down – depress.
• Cheer up – stop feeling depressed. • Get into – manage to enter.
• Close down – go out of business. • Get off – leave bus, train, etc.
• Come across – find by chance. • Get on – progress.
• Come back – return. • Get on with – have a good
• Come from – originate in. relationship.
• Come in – enter room, house, etc. • Get out of – leave plane, etc.
• Come through – survive. • Get over – recover from.
• Come up to – approach someone. • Get rid of – remove unwanted
• Cross off / out – remove from list. person / thing.
• Cut down – reduce. • Get through – succeed in
• Decide on – choose from something.
possibilities. • Get to – manage to / reach.
• Die out – become extinct. • Get together – all meet.
• Divide up – separate into parts. • Get up – rise from bed.
• Do away with – abolish. • Get up to – do things disapproved
• Draw up – prepare and write out. of; reach.
• Drift apart – become less close. • Get used to – become accustomed

• Dry up – lose all its water. to.
• End up – do/become unintentionally. • Give away – give as a present;
• Fall off – lose contact with a surface. reveal a secret.
• Fall over – land on the ground. • Give back – return to owner.
• Fill in – complete. • Give in – hand to teacher; surrender.
• Fill up with – become full of. • Give off – produce light, smell, etc.
• Find out – discover. • Give out – distribute.
• Get away – escape. • Give up – abandon attempt; stop
• Get away with – avoid punishment doing habit.
for. • Go back- date from; return.
• Get back – return. • Go off – start operating: alarms, etc.
• Get back up – return to the surface. • Go on – continue.
• Get by – manage to survive. • Go on to – do something different.
42

• Go out – be broadcast; become • Look up – search for information.
unlit; leave. • Make for – help create.
• Go out with / together – form a • Make out – see with difficulty; write
couple. name on cheque.
• Go through – examine; experience. • (be) made up of – consist of.
• Go up – rise. • Move in – start to live in a house or
• Grow up – become an adult. flat.
• Hand over – give. • Move on – pay attention to
• Help out – give; lend money to. something else.
• Hold up – delay; threaten with a gun. • Move out – stop living in a house or
• Hunt down – look for until found. a flat.
• Invite out – offer to take with you. • Note down – quickly record on
• Keep away – not go near. paper.
• Keep on (doing) – refuse to stop. • Pass by – go past without stopping.
• Keep up – maintain standard. • Pay in – put money in the bank.

• Knock down – cause to fall. • Phone back – return a call.
• Lead to – result in. • Pick up – take hold of and lift.

• Lead up to – happen in sequence. • Point out – cause people to notice.
• Leave behind – not take with you. • Put away – return to where kept.
• Leave out – not include. • Put in – spend time or make an effort
• Let down – disappoint. • Put off – postpone; stop someone

• Listen (out) for – be ready to hear. wanting to.
• Live on – survive by eating. • Put on – cause to start working;
• Look after – take care of. cover with clothing; increase weight;
• Look at – study, consider. organize; write.
• Look back – read earlier part. • Put out – extinguish.
• Look for – try to find. • Put through – connect by phone.
• Look forward to – want to happen. • Put up – increase.
• Look into – investigate. • Put up with – tolerate, accept.
• Look out for – be careful to avoid. • Queue up – form a line to wait.
• Look over – inspect. • Ring up – phone somebody.
• Look through – examine one by one. • Run away – leave, escape from.
• Run into – collide with.
43

• Run up to – approach at speed. • Talk down to – speak in superior
• Send off – tell to go somewhere manner.
else; tell to leave the field of play. • Tell off – punish by speaking angrily
• Set out – stat taking action / a to.
journey. • Think about – consider.
• Shake off – get rid of. • Think back – remember past events.
• Shout back – reply loudly. • Think of – bring to mind.
• Show off – display to impress. • Throw out – force someone to leave.
• Show up for – attend. • Tidy up – put everything in its place.
• Speed up – make go faster. • Track down – find.
• Start off – begin by doing; going. • Try out – test.
• Stick to – keep doing. • Turn away – refuse admission.
• Sum up – make a judgement. • Turn back – reverse direction.
• Switch over to – change system to. • Turn down – reject, refuse.
• Take after – resemble. • Turn into – become.
• Take away – subtract. • Turn off – disconnect.
• Take back – return item to shop. • Turn on – operate.
• Take down – make a note of. • Turn out – be found to be.
• Take in – trick; fully understand. • Turn over – roll, invert.
• Take off – become successful; leave • Turn up – arriver unexpectedly; after
the ground; remove clothing. delay.
• Take on – accept difficult job; • Wake up – end sleep.
employ workers. • Walk on – not stop.
• Take out – extract; pay for • Warm up – do preliminary exercise.
subscription. • Watch out for – be alert to the
• Takeover – gain control of. danger of.
• Take to – begin to like person. • Write back – send a letter of reply.
• Take up – occupy time or space;
start hobby.
44

6. VOCABULARY
6.1 Aviation Vocabulary
Below you will find some very interesting and useful images we’ve selected and
collected from the internet related to aviation. Take a close look at each one of them
as there is plenty of vocabulary to be learnt.
Source - www.faa.gov
45

Source - www.aertecsolutions.com
46

Source - www.greenvilledowntownairport.com
47

Source - www.flightliteracy.com
Source - www.google.com.br
48

Source - www.google.com.br
DOWNWIND LEG
BASE LEG CROSSWIND

LEG
FINAL APPROACH UPWIND LEG
Source – www.airfactsjournal.com
49

Source - UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB FACULTY OF TRANSPORT AND TRAFFIC SCIENCES, Radiotelephony
Communications 1 Handbook, 2013.
Source: keywordbasket.com/YWlycG9ydCB2b2NhYnVsYXJ5IGxpc3Q/
Source: learnenglishwithafrica.com/short-story-level-a2-b1-b2-beyond-with-airport-vocabulary-video-and-audio/
50

6.2 Idiomatic Expressions
Idiomatic expressions are expressions mostly used by native speakers and they
represent wise sayings, advices, principles and values of a given culture / society. They
have a “figurative meaning”, in other words, if a foreign person tries to translate one’s
idiomatic expression, he will not understand its meaning because this type of
expressions can’t be literally translated only understood.
Each and every language has its own idioms so if one person attempts to use some,
he will sound like a native speaker. Being that said, we are going to give you a list of
the most common idioms and sayings spoken by native speakers, so you can try to
use some during your conversation with someone. Let’s not forget that idioms when
used in standard phraseology may and certainly will interfere with
communication between pilots and controllers, therefore is not a good idea to
use them during parts 2 (Interacting as a Pilot) and 3 (Unexpected Situations) of
the SDEA.
1. Go back to the drawing board:

When an attempt fails and it’s time to start all over.
2. Jack of all trades:

A person who can do many different types of work (but has special skill in none).
3. Piece of cake:
When something is very easy achieved / to be done.
4. Once in a blue moon:

When something happens very rarely, practically never.
5. Cost an arm and a leg:

Something is extremely expensive.
6. Can't judge a book by its cover:

Cannot judge something primarily on appearance.
7. One step at a time:

Do something slowly and carefully.
8. Better late than never:
51

Better to arrive late than not to come at all.
9. Make a long story short:

Tell something briefly.
10. No pain, no gain:

You have to work for what you want.
11. So far so good:

Things are going well so far.
12. Kill two birds with one stone:

Get two things done with a single action.
13. There's no such thing as a free lunch:

Nothing is entirely free.
14. Like riding a bicycle:

Something you never forget how to do.
15. A blessing in disguise:

A good thing that seemed bad at first.
16. Feel a bit under the weather:

Feeling slightly ill.
17. Pull a rabbit out of a hat:

To do something unexpected that may have seemed impossible.
18. Hang in there:

Wait and be patient.
19. Hear on the grapevine:

To hear a rumor or unconfirmed story.
20. Finding a needle in a haystack:

Virtually impossible to find.
52

21. Get off the track:
To start talking about something that is not part of what you should be talking about.
22. It's not rocket science:

Used to say that you do not think that something is very difficult to do or to understand.
23. First things first:

Important matters should be attended to before anything else.
24. Be blown away:

To be extremely impressed.
25. Long story short:

Used when you do not tell all the details.
26. Safe and sound:

Completely safe and without injury or damage.
27. Crystal clear:

Extremely clear; very easy to understand.
28. Call it a day:

To stop working for the day; to stop what you are doing because you do not want to do
any more or think you have done enough.
29. Hit the books:

It simply means “to study,” and is a way of telling your friends that you’re going to study.
30. To have no clue:

To be completely unable to guess, understand, or deal with something.
31. Never mind:

Used to tell someone not to worry about something because it is not important.
32. As good as it gets:

Used to say that something is very good and cannot be improved.
33. Rain cats and dogs:

To rain very heavily.
34. Actions speak louder than words:

People's intentions can be judged better by what they do than what they say.
53

35. Cry over spilt milk:
When you complain about a loss from the past that will no longer change.
36. Cut corners:

When something is done badly to save money.
Looking for more idioms? Just “google it” and you will find thousands of useful idioms
on the internet. Here we have some websites for you to check:
• www.fluentu.com/blog/english/english-idioms-6/;
• www.english-grammar-revolution.com/idiomatic-expressions.html;
• www.skypeenglishclasses.com/idiomatic-expressions/.
54

7. THE WORLD OF AVIATION IN TOPICS
7.1 A Typical Day as a Short Haul Commercial Airline Pilot
“What happens from arrival at the airport to when the passengers disembark
the aircraft. A full day as a pilot described.”
We would usually arrive in the crew room approximately one hour before departure.
Here we will meet the other crew members and download the flight plans, weather and
notices to airmen (NOTAM’s) for the routes we’ll be flying today. As a crew, we would
evaluate if the weather was suitable at our departure and destination airports, whilst
also looking at airports around our destination in case we needed to divert the flight.
Weather conditions that would get our attention are strong winds, low cloud, fog or
thunderstorms. We would then decide on a fuel figure and pass this onto our dispatch
team.
FIGURE 1 - CREW ROOM EXAMPLE
There is a common misconception with regards to who does what on the flight deck.
There is a Captain and a First Officer (sometimes referred to as a Second Officer
depending on experience) which are often referred to as the Pilot and Co-Pilot. Whilst
the Captain has overall responsibility for the decisions and ultimately the passengers
and aircraft, most duties are split evenly – the co-pilot does just as much flying as the
pilot! In the briefing room, we would usually decide who is going to fly each flight. For
example, if you were scheduled to fly 4 flights that day, the Captain might choose to fly
the first and last flight, whilst the First Officer was the pilot flying for the middle two.
55

The pilots and cabin crew will then head to the aircraft, with the aim to be onboard
about 35 minutes before the departure time. One pilot will do the “walk around” to check
the outside of the aircraft, whilst the other crew member starts to ready the flight deck
for departure. This includes running system checks, setting up the routing to our
destination and checking the take-off performance. The take-off performance varies on
a daily basis – we need to calculate what speed we need to lift off at, which depends
on runway length, aircraft weight, temperature and pressure.
FIGURE 2 - EXAMPLE OF A WALK AROUND INSPECTION
The Captain will also check the aircraft’s technical log to ensure the aircraft is fully
serviceable or identify any defects. A defect doesn’t necessarily mean you can’t depart
– it depends on how critical that system is and what redundancy is in place. There are
complex documents which provide us with some guidance as to what we can and can’t
fly without. For example, if a windscreen wiper wasn’t working, we could still depart,
but couldn’t land in thick fog. One example of this document is the MEL which is short
for Minimum Equipment List.
As the passengers are boarding the crew will usually be briefing the departure. This
covers the initial taxi and departure routing, potential threats or errors that could occur
(for example heavy rain showers that may be present on the climb out), high terrain,
as well as looking at contingency plans should an emergency situation occur.
Once all the passengers and their bags are onboard and the correct fuel is in the tanks,
the dispatcher will give us the final paperwork confirming how many people are
56

onboard and the final weight of the aircraft for take-off. The main doors will be closed,
and the crew will request to push back and start the engines with air traffic control.
Taxiing the aircraft is one of the critical phases of flight and therefore both crew
members will be concentrating on maintaining the correct taxi routing whilst looking out
for other aircraft and ground traffic. Airports can be extremely busy which is why it is
so important to keep a good look out. Before getting airborne, the crew will run a
number of checklists to ensure the aircraft is correctly configured and setup for
departure.
Once lined up on the runway, and cleared to take-off by air traffic control, the pilot flying
for that sector advances the thrust levers and sets take-off thrust. As the aircraft
accelerates down the runway, one pilot is checking the aircrafts speed and whilst
ensuring that any failure of the aircrafts systems are quickly identified and
communicated. The other pilot is steering the aircraft with their feet to keep the plane
in the middle of the runway.
At the correct calculated speed, the pilot flying pulls back on the control column to
“rotate” the aircraft and allowing it to climb away. The landing gear is raised once
airborne, and the autopilot is normally engaged at around 1000ft. Even when the
autopilot goes in, the pilots’ workload at this stage of flight is still quite intense. The
crew are managing the aircraft’s configuration, speed, altitude and heading through
manipulating the autopilot whilst communicating with air traffic control.
The pilots may choose to continue manually flying the aircraft until a higher altitude in
order to maintain their hands on flying skill levels. This is usually discussed before
departure considering a number of factors such as weather conditions and how busy
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the airspace is likely to be. Once the flaps are up, the crew complete the after takeoff
checklist and continue climbing the aircraft to its cruise altitude.
Having had approximately one and a half hours of a very intense workload, the pace
and intensity of the operation starts to reduce. Once established in the climb and
throughout the cruise, the pilots are monitoring the aircrafts systems, navigating the
aircraft, communicating with air traffic control, carrying out fuel checks, and getting
the weather for airports along the flight path and destination in case an en-route
diversion is required. In the cruise, we would normally get the chance to have a meal
and a cup of coffee and a chat with our colleagues, depending on how long the flight
is.
Most airlines have what is referred to as a “sterile flight deck”. This means the crew
should not talk about anything that is not related to the operation of the aircraft below
around 20,000ft as 100% of their focus should be on the aircraft.
Additional Information:
All the pilots have equal levels of training, but they usually have varying degrees of
seniority. Pilots who are relatively new to the airline will fly reserve, meaning they do
not have a set flying schedule. A reserve pilot may have "on call" duty for 12 hours or
longer at a stretch. In this time, the pilot has to be packed and ready to fly, because
the flight scheduler might call them at any moment. If a pilot is called in, he or she
reports to the airport immediately for a flight assignment (for many airlines, the pilot
must be ready to go within an hour of being paged). Reserve pilots are called up when
the scheduled pilot becomes ill or can't make the flight for some other reason. The life
of the reserve pilot is largely unpredictable: pilots might spend several days on reserve
and never get paged, or they might get paged every day.
Pilots with more seniority pick out a regular flight schedule, called a line. Pilots holding
a line live a more "ordinary" sort of life, in the sense that they know ahead of time when
they'll be working. But even these pilots spend a lot of time away from their families,
and they never know what delays they'll encounter.
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Definitions by CambridgeDictionary.org:
1. Carry out – (phrasal verb) to do or complete something, especially that you have
said you would do or that you have been told to do.
2. Evenly – in or into equal amounts; equally.
3. Figure – a number or an amount.
4. Flight deck – the part of an aircraft where the pilot sits and where the controls are.
5. Misconception – an idea that is wrong because it has been based on a failure to
understand a situation.
6. Overall – in general rather than in particular or including all the people or things in
a particular group or situation.
7. Pace – the speed at which someone or something moves, or with which something
happens or changes.
8. Paperwork – the activity of keeping records and writing reports.
9. Steer – to control the direction of a vehicle.
10. Suitable – acceptable or right for someone or something.
11. Thick – having a large distance between two sides.
12. Ultimately – used to emphasize the most important fact in a situation.
13. Whilst – (formal for while) during the time that, or at the same time as.
1. Why did you decide to become a pilot?

2. What do you do before every morning flight?
3. What was the biggest obstacle you had to face in your career as a pilot?
4. Read the statements below and tell me to what extent you agree or disagree with
them.
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“Becoming a pilot has never been an easy achievement for many and nowadays is not
so different. There has to be a combination of luck, effort, willingness, humbleness and
the most important factor: money.”
“Taxiing the aircraft is one of the critical phases of flight and therefore both crew
members will be concentrating on maintaining the correct taxi routing whilst looking out
for other aircraft and ground traffic.”
Sources:
flightdeckfriend.com/become-an-airline-pilot/typical-day-as-an-airline-pilot/
science.howstuffworks.com/transport/flight/modern/airline-crew.htm
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7.2 Aircraft Aging
Definition:
An aircraft begins to ‘age’ as soon as it first flies and various effects of aging begin to
occur almost immediately. However, the term is usually applied to the issues which can
begin to arise as the time-since-new becomes significant.
Until quite recently, some significant issues arising from aircraft age had not been
recognized and addressed until after fatal accidents had occurred. More recently
though, the general principles of system deterioration, which affect all older aircraft,
are receiving renewed attention. The United States, which has seen most examples of
accidents attributed to aging aircraft problems, has for some years now had a joint civil-
military organization called the Joint Council on Aging Aircraft (JCAA) to co-ordinate
the development of risk management solutions for the various types of aging aircraft
problem, especially structures.
Metallic Corrosion:
Metallic corrosion occurs when chemical action causes deterioration of the surface of
a metal and it may go undetected and result in loss of integrity of metallic structures.
Of the three main areas of aging aircraft safety concern, corrosion was probably the
first to be routinely recognized.
Structural Fatigue:
Structural fatigue has produced a number of aging aircraft losses. Since the structural
failure and, subsequently, sudden decompression accident involving a Boeing 737 in
Hawaii, aircraft design procedures have involved the carefully-researched creation of
structures which will withstand a stated number of flight cycles and/or flight hours with
a low probability that the strength of the structure will degrade below its designed
ultimate strength before the end of its approved life.
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FIGURE 3 - ACCIDENT CAUSED BY FATIGUE
The mechanism by which fatigue propagates in a structure is the well-known crack.

Cracks propagate because the geometry of a crack produces a very high concentration
of stress at the end of the crack and eventually, if a growing crack goes undetected,
fracture will occur.
Electrical Wiring:
Deterioration in an aircraft electrical wiring system is often difficult to identify and repair.
Both deterioration and damage resulted from maintenance or routine inspections are
often associated with the difficult-to-detect condition of wiring within the bundles of
wires routed together as in ‘looms’. These looms and aircraft wiring generally are often
in locations which are difficult to access and, even where they are accessible, only the
condition of the outer wires can be properly checked.
FIGURE 4 - WIRE LOOM / HARNESS (CABLAGEM DA AERONAVE)
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Preventing Aging in The Long Term:
Prevention in the long term will be by:
• better design and selection of materials, which now include proven non-metallic
composites.
• better detection inspections during base maintenance including the use of NDT
(non-destructive testing – it includes X-Ray, ultrasound…)
• management of any corrosion found through effective repair techniques and
mapping technologies.
• new sensors embedded within emerging ‘smart’ wire systems will detect and
correct faults in real time.
• fiber optics and wireless technologies will reduce the need for bulky wiring
looms.
1. Bulky - too big and taking up too much space.
2. Composites - made of more than one substance: composite fiber/ material/
plastic.
3. Crack - to break something so that it does not separate, but very thin lines
appear on its surface, or to become broken in this way.
4. Development - the process in which someone or something grows or changes
and becomes more advanced.
5. Fatigue - weakness in something, such as a metal part or structure, often
caused by repeated bending.
6. Faults - a broken part or weakness in a machine or system.
7. Flight Cycles - takeoff and landing is considered an aircraft "cycle".
8. Research - a detailed study of a subject, especially in order to discover (new)
information or reach a (new) understanding.
9. Routinely - used for describing what often or usually happens.
10. Wire Loom - an assembly of electrical cables or wires which transmit signals or
electrical power.
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1. From your point of view, what may be the possible outputs from an unidentified
crack?
2. How can pilots help preventing aircraft aging in the long term?
3. Read the statement below and then tell me to what extent you agree or disagree
with it and why.
“Aircraft aging is imminent to all operating airplanes, however its effects involving
airworthiness can be reduced by proper and effective maintenance, new technology
and materials used and better design by the manufacturers.”
4. Now, look at the picture below and then describe it.
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7.3 Aircraft Ground De / Anti-Icing
Aircraft De / Anti Icing

There are differences between the definition of de-ice and anti-ice:
• De-ice: this procedure uses a de-icing vehicle to remove any frozen or semi
frozen moisture from critical external surfaces of an aircraft on the ground
prior to flight.
• Anti-ice: instead of removing the existing frozen moisture on an aircraft, this
procedure is used to protect those surfaces from the effects of such
contaminant for the period between treatment and becoming airborne.
Both anti-ice and de-ice fluids are designed to shear off the aircraft surfaces to which
they have been applied no later than the point at which the aircraft becomes airborne.
In other words, this means that the ground application of fluids has no effect upon the
risks which arise from the accretion of frozen deposits on the aircraft at any time after
takeoff.
FIGURE 5 - KLM'S BOEING 747 BEING DE-ICED
Possible Consequences of Ice Accretion on an Aircraft

There is a concept known as “clean aircraft” which means that the aerodynamic
effectiveness of an airframe requires that an aircraft becomes airborne with critical
airframe surfaces free from contamination by frozen or semi-frozen deposits.
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Therefore, in case of contamination or failure to remove and protect the aircraft from
it, many issues may be created:
• Loss of control as the aircraft surfaces are contaminated, increasing the drag
force;
• At takeoff, any ice on the inner wings of an aircraft with rear mounted engines
may be shed and ingested into the engines causing a partial or total loss of
thrust;
• Engine flameout;
• Decrease the aircraft performance as the ice would affect the aerodynamic
of an airfoil;
• It could jam control surfaces;
• Runway Excursion – overrun.
REDUCING THE RISKS

• Perform an excellent pre-flight inspection throughout the external aircraft
components, specially the critical surfaces;
• A consideration of the weather conditions which prevail - and are likely to
prevail - after the start of any treatment of ice already on an airframe to
determine if anti-icing is necessary;
• Correct application of appropriate airframe De-Icing Fluids and/or Anti-Icing
Fluids;
• Correct use of the De/Anti-Icing Code (information to the pilot referring the
fluid type, concentration, local time);
• Follow the aircraft checklist after the De/Anti-ice procedures;
• Follow the aircraft manual;
• Flight crew should be trained to operate in icing conditions.
• Use nacelle anti-icing and wing anti-icing according to procedures.
ACCIDENT
CL60, Birmingham UK, 2002
On January 4 of 2002, the crew of US-operated Bombardier Challenger lost control of
their aircraft shortly after taking off from Birmingham and after one wing touched the
ground, it rolled inverted, crashed and caught fire within the airport perimeter and all
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five occupants died. The Investigation found that the cause of the accident was failure
to remove frost from the wings which reduced the wing stall angle of attack below that
at which the stall protection system was effective. It was considered that the combined
effects of non-prescription drug, jet lag and fatigue may have impaired crew
performance.
1. Airborne - in the air or carried by air or wind or by an aircraft.
2. Frozen - (of water) turned into ice.
3. Ice Accretion - a gradual increase or growth by the addition of new layers or
parts, in this case ice.
4. Impaired - make something / someone weaker so that it is less effective:
5. Jam Control Surfaces - something that is stuck in a machine, or that prevents
the parts of a machine from moving. In this case, the control surfaces are
blocked.
6. Jet Lag - the feeling of tiredness and confusion that people experience after
making a long journey by plane to a place where the time is different from the
place they left.
7. Moisture - a liquid such as water in the form of very small drops, either in the
air, in a substance, or on a surface.
8. Shear Off - If something such as a piece of metal shears off, or if it is sheared
off, it breaks. (Collins Dictionary)
9. Shed - To shed something means to get rid of it (Collins Dictionary).
1. Imagine you are going to fly from London to France and you noticed that your
aircraft’s critical airfoils are covered in ice. Additionally, in the airport where you are
departing there is no de/anti-ice services available. What would you do in this
situation?
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2. The chances of ground ice accretion on an airfoil in Brazil is minimum due to our
tropical weather. In your opinion, do you think that an airfoil could accumulate ice
at a high altitude? Why?
3. Create a short communication between a pilot and an ATCO of a ground de-icing
scenario. Call sign: ANAC 123. ATCO: Miami Ground.
4. Look carefully at the picture below and create a short story about it.
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7.4 Aircraft Ground Running
Definition:
This term is generally used to describe the operation of some or all the engines of an
aircraft, whilst on the ground, for the purpose of functionally checking the operation of
either engines or aircraft systems.
Purposes of An Aircraft Ground Running
Generally, ground running takes place prior to the Release to Service of an aircraft
from maintenance.
a. Maintenance check;
b. Check engine parameters;
c. Certificate of Release to Service;
Applicable Regulation to Engine Ground Running
Whilst there are many relevant regulatory aspects of which there must be awareness
by persons controlling such operations, there are no general regulatory requirements
which apply to the supervision and control of this specific task.
Possible Risks from An Engine Ground Running
a. Possible loss of control of the aircraft by those who are in the cockpit (usually
in this type of operation there aren’t any pilots inside the cockpit to run the
aircraft);
b. Jet efflux/blast and prop wash could cause damage to other aircraft or
ground operators nearby;
c. Possibility of injuries to ground support personnel who may be close to the
aircraft.
Jet Efflux/Blast and Prop Wash

Prop wash is the force/ wind generated from a propeller while jet efflux is the blast
force generated behind a jet engine and it can be very dangerous (especially jet efflux)
as it can:
• Damage other aircraft;
• Blow over ground equipment (baggage carts, aircraft steps, vehicles, etc);
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• Cause structural damages to buildings, or injure or kill passengers, crew and
ground personnel who may be in the vicinity.
Reducing the Risks
a. Only authorized personnel should operate the aircraft (pilot or flight

engineers);
b. Use all checklist available, even if the aircraft is not going to fly;
c. Proper training;
d. Communicate with ATCO (Air Traffic Controller);
e. Follow ground operation regulations;
f. Knowledge of specific regulations related to ground engine runs (ex: AMC
66 Appendix II (Aircraft type practical experience list of tasks; in Europe
EASA Part 66 Appendix I (Basic Training Requirements…);
g. Use an appropriated area for this operation;
h. Use breakaway thrust to taxi.
i. Make use of blast fence.
Blast Fence:
“Blast fence is a safety device that redirects the high energy exhaust from a jet engine
to prevent damage and injury. The structure must be strong enough to withstand heat
and high-speed air streams as well as dust and debris carried by the turbulent air.
Without a deflector, jet blast can be dangerous to people, equipment and other aircraft.
At airports and jet engine service centers, jet blast deflectors can be combined with
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sound-deadening walls to form a ground run-up enclosure within which a jet aircraft
engine can safely and more quietly be tested at full thrust.” (source:
www.wikipedia.com).
Figure - Blast Fence
1. Breakaway Thrust - Engine power needed to initiate movement and reach
taxiing speed.
2. Injury - physical harm or damage to someone's body caused by an accident or
an attack.
3. Jet Efflux/Blast and Prop Wash - Prop wash is the force/wind generated from
a propeller while jet efflux is the blast force generated behind a jet engine
4. Knowledge - understanding of or information about a subject that you get by
experience or study, either known by one person or by people generally.
5. Purpose - why you do something or why something exists
6. take place - to happen.
7. Task - a piece of work to be done, especially one done regularly, unwillingly, or
with difficulty.
8. Vicinity - the area immediately surrounding something.
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1. According to what you have just read, do you consider an aircraft ground running
operation dangerous? Why?
2. Imagine this situation: you are taxiing on the runway for takeoff next to an aircraft
that an engine runup is being performed by a mechanic. While you were taxiing,
the aircraft that was on maintenance check inadvertently started moving towards
you.
a. What would you do in this situation?
b. Report this situation to the controller and inform that your flight will be
delayed in 15 minutes. (Call sign: ANAC 123. ATCO: Guarulhos GND).
3. Look at the picture below and then create a short story about it.
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7.5 Ballooning Activity
Manned and Unmanned Balloons
a. Manned Balloons: As known as Hot Air Balloons, this type of ballooning

activity features a basket, or a gondola attached below the balloon for the
pilot and passengers to stand.
b. Unmanned Balloons: Better known as Sky Lanterns, this type of festive

balloons does not feature a person on board.
The launching of Sky Lanterns is a common activity in Brazil and they put the flight
safety at risk. Usually they are launched in festive dates and the balloon creators start
a competition among themselves: who can build and launch the biggest balloon. In
addition, some balloons can even carry one or more gas canisters inside them,
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increasing the risk of an explosion in case of a collision with an aircraft. Furthermore,
to add the risk of an imminent explosion, they may be carrying enormous racks full of
hundreds of fireworks of all sorts.
In 2016, more than 300 balloons were reported to the Brazilian aeronautical authorities
- not counting the countless who were not officially registered (source: aeronautas.org).
Possible Risks and Consequences of Ballooning Activity to Aviation
Manned and unmanned balloons both pose an imminent risk to aviation as its parts
could be ingested into one of the aircraft’s engine, therefore leading to an incident or
even an accident. Below there are some consequences that may occur from Ballooning
Activity:
• Decrease the pilot’s situational awareness;

• Perform missed approach procedures;
• Delays;
• Near miss;
• Possibility of explosion due to the gas canister;
• Ingestion into the aircraft’s engine;
• Engine surge = compressor stall.
Reducing the Risks:
• Create safety campaigns by the government and aviation authorities – (ex.:

issue some fliers with information about the risks of this activity to the
aviation);
• Share the risks and hazards of balloon launching;
• Pilot Report;
• Certification for manned balloons;
• Create restricted areas for the ballooning activity.
In Brazil, UNMANNED balloons are not allowed to be launched. It is considered a

threat to aviation safety and can also be a crime.
Weather Balloon
A weather balloon is an unmanned balloon used for meteorological purpose. It is

launched by meteorologists to acquire information about the weather conditions.
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There is a radio transmitter installed in each balloon, so it will be able to transmit
weather parameters. Usually they are made of Latex and filled with Hydrogen.
1. Acquire - to get something
2. Authorities - the group of people with official legal power to make decisions or
make people obey the laws in a particular area, such as the police or a local
government department.
3. Fliers - a piece of paper containing an advertisement or information, usually
given out to people walking by.
4. Gas canister - a metal container, usually cylinder-shaped, for holding gases
under pressure
5. Manned - (especially of an aircraft or spacecraft) having a human crew.
6. Purpose - why you do something or why something exists.
7. Racks - a frame or shelf, often formed of bars, that is used to hold things.
8. Situational awareness - is the perception of environmental elements and
events with respect to time or space, the comprehension of their meaning, and
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the projection of their status after some variable has changed, such as time, or
some other variable, such as a predetermined event. (Wikipedia).
9. Unmanned - used to refer to a spacecraft, or a place where military guards
work, that has no people present to operate or be in charge of it.
1. How high do you think a weather balloon can reach?

2. What could happen in case of a collision with a balloon?
3. Have you ever encountered an unmanned balloon while flying? What would you do
if you encounter a balloon during your flight?
4. What preventive measures should be taken by flight crew and airport authorities to
prevent it from happening?
5. Interacting as a pilot: while on final approach to land at Guarulhos, you see the
following situation at your one o’clock position. Contact Guarulhos Approach to
report the situation and say your intentions. Your call sign is ANAC 123.
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7.6 Belly Landing
A belly landing (also known as wheels-up landing) is a planned event in which the flight
crew makes a controlled emergency landing on the ground. This situation is usually
caused by a gear or hydraulic failure.
Flight crews encountering problems with the operation of landing gear must firstly, Fly
the Airplane, then follow the appropriate EICAS or ECAM procedure, Emergency or
Abnormal Checklist (EAC)/Quick Reference Handbook (QRH), Operations Manual and
Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM) direction and guidance for the resolution of problems
and the continued safe conduct of the flight.
Considerations and specifics in RFFS (Rescue and Fire Fighting Services) procedures:
• Scraping along the ground may cause rupture of fuel lines and tanks, therefore
application of 'foam carpet' before landing should be considered;
• Friction generates large amounts of heat and may produce sparks;
• Occurrence of fires is not uncommon but also not inevitable;
• Efforts to minimize ignition are extremely urgent;
• RFFS personnel should consider the fact that it is almost impossible to maintain
control of the aircraft and it may veer off the runway. Also, the place where the
aircraft comes to rest is uncertain;
• RFFS apparatus should be staged / organized safely away from the aircraft to
avoid being hit;
• The aircraft should be pursued after it has passed staged vehicles;
• In case a fire occurs, an aggressive attack to keep the fire from the fuselage
(especially at the exits) is critical for the safe evacuation of survivors.
Possible results:
Since there are usually three ways to get landing gear down, the normal system, an
alternate system and a freefall option, it is essential to try all of these before preparing
to land with abnormal gear status.
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• The fuselage friction with the ground may damage the fuselage and possibly
the fuel tanks, generating sparks and, therefore, igniting a fire that could lead to
an explosion;
• Runway excursion – Veer off or Runway Overrun;
• Structural failure;
• Pilots’ increased workload and stress;
• Airport closed due to the situation and runway obstruction;
• Passengers injuries.
Following a landing gear problem that has not resulted in a leg collapse on landing, it
may be appropriate to remain on the runway until getting the landing gear “pinned”
before attempting to taxy clear. Cabin crew briefings must cover all the possible
outcomes, which could include evacuation on the runway or an eventual taxi clear/to
normal parking. It may not be necessary to evacuate the aircraft after landing, even if
part of the structure is in contact with the ground; if there is no fire present, it may be
better to disembark the passengers via steps.
Low Impact Crashes:
Two typical examples of low impact crashes are belly landings and ditches, where:
• No severe damage or fuselage break-up occurs;

• There is a high percentage of survivors;
Considerations and specifics in RFFS (Rescue and Fire Fighting Services) procedures:
• RFFS personnel should consider the possibility of fuel fires despite the aircraft
being relatively intact;
• Occupants are likely to be able to extract themselves and leave the aircraft on
their own;
• Regardless of the above, it is possible that people are trapped and/or severely
injured and are unable to move;
• RFFS personnel should initiate extrication procedures only after donning full
protective clothing and self-contained breathing apparatus.
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High Impact Crashes:
General information:
• Severe damage or fuselage break-up;

• Reduced likelihood of occupant survival.
1. Apparatus – a set of equipment or tools or a machine that is used for a
particular purpose.
2. Despite – without taking any notice of or being influenced by; not prevented by.
3. Donning (to don) – to put on.
4. Efforts – physical or mental activity needed to achieve something.
5. Extract – to remove or take out something.
6. Extrication – to remove something or set something free with difficulty.
7. Likelihood – the chance that something will happen.
8. Pursue – to follow someone or something, usually to try to catch him, her, or it.
9. Scraping – to (cause to) rub against a surface so that slight damage or an
unpleasant noise is produced.
10. Staged – to arrange and carry out; to arrange.
11. Trapped – (trap) a dangerous or unpleasant situation which you have got into
and from which it is difficult or impossible to escape.
1. Why is a belly-landing scenario so dangerous for the flight safety?

2. Although the occurrence of this situation does not happen very often, what should
be done to prevent or reduce this technical failure from happening?
3. Have you ever had this situation before? If not, what procedures would you follow
in case you had to perform a belly-landing?
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4. Look at the picture below: how would you describe it?
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7.7 Bird Strike
Definition:
A strike is a collision with something. A bird strike is a collision with an avian wildlife
(birds, bats, pigeon, vultures…). In other words, a bird strike is a collision between a
bird and an aircraft which is in flight or on a takeoff or landing roll.
Possible Effects of a Bird Strike:
• Bird Ingestion that will lead to an engine flameout, engine surge or fire in the
engine;
• Diversion;
• Cracked Windshield / glare shield;
• Forced landing/Emergency landing;
• Loss of pressurization;
• Decrease situational awareness;
• Runway Excursion;
• The pilot may need to perform a ditching;
• Reject take off after V1;
• Pilot incapacitation.
Contributing factors:
• Dumping ground / Landfill areas nearby airports;

• Habitat areas such as grass, trees, shrubs;
• Migrating birds;
• Airports in coastal locations.
Reducing the Risks of a Bird Strike
• Government control of dumping ground nearby airports;

• Perform a good preflight, checking for any warning of birds in the vicinity area;
• Check the location where the pilot is departing/going (increase the pilot’s
situational awareness in case the area is known for having flock of birds);
• Avian wildlife control in the airport area – usage of falcons to scare birds such
as pigeons, vultures…
• Use birds of prey;
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• Habitat Management (eliminate trees, shrubs, cut grass…);
• Usage of scarecrow;
• Draining of streams.
1. Birds of Prey - a bird, such as an eagle or a hawk, that kills and eats small
birds and animals.
2. Ditching - to land an aircraft on the water in an emergency.
3. Dumping Ground / Landfill - a place where rubbish is buried.
4. Flock of Birds - A flock is a gathering of a group of same species animals in
order to forage or travel with one another, in this case birds.
5. Pigeons - a large, usually grey bird that is often seen in towns sitting on
buildings in large groups.
6. Scarecrow - a model of a person dressed in old clothes and put in a field of
growing crops to frighten birds away.
7. Shrubs - a large plant with a rounded shape formed from many small branches
growing either directly from the ground or from a hard stem, grown in gardens.
8. Streams - water that flows naturally along a fixed route formed by a channel cut
into rock or ground, usually at ground level.
9. Vulture - a large bird with almost no feathers on its head or neck, that eats the
flesh of dead animals.
10. Wildlife - animals and plants that grow independently of people, usually in
natural conditions.
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1. In your opinion, what may be the outcomes of a bird strike occurrence?
2. What factors may increase the chances of a bird strike happening?
3. Have you ever had a bird strike before? If so, what did you do to manage the
situation? If not, what would you do to prevent a catastrophic scenario from
happening?
4. Take roles: imagine that during final approach a flock of birds hit your aircraft and
one bird was ingested into the aircraft’s left engine. Create a short communication
between the pilot and ATC, informing your intentions. Call sign: ANAC 123. ATCO:
BHZ Tower.
5. Read the statement below and then tell me if you agree or disagree with this
statement and why:
“Bird strikes are a significant threat to flight safety and have caused a number of
accidents with human casualties. There are over 13,000 bird strikes annually in the US
alone. The majority of bird strikes (65%) cause little damage to the aircraft, however
the collision is usually fatal to the bird(s) involved.”
6. Look at the picture below and then describe it.
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7.8 Cockpit Automation and Technology
Introduction:
Modern aircraft are increasingly reliant on automation for safe and efficient operation.
However, automation also has the potential to cause significant incidents when
misunderstood or mishandled.
Furthermore, automation may result in an aircraft developing an undesirable state from

which it is difficult or impossible to recover using traditional hand flying techniques.
Automation and Technology Advantages:
• It increases the passenger and pilot’s comfort;

• Improved flight path control;
• Systems monitoring displays coupled with diagnostic assistance systems
(ECAM/EICAS) support enhanced pilots’ and maintenance staff’s
understanding of aircraft system states;
• Reduce the crew workload;
• Increase situational awareness;
• More precise data;
Automation and Technology Disadvantages:
• When faced with a complex failure event the normally ‘simple to understand’
failure information can swamp the crew and either make diagnosis harder to
understand or distract the crew from the principle task of FLY THE AIRCRAFT;
• Flight crews may spend too much time trying to understand the origin,
conditions, or causes of an alarm or of multiple alarms, which may distract them
from other priority tasks and from flying the aircraft;
• Poor automation can reduce the operators’ situational awareness and create
significant workload challenges when systems fail.
• Some automated systems may not allow the pilots to override its functions,
therefore in case of an emergency / unexpected situation, it may eventually
cause a loss of control of the aircraft.
• Automation Dependency.
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Solutions:
• Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs);

• Pilot training;
• Ensure that pilots can understand the importance of monitoring the expected
function of automation so that in the event their incorrect inputs or malfunction
have unexpected consequences, timely corrective action can be taken.
• Enhance systems indications.
A Quick Glimpse into The Future:
Nowadays we already have really advanced technology on newer aircraft: systems

that analyze and diagnoses many in-flight information; systems which create a text
communication between pilots and controllers (Datalink) and many others.
However, the future is approaching with many more different types of material and
technology. Can you imagine an aircraft to quickly “heal” itself midair? That is exactly
what you heard, and it is a future concept used to repair damages.
The technology is a lightweight adhesive fluid inside a pattern of carbon nanotubes

from which the aircraft is constructed and is released when damaged to quickly ‘set’
mid-flight and heal any damage.
This advanced use of materials would create a highly survivable jet, capable of entering
even the most dangerous of scenarios to complete vital missions.
Furthermore, another technology that has been already been used is the directed
energy system. Currently in use on battlefields today are Directed Energy Systems
which can be used to protect ground troops from incoming projectiles such as missiles
via concentrated energy beams.
1. Allow – to give permission for someone to do something, or to not prevent
something from happening.
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2. Enhance – to improve the quality, amount, or strength of something.
3. Glimpse – to see something or someone for a very short time or only partly.
4. Heal – to make or become well again, especially after a cut or other injury.
5. Inputs – to put information into a computer or other piece of electronic
equipment.
6. Mishandle – to deal with something without the necessary care or skill.
7. Rely on – to need a particular thing or the help and support of someone or
something in order to continue, to work correctly, or to succeed.
8. Swamp the crew – too much work, information given by something.
9. Workload – the amount of work to be done, especially by a particular person or
machine in a period of time.
1. In your opinion, what do you think that has changed in aviation from the past 15
years? (aviation in general such as aircraft systems, airport infrastructure,
regulations…)
2. In your opinion, what do you think the communication between pilot and controllers
be like in the future?
3. What is your opinion about cockpit automation?
4. Take a look at the picture below and tell me how you would describe it.
Do you think that robots will take over the pilot’s seat in the future? Why?
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7.9 Contained and Uncontained Engine Failure
Definition
A “Contained Engine Failure” means that when one or more engines fail its
components won’t pose an immediate risk for the flight safety/ won’t pose the flight
safety at risk. However, components debris thrown throughout the tail pipe may injure
ground personnel if this incident happens during ground operation.
An “Uncontained Engine Failure” happens when debris from the damaged engine exit
it violently and in other directions, possibly causing damage to the aircraft fuselage,
wings, pressurization system, etc.
Possible Consequences of an Uncontained Engine Failure
• Engine Surge = Compressor Stall (disruption/interruption of the flow through the

compressor);
• Structural Failure;
• Delays;
• Increase pilot’s workload;
• Decrease maneuverability;
• Engine vibration;
• Loss of Pressurization;
• Possibility of damaging flaps, slat or airfoils.
Procedures in Case of an Uncontained / Contained Engine Failure
• Remain calm;
• Follow the S.O.P (Standard Operational Procedures);
• Shut Down the Engine;
• Divert;
• Fuel Jettison / Fuel Dump;
• Perform a forced landing;
• Communicate to ATC;
• Check the QRH (quick reference handbook);
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Avoiding the Risks of An Uncontained Engine Failure
• Proper design of the plane’s engines.

• Fan blade containment ring (turbine case)
• Aircraft systems "Routing Segregation" (rapid separation) – System in which will
cover the debris and protect the aircraft.
• Fuel tank "Dry Bays" located in the most likely disk trajectories.
FIGURE 6 - DRY BAYS
DRY BAYS – Compartments located adjacent/next to fuel tanks. They help protecting
the fuel tanks in case of an uncontained engine failure as they are made of durable
and highly protective material.
Damage Assessment / Evaluation:
• Each case is unique and there is not many guidance in the AFM (Aircraft Flight
Manual) about this topic.
• Pilot should use his expertise to evaluate the scenario.
1. Debris - broken or torn pieces of something larger.
2. Expertise - a high level of knowledge or skill.
3. Fuel Jettison - same as fuel dump; to get rid of something or someone that is
not wanted or needed, in this case, fuel.
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4. Get Rid - to remove or throw away something unwanted.
5. Throughout - in every part, or during the whole period of time.
1. What are the outcomes of an uncontained engine failure and how dangerous can
it be?
2. In case of an uncontained engine failure what is the role of the flight attendants?
3. How can an uncontained failure be prevented?
4. Imagine this situation: you are the captain of a Boeing 777 and you had to shut
down your right-hand engine due to an uncontained engine failure. Create a short
dialogue between pilot and ATC and state your intentions. Call sign: ANAC 123.
ATCO: London Center.
5. Read the statement below and tell me to what extent you agree or disagree with it
and why.
“The risks and hazards of an uncontained engine failure are much higher when
compared to an aircraft which it’s engine is designed to restrain and decrease the
probable damages in case of an engine failure”.
6. Look at the picture below and tell me how you would describe it.
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7.10 Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT)
Definition:
A Controlled Flight into Terrain (CFIT) occurs when an aircraft is under the complete
control of the pilot and it is inadvertently flown into terrain, water, or an obstacle. The
pilots are generally unaware of the danger until it is too late.
What Can Increase the Risks Of a CFIT?
Most CFIT accidents occur in the approach and landing phase of flight and are often
associated with non-precision approaches.
• Loss of situational awareness, particularly in the vertical plane and many crash
sites are on the centerline of an approach to an airfield;
• Lack of familiarity with the approach or misreading of the approach plate are
common causal factors, particularly where the approach features steps down in
altitude from the initial approach fix to the final approach fix;
• Loss of situational awareness;
• Poor weather conditions such as rain, turbulence, icing...
• Misunderstanding instructions;
• Black Hole;
• Fatigue.
Consequences
In case of a controlled flight into terrain scenario, the chances of happening a

catastrophic scenario is very high:
• Injuries, most probably fatal injuries;

• Aircraft hull loss;
• Structural failure.
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FIGURE 7 - WRECKAGE OF EASTERN AIRLINES FLIGHT 401 THAT CRASHED INTO THE EVERGLADES
Typical Scenarios:
• Pilot-induced situation:
The pilot encountered weather conditions that were worse than forecast and, in an
attempt to maintain or regain visual contact with the ground in an area of very low
cloud, descended below Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA) and the aircraft struck the
ground. Contributing to this accident was the pilot's over-reliance on GPS while
attempting to maintain Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) and a resultant lack of
adequate situational awareness of terrain.
• ATCO-induced situation:
The controller gave an aircraft which was still at 210 kt an intermediate heading
towards the ILS centerline during a radar vectored initial approach but was
subsequently distracted and failed to issue the intercept heading for the ILS LLZ. When
the flight crew, who were unfamiliar with the approach, failed to notice the situation in
time to query it, the aircraft flew beyond the centerline and into high terrain on the other
side before resolution was possible.
Prevention Methods:
• Use of TAWS (Terrain Avoidance and Warning System);

• Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs);
• GPWS (Ground Proximity Warning System);
• Minimum Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW) systems;
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• Use Standard Phraseology to prevent misunderstandings;
• Use of available aircraft technologies for enhanced situation awareness (vertical
situation display, head-up display, enhanced-vision, etc.).
1. Aircraft hull loss - A hull loss is an aviation accident that damages the aircraft
beyond economical repair, resulting in a write-off. (Wikipedia)
2. Attempt - to try to do something, especially something difficult.
3. Forecast - a statement of what is judged likely to happen in the future,
especially in connection with a particular situation, or the expected weather
conditions.
4. Inadvertently - not intentional.
5. Lack of - to not have or not have enough of something that is needed or wanted.
6. Over-reliance - excessive dependence on or trust in someone or something.
7. Regain - to take or get possession of something again.
8. Struck - past simple and past participle of strike, which is to hit or attack
someone or something forcefully or violently.
9. Unaware - not knowing that something exists, or not having knowledge or
experience of something.
1. What can airlines and pilots do to prevent a CFIT from happening?

2. Broadly speaking, how can plane makers design their aircraft in order to increase
the flight safety, preventing the chances of a CFIT?
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3. Do you think that the advance of CRM (Corporate Resources Management) training
help preventing CFIT scenarios? Why?
4. Look at the picture below and tell me: how would you describe it? Remember to
use the past, present and future tenses.
and why.
“While there are many reasons why a plane might crash into terrain, including bad
weather and navigation equipment problems, pilot error is the most common factor
found in CFIT accidents”.
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7.11 Dangerous Goods
Definition:
Dangerous goods are goods carried on board (either in the cargo bay or inside the
cabin as a carry-on item) which may cause danger to aircraft and/or its occupants,
therefore they must be prohibited or subject to specific restrictions on their packaging,
quantity carried, stowage location, proximity to other items, or category of flight.
According to CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority), dangerous goods are items or
substances that when transported by aircraft are a risk to health, safety, property or
the environment.
FIGURE 8 - DANGEROUS GOODS ADVERTISEMENT
Examples of Dangerous Goods:
• Biological Substances;
• Dry Ice;
• Infectious Substances;
• Flammable liquids;
• Acids;
• Weaponry;
• Explosives;
• Knife;
• Switchblade;
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• Batteries;
• Fireworks;
• Compressed gases.
As stated by CASA (Civil Aviation Safety Authority), the 3 least wanted dangerous
goods on board are:
1. Lost and damaged smartphones:
Passengers accidentally crush their phone with the reclining mechanism of their seat
and this may result in the damaged battery going into thermal runaway and igniting a
fire.
2. Spare and loose batteries:
Passengers packing spare and loose batteries into checked luggage remains a
constant threat to aviation safety despite widespread warnings. The most serious of
these breaches occurred in 2014 when undeclared lithium batteries short-circuited in
a passenger’s checked bag, igniting a fire in the aircraft’s cargo hold before passengers
boarded the flight from Melbourne to Fiji.
AIRCRAFT FIRE RISK FROM BATTERY-POWERED ITEMS CARRIED ON

AIRCRAFT
Many battery types are categorized as Dangerous Goods in the applicable ICAO
Technical Instructions and also in the IATA Dangerous Goods Regulations.
This categorization as Dangerous Goods has been made because of the risk of fire
from spontaneous battery ignition, whether batteries are installed in equipment at the
time or not, and also because in some cases it is not possible to control any such
ignition which might take place on aircraft using the fire control methods available.
However, most of the batteries types carried by passengers for their personal use are
routinely permitted under the “excepted quantities” provisions.
3. Compressed oxygen:
While medically required, oxygen canisters are allowed on aircraft, travelers must gain
approval from their operator before flying so the airline can ensure cylinders, valves or
regulators fitted on the cylinder are protected from damage.
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Technical Instructions (ICAO Doc 9284):
There is a classification list created by ICAO which identifies those dangerous goods
that are:
• forbidden under any circumstances;

• forbidden on both passenger and cargo aircraft in normal circumstances but
could be carried in exceptional circumstances subject to exemption by the
States concerned;
• forbidden on passenger aircraft but permitted on cargo aircraft in normal
circumstances; and
• permitted on both passenger and cargo aircraft in normal circumstances.
Possible Effects of Dangerous Goods Being Carried On Board
• Explosion that would lead to cabin depressurization;

• Infectious substances could contaminate goods that are being carried in the
aircraft cargo compartment;
• Terrorist attack in case of guns being carried on board;
• Loss of control.
Preventing / Mitigating Risks and Hazards:
• Dangerous Goods should be carried in accordance with ICAO Doc 9284

(Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air);
• Reinforce security measures in airports;
• Use new screening technologies;
• Personnel training;
• Create programs to spread the information about the dangers of dangerous
goods to the flight safety;
• Apply and follow the strict regulations of dangerous goods restriction.
ACCIDENT
B744, en-route, East China Sea, 2011
On 28 of July, 2011, 50 minutes after takeoff from Incheon, the crew of an Asiana
Boeing 747-400F declared an emergency advising a main deck fire and an intention to
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divert to Jeju. The effects of the rapidly escalating fire eventually made it impossible to
retain control and the aircraft crashed into the sea. The Investigation concluded that
the origin of the fire was two adjacent pallets towards the rear of the main deck which
contained Dangerous Goods shipments including Lithium ion batteries and flammable
substances and that the aircraft had broken apart in mid-air following the loss of control.
1. Breach - an act of breaking a law, promise, agreement, or relationship.
2. Crush - to press something very hard so that it is broken, or its shape is
destroyed.
3. Exemption - to excuse someone or something from a duty, payment, etc.
4. Fireworks - small containers filled with explosive chemicals that make a loud
noise when they explode and sometimes produce bright, colored patterns.
5. Flammable - Something that is flammable burns easily.
6. Forbidden - not allowed, especially by law.
7. Goods - items for sale, or possessions that can be move.
8. Packaging - the materials in which objects are wrapped before being sold.
9. Spare - If something is spare, it is available to use because it is extra.
10. Stowage location - space for storing things on a boat or plane.
11. Switchblade - a knife with a blade hidden inside its handle that springs out
when a button is pressed.
12. Weaponry - weapons in general.
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1. In your opinion, what should be done to decrease the incidents and accidents
caused by dangerous goods?
2. Imagine this situation: you are starting your take off roll and suddenly the cabin
crew advised you that a passenger’s phone battery started to leak, starting a fire
on board. What would you do and how would you inform the ATCO?
3. Usually, guns are prohibited to be carried on board, however there are some cases
in which it may be carried on board within the captain authorization and inside the
cockpit. In your opinion, do you think that this type of procedure, to allow guns in
the flight deck with the captain’s permission, could cause any unlawful interference?
4. Look at the picture below: how would you describe it?
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7.12 Drones
Definition:
Drones are also defined as Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) has three components:
• An autonomous or human-operated control system;

• An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV);
• A command and control system to link the two.
These systems include, but are not limited to, Remotely Piloted Air Systems (RPAS) in
which the UAV is controlled by a 'pilot' using a radio data link from a remote location.
In recent years, the tendency to refer to any UAV as a Drone has developed but the
term is not universally considered appropriate. UAVs can vary in size from those which
can be hand launched to purpose built or adapted vehicles the size of conventional
fixed or rotary wing aircraft.
As previously, the military has led the way in using UAVs and only more recently they
became, at the smaller size, accessible to civil users who were previously limited to
the hobby activity of flying radio-controlled model aircraft.
Civil Applications of U.A.S:
With the recent and rapid progress of drones being used and developed, it started to
be applied in commercial applications such as:
• Security surveillance;
• Emergency response including SAR;
• Facilitation of communications and broadcast;
• Small package and bulk cargo transport;
• Visual, spectral and thermal examination of structures;
• Monitoring of linear network infrastructure such as railway tracks, power
lines and pipelines;
• Photography and cartographic survey;
• Agricultural fertilizer and chemical application;
• Aircraft external maintenance inspection;
• Atmospheric research.
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As an example, Amazon is using a delivery system designed to safely get packages to
customers in 30 minutes or less using unmanned aerial vehicles, also called drones
FIGURE 9 - DRONE USED BY AMAZON TO DELIVER PACKAGES
Issues of Using an UAV Without Responsibility?
An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) can put the flight safety at risk as it can interfere
with aerodrome operations. In other words, it enters a controlled airspace without
permission.
If an aircraft wing struck a drone, it would probably cause damage but no danger to the
plane. However, a drone being ingested by an engine could be much riskier. While bird
strikes are relatively frequent, and passenger aircraft are perfectly capable of flying
with one engine out of action, there are concerns that a metallic object containing
lithium batteries could cause an uncontained failure, with debris impacting on the
airframe. Pilots are also worried about a drone striking an aircraft windscreen, or a
helicopter rotor.
• Drones can also be fitted with explosives to be used for acts of terrorism,
targeting aircraft in flight or, more likely, planes on the ground.
• Additionally, drones can also invade one's privacy as it can be controlled
regardless the concern of the operator with the law and regulation.
• risk of intentional misuse of a UAV;
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FIGURE 10 - PICTURE TAKEN BY UNAUTHORIZED DRONE AT CONGONHAS AIRPORT
Reducing the Risks
• Operator training;
• Sale restriction;
• Create laws and regulations;
• Airspace restrictions;
• Usage of other drones to capture out of law UAVs.
1. Autonomous - independent and having the power to make your own decisions.
2. Bulk Cargo - goods such as coal, grains, oil, or chemicals that are not packaged
in any type of container and are transported in large quantities.
3. Concern - to cause worry to someone.
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4. Misuse - to use something in an unsuitable way or in a way that was not
intended.
5. Pipelines - a very long large tube, often underground, through which liquid or
gas can flow for long distances.
6. Regardless - despite what has been said or done.
7. Sale - an act of exchanging something for money.
8. Surveillance - the careful watching of a person or place, especially by the police
or army, because of a crime that has happened or is expected.
1. Have you ever had a near miss with a drone during an approach? If not, what would
you do if this happened to you?
2. In your opinion, what are the possible hazards from drone operations?
3. The development and usage of UAVs has been growing a lot in recent years. In
your opinion, how do you think drones will be used in the next 15 years to come?
and why.
“Security experts are worried about the prospect of an attack by a drone fitted with
explosives. Terrorists are thought more likely to target aircraft on the ground rather than
in flight.”
5. Look at the pictures below. How would you compare them in terms of severity?
Which one is more dangerous? Why?
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7.13 F.O.D (Foreign Object Debris and Damage)
Definition:
Foreign object debris is any object, particle, substance, debris or agent that is not
where it is supposed to be, and it can include a wide range of material found in an
inappropriate location that - as a result of being in that location - can damage
equipment or injure aircraft or airport personnel.
Foreign Object Damage is the damage caused by Foreign Object Debris that
compromises the quality, functionality or economic value of a manufactured item.
Damages caused by FOD has been estimated to cost for the aerospace industry $4
billion a year. Both this cost and risk can be reduced by taking some precautionary
procedures and steps.
Materials such as pavement fragments, catering supplies, building materials, rocks,

sand, tools, pieces of luggage, and even wildlife, especially insects which can obstruct
unprotected aircraft pitot tubes or static vents are considered F.O.D’s.
All these materials can be found at terminal gates, on cargo aprons, taxiways and
runways.
Risks and Hazards:
When encountered in an inappropriate area, these materials can:
• Be ingested into the engine of an aircraft therefore increasing the risk of an

engine failure, compressor stall, uncontained / contained engine failure…
• Cut the aircraft tyre, causing a tyre blowout;
• Injure ground personnel or damage other aircraft as they can be moved by jet
blast or prop wash.
• Lead to incidents or even accidents (example of the Air France Concorde).
Controlling F.O.D
In order to prevent and control this concerning topic, all airport and airline personnel
should receive training in the identification and elimination of FOD, including the
potential consequences of ignoring it.
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• Spread the word – share the potential risks and hazards to everyone, not only
to those who works in an airport, but passengers too, everybody is responsible.
• Daily, daylight inspection of aircraft maneuvering areas and removal of FOD;
• Use airfield sweeper;
FIGURE 11 - MAGNETIC AIRFIELD SWEEPER
• Make use of magnetic bars that can be suspended beneath tugs and trucks to
pick up metallic material.
• FOD containers: these containers should be placed at all gates for the
collection of debris.
FIGURE 12 - FOD CONTAINER
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1. Beneath - in or to a lower position than someone or something, under someone
or something.
2. Concerning - making you feel slightly worried.
3. Containers - a hollow object, such as a box or a bottle, that can be used for
holding something, especially to carry or store it.
4. Debris - broken or torn pieces left from the destruction of something larger.
5. Wide range Materials - including many different types of materials.
1. Have you ever encountered foreign object debris at an airport?

2. What types of F.O.D can be found in an airport?
3. In your opinion, what may be the outcomes of debris ingestion by one engine?
4. What measures would you take to decrease the risks of foreign object damage?
5. Look at the picture below and tell me how you would describe it.
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and why:
“The resulting damage has been estimated to cost the aerospace industry $4 billion
a year. Airports, airlines, and airport tenants can reduce both this cost and the risk
to safe flight that can result, by taking steps to prevent airport FOD.”
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7.14 Fatigue
Definition:
Fatigue is the general term used to describe physical and/or mental weariness which
extends beyond normal tiredness.
• Physical fatigue:
Concerns the inability to exert force with one’s muscles to the degree that would
be expected. Physical fatigue most commonly results from physical exercise or
loss of sleep and it often leads to mental fatigue.
• Mental fatigue:
It may include sleepiness concerns a general decrease of attention and ability
to perform complex, or even quite simple tasks with customary efficiency.
Mental fatigue often results from loss or interruption of the normal sleep pattern
and is therefore of great concern to pilots and ATCOs, who are frequently
required to work early in the morning or at night.
Sleep patterns are naturally associated with the body's circadian rhythms. Shift
patterns and transit across time zones can interrupt circadian rhythms so that, for
example, it may be difficult for flight crew or pilots on duty in the early hours of the
morning or flight crew operating long-haul routes through multiple time zones to
achieve satisfactory rest prior to commencing duty.
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Fatigue Types:
a. Transient fatigue:
It is acute fatigue brought on by extreme sleep restriction or extended hours
awake within 1 or 2 days;
b. Cumulative fatigue:
It is the fatigue brought on by repeated mild sleep restriction or extended
hours awake across a series of days.
c. Circadian fatigue:
It refers to the reduced performance during nighttime hours, particularly
during an individual’s “window of circadian low” (WOCL) (typically
between 2:00 a.m. and 05:59 a.m.)
The Hazards:
Fatigue usually results in impaired standards of operation with increased likeliness
of error. For example:
• Increased reaction time;
• Reduced attentiveness;
• Impaired memory;
• Inaccurate flying;
• Missed radio calls;
• Withdrawn mood.
Reducing the Threats:

• Planning activities, meals, rest and sleep patterns during off-duty periods;
• Making the most of permitted rest breaks, including naps;
• Advising colleagues if one detects feeling drowsy;
• Alerting colleagues if they appear to be becoming drowsy.
• Ensure that work schedules, including consecutive shift-working patterns, are
constructed so as to have the least possible impact on off duty - and, if
applicable, on duty rest.
• Use Crew Resource Management or Team Resource Management training to
promote awareness to fatigue and sleep issues.
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1. Drowsy - being in a state between sleeping and being awake.
2. Inaccurate - not completely correct or exact, or not able to do something
correctly or exactly.
3. Issue - a subject or problem that people are thinking and talking about.
4. Long-Haul flights - travelling a long distance.
5. Naps - a short sleep, especially during the day.
6. Rest - a period of time in which you relax, do not do anything active, or sleep.
7. Schedules - a list of planned activities or things to be done showing the times
or dates when they are intended to happen or be done.
8. Shift - a group of workers who do a job for a period of time during the day or
night, or the period of time itself.
9. Tasks - a piece of work to be done, especially one done regularly, unwillingly,
or with difficulty.
10. Weariness - great tiredness; the state of being bored with something because
you have experienced too much of it.
11. Withdrawn Mood - shy and quiet and preferring to be alone rather than with
other people.
1. Have you ever had any symptoms of fatigue during a flight? How did you manage
it?
2. Are there laws that regulate the pilot’s and ATCO’s workload?
3. Could a fatigue cause a pilot incapacitation on board?
4. What are airline companies doing to prevent pilot tiredness?
5. Read the statement below and tell me to what extent you agree or disagree with
it and why.
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“Researches show that the accumulation of "sleep debt", e.g. by having an hour less
of sleep for several consecutive days needs a series of days with more-than-usual
sleep for a person to fully recover from cumulative fatigue.”
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7.15 Ferry Flying
“The pilots who risk their lives flying tiny planes over the Atlantic”.
Article from: Bbc.com
Ferry flying is a lucrative but high-risk industry. Elite pilots deliver small planes across
oceans and continents - distances these aircraft were not designed to fly.
Flying alone across the Atlantic Ocean in a tiny, single-engine plane at low altitudes,
sometimes in extreme weather conditions, is not for the faint-hearted. Things can and
do go wrong.
The ferry flying industry is a close-knit band of aviators, some of whom have carried
out hundreds and even thousands of flights, delivering newly sold or repaired small
planes to remote destinations.
My father was a ferry pilot. As a child my life was dominated by aviation - school
holidays were for planes and flying. My earliest memories are of lining up my stuffed
toys and dolls in the cockpit of a small Cessna aircraft. As my father built up his flying
hours, there would be afternoon trips to France - my tiny bicycle stowed away in the
back. A cycle ride along the beaches of Le Touquet would be my reward for enduring
the occasional bumpy flight without complaint.
Later, as a teenager, I loved listening to stories of his flying adventures. Yet I was aware
those fascinating tales of flights over war-torn countries or in icy conditions across the
Atlantic Ocean were censored to protect me from worrying about his safety.
In 1999 my father was killed when the aircraft he was delivering crashed over the
mountains in Canada. After he died, I had little to do with light aircraft or aviation. The
airfields where I had spent so many childhood summers became a faded memory,
associated with loss.
However, as the years passed, I found myself increasingly wondering about his life as
a ferry pilot. I wanted to discover more about this largely hidden part of aviation. All
over the UK, planes are being repaired and sold. Fixing and restoring a plane can take
months, even years. Then it needs ferrying to their new owners - wherever in the world
they may be.
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"Whatever plane you're in you have to find a way of making it fly that
distance, which many small planes ordinarily would not," says pilot Julian
Storey, 43.
These are aircraft that might typically fly 200-400 miles at a time (320-645km). But the
shortest stretch of water you cross on an Atlantic crossing is 700 miles.
Because most small light aircraft are unpressurised, it's not advisable to fly above
10,000ft. This makes them more susceptible to extreme weather conditions as they
have less freedom to cruise above stormy clouds and ice caps. Airliners, by contrast,
can fly at higher altitudes of about 36-40,000ft.
In a massive hangar full of planes and helicopters at Biggin Hill airport, Kent, Storey
shows me a Britten-Norman Islander light aircraft that's being restored. It's being
"slowly transformed from something that looked like it really shouldn't fly again to
something that may fly - it's like the Land Rover of the sky", Storey says.
Britten-Norman Islander light aircraft
He hopes to deliver it to its new owners once the restoration is complete and the plane
is sold. "This is real flying," says.
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Before take-off, the Islander will have to be equipped with ferry tanks containing
barrels of fuel needed for the journey.
Ferry tank examples on aircraft
It's a slow aircraft that doesn't have the sort of high-tech equipment to deal with icing
and the weather you might expect in larger or more up-to-date aircraft. "So you are
very much using your judgement, skill, experience to fight against nature and hopefully
survive," Storey says.
This is what I always worried about, especially when my father was flying over the sea.
I knew he carried specialist survival equipment - a precaution all ferry pilots take to
prepare for the possibility of ditching in the ocean.
"The main thing that is going to kill you in the ocean is hypothermia," says pilot Dave
Henderson, 60, who has made almost 100 trans-Atlantic crossings in light aircraft.
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"If you do end up in the water, the important thing is to get into your life raft but also I
have a thick neoprene survival suit, which completely encloses the body and you've
probably got a few hours survival in that."
He knows of other ferry pilots who have landed in the sea and survived but admits it's
not something he keeps thinking about.
At an airshow in Sywell, Northamptonshire, I find him carrying out safety checks in the
cockpit of a twin-engine Piper Aerostar aeroplane. It belongs to a client who wants the
six-seater taken to Fort Lauderdale, Florida.
A Piper Aerostar awaiting ferrying to the US
This delivery will cost the owner about $20,000. Henderson has packed the survival
gear in the Piper Aerostar, all the safety checks are complete and the aircraft is ready
for pilot Joe Drury to fly it to Florida, a trip likely to take about four days.
The plan is to fly to Wick Airport, Caithness, fuel up, and then fly to Reykjavik in Iceland.
After spending the night in Iceland, the next leg of the journey is to Greenland - either
to Narsarsuaq in the south or further north to Kulusuk, depending on the weather - then
on to Bangor, Maine, and down the US east coast.
Reykjavik and Narsarsuaq are places I remember hearing about from my father as he
prepared for his trips. Narsarsuaq is also known as one of the world's most dangerous
airports - landing requires approach to the runway through a fiord, surrounded by
mountains and glaciers.
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Example of a Fiord
Narsarsuaq airport in Greenland - one of the world's most difficult approaches
The route is the North Atlantic air ferry route. It was discovered by pilots during World
War Two to transport aircraft from North America to Europe to support combat
operations.
Ferrying a plane across the Atlantic is the ultimate test for both pilot and plane. But it
is not only trans-Atlantic ferry flights which are challenging.
Former army officer turned ferry pilot Robin Durie has experienced partial engine
failure during a flight over the Sahara Desert, been involved in two separate incidents
in which his co-pilots fell unconscious at high altitude, and on another occasion was
forced to dodge small gun fire during take-off in the Middle East. All the ferry pilots I
spoke to know of friends and colleagues who have died on the job.
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"Every trip does have an element of adventure about it," he says. "You
need to be a pilot that can take on all aspects of flight.
"I just love flying and I suppose the difference between ferry flying and a
routine commercial airline job is that you physically do fly these
aeroplanes, it is real stick and rudder stuff."
Staying safe has little to do with luck. "It's all about judgement - it's making the right
decisions. Is the weather right? Is the headwind too strong? Do you have the fuel to
outfly the headwind?" insists Storey.
After meeting these pilots, I'm reminded about how my life was enhanced by aviation
and by my father's passion for flying. I'm glad he got the opportunity to do what he
loved - being a ferry pilot.
1. close-knit: If a group of people are close-knit, they all help and support each other.
2. dodge: to avoid being hit by something by moving quickly to one side.
3. faded: if something fades away/out, it becomes less clear and then disappears.
4. faint-hearted: someone who is faint-hearted is not confident or brave and dislikes
taking unnecessary risks.
5. fiord: a long strip of sea between steep hills, found especially in Norway.
6. life raft: a type of boat that is carried on a large ship and is used in emergencies,
for example when the ship is sinking, to take people to safety.
7. outlfy : to surpass, avoid, or overcome by flying faster or better than.
8. stow away: to put something in a safe place so that it can be used in the future.
9. war-torn: severely damaged by a long war, especially between different groups
from the same country.
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1. In your opinion, what particular problems could ferry pilots have on a long flight
across an ocean?
2. Image you were given the opportunity to deliver a recently renewed aircraft to its
new owner, having to cross the ocean. Would you take this job? Why or why not?
3. Are there specific regulations to this type of aircraft operation (ferry flying)? What
should be done in order to prevent serious incidents / accidents involving ferry
pilots?
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7.16 Fire in The Air
Description:
Fire in the air is one of the most hazardous situations that a flight crew can be faced
with. Without aggressive intervention by the flight crew, a fire on board an aircraft can
lead to the catastrophic loss of that aircraft within a very short space of time. Once a
fire has become established, it is unlikely that the crew will be able to extinguish it.
Types of Fire:
• Engine fire – The aircraft has systems to detect and warn the pilot of any fire in
the engine.
• Cabin Fire – In this case, the fire starts inside the cabin. Inside the cabin there
are portable fire extinguisher bottles that Cabin Crew will use in an attempt to
extinguish the fire on board. It will usually be detected early and be contained
by the crew.
• Hidden Fire – This is the most dangerous type of fire as the cabin crew can’t
locate/notice the source of the fire. It will only be visible when the fire is
considerably spread throughout the aircraft and the chances of containing the
fire are very small, therefore, increasing the chances of a catastrophic
environment.
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Possible Effects of a Fire on Board:
• Divert;
• Lead to severe or fatal injuries;
• Intoxication due to the smoke and fumes on board;
• Momentary pilots’ blindness;
• Increase the pilot’s workload;
• Reduce flight safety;
• Reduce the pilot’s situational awareness;
• Perform an emergency landing which could lead to a runway excursion;
• Heat the cabin and affect its systems leading to a loss of control.
Procedures in Case of Fire on Board
• The most important: Land as soon as possible.

• Don / put the oxygen mask;
• Crew should don smoke goggles;
• Follow the procedures (S.O.P – Standard Operational Procedures);
• Use emergency checklist;
• Inform ATCO about the situation;
• Q.R.H – quick reference handbook.
• Fight the Fire: While the requirement is to land the aircraft as soon as
possible, the crew need to do all that they can to isolate and control the fire.
The FAA Advisory Circular 120-80A uses the phrase “aggressively pursue”
to describe the urgency with which cabin crew need to locate the source of
the fire and attack it using all available resources, which may include
deadheading crew members and passengers. Crews should follow
Company procedures for fighting an in-flight fire.
Reducing the Risks of Fire on Board
• Manufacturers can build fireproof materials inside aircraft;

• Routine maintenance;
• Insert smoke detectors inside all bins / baggage compartments and
lavatories;
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• Enforce check-in security, making sure that there aren’t passengers with
goods that could ignite a fire;
• Follow the existing regulations when loading the aircraft with permitted
dangerous goods.
1. Blindness - unable to see.
2. Deadheading: A group of crew members traveling on their company airline as
passengers to get to work. You may have to deadhead to Dallas/Ft. Worth to
work a flight back to Los Angeles, so you are deadheading to Dallas/Forth
Worth.
3. Goggles - special glasses that fit close to the face to protect the eyes from
chemicals, wind, water, etc.
4. Hazardous - something that is dangerous and likely to cause damage.
5. Heat - the quality of being hot or warm, or the temperature of something.
6. Hidden - not easy to find.
7. Lead to - If an action or event leads to something, it causes that thing to happen
or exist.
8. Pursue - to follow someone or something, usually to try to catch him, her, or it.
9. Source - the place something comes from or starts at, or the cause of
something.
10. Within - inside or not beyond (a particular area, limit, or period of time).
1. Now, in pairs/groups, discuss among yourselves: what are the effects of fire inside
the cabin and what are the pilots supposed to do?
2. What should be done to prevent a scenario of fire in the air?
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3. Now, imagine this situation: you are flying at flight level 250 when suddenly you
noticed an indication of fire in the lavatory. You have decided to start a rapid descent
to FL100 in order to read the abnormal checklist. Report this situation to the
controller and say your intentions. Your callsign is ANAC 123 and you are talking to
Recife Center.
4. Look at the picture below. Now, how would you describe it?
5. Read the statement below and tell me to what extent you agree or disagree with it.
“Fire on board is the most dangerous situations that pilots may face, regardless the
type of fire”.
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7.17 Flight Deck Security
Definition:
Flight Deck Security will ensure that legitimate control of an aircraft can be maintained.
In other words, this will secure that only authorized personnel are able to enter the
cockpit/flight deck and operate the aircraft.
“Locked Door May Also Put the Flight Safety At Risk”.
• Communication between flight attendants and flight deck crew is reduced.

(In case of an onboard security issue). It will also decrease the CRM. –
precise and effective way of communication
• In case of pilot incapacitation, the cabin crew might not be aware of the
situation to assist the pilots.
• It could cause distractions and, exceptionally, might exacerbate an existing
underlying medical issue.
• Unlawful Interference caused by one of the pilots themselves.
Enhancing Flight Deck Security
• Reinforced doors construction – make sure it is resistant to penetration with

bullets;
• Doors must be locked;
• Control the entrance while on ground and in the air – Only essential personnel
may be authorized to enter in the flight deck;
• Crew identity validation check at aircraft boarding;
• Use S.O.P (Standard Operational Procedures);
• Flight Crew Cabin Surveillance Systems and electronic or manual locks;
• Communications protocols;
• Emergency Flight Deck Access from the Cabin;
The Germanwings flight 4U9525 accident indicated the need to ensure that 2 members
of the operating crew are present on the flight deck at all times during operations.
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FIGURE 13 - GERMAN WINGS ACCIDENT WRECKAGE
1. Assist - to help.
2. Aware - knowing that something exists or having knowledge or experience of a
particular thing.
3. Exacerbate - to make something that is already bad even worse.
4. Reinforce - to make something stronger.
5. Wreckage - what is left of something that has been spoiled or that has failed.
1. Broadly speaking, what procedures do you think that has changed in aviation after
the accident of Germanwings flight 4U9525?
2. The September 11 brought many operational and security issues and it was a
catastrophic scenario. After this occurrence, what have changed in terms of security
in airports and inside the flight deck?
3. In your opinion, how dangerous an unlawful interference may be?
4. What do you think that will change in the future to prevent an unlawful interference?
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“To enhance the flight safety onboard, airlines follow some S.O.P in which one of them
is to maintain the flight deck door locked at almost all the time”.
In your opinion, do you think that maintaining the door locked for almost all the time
will prevent any incident/accident from happening? (ex: unlawful interference…)
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7.18 Flight Simulators
Description:
Normally, pilots fly in the troposphere, but several times a year they fly at zero altitude
in a Full Flight Simulator (FFS). These simulators are built to exactly replicate the
respective aircraft types and its flying performance so that today, training and check
flights only take place in a simulator. This saves fuel, extends the life of the aircrafts
and engines and allows training conditions, such as severe thunderstorms and system
failures, which cannot be replicated in real flight operations.
FIGURE 14 – LUFTHANSA’S FULL FLIGHT SIMULATOR
All full flight simulators – as shown in the picture above – are based on the original
cockpit of the respective aircraft type, which is mounted on a platform and can
represent any realistic attitude by a so-called motion system. It’s not only the
movements that are remarkably realistic: The entire acoustics are exactly like during
a real flight. This is made possible by a state-of-the-art technology that is used
exclusively in the Level D simulator of Lufthansa Aviation Training.
They correspond to the highest standards and simulate the friction of the air along the
fuselage just as perfectly as the view from the front and side windows. This is how
even the most difficult approaches and departure procedures can be practiced without
risk before pilots fly to the actual airport for the first time with passengers onboard.
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The Motion System:
Pilots feel the aircraft’s movement very precisely. To exactly replicate the sensations of
a real flight, both the acceleration and G-forces must be simulated. To this, the original
cockpit is mounted on a platform that is moved by hydraulically or electrically operated
stilts and can move in all degrees of freedoms. In order to overcome the natural limits
of this technology which is contingent on the length of the stilts, additional simulation
tricks are used, for example tilting the simulator forward and backward.
The Visual System:
Spatial orientation plays a crucial role in aviation safety. The visual system provides
more than a 180-degree view in satellite quality of all important objects at the relevant
airport. This allows pilots to precisely work out their approach procedures for the
airport in the simulator. A good example is the old airport in Hong Kong, for which
specific approval and training was required to be able to land there. The relevant
special training was carried out in full flight simulators.
FIGURE 15 - FLIGHT SIMULATOR VISUAL SYSTEM
Instructor Operating Station:
As shown in the picture below, the instructor operating station is where the simulator
instructor will create and control normal and abnormal situations for the pilots to test
and improve their abilities and communication (CRM). Simulated scenarios may be
created as poor weather conditions such as thunderstorms, volcanic ashes, icing
conditions, and many other. The instructor is also able to control the aircraft systems,
selecting failures and malfunctions that the pilots will have to deal with. The display
and assembly of this part may vary as there are many types of simulators available.
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FIGURE 16 - INSTRUCTOR OPERATING STATION
Panels and Instruments:
The function of a flight simulator is to make the pilot feel like he is flying a real aircraft,
therefore engineers and software creators build and design a real replica of the aircraft
model. Below there is the front part of a flight simulator where the flights instruments,
knobs, switches, overhead panel, real seats are located.
FIGURE 17 - FLIGHT SIMULATOR COCKPIT

The more advanced simulators used by commercial air transport operators usually
include a motion base that responds to control inputs and digitally generated
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environmental factors (such as weather) to mimic the expected movements of an
aircraft
As everything is created to simulate a real aircraft, some simulators have moving

instruments, such as the thrust lever which is able to move forward and backward itself
without the pilots’ interference (auto thrust system) and the pitch trim wheel that is also
able to spin.
Advantages of Using a Flight Simulator:
Flight simulators are used as a training device because of their overall effectiveness
and efficiency in training pilots.
• Permit novice pilots to experience simulated flight without risk to him or her or
to valuable aircraft;
• Availability - that is, flight simulation is not dependent on particular
environmental conditions (good weather), or availability of a real aircraft;
• Accessibility – simulation does not require a full flight progression (pre-flight,
take-off, flight, landing, post-flight), but permits repeated practice of a particular
stage of flight, such as an ILS approach;
• Cost-effectiveness – savings in crew time, fuel, maintenance to real aircraft,
revenue that would be lost using a real aircraft, and environmental impact;
• Permits trainee to make and learn from mistakes without risk.
Drawbacks of Using a Flight Simulator:
Some of the disadvantages include the following:
• Effect of the simulator environment on the operator. In a simulated accident

situation, for example, we would not expect the simulator operator to experience
the same stress levels as would be expected in anticipation of a real accident.
• Simulator users, particularly where used as part of a currency test, may be
expected to have studied and therefore anticipate certain procedures,
conditions, or emergencies during the course of their simulated flight.
• Shorter flight cycles do not accurately reflect pilot fatigue or monotony.
• In addition to the cost to build a simulator, they have ongoing operation and
maintenance costs.
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1. Achieve - to succeed in finishing something or reaching an aim, especially after
a lot of work or effort.
2. Carry Out - to perform or complete a job or activity; to fulfill.
3. Mimic - to copy the way in which a particular person usually speaks and moves,
usually in order to make people laugh.
4. Novice - a person who is not experienced in a job or situation.
5. Ongoing - continuing to exist or develop or happening at the present moment.
6. Overcome - to defeat or succeed in controlling or dealing with something.
7. Remarkably - unusual or special and therefore surprising and worth
mentioning; unusual and surprising.
8. Revenue - the income that a government or company receives regularly.
9. State-Of-The-Art - very modern and using the most recent ideas and methods.
10. Stilts - long pieces of wood with supports for the feet on which someone can
stand and walk or long pieces of wood that support small buildings above the
ground or above water. In this subject, the stilts are made of metallic materials.
11. Take Place - to happen.
12. Tilt - to (cause to) move into a sloping position.
13. Work Out - (of a situation) to happen or develop in a particular, especially a
satisfactory, way, or (of a person) to be suitable for a particular situation.
1. In your opinion, why is the Flight Simulator so important for the pilot training course
and flight safety?
2. Have you ever got the chance to fly on a simulator before? How was your
experience?
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3. Look at the picture below and then describe it. Remember to use rich vocabulary,
discourse markers, connectors and the correct verb tense.
and why.
“No flight simulator system is entirely “realistic”. Flight simulator systems vary in
complexity and realism, with more complex and realistic systems producing a
correspondingly more accurate experience for the operator of the simulator.”
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7.19 Fuel Management
Definition:
Fuel Management encompasses a series of regulations, policies, processes and

procedures intended to ensure that fuel related flight risks are appropriately mitigated.
Regulatory compliance strengthened where appropriate by Company policies and

procedures should ensure that sufficient fuel for the intended flight profile is identified
during the preflight planning stage and is loaded onto the aircraft. Company policies
should further guide the flight crew in appropriate fuel use and monitoring during
ground operations, in flight and, where applicable, during diversion under
both normal and abnormal operating conditions.
Threats:
• Noncompliance with regulations;

• Inadequate Company (or personal) fuel policies;
• Ineffective or incomplete flight planning;
• Insufficient fuel uplift;
• Inadequate inflight fuel management and monitoring.
Effects:
• Insufficient fuel loaded for the planned flight profile;

• Necessity to execute an en route diversion due to lack of fuel;
• Necessity to perform emergency procedures;
• Engine failure due to fuel exhaustion;
• The wrong fuel management may result in an incident or an accident.
Defenses:
• Regulatory compliance;
• Adequate Company policies and procedures;
• Appropriate fuel use and monitoring;
• Timely and appropriate inflight decisions (land short, divert to alternate etc).
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ACCIDENT
On November 15th of 2013, a privately-operated Cessna 310 about to land at
Hawarden crashed after power was lost from one engine and the experienced pilot
appeared to have attempted to initiate a go around rather than land on the grass next
to the runway. The Investigation found that both main fuel tanks were effectively empty
after normal fuel use during the flight and since unused fuel remained in the auxiliary
tanks. It was concluded that fuel starvation attributable to en route fuel system
mismanagement had occurred. The other engine had been at full power but with fuel
starvation imminent.
1. Attempt - to try to do something, especially something difficult.
2. Compliance - the act of obeying an order, rule, or request.
3. Encompass - to include different types of things.
4. Fuel Exhaustion - there is no more fuel on board the aircraft.
5. Mismanagement - the process of organizing or controlling something badly.
6. Threats - a suggestion that something unpleasant or violent will happen,
especially if a particular action or order is not followed.
7. Fuel Uplift - Refueling process.
1. How can an airline prevent a situation such as the one we are passing through
now? (lack of fuel in airports due to truck drivers’ strike)
2. Imagine this situation: you are going to departure from Brasilia Airport and suddenly
you have been notified that there isn’t enough fuel to be loaded onto the aircraft,
therefore you will not be able to perform the flight. What will you do and how will
you explain the situation to the passengers?
3. How can pilots and airlines prevent fuel exhaustion during all flight procedures?
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4. Look at the picture below and tell me: how would you describe it?
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7.20 Golden Age of Aviation
“Flying Today Is So Much Better Than It Was in The 'Golden Age' Of

Aviation”.
Article author: Alex Davis.
It's easy to look at vintage photos from the glory days of aviation and feel a wave of
nostalgia, especially if you have taken a plane in the past ten years. The common
refrain is that back in the day, a journey with Pan Am was glamorous. The seats were
big. Meals were good and served at actual tables. The bathrooms had urinals, as
shown in the picture below!
FIGURE 18 - URINAL
FIGURE 19 - ANTIQUE PASSERNGERS CABIN
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Today, planes are basically flying buses. Seats are crammed together. The food stinks
or is nonexistent. The bathrooms are gross, tiny, and getting smaller. The flight is
something to be endured, not enjoyed.
But flying today is better than it ever was back in the day, for four key reasons:
1. it's cheaper;
2. it's safer;
3. it's faster and;
4. it's never been more luxurious — if you have money to spend, of course.
It's Cheaper:
Yes, airlines are busy packing more and more people into economy class. That's
because competition has driven fares down, and it's getting harder to make a profit.
It may be unpleasant but flying has never been cheaper. In 1958, a round-trip
economy flight between New York and Los Angeles went for $208, according to The
Wall Street Journal. That's over $1,500 in today's dollars. A quick search on Expedia
turns up fares for the same route for under $500.
It's Safer:
And then there's safety. You may be shoved into your plane like a sardine in a can,
but it's very nearly guaranteed you'll be safe when you exit. Based on numbers from
an MIT professor, you'd have to take 45 million flights before one finally killed you.
In his book "Cockpit Confidential," airline pilot Patrick Smith writes that compared to
1980, "flying [today] is an estimated five times safer."
Yes, going through airport security is a pain, and the TSA is often a deserving target
for criticism. But there's no doubt that screening passengers for weapons has made
things safer. Between 1968 and 1972, more than 130 U.S. planes were hijacked, often
by Americans who demanded to be taken to Communist Cuba, according to Wired.
Today, hijackings are remarkably rare, helping boost commercial aviation's safety rate.
It's Faster:
Commercial jets may be stuck flying below the speed of sound, but better routes make
air travel faster than it used to be. Again, we turn to Smith's "Cockpit Confidential":
"One can travel between almost any two airports in America with, at worst, a single
stopover. A few decades ago, flying even halfway across the country often involved
awkward transfers through two or more cities.
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"Traveling to Europe or Asia once meant having to depart from some small U.S. cities;
today, you can fly directly from many smaller hubs (Pittsburgh, Portland, Charlotte),
saving considerable amounts of time."
It's Actually More Luxurious:

In the "golden age," air travel was luxurious — and really expensive. Now that prices
have dropped, it makes sense that the fancy menus and hot towels have disappeared,
too.
But they haven't really disappeared — they're just beyond the curtain separating
economy from first and business classes.
Airlines are competing to offer wealthy customers the best possible experience. Buy
a first-class seat with Emirates today and you'll spend the flight in a private suite, with
a mini-bar, mirror, and wardrobe. You can call in the crew to convert your seat to a fully
flat bed, spend some time in the shower spa, hang out at the communal bar, and watch
as many movies as you can. No one crossing the ocean in the Pan Am Clipper in the
1940s had anything like it.
FIGURE 20 - EMIRATES' LUXURIOUS FIRST CLASS
There are benefits for economy passengers, too, like in-flight live television and
Internet service, for starters. The ride itself has gotten more comfortable, too.
Turbulence is very rarely dangerous, but it is unpleasant. That's less of a problem than
it was a few decades ago. Radar systems have gotten better at finding turbulence
areas, so pilots can avoid them more often.
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The fuselage of Boeing's Dreamliner jet is made from composite materials, so the
interior of the cabin can be more humid and more pressurized than in older planes.
The result is that the air is less dry, and you feel like you're breathing at an altitude of
6,000 feet, not the standard 8,000.
So next time you complain about how crummy flying has gotten, take a moment to be
grateful that while you've lost leg room, you've saved money and are virtually assured
you'll make it where you're going in one piece. If you want luxury, pay for it.
1. Awkward - difficult to use, do, or deal with; strange.

2. Crammed - Very full of people or things.
3. Endure - to suffer something difficult, unpleasant, or painful.
4. Enjoy - to get pleasure from something.
5. Fancy - decorative or complicated.
6. Glamorous - attractive in an exciting and special way.
7. Gross - extremely unpleasant.
8. Hang Out - to spend a lot of time in a place or with someone.
9. Hijack - to take control of an aircraft or other vehicle during a journey, especially
using violence.
10. Profit - money that is earned in trade or business after paying the costs of
producing and selling goods and services.
11. Refrain - to avoid doing or stop yourself from doing something; a short part of
a song or poem that is repeated, especially between the verses (= the separate
parts).
12. Round-Trip - If you make a round trip, you go on a journey and return to where
you started from.
13. Sardine Can - a closed metal container, especially cylinder-shaped, in which
some types of drink and food are sold.
14. Shoved - to push someone or something forcefully.
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15. Stink - to smell very unpleasant.
16. Stopover - a short stay in a place that you make while you are on a longer
journey to somewhere else.
17. Tiny - extremely small.
18. Wealthy - a large amount of money or valuable possessions that someone has.
1. Do you agree with the author’s point of view? Why

2. Would you rather fly – as a pilot – an aircraft from the golden age of aviation or a
top notch recently released one?
3. How was aviation like 20 years ago?
4. What do you think that has changed in aviation 20 years from now?
5. In your opinion, how will aviation be like in 20 years from now? (regarding
technology, infra-structure, services, facilities, means of transport…).
STATEMENT
Read the statement below and then you will have to tell me to what extent you agree
or disagree with it.
“Today, planes are basically flying buses. Seats are crammed together, the food stinks
or is nonexistent. The bathrooms are gross, tiny, and getting smaller. The flight is
something to be endured, not enjoyed. However, flying today is better than it ever was
back in the day.”
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7.21 Ground Handling
Definition:
In aviation, the term "ground handling" refers to the myriad of services provided to an
aircraft in preparation for and upon conclusion of a flight. The service is also provided
before the aircraft arrives at a terminal gate, during the period it is on the gate and after
the aircraft has departed for its next flight. These services are often described in terms
of "above the wing" and "below the wing" tasks but may also be categorized by other
groupings.
Broadly speaking, "above the wing" tasks refer to passenger services whilst "below the
wing" tasks refer to aircraft and ramp services.
Above the Wing Services:
The tasks that refer to passenger services include:
a. Ticketing (refers to on-the-spot purchase);

b. Check-in (electronic check-in kiosks have become prevalent in most major
airports. However, there will still be customer service agents to assist
passengers with the check-in process, to verify documentation, to tag and
process their checked baggage and to ensure that cabin baggage conforms
to regulated size, weight and content);
c. Baggage Sorting (preparation for aircraft loading);
d. Baggage Services (Ground agents will assist with lost, misdirected or
damaged baggage);
e. Gate Assignment (in coordination with the airport authority, aircraft gates
will be assigned, and the gate information relayed to the passengers);
f. Others.
Below the Wing Services:
Tasks that refer to aircraft and ramp services are as listed below:
a. Marshalling (The marshalling process at some aerodromes starts as the

aircraft approaches the apron with the provision of a Follow Me Vehicle to guide
the aircraft to its assigned parking stand. On departure, a marshaller will assist
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in engine start, confirming that the area around the engine is clear of hazards
and watching for indications of an engine fire);
b. Aircraft Towing (Movement of an aircraft to or from a maintenance facility, a
remote parking stand or from one gate to another);
c. Pushback. (Where required, ground equipment will be utilized to move the
aircraft off stand at departure)
d. Refueling;
e. Lavatory and Water Servicing;
f. Catering (The catering trolleys and oven from the inbound flight will be removed
and the catering for the outbound flight boarded. Galley and bar stock will be
replenished / refilled).
g. De-icing;
h. Other.
Provision of Services:
Ground handling services may be provided by airline employees or by third party

contractors. It is common for a large airline, at one of its major hubs, to use Company
employees for virtually all ground handling functions with the possible exceptions of
refueling and catering.
Inherent Risks:
The inherent risks of the ground handling process, especially for "below the wing"
services are numerous. Tasks are carried out in a high noise, high traffic area, both in
daylight and in darkness, in all weather conditions and in all extremes of temperature.
• Personal Injury;
• Aircraft Damage;
• Refueling Risks (fuel spillage; fire);
• Vehicle Collision;
• Fire;
• Other.
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Reducing the Hazards:
To help mitigate these risks, improve safety and optimize efficiency, various
organizations provide specialized training (e.g. Ramp Resource Management courses)
to supplement the job and safety training provided to ramp workers by their respective
employers.
1. Marshaller - the person responsible for guiding the pilot towards the parking
position.
2. Myriad - Countless
3. Task - a piece of work to be done, especially one done regularly, unwillingly, or
with difficulty.
4. Third Party - a third person or organization less directly involved in a matter
than the main people or organizations that are involved.
5. Turnaround Time - Turnaround is defined as the time needed for loading,
unloading, and servicing an aircraft from the point it lands to taxiing for takeoff.
In general, turnaround time (TAT) means the amount of time taken to fulfill a
request.
1. In your opinion, how can pilots contribute to reduce the hazards of ground
operations?
2. What has changed in aviation from the last 10 years, in reference to airport
infrastructure?
3. What may change in the Brazilian aviation network in the following 10 years?
4. Look at the picture below and tell me: how would you describe it? Remember to
use the past, present and future tenses and think of ways of prevention.
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and why.
“In general, it is a financial imperative for the airline to minimize the time that an aircraft
is on the ground, so many of the ground handling tasks are done concurrently with
passenger services commencing prior to the arrival of the aircraft and concluding after
it has departed.” (skybrary.com)
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7.22 Hot Spot
Definition:
A hot spot is a location on an aerodrome movement area with a history or potential risk
of collision or runway incursion, and where attention by pilots/drivers is necessary.
(ICAO Doc 9870, Manual on the Prevention of Runway Incursions).
Other definition for hot spot area is: “any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the
incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle or person on the protected area of a surface
designated for the landing and take-off of aircraft." (ICAO PANS-ATM Doc 4444).
Broadly speaking, a hot spot area is a hazardous location on taxiways and/or runways
intersections where most incidents have occurred.
FIGURE 21 - AERODROME CHART WITH HOTSPOT AREAS
What Factors May Contribute to an Occurrence Involving a Hot Spot Area?
Many factors may contribute to an incident in a hot spot area, such as:
• Poor weather conditions; (ex: heavy rain, fog, low visibility, dust storm…)
• Lack of familiarity with the airport;
• Misunderstanding the airport signs;
• Lack of signs;
• Distraction;
• Confusing signage;
• Pilots’ workload;
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• ATCO’s workload;
• Lack of fluency in foreign languages such as English.
Consequences:
Usually, the incorrect presence of an aircraft or vehicle on the runway lead to a runway
incursion. Furthermore, the outputs of a runway incursion involving hot spot areas are:
• Collision with incoming aircraft;

• Serious or fatal injuries;
• Delays due to runway obstruction;
• Aircraft structure and components damage;
• Damage to other vehicles.
Reducing This Occurrence
• ATCOs should keep instructions short;

• Speak slowly;
• Ask when not sure about a piece of information;
• Use technologies that help you identifying your location on taxiways and
runways;
• Read the airport signs;
• Ask for clarification;
• Do not take shortcuts.
1. Hazardous - something that is dangerous and likely to cause damage.
2. Misunderstand - to think you have understood someone or something when
you have not.
3. Shortcuts - a route that leads from one place to another and is quicker and
more direct than the usual route.
4. Sign - a written or printed mark that has a standard meaning.
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5. Workload - the amount of work to be done, especially by a particular person or
1. Apart from aircraft, what other vehicles move around the airport?
2. Are there technologies that can reduce occurrences in a hot spot area?
3. How can pilots identify a hot spot area on an aerodrome and prevent a runway
incursion?
4. Look at the picture below. Now, create a short communication between the pilot
and the controller regarding the occurrence below.
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7.23 Hydraulic Loss
Definition:
In a light/small aircraft, the hydraulic system is usually used to power the braking
system only. On larger aircraft the hydraulic often apply power to a wide variety of
components and systems such as Flaps, Landing Gear/Undercarriage, Braking
System, Nosewheel Steering, Thrust Reversers and many more.
As the dependency upon hydraulic power increases, the integrity of the hydraulic
systems becomes even more critical to the safety of flight, therefore many design
features are incorporated to ensure reliability, redundancy and the ability to maintain
control of the aircraft in the event of one or more failures. Often two or more hydraulic
systems are built into the design of an aircraft.
FIGURE 22 - AIRCRAFT HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
Effects of A Hydraulic Loss:
a. Loss of control;
b. Loss of autopilot;
c. Difficulties with normal landing gear extension
d. Reduced braking capability upon landing
e. Loss of nosewheel steering
f. Loss of anti-skid systems
g. Inability to extend/retract high lift devices such as flaps or slats
Procedures
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h. Identify the location of the failure
i. Check the pressure gauge indicator
j. Fly the aircraft which in some cases will require abilities
k. Perform memory actions checklist
l. Check QRH (Quick Reference Handbook)
m. Follow S.O.P (Standard Operating Procedures)
n. Deploy R.A.T (Ram Air Turbine)
FIGURE 23 - EXAMPLE OF AN AICRAFT RAM AIR TURBINE DEPLOYED
1. Gauge - a device for measuring the amount or size of something.
2. Reliability - how well a machine, piece of equipment, or system works.
3. Upon - formal preposition: on.
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1. In your opinion, what should be done to prevent / reduce any hydraulic loss?
2. Imagine you were on cruise phase of flight and you noticed that there was a
hydraulic fluid leak. This leakage made it difficult to control the aircraft. Report this
situation to the controller and inform him of your intentions.
3. Read the statement below then tell me to what extent you agree or disagree and
why.
“Most accidents/incidents caused by hydraulic failure was mostly caused by the aircraft
system’s failure.”
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7.24 In-Flight Icing
Definition:
In-Flight airframe icing occurs when supercooled water freezes on impact with any
part of the external structure of an aircraft during flight.
Description:
Although the nominal freezing point of water is 0°C, water in the atmosphere does not
always freeze at that temperature and often exists as a "supercooled" liquid. If the
surface temperature of an aircraft structure is below zero, then moisture within the
atmosphere may turn to ice as an immediate or secondary consequence of contact.
Small droplets impacting an aircraft airframe will freeze quicker than larger droplets
because its mass determines the time required for the physical change of state from
liquid (water) to solid (ice).
Airframe Icing Effects:
Airframe icing can lead to:
• Reduced performance;
• Loss of lift;
• Loss of control;
• Increase drag that could lead the aircraft to stall;
• Change the airfoil center of pressure;
• Blockage of pitot tubes and static vents;
• Reduce performance of radios;
Snow itself does not present an icing threat, since the water is already frozen. However,
snow can be mixed with liquid water, particularly cloud droplets, and, in some
circumstances, can contribute to the accumulation of hazardous frozen deposits.
Solutions and Prevention:
• Flight Planning: for aircraft without airframe ice protection systems, operation
in icing conditions should be avoided;
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• Use the aircraft’s Ice Protection Systems: de / anti-icing systems (pneumatic
de-ice boots, electrical and thermal methods);
• Make use of meteorological radars to avoid adverse weather conditions;
• Read TAF’s, SIGMET and PIREP’s.
1. Airframe - “The airframe of an aircraft is its mechanical structure. It is typically
considered to include fuselage, wings and undercarriage and exclude the
propulsion system”. (Wikipedia)
2. Droplets - a small drop of liquid.
3. Moisture - a liquid such as water in the form of very small drops, either in the
air, in a substance, or on a surface.
4. Supercooled - Supercooled liquids have been made colder than the
temperature at which they would normally freeze, without being frozen.
5. Within - preposition, adverb: inside or not further than an area or period of time.
1. Have you ever had ice in your aircraft during flight?

2. What are the possible effects of ice blocking the air inlet of one aircraft’s pitot tube?
3. Are there any system or airframe indications for in-flight ice accretion?
4. In your opinion, how can ice accretion be prevented on the ground and in-flight?
5. Look at the picture below and describe it.
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and why.
“Failure to remove contamination from an airframe and/or to protect it from acquiring

further contamination before it becomes airborne may result in sudden loss of control
at or shortly after takeoff. In the case of aircraft with rear mounted engines, any ice on
the inner wings of an aircraft at takeoff may be shed and ingested into the engines
causing a partial or total loss of thrust.”
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7.25 Laser Interference in Aviation
Description:
In recent years there has been a proliferation in the use of lasers outdoors for
legitimate purposes such as laser shows and tests. More worryingly, there has also
been an increase in the deliberate (and illegitimate) use of laser pointers to illuminate
aircraft and sometimes air traffic control facilities.
Effects:
The potentially hazardous visual effects of lasers are generally only visible during
nighttime. The lasers produce an intense, coherent directional beam of light with wave
lengths covering the visual spectrum of 400-700nm.
The main visual effects are:
• Distraction and startle: This occur when an unexpected laser (or other bright light)
can distract a pilot during a nighttime take-off or approach/landing.
• Glare and disruption: This occur as the intensity of the laser light increases such
that it starts to interfere with vision; night vision starts to deteriorate.
• Temporary flash blindness: This effect is similar to that experienced when looking
at a bright camera flash. There is no injury, but a portion of the visual field is
temporarily knocked out. Sometimes there are ‘afterimages’.
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Factors Affecting Lasers in Aviation:
• Weather;
• Time of day;
• Power of the laser;
• Color of the laser;
• Distance and relative angle of the laser and aircraft;
• Speed of the aircraft and;
• Exposure time.
Reducing the Hazard:
There are several means employed to try to reduce hazards associated with lasers in
navigable airspace:
• Laser Light Hazard Reduction - Concentrates on preventing and keeping the

laser light from being directed into navigable airspace especially that used by
aircraft around airports and on known flight paths. In the US automated
detection/avoidance systems are used to terminate or reduce the power of the
lasers in certain circumstances; airspace observers or ‘spotters’ are also used to
help keep the lasers away from in-flight aircraft.
• Regulatory Reductions - Include national measures to restrict the sale, carriage
and use of lasers as well as amending existing laws and statutes. Educating the
public in the safe use of pointers is also important as is providing warning labels on
the laser devices about the dangers of shining lasers at aircraft. Some laser
manufacturers are also actively engaged in strengthening the regulatory process in
some countries.
• Pilot Defenses - Consist of pilots being trained in laser illumination recovery
techniques (e.g. look away from the beam and do not try to find the source of the
laser, engage autopilot, turn up cockpit lighting). Pilots should also
check NOTAMs for notified laser activity along their flight plan route. Finally, pilots
should report all laser illuminations to air traffic control and complete an Air Safety
Report in accordance with company/national policies.
• Traffic Control Defenses - Consist of air traffic controllers recognizing a laser
illumination (of the visual control room facility) and reacting accordingly. They
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should not try to identify the light source and should inform aircraft under their
control about the laser illumination. As with pilots, air traffic controllers should report
laser illuminations to their company in accordance with company and national
policies.
• Physical Defenses - Could include the wearing of laser safety goggles to shield
pilots’ eyes although their use is generally considered impracticable in most
circumstances. Glare shields may also offer limited protection but again their use
and effectiveness is questionable.
• Regulations and Control - In the US, the FAA has established airspace zones
around airports which limits the power of lasers used inside the zones.
Read more at SkyBrary.Aero.
Definitions by CambridgeDictionary.org and MerriamWebster.com:
1. Afterimages – a usually visual sensation occurring after stimulation by its external

cause has ceased; a lasting memory or mental image of something.
2. Amend – to change the words of a text, especially a law or a legal document.
3. Beam – a line of light that shines from a bright object.
4. Bright – full of light, shining.
5. Coherent – if an argument, set of ideas, or a plan is coherent, it is clear and
carefully considered, and each part of it connects or follows in a natural or
reasonable way; if someone is coherent, you can understand what that person
says.
6. Facilities – the buildings, equipment, and services provided for a particular
purpose.
7. Glare – unpleasantly bright or strong light.
8. To knock out something (phrasal verb) – to stop working or doing something; to
remove by pushing, hitting, or other forceful action.
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9. Policy – a set of ideas or a plan of what to do in particular situations that has been
agreed to officially by a group of people, a business organization, a government, or
a political party.
10. Startle – to do something unexpected that surprises and sometimes worries a
person or animal (check SkyBrary.aero to learn more about the Startle Effect).
11. Worryingly (adjective) – in a way that makes you feel worried.
1. Have you ever suffered a laser strike during your pilot’s career?
2. How dangerous is laser strike to aviation?
3. In your opinion, are there ways to prevent and reduce this occurrence?
4. Read the statement below. To what extent you agree or disagree with it and why.
“Many high-powered lasers can completely incapacitate pilots who are trying to fly
safely to their destinations and may be carrying hundreds of passengers.” (FAA.
www.faa.gov/about/initiatives/lasers/)
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7.26 Level Bust
Definition:
A Level Bust or Altitude Deviation occurs when an aircraft fails to fly at the level to
which it has been cleared, regardless of whether actual loss of separation from other
aircraft or the ground results. Some definitions consider a Level Bust involving a
vertical deviation of more than 300 feet from an ATC flight clearance. Definitions
applied by other organizations are similar but sometimes refer to a deviation of 300
feet or more.
The level bust issue only relates to aircraft in controlled airspace or a designated ATZ
outside controlled airspace and under either radar or procedural ATC control.
Types of Level Bust
• Aircraft reads back clearance incorrectly and this error is not picked up by ATC
so it is then recorded / set and followed [ATC error];
• Aircraft departs cleared flight level without clearance to do so;
• Aircraft follows clearance with the wrong altimeter sub scale setting;
• Aircraft is unable to react fast enough to a late reclearance and passes through
new cleared level [ATC error];
• Aircraft accepts a clearance correctly but then sets it incorrectly without the error
being picked up by the crew [flight management error];
Contributing Factors
Factors which contribute to the risk of a level bust occurring:
• Only one pilot / crew member on the ATC frequency;

• ATCO and Pilot workload;
• Interruptions / distractions;
• Holding Patterns;
• Airspace Procedure/Design.
Factors which increase the risk of collision following a level bust:
• Volume of traffic;
• High Rates of Climb or Descent.
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Possible Effects of a Level Bust:
• Loss of Separation from other aircraft, which may result in collision.

• Collision with an obstacle or the ground (Controlled Flight Into Terrain),
especially as a result of having the wrong altimeter sub-scale setting.
• Injury, especially to cabin crew or passengers, occasioned by violent
maneuvers to avoid collision with other aircraft or the ground.
How Level Busts Can Be Prevented?
• Follow the S.O.P (Standard Operating Procedures);

• Cross-checking / confirming cleared altitude;
• Readback all instructions;
• Use callouts;
• Use equipment designed to warn of potential collision with other aircraft
(ACAS/TCAS) or with the ground (GPWS or EGPWS);
• Enhance situational awareness.
1. Enhance - to improve the quality, amount, or strength of something.
2. Regardless - despite; not being affected by something.
1. In your opinion, what is considered a level bust?

2. Have you ever had a level bust while flying? How did you manage the situation?
3. What measures can a pilot take in order to prevent a level bust from happening?
4. What factors may increase the risks of a level bust?
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and why.
“The widespread adoption of TCAS has significantly reduced the likelihood of a mid-
air collision following a level bust but the issue remains one of concern to the air
transport community.” (eurocontrol.com).
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7.27 Loss of Cabin Pressurization
Definition:
This term defines the depressurization of the aircraft cabin as a result of structural
failure, pressurization system malfunction, an inadvertent crew action or a deliberate
crew intervention.
Loss of pressurization is a potentially serious emergency in an aircraft flying at the

normal cruising altitude for most jet passenger aircraft as it usually flies at a high
altitude, therefore in case of a sudden depressurization passengers may suffer from
hypoxia and lose consciousness within minutes or even seconds, depending on the
altitude.
Loss of cabin pressure, or depressurization, is normally classified as explosive, rapid,

or gradual based on the time interval over which cabin pressure is lost.
Causes:
• Structural Failure: Failure of a window, door, or pressure bulkhead for

example, or in-flight explosion. An in-flight explosion may be due to a system
failure, dangerous cargo, or a malicious act consequential on such as an
explosive device on board.
FIGURE 24 - PRESSURE BULKHEAD
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• Pressurization system failure: Malfunction of some part of the pressurization
system such as an outflow valve.
• Inadvertent system control input(s): Accidental or incorrect activation of a
critical pressurization control.
• Deliberate Act: A drastic measure but one which an aircraft captain might
consider, for example, as a way of clearing the cabin of smoke.
Effects:
The immediate effect on passengers and crew members is Hypoxia, which is a

condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived of adequate oxygen
supply at the tissue level. The depressurization may cause:
• Crew Incapacitation: loss of pressurization can very quickly lead to the

incapacitation of the crew and passengers unless they receive supplementary
oxygen.
Solutions:
The most common procedure in an event of cabin depressurization is to perform an

emergency descent:
• Emergency Descent: the crew will descend immediately to an altitude at which

they and the passengers can breathe without supplementary oxygen - usually
given as 10,000 feet subject to adequate terrain clearance.
• Oxygen: In the event of loss of pressurization, it is essential that the flight crew
don oxygen equipment as soon as possible. In the case of a deliberate
depressurization, the crew should be on oxygen before the depressurization
commences.
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1. Commence - to begin something.
2. Consciousness - the state of understanding and realizing something.
3. Deliberate - (of an action or a decision) intentional or planned, often with the
result of being harmful to someone.
4. Deprived - not having the things that are necessary for a pleasant life, such as
enough money, food, or good living conditions, or air in this case.
5. Device - an object or machine that has been invented for a particular purpose.
6. Don - to put on the oxygen masks.
1. Have you ever experienced a loss of cabin pressurization before? If so, what did
you do? If not, what would you do?
2. In your opinion, what other factors may contribute to a rapid decompression?
3. Imagine you are flying a wide-body aircraft on cruise and you have a cabin
depressurization due to an outflow valve which is malfunctioning. Additionally, your
captain has passed out. Create a short dialogue between a pilot and an ATCO,
informing them of your situation and your intentions.
4. Can a loss of cabin pressurization cause a passenger to become unruly?
5. Look at the pictures below. How would you describe it?
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and why.
“The great danger of depressurization is crew incapacitation due to Hypoxia. The Time
of Useful Consciousness is reduced by the explosive nature of the decompression”.
(skybrary.com)
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7.28 Loss of Communication
Description:
Loss of communication incidents usually occurs in one of three circumstances:
• Radio Interference;
• Miss-management of communications equipment or miss-application of
prescribed procedures;
• Malfunction of communications equipment.
Depending on the situation, loss of communication can be transitory or prolonged.
Effects of a Loss of Communication
It might not appear as dangerous as it is however a loss of communication may cause

dangerous outcomes, and in specific situations, it could lead to a catastrophic scenario.
• Impossibility of receiving clearance instructions therefore causing an

impossibility for the pilot to follow what he has been instructed to follow;
• Loss of separation;
• The pilot is unable to pass important information to the ATC.
• Loss of communications may be interpreted as a security threat and result
in military interception;
• Increase both pilot and ATCO workload.
What May Contribute to a Loss of Communication?
• Pilot workload;
• Frequency congestion;
• Call sign confusion;
• Radio interference;
• Language problems;
• Lack of maintenance on the radios.
Reducing the Risks
• Use of discipline when transmitting information through the radio;
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• Follow SOP’s (Standard Operational Procedures);
• If a loss of communication is discovered, pilots should check radio navigation
charts which show other ACC and TMA frequencies.
• Flight Crew not altering the previous frequency on the pre-select position on
a COM radio used for primary ATC communications until two-way
communications have been established on the new frequency.
• Ensure that communication systems are always well maintained and up-to-
date.
• Ensure the carriage and pre-flight functional checking of at least one spare
headset.
• If any part of a message for you is garbled or unclear, request confirmation
or clarification.
ACCIDENT
B738 / E135, en-route, Mato Grosso, Brazil, 2006
On 29 September 2006, a Boeing 737-800 leveled at FL370 collided with an opposite

direction Embraer Legacy at the same level. Control of the 737 was lost and it crashed,
killing all 154 occupants. The Legacy's crew kept control and successfully diverted to
the nearest suitable airport. The Investigation found that ATC had not instructed the
Legacy to descend to FL360 when the flight plan indicated this and soon afterwards,
its crew had inadvertently switched off their transponder. After the consequent
disappearance of altitude from all radar displays, ATC assumed but did not confirm the
aircraft had descended.
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1. Ensure - to make something certain to happen.
2. Garbled Message - if words or messages are garbled, they are not clear and
are very difficult to understand, often giving a false idea of the facts.
3. Spare - If something is spare, it is available to use because it is extra.
4. Up-To-Date - modern, recent, or containing the latest information.
1. Have you ever had a loss of communication during your flight and how did you
manage the situation? If not, do you know someone who had?
2. In your opinion, loss of communication is usually lead by a human induced error or
a machine induced error? Why?
3. What has changed in aviation in the last few years to prevent loss of communication
incidents/accidents?
4. Newer aircraft features new technologies such as glass cockpit, FMS (Flight
Management System) and many other systems. All these technologies came to
improve human and machine errors. In your opinion, do you think that new
technologies could also lead to a loss of communication scenario?
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7.29 Low Cost Carriers
Low-cost carriers (LCC) have become a popular alternative to traditional scheduled

airlines over the last two decades. As the summer holiday season has arrived, we look
at the low-cost market segment, the changes in its business model, and how it has
expanded in the last 10 years.
The low-cost model focuses on business and operational practices that reduce airline
costs. That means using secondary airports (with lower taxes), charging for services
like seat reservation, checked-in baggage, meals and snacks.
LCC typically used to fly short-haul routes so that they could return to their home
base at night, and thus/therefore avoid hangarage and other costs. However, this is
gradually changing; for instance, low-cost airline LEVEL (from the IAG Group) has
started long-haul flights from Barcelona to North and South America.
Moreover, while sticking to single-aisle aircraft this market segment has a preference
for aircraft with more seats (median of 150 seats vs 137 seats for the traditional
scheduled segment) and usually a single aircraft type (e.g. Ryanair: B737-800 aircraft),
which helps lower MRO (maintenance, repair, overhaul) costs and improves crew
flexibility.
LCC has been the fastest growing market segment, to the detriment of Traditional
Scheduled. From 2007 to 2016, low-cost flights grew by 61% (from 5,200 flights per
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day to 8,400 flights) whereas traditional scheduled flights were down 10% (from 16,300
flights per day to 14,700 flights). At times, LCC was also the only sector growing in
periods of economic and political uncertainty.
Advantages and Drawbacks:
Pros
• Price: passengers can save a lot of money when searching for tickets on a LCC.
Going for low-fare airlines can help people save as much as 50% to 80%,
especially when booking early.
• Frequent Promotions: every now and then, people will find big discounts on
airfare for certain routes.
• One-way Tickets: some passengers only travel one way so even when buying
low cost tickets, they don’t have to spend extra for a return as some airlines
won’t charge you extra.
• Off-peak Benefits: prices will be even lower if you’re getting red-eye flights or
when travelling during non-peak hours or days.
A red-eye flight is any flight departing late at night and arriving early the next morning.
The term red-eye, common in North America, derives from the fatigue symptom of
having red eyes, which can be caused or aggravated by late-night travel.
Drawbacks
• No Refunds: almost all, if not all, airlines will not allow refunds. If you need to
reschedule your flight, you will be charged with high fees.
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• Baggage Restrictions: generally, LCC tickets do not include baggage to be
checked in. Or, if they do, you will have to pay huge fees for excess baggage.
• Bad Schedule: airlines usually offer cheap tickets for very early morning or
midnight flights.
• Hidden Fees: there may be hidden fees, taxes, insurance costs and other
added expenses that will increase the amount significantly.
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1. Charging for Services - to ask an amount of money for something, especially
a service or activity.
2. Detriment - harm or damage.
3. Drawbacks - Disadvantages.
4. Fees - an amount of money paid for a particular piece of work or for a particular
right or service.
5. Hidden - (past participle of easy) not easy to find.
6. Long-Haul Flights - travelling a long distance.
7. Meals - an occasion when food is eaten, or the food that is eaten on such an
occasion.
8. Off-Peak - not at the most popular and expensive time, when many people are
doing or using a particular thing.
9. Refunds - an amount of money that is given back to you, especially because
you are not happy with a product or service that you have bought.
10. Roster - a list of people's names, often with the jobs they have been given to
do.
11. Short-Haul Flights - travelling a short distance.
12. Snacks - a small amount of food that is eaten between meals, or a very small
meal.
1. Have you ever flown a Low-Cost Carrier as a passenger or as a pilot before? If you
have, how was your experience? If you haven’t, would you like to?
2. What are the differences between a Low-Cost Carrier and a traditional scheduled
carrier?
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3. Would you like to work as a pilot in any of these low-cost companies? Are there any
differences between LCC’s and traditional’s scheduled rosters?
4. Nowadays many traditional Brazilian airlines are becoming LCC. Do you think there
will be more opportunity for pilots to get a job or will it be more competitive?
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7.30 Medical Emergencies
Definition:
Commercial airlines serve well over a billion passengers annually. Although they are
not an everyday occurrence, in-flight medical emergencies, involving passengers or,
on a less frequent basis, crew, are inevitable.
These in-flight medical emergencies can be divided into two categories:
• Injury related situations;

• Health related situations.
Injuries can occur as a result of a turbulence encounter, luggage falling from an

overhead bin, an onboard altercation / argument or due to burns resulting from contact
with hot liquids or galley ovens.
Health issues for a single passenger can range from fainting or shortness of breath to
allergic reaction to missed medication to gastrointestinal issues to stroke, heart attack
or even death.
Cabin crew are trained to provide first aid and limited medical assistance but are not
qualified to deal with all potential situations.
Flight Crew Response:
Flight crew response to an on-board medical emergency will depend on the nature of
the problem, the degree of urgency for medical intervention and the location and phase
of flight in which the situation occurs.
Unless the situation is considered immediately life threatening, it is normal that no

decisions will be taken until more information is available through an assessment and
diagnosis process. However, the flight crew should use the time between first
notification and the end of the assessment/diagnosis process to consider their
diversion options and the implications of any diversion decision. Consultation with
Company operations may be prudent at this stage.
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Diagnosis:
For anything other than a very minor medical complaint, the Purser or In-Charge Flight
Attendant will normally make a PA announcement asking if there is a doctor or other
qualified medical professional (nurse, paramedic, etc) on board. If there is a positive
response, the medical professional will be asked to assess the patient and to advise
the crew of the best course of action.
In the absence of a medical professional, many air carriers have a standing

arrangement with emergency medical service providers such as Med Link, Stat MD or
Med Aire. These service providers can be used both pre-flight and in-flight. By one of
these methods, direct communication with an emergency room/trauma center
physician is possible.
Diversion:
The decision to continue or to divert will be based, primarily, on the condition of the
patient and the proximity of the planned destination. However, in some cases, it may
be more prudent to divert to a location which is actually further away than the planned
destination. This could occur in the case where the destination is remote with little or
no medical support capability.
When choosing a diversion airfield, considerations can be listed under three primary
categories: medical, operational and commercial. (enter skybrary.com for more
details).
On-Board Medical Equipment
• One or more first aid kits (FAK) will be on the aircraft. These contain most of the
items that might be required to deal with a non-life-threatening injury such as a
burn, cut or broken bone. Cabin crew are fully trained in emergency first aid
procedures;
• Therapeutic oxygen;
• An Automated External Defibrillator (AED) is carried on board most commercial
aircraft for heart related emergencies;
• An emergency medical kit, containing various drugs and both diagnostics is
carried on board many commercial aircraft. Cabin crew are not trained or
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qualified to administer drugs and the contents of this kit can only be accessed
and administered by a licensed medical practitioner.
1. Absence - an absence can also be a lack of existence.
2. Altercation - a loud argument or disagreement.
3. Assessment - to judge or decide the amount, value, quality, or importance of
something.
4. Drugs - any natural or artificially made chemical that is used as a medicine.
5. Faint - to become unconscious.
6. Minor - having little importance, influence, or effect, especially when compared
with other things of the same type.
7. Nurse - a person whose job is to care for people who are ill or injured, especially
in a hospital.
8. Stroke - a sudden change in the blood supply to a part of the brain, sometimes
causing a loss of the ability to move particular parts of the body.
1. Imagine you were the pilot and a flight attendant informed you that there was a
passenger suffering a heart attack on board. What would you do in this situation?
2. What is the decision-making process like?
3. In your opinion, what event causes the most deaths on board planes?
4. Look carefully at the picture below. How would you describe it?
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7.31 Microbursts
Definition
A Microburst is defined as a Downburst which affects an area of 4 km in diameter or

less. A Downburst is the production of strong wings in all directions created in an area
of significantly rain-cooled, descending air, usually associated with the mature of a
Cumulonimbus cloud. This type of cloud creates downdrafts movements and they can
be very powerful, with vertical winds of 6,000 ft per minute.
Strong winds varying in directions and rain, hail, or virga can be encountered in a
Microburst area.
FIGURE 25 - VIRGA
Effects of Microbursts
• Loss of control due to strong winds;

• The downward wind can force the aircraft into the ground;
• Lose altitude;
• Stall, as on final approach the aircraft speed is relatively low;
• Cause injuries due to the downburst movement;
• Lose situational awareness.
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Defenses:
Detecting a downburst is not easy. The effects are usually localized and, if the
precipitation evaporates before reaching the ground (Virga), may not necessarily be
associated with heavy rain or hail.
• Systems to detect wind shear;

• Predictive wind shear (PWS) warning systems on aircraft;
• Use of Weather Radar;
• Perform a good pre-flight, checking the METAR’s and other meteorological
bulletins available;
• Listen to Pilot Report;
• Listen to ATIS;
• Familiarity with local weather phenomena.
FIGURE 26 - MICROBURST AREA
1. Downdrafts - downward-moving air currents.
2. Downward - moving towards a lower position.
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3. Familiarity - a good knowledge of something, or the fact that you know it so
well.
4. Virga - precipitation which evaporates before reaching the surface.
1. Have you ever encountered a microburst during your flight?

2. What do you think that pilots should do to avoid such a meteorological condition?
3. Pilots usually are trained with adverse meteorological conditions on simulators. If
the pilot come across with poor weather conditions, do you think that he will be able
to act properly?
4. Look at the picture below: how would you describe it? Remember to tell about what
could have happened before during and after the picture was taken and ways of
prevention.
FONTE - worldwarwings.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/micro-burst-plane.jpg
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7.32 Non-Avian Wildlife Hazard
Definition:
Non-avian wildlife hazard usually involves the hazards of a potential impact with ground
dwelling mammals (mamíferos terrestres). Just like birds, these animals quickly adapt
to the normal noise and activity conditions of a chosen habitat and have no innate fear
of aircraft or vehicles on airports.
Note: Bats are the only flying mammals that are considered an avian wildlife hazard.
An encounter between a particular animal and a large transport aircraft might produce
relatively insignificant damage whereas if that aircraft is much smaller, the
consequences of an impact may even lead directly to an accident or/and injury to its
occupants. However, it’s very rare to find large animals such as a bear inside an airport.
The encounter with a mammal on an airport will depend on the habitat feature, for
example: the location of the aerodrome; existence of trees and shrubs in or near the
airport; temperature conditions, etc.
What Could Be the Effects of a Collision with a Non-Avian Wildlife?
The collision assessment will depend on the size of the mammal and of the aircraft.
As said before, the damages involving a big aircraft are less significant when compared
to a small aircraft.
• Structural failure;
• Engine flameout;
• Engine surge;
• Cracked windshield;
• Runway Excursion;
• Pilot incapacitation – pass out or pass away.
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FIGURE 27 - SMALL PLANE HIT A GIRAFFE
Controlling the Hazards
• Use perimeter/protective fences;

• Eliminate dumping ground in the airport vicinity;
• Habitat control of the existing animals;
• Make use of CCTV (closed circuit television) cameras.
It is the pilot’s responsibility to check the airport conditions where he is going to and
where he is departing from. Usually, there are indications of the most common animals
that take the airport area as a habitat. In this case we can smell the animal’s odor; the
sounds; blood stains and broken up protective fences.
Most Common Mammals That Features in Aircraft Incidents:
• Deer species are top of the list overall with over 40 deer strikes per year
regularly occurring in North America;
• Coyotes are the next animal most often encountered in North America;
• In Europe, red foxes are often the most common sighting at airports of all sizes
although they are only quite infrequently hit by aircraft.
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1. Assessment - to judge or decide the amount, value, quality, or importance of
something.
2. Blood Stains - a mark made by blood, often as a result of a violent event.
3. Deer - a quite large animal with four legs that eats grass and leaves.
4. Fence - a structure that divides two areas of land, similar to a wall but made of
wood or wire and supported with posts.
5. Innate - An innate quality or ability is one that you were born with, not one you
have learned.
6. Pass Away - die.
7. Pass Out - to become unconscious.
8. Shrubs - a large plant with a rounded shape formed from many small branches
growing either directly from the ground or from a hard stem, grown in gardens.
9. Strike - to hit or attack someone or something forcefully or violently.
1. What should be done to prevent animals on the loose in airports?

2. In your opinion, what has been changing in airports to prevent non-avian wildlife
hazards?
3. Have you ever seen wildlife loose in airports? What did you do?
4. Look at the picture below and tell me what you can see in it and what you think is
happening. Then, answer the following question. (remember to say what happened
before and after this picture was taken).
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What factors may contribute to a mammal impact with an aircraft?
5. Read the statement below and tell me to what extent you agree or disagree with it:
“An encounter between a particular animal and a large transport aircraft might produce
relatively insignificant damage whereas if that aircraft is much smaller, the
consequences of an impact may even lead directly to an accident. A few animals such
as bears, and large deer species are so large that the safety of an aircraft of any size
would be at risk if one was hit.”
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7.33 Pilot Fitness to Fly
Description:
Pilot careers are lasting much longer, and pilots are retiring later than they retired in
the past. Annual flying hours and work-related demands are constantly increasing. It is
crucial, now more than ever, that professional pilots maintain not only their medical
certificates, but also optimal physical and mental health both during, and after their
flying careers. A pilot must be able to perform essential job functions and not be limited
because of any health and fitness risks.
ICAO`s historic approach to Medical Fitness in license holders has been based on
detecting increased medical incapacitation risk (from ill health) once it has occurred,
and by taking action to reduce the impact on aviation safety, such as restricting a
license or removing the license holder from operations.
Figure 28 - Cartoon
Source – www.caglecartoons.com
“Use it or lose it!” That old saying not only relates to certain flying skills but also to the
human body. Muscles that aren’t used tend to waste and weaken. To keep muscles
and the cardiovascular system working at their optimum levels, they must be stimulated
and utilized. Being more physically fit will generally make you look and feel better. A
high level of personal fitness can help to cope with the various emotional and physical
stressors that are encountered in the flight environment.
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It should also be recognized that fitness for duty in aviation also relates directly to flight
attendants, air traffic controllers, maintenance technicians, dispatchers and ground
handlers.
Effects:
The effects of a reduced physical and/or mental state of fitness in a pilot can be minimal
to far reaching, with potential and real Risk to Life situations. In the modern world of
aviation there are several factors to consider which alone or together can significantly
affect the outcome of a flight:
• Use of certain over-the-counter drugs (e.g., Benadryl);

• Use of illicit or recreational drugs;
• Impairing conditions associated with aging;
• Lack of proper medication information; and,
• Lack of education.
The effect of some, or all of these factors can present themselves onboard as:
• Flight management system programming errors;

• Checklist omissions;
• Altitude deviations;
• Standard operating procedure non-compliance;
• Missed radio calls and clearances;
• Requests for physical assistance.
Defenses:
A healthy lifestyle helps to ensure that professional pilots pose a minimal risk to safety
from the beginning of their careers until they retire. In short, this can be accomplished
by:
• Maintaining a healthy heart;

• Developing mental health resilience;
• Adopting a low-risk strategy toward alcohol;
• Avoiding illicit drugs;
• Adopting cancer avoidance habits;
• Managing diet and weight;
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• Getting sufficient sleep;
• Understanding and reducing travel-related risks;
• Use of hearing and vision protection.
Recent research in the science of preventive medicine has demonstrated that following
appropriate recommendations on health maintenance can be expected to significantly
reduce the number of medical problems experienced during a career.
Are you fit to fly?
Your doctor does not see you daily. You have to seek him out when you think you
have a health condition. However, on a day-to-day basis, you have the responsibility
to determine if you are Fit to Fly or possibly should seek medical attention. If you think
of the following Questions & Answers, it will help you make a safe decision.
I Illness Am I ill? Do I feel sick in any way?
I take drugs: will they impair my thinking, judgment or

M Medication
performance?
S Stress Am I mentally fit? Can I devote my full attention to flying?
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When did I take the last drink? Am I suffering hangover
A Alcohol
effects?
F Fatigue Am I physically fatigued? Am I too tired to give 100%?
E Eating Am I hungry? Did I eat too much? Do I have indigestion?
I’M SAFE, is a checklist to help you remember the main lifestyle risk factors that might
impair your performance during flight.
Source: www.SkyBrary.aero
Text adapted and edited.
1. Accomplished – to do or finish something successfully; achieve something.

2. Cope With – to deal successfully with a difficult situation.
3. Day-to-day – happening every day as a regular part of your job or life.
4. Devote – to give your time or effort completely to something you believe in or to a
person, or to use a particular amount of time or energy doing something.
5. Duty – something that you have to do because it is part of your job, or something
that you feel is the right thing to don
6. Hangover – a feeling of illness after drinking too much alcohol.
7. Impair – to spoil something or make it weaker so that it is less effective.
8. Outcome – a result or effect of an action, situation, etc.
9. Over-the-counter drugs – drugs that are bought over the counter are bought in a
shop without first visiting a doctor.
10. Resilience – the ability to be happy, successful, etc. again after something difficult
or bad has happened.
11. Retire – to leave your job or stop working because of old age or ill health.
12. Seek Someone / something out – to look for someone or something, especially
for a long time until you find him, her, or it.
13. Weaken – to (cause to) become less strong, powerful, determined, or effective.
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1. Why do pilots need to take medical exams?
2. Do you think airline companies deal adequately with pilots calling in sick?
“Health-related fitness is extremely important for pilots and aircrew to carry out their
roles. However, this is not the only one matter that will increase the flight safety alone.”
If the candidate asks for clarification:
“Pilot fitness is important, but it is not the only thing that should be considered to
increase the flight safety.”
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7.34 Pilot Incapacitation
Definition:
A pilot incapacitation is the inability of a pilot to carry out his normal activity due to
physiological factors. However, a pilot incapacitation could be led by other external
factors such as bird strike, for example.
Although most recorded deaths of operating pilots in flight have been found to be due
to cardiovascular disease, by far the most common cause of flight crew incapacitation
is gastroenteritis.
What Factors May Cause a Pilot Incapacitation?
• Hypoxia;
• Smoke and fumes;
• Lack of sleep;
• Medical conditions;
• Bird Strike that lead to a physical injury;
• Unlawful Interference;
• Malicious targeting of aircraft with high powered lasers by persons on the
ground;
• Food Allergy or Food Poisoning.
What May Be the Effects of a Pilot Incapacitation to The Flight?
• Loss of separation;
• Loss of communication;
• Increase pilot’s level of stress;
• Lose situational awareness;
Clearly, if the single pilot of a small aircraft becomes incapacitated then the safety of
the flight is liable to be severely compromised.
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Conforming with standard loss of communication procedures, military aircraft can be
tasked to intercept the aircraft and inspect it visually but there is little that a controller
can do other than ensure the safety of surrounding traffic by maintaining separation.
Possible Solutions and Ways of Prevention:
The key to avoid serious problems from the incapacitation of one pilot in a multi crew
aircraft is the availability of appropriate SOPs and recurrent training which includes
practice in their use.
a. S.O.P (standard operational procedures);

b. Training of emergency scenarios related to incapacitation in simulators;
c. Proper maintenance (it will prevent any failure. Ex: in the pressurization
system);
d. Staggering crew meal times – each pilot eat different type of food. It will
prevent food poisoning;
e. Arrange the flight schedules / rosters;
f. Callouts.
1. Avoid - to stay away from someone or something.
2. Carry Out - to do or complete something, especially that you have said you
would do or that you have been told to do.
3. Fumes - strong, unpleasant, and sometimes dangerous gas or smoke.
4. Malicious - intended to harm or upset other people.
5. Pass Away - die.
6. Pass Out - to become unconscious.
7. Poisoning - an illness caused by eating, drinking, or breathing a dangerous
substance.
8. Proper - real, satisfactory, suitable, or correct.
9. Rosters - a list of people's names, often with the jobs they have been given to
do.
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10. Stagger - to arrange things, especially hours of work, holidays, or events, so
that they begin at different times from those of other people.
11. Smoke – the grey, black, or white mixture of gas and very small pieces of carbon
that is produced when something burns.
12. Unlawful - not allowed by law.
1. In your opinion, what factors may lead a pilot to become incapacitated?

2. What are the risks of a pilot incapacitation?
3. Imagine your captain has passed out during flight. Create a short communication
between pilot and ATCO saying your intentions. (Call Sign: ANAC 123. ATCO: RIO
APPROACH).
4. What would you do if your captain passed out during final approach prior from
landing?
5. Nowadays, do you think that pilots (both captains and first officers) are well trained
to deal with a pilot incapacitation scenario?
6. Now, look at the picture below. Tell me what you can see in this picture and what
you think is happening in it. You may take a few moments to think before you start
talking.
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7. Read the statements below and tell me if you agree or disagree with it and why.
a) “Death is the most extreme example of incapacitation, usually as a result of a
heart attack, but is not necessarily the most hazardous.”
b) “The copilot is also very well trained to land/operate the aircraft in case of a
single pilot operation due to pilot incapacitation”.
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7.35 Pilots Shortage
“The Big Problem Driving the Aviation Industry’s Pilot Shortage”

Article author: Alex Davis
The aviation industry and government regulators have created a perfect storm, but you
have to look closely at the radar to realize where the danger really is. There are, and
will always be, enough pilots who want to fly airplanes to keep the equipment in the
sky. The pilot shortage storm we are entering into is not necessarily a large problem
for the majors right now, but it’s a primary issue with where they get many of their
pilots from: regional or commuter carriers. And, it’s not a matter of pilots, the key word
here is qualified pilots. That one word is the issue, so let’s work backward and see
where and how the industry trend and pilot shortage problem started.
A perfect storm isn’t built on just one ingredient. It arises out of a rare combination of
adverse factors and this storm starts with a declining pilot pool. In 1980, the general
aviation industry was booming with over 827,000 active certificated pilots. There was
a strong community but with the restrictions of security after 9/11, walls went up and
simply having the ability to hang around the airport disappeared.
In 2015 there were only 590,039 pilots total (including students) and only 487,310 of
those held at least a private license. Having 339,690 fewer pilots at the same time that
the aviation demands are growing is the first ingredient for our perfect storm. And don’t
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forget, of those numbers, only a small percentage actually want to make a career out
of aviation.
So, where did all our pilots go? Given the economic turmoil in past years, one might
immediately assume our disposable personal income has disappeared and people
can’t afford to learn how to fly. The reality is that our expendable income has remained
on a steady ratio climb since 1959. At least a portion of our population still has some
money to spend on learning how to fly if they so choose. If the option is still there for
many, maybe the cost of flight training has changed?
It has always been expensive to learn how to fly, but now that our airspace and
airplanes have become more complex, it does take longer to get your licenses. Then,
you don’t just need the ratings because since the rules changed in 2013, you’re also
required to have 1500 flight hours to prove you’re qualified. Once again, there are many
variables, and the cost of being a qualified pilot is now around $65-80,000 on average,
but it could cost more. That’s a lot more than disposable income, so only a small
percentage of the population can handle these costs. Additionally, airlines want college
degrees and you’re looking at $100-150,000 to become a qualified pilot for a
commuter airline where average starting salaries are around $22,500 per year.
Now, to add the final elements to the storm, in 2007, the FAA pushed the retirement
age up to 65 and airlines were gearing up to hire pilots to replace those retiring, but
with the sudden age shift, the hiring slowed, and the problem was just pushed down
the road.
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You’ll be hearing a lot about Ab Initio training in the future. It’s one idea, but it’s still not
balanced. It’s a program where an airline trains their own pilots who have little or no
flight time in exchange for a long employment contract, but it has its drawbacks. Having
a pilot grind away in the sky with the autopilot on to reach 1500 hours isn’t going to
make them better pilots. The commercial aviation industry really needs pilots with a
variety of flying experiences.
It’s about creating an environment that allows pilots to shine and passengers to enjoy
their flight while still putting a smile on an accountant’s face. It is possible if there is a
balance, but we’ll all have to change our position to find it.
1. Accountant - someone who keeps or examines the records of money received,

paid, and owed by a company or person.
2. Average - the result you get by adding two or more amounts together and
dividing the total by the number of amounts.
3. Commuter Carriers: regional airline linking small destinations with the large
cities, usually as an affiliate of a larger airline and often under a codesharing
arrangement (reciprocal agreement through which two or more airlines).
4. Disposable / Expendable income - the money that you can spend as you want
and not the money that you spend on taxes, food, and other basic needs.
5. Gear Up - to prepare for an activity or event.
6. Grind Away - to work hard and in a determined way over a long period of time,
often on something that is boring or difficult.
7. Handle - to deal with, have responsibility for, or be in charge of.
8. Hang Around - to wait or spend time somewhere, usually for no particular
reason.
9. Majors - more important, bigger, or more serious than others of the same type.
10. Make A Career Out - follow the career to become a professional.
11. Realize - to notice.
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12. Shortage - a situation in which there is not enough of something.
13. Turmoil - a state of confusion, uncertainty, or disorder.
1. Do you agree with the author’s point of view?

2. Regarding the employment methods and requirements to work in an airline, do you
think that these will be changed in the near future?
3. In your opinion, what do you think is the biggest problem in Brazil that pilots cannot
find themselves a job opportunity?
4. From your point of view, what should change nowadays that would allow more pilots
to be hired?
5. Read the statement below and then you will have to tell me to what extent you
agree or disagree with it:
“There are, and will always be, enough pilots who want to fly airplanes to keep the
equipment in the sky”.
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7.36 Runway Excursion
Definition
A runway excursion involves:
• An overrun: the aircraft departs from the end of the runway. In other words,
there is no more runway length available.
FIGURE 29 – OVERRUN
• A veer off: the aircraft departs from the side of the runway.
FIGURE 30 – VEER OFF
Possible Consequences of a Runway Excursion:

• Damage to the aircraft components;
• Structural Failure.
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Factors That May Contribute to a Runway Excursion
• Poor weather conditions. Ex: low visibility; fog; turbulence;

• Rotate the aircraft before V1, that would lead to a tail strike and, if there is
no more runway length available, the aircraft would overrun the runway;
• Wind gusts;
• Aircraft’s systems malfunction;
• Unstable approach;
• Rejected takeoff;
• Complacency;
• Runway wet / Contaminated runway;
• Poor braking action.
Reducing the Risks:
• Reduce the pilot’s workload;

• Check the aerodrome METAR’s / TAF’s;
• Proper training in simulators;
• Effective decision making;
• Follow procedures. Ex: if needed, perform a go around.
1. Complacency – a feeling of calm satisfaction with your own abilities or situation
that prevents you from trying harder.
2. Fog – a weather condition in which very small drops of water come together to
form a thick cloud close to the land or sea ocean, making it difficult to see.
3. Length – the measurement of something from end to end or along its longest
side.
4. Malfunction – to fail to work or operate correctly.
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1. Have you ever had a runway excursion before? If not, what would you do if faced
with a situation of an overrun?
2. How common do you think runway excursions happen?
3. What do you think that will change in aviation in the following years to prevent
runway excursion?
4. What factors may contribute to an aircraft veer off or overrun the runway?
5. Look at the picture below. How would you describe this picture? Remember to think
outside the box.
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7.37 Runway Incursion
Definition
Any occurrence at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an aircraft, vehicle

or person on the protected area of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of
aircraft. This incorrect presence on the runway could be probably led by a
misunderstood of an ATC clearance.
Possible Consequences of a Runway Incursion:
• Collision with an incoming aircraft;

• Aircraft structure and components damage;
Scenarios:
• ATCO-induced situation: ATC issues a clearance but there is a lack of

space between an aircraft landing or departure;
• Flight Crew-induced situation: flight crew is unfamiliar with the airport,
leading to a disorientation.
• Vehicle driver-induced situation: the driver is not familiar with the
maneuvering area and misinterprets the runway entry clearance issued by
ATC which causes him to enter the runway at the incorrect position.
Factors That May Contribute to a Runway Incursion:
• Poor weather conditions. Ex: low visibility; fog; turbulence;

• Aerodrome design. Ex: the aircraft must cross active runways to move;
• Multiple Line-ups;
• Long ATC clearance instructions;
• Use of non-standard phraseology;
• Lack of fluency in English language;
• Pilot and Controller workload;
• Distraction.
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Reducing the Risks:
• Use of technologies. Ex: Aerodrome Charts via tablets;

• Use of standard phraseology;
• Use of ground radars;
• Runway and taxiways lighting;
• Use of TCAS;
• Communicate all the time;
• Readback instructions;
• Reduce the pilot’s and controller’s workload;
• Work on hot spot areas, trying to reduce the number of incidents / accidents;
• When talking to pilots / controllers who don’t speak native English, break up
the message into its individual words by using short pauses.
1. Break Up the Message - to divide something into smaller pieces or separate
parts, in this case, the message.
2. Hot spot - a specific area on the airport where there are many
incidents/accidents reported, usually they are at intersections with runways.
3. Misinterpret - to form an understanding that is not correct of something that is
said or done.
4. Misunderstand - to think you have understood someone or something when
you have not.
1. What do you think that will change in aviation in the following years to prevent
runway incursion?
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2. Have you ever had a runway incursion before? If not, have you ever heard of
someone that had a runway incursion?
3. Look at the picture below. Now, imagine you are the pilot of the aircraft on short
final. Report to the controller your intentions.
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7.38 Sandstorm
Definition:
Sandstorm is defined as Clouds of blowing sand or dust and it’s common in arid or
semi-arid areas, commonly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula.
FIGURE 31 - SANDSTORM INFLIGHT

Description:
A sandstorm is created by
• An advancing Gust Front:

o ahead of a Cumulonimbus cloud (typical in the Sahara)
o along a cold front where cool air passing over hot ground creates
instability in the air above (typical in the US mid-west).
• Strong winds: when the wind speed increases above the threshold speed
needed to lift and transport surface particles.
An advancing sandstorm associated with a gust front is a spectacular sight and looks
like an advancing wall of swirling sand. The height of this wall can be 1 nm or more;
in situations where there is significant atmospheric instability, dust can reach as high
as 20,000 feet.
The diurnal variation in wind speed is usually significant in the regions where
sandstorms are common and therefore sandstorms do not normally occur at night.
Effects:
Sandstorm activity results in:
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• reduced visibility;
• the ingestion of sand and dust particles into engine, pitot static systems and air
conditioning packs causing blockage and corrosion.
• Delays;
• Reduce situational awareness.
Defenses:
• Awareness: a knowledge of local climatology and the weather forecast for the
route to be flown is essential.
• Schedules should be designed to avoid the times when sandstorms are most
prevalent.
• Plans to deal with the consequences of a sandstorm, such as blowing sand
across aircraft operating surfaces, can be developed by airport authorities.
Solutions:
If already on the ground and a sandstorm is approaching:
• Consider turning the aircraft into wind and tie down if the winds are forecast to
be strong.
• Fit covers to intakes, vents and tubes to prevent ingress of sand and dust.
Within the aircraft, cover any areas where the ingress of dust could possibly
interfere with flying controls e.g. throttle quadrant and levers.
• Before subsequent flight, check and clear intakes and vents of any sand and
dust. If possible, vacuum the flight deck to remove as much dust as possible.
1. Blockage - something that stops something else passing through, or the act of
stopping something passing through.
2. Blowing - to move and make currents of air, or to be moved or make something
move on a current of air.
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3. Intakes - an opening through which air, liquid, or gas is taken in.
4. Knowledge - understanding of or information about a subject that you get by
experience or study, either known by one person or by people generally.
5. Sight - something that is in someone's view.
6. Swirling - to (cause to) move quickly with a twisting, circular movement.
7. Tie down - to hold someone or something in place with ropes.
8. Vacuum - to use a vacuum cleaner to collect dust, dirt, etc.:
1. Have you ever encountered a sandstorm when flying? If not, what actions would
you take to deal with this situation?
2. From your point of view, do you think a sandstorm is a dangerous weather
phenomenon? Why?
3. What are the possible outputs caused by a sandstorm to ground personnel?
4. Look at the picture below and tell me: how would you describe it?
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7.39 Situational Awareness
Definition:
Put simply, situational awareness (SA) means appreciating all you need to know about
what is going on when the full scope of your task - flying, controlling or maintaining an
aircraft - is taken into account. More specifically and in the context of complex
operational environments, SA is concerned with the person's knowledge of particular
task-related events and phenomena. For example, for a fighter pilot SA means knowing
about the threats and intentions of enemy forces as well as the status of his/her own
aircraft. For an air traffic controller, SA means (at least partly) knowing about current
aircraft positions and flight plans and predicting future states so as to detect possible
conflicts.
Therefore, in operational terms, SA means having an understanding of the

current state and dynamics of a system and being able to anticipate future
change and developments.
A general definition of SA is that it is the

perception of the elements in the environment
within a volume of time and space, the
comprehension of their meaning and the
projection of their status in the near future.
For a pilot, situational awareness means having

a mental picture of the existing inter-
relationship of location, flight conditions,
configuration and energy state of your aircraft
as well as any other factors that could be about
to affect its safety such as proximate terrain,
obstructions, airspace reservations and
weather systems.
Consequences:
The potential consequences of inadequate situational awareness include:
• Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT);
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• loss of control;
• airspace infringement;
• loss of separation;
• an encounter with wake vortex turbulence;
• severe air turbulence;
• heavy icing;
• unexpectedly strong head winds.
Defenses:
Situational awareness is so important that much of the working environment of both

the pilot and the ATCO is designed and used to help maintain it.
• For the ATCO, this includes communication, with aircraft (voice and data link)
and with other controllers; and radar, together with associated safety systems.
• For the pilot, this includes communication with the controller; monitoring
communication between controllers and other aircraft; visual look-out;
navigation (including use of maps and charts); and aircraft safety systems,
including GPWS/TAWS, Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS) and
GPWS/TAWS.
Contributory Factors:
• Interruptions and distractions;

• Use of the local language on a frequency used by pilots who are not familiar
with it;
• Pilot or ATCO workload;
• Poor radio discipline.
Typical Scenarios:
• A pilot is cleared for an approach at night to an airport with which they are not
familiar, but decides to fly by visual reference instead of following the vertical
profile of the assigned instrument procedure because they can see the runway
in the distance; Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT) results;
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• The pilot copies a clearance incorrectly but fails to read it back; the read-back
omission is overlooked by the ATCO and the aircraft climbs to a level to which
it has not been cleared creating a level bust.
1. Assign – if you assign a time for a job or activity, you decide it will be done during
that time.
2. Environment – the conditions that you live or work in and the way that they
influence how you feel or how effectively you can work; surroundings.
3. Infringement – an action that breaks a rule, law, etc.
4. Overlook – to overlook is also to forgive bad behavior.
5. Predict – to say that an event or action will happen in the future, especially as a
result of knowledge or experience.
6. Take Into Account – to consider or remember something when judging a situation.
7. Task – a piece of work to be done, especially one done regularly, unwillingly, or
with difficulty.
8. Workload – the amount of work to be done, especially by a particular person or
1. How can airlines improve aviation safety?

2. How dangerous may a loss of situational awareness be?
“As the names implies, situational awareness is simply knowing what’s going on
around you. It sounds easy in principle, but in reality it requires much practice. In a
dangerous situation, being aware of a threat even seconds before everyone else can
keep you and your passengers safe.” (www.artofmanliness.com – edited)
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7.40 Tail Strike
Description:
A tail strike occurs when the aft fuselage (tail) of an airplane comes in contact with the
runway during either takeoff or landing. Statistically, the majority of tail strikes occur on
landing. Tail strikes most often occur as a result of human error although environmental
factors, such as strong gusty winds, can increase the potential for an event.
Discussion:
Some designs are far more susceptible to tail strike than others and, dependent upon
the aircraft type and model, the relative frequency of tail strike on takeoff versus tail
strike on landing can vary significantly. "Stretched" models of a given type are generally
more likely to suffer a tail strike than the non-stretched version.
Various studies by several of the major aircraft manufacturers have arrived at similar
conclusions: the most significant common factor has been found to be the amount of
flight crew experience with the specific model of aircraft being flown. This conclusion
points to robust crew training as the single most critical preventative measure.
Causal Factors:
Studies have also identified eight specific Causal Factors, evenly distributed between
the takeoff and landing phases of flight, which greatly increase the risk of a tail strike:
1. Improperly Set Elevator Trim or Mis-Trimmed Stabilizer - A mis-trimmed

stabilizer or mis-set elevator trim during takeoff is not a common occurrence.
When it does occur, however, it is usually as a result of mistakes in the Load
and Trim calculations leading to erroneous data, the wrong weights or an
incorrect center of gravity (CG). There have also been cases where the
information presented to the flight crew was accurate, but it was entered
incorrectly either into the Flight Management System (FMS) or to the stabilizer
itself. In either case, the stabilizer is set in the wrong position.
2. Rotation at Incorrect Speed - This situation is usually caused by a VR that has
been computed incorrectly and is too low for the weight and flap setting.
3. Excessive Rotation Rate - Pilots operating an airplane type that is new to
them, especially when they are transitioning from unpowered flight controls to
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ones with hydraulic assistance, are most vulnerable to using an excessive
rotation rate.
4. Improper Use of the Flight Director - The flight director (FD) is designed to
provide accurate pitch guidance only after the airplane is airborne. An
aggressive rotation into the pitch bar at takeoff is not appropriate and may
actually rotate the tail onto the ground.
5. Unstabilised Approach - Flight Data Recorder (FDR) data demonstrates that
flight crews who continue an unstabilised approach below 500' AGL will likely
never get the approach stabilised.
6. Excessive Hold Off in the Flare - A common cause of a tail strike during
landing is a long flare, often precipitated by a desire to achieve an extremely
smooth touch down. A soft touchdown is not essential to a good landing, nor
even desired, particularly if the runway is wet and there is risk of Aquaplaning.
7. Crosswinds - Crosswind can increase the risk of tail strike, particularly when
conditions are gusty.
8. Over-Rotation During Go-Around - A go-around initiated during the flare or
after a bounce is a common precursor to a tail strike. When the go-around mode
is selected, the FD immediately commands a go-around pitch attitude. If the PF
abruptly rotates into the command bars, tail strike can occur before a change to
the flight path is achieved. Both pitch and thrust are required to execute a go-
around, so if the engines are just spooling up when the PF abruptly pulls the
nose up, the thrust may not yet be adequate for the maneuver.
Effects:
Any tail strike can cause:
o Substantial damage to the aft fuselage of the aircraft which can be time
consuming and expensive to repair.
o Schedule interruption;
o The tail can strike the runway before the landing gear touches down, thus
absorbing large amounts of energy for which it is not designed, the aft
pressure bulkhead is often damaged as a result.
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o Result in a catastrophic failure at a later point in time. In the case of Boeing
747 accident, an improperly repaired pressure bulkhead, that had been
damaged by a tail strike, lead to the in-flight loss of the vertical stabilizer and
subsequent crash of the aircraft seven years later.
Defenses:
Aircraft defenses include:
• Fly-By-Wire takeoff rotation rate and angle limitations on some types;

• Tail skids or even small tail wheels to help reduce the amount of damage suffered
in the event of a tail strike event.
FIGURE – EXAMPLE OF A TAIL SKID
• Operational defenses include use of higher takeoff flap settings, when appropriate.
• Simulator training profiles inclusive of rotation rate practice, alternate flap takeoff
and balked landing exercises.
• Know your aircraft.
• Ensure that the computed speeds are correct for the weight and flap setting.
Confirm the accuracy of all FMS entries. Do not initiate rotation before VR.
• Use the manufacturer's recommended rotation rate. Where available, use a full
flight simulator to practice.
• Do not aggressively rotate the aircraft into the flight director pitch bar.
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• Do not continue an unstabilised approach.
• Trim the aircraft in the final approach but not in the flare.
• Do not excessively hold the aircraft off the runway in an attempt to achieve a smooth
touchdown.
• In gusty crosswind situations, actively control the sink rate. If conditions deteriorate
below an acceptable level, GO AROUND!
Definitions by Cambridge Dictionary, Wikipedia and pprune.org.
1. Accurate – correct, exact, and without any mistakes

2. Aft fuselage – Rear part of the aircraft, usually called the tail.
3. Airborne – in the air or carried by air or wind or by an aircraft.
4. Balked landing – A balked landing, also known as a go-around, is an aborted
landing of an aircraft that is on final approach for landing. In most cases, this
procedure is easily performed by the flight crew.
5. Bounce – to (cause to) move up or away after hitting a surface.
6. Bulkhead – a wall that divides the inside of a ship or aircraft.
7. Engines Spooling up – The spool up time is from idle to a point at which max
thrust is available virtually instantaneously; "Spool up" is a generic term which
refers to engine acceleration characteristics on a turbine from idle to maximum.
8. Hold off – (phrasal verb) to wait for a period of time before doing something.
9. Sink Rate – The temporal rate of decrease in altitude is referred to as the rate of
descent (RoD) or sink rate.
10. Smooth – happening without any sudden changes, interruption, inconvenience, or
difficulty.
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1. What factors might cause a tail strike?
2. Why could a tail strike result in severe structural damage to the aircraft fuselage?
3. Look at the picture below and tell me how you would describe it. (Remember, this
part aims not only picture description but discussion also).
“Some aircraft designs are way more susceptible to tail strike than others, therefore if
there is a combination of lack of design, gusty winds and poor training, the likelihood
of a tail strike increases significantly.”
Rephrase: Some types of aircraft are more vulnerable to suffer a tail strike than others,
so if there is a combination of several factors a tail strike situation may easily happen.
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7.41 Turbulence
Definition:
Turbulence is the relative movement of disturbed air through which an aircraft is flying.
Its origin may be thermal or mechanical and it may occur either within or clear of cloud.
The absolute severity of turbulence depends directly upon the rate at which the speed
or the direction of airflow (or both) is changing, although perception of the severity of
turbulence which has been encountered will be affected by the mass of the aircraft
involved.
Less severe, low level turbulence can also be the result of convection occasioned by
surface heating. It may also arise from convective air movements in or near a
thunderstorm.
• Wake Vortex Turbulence:

o Turbulence generated by the passage of an aircraft in flight. Where
another aircraft encounters such turbulence, a Wake Vortex Encounter
(WVE) is said to have occurred.
FIGURE 32 - WAKE VORTEX TURBULENCE
• Clear Air Turbulence (CAT):

o High-altitude turbulence encountered outside of convective clouds that
causes violent buffeting of aircraft.
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Turbulence Severities:
• Light turbulence / Light Chop: Least severe; slight changes in attitude
and/or altitude;
• Moderate turbulence: Similar to light turbulence but a bit more intense:
variations in speed as well as altitude and attitude may occur, but the aircraft
remains in control all the time.
• Severe turbulence: large, abrupt changes in attitude and altitude with large
variations in airspeed. There may be brief periods where effective control of
the aircraft is impossible. Loose objects may move around the cabin and
damage to aircraft structures may occur.
• Extreme turbulence: this is the most severe type of turbulence. It is capable
of causing structural damage and resulting directly in prolonged, possibly
terminal, loss of control of the aircraft.
The perception of turbulence severity experienced by an aircraft depends not only on

the strength of the air disturbance but also on the size of the aircraft - moderate
turbulence in a large aircraft may appear severe in a small aircraft. Therefore, pilot
reports of turbulence should mention the aircraft type to aid assessment of the
relevance to other pilots in, or approaching, the same area.
Possible Consequences of In-Flight Turbulence:
• Possible injuries (minor injuries; fatal injuries; severe injuries);
• Structural damages on an aircraft;
• Decrease situational awareness;
• Increase pilot’s workload and level of stress;
• Structural failure led by the rough movements of the wing due to air
instability;
• Cracks;
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Avoiding a Bumpy Ride:
As we know, this is a natural phenomenon therefore some turbulence cannot be

predicted. However, there are some ways of knowing the presence of the turbulence
in some areas, for example:
• Pilots should check the PIREPS (Pilots Reports);

• Check METAR’s, TAF’s and other available meteorological bulletins;
• Follow the standard separation given by the ATC, and as filed in the ICAO Wake
Turbulence Category document (in case of a wake turbulence);
• Check meteorological radars available;
• Plane makers should ensure that all aircraft are designed to support extreme
forces on its structure.
ACCIDENT
A306, vicinity JFK New York USA, 2001
On November 12, 2001, an Airbus Industries A300-600 operated by American Airlines

crashed into a residential area of Belle Harbour, New York, after take-off from John F.
Kennedy International Airport, New York. Shortly after takeoff, the aircraft encountered
mild wake turbulence from a departing Boeing 747-400.
1. Abrupt - sudden and unexpected, and often unpleasant.
2. Aid - help or support.
3. Bumpy - not smooth.
4. Convective - Heat transfer in a gas or liquid by the circulation of currents from
one region to another. (thefreedictionary.com)
5. Cracks - to break something so that it does not separate, but very thin lines
appear on its surface, or to become broken in this way.
6. Loose Objects - objects that are not firmly held or fastened in place.
7. Mild - not violent, severe, or extreme.
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8. Predict - to say that an event or action will happen in the future, especially as a
result of knowledge or experience.
9. Rate - the speed at which something happens or changes, or the amount or
number of times it happens or changes in a particular period.
10. Ride - to travel in a vehicle, such as a car, bus, or train.
11. Slight - small in amount or degree.
12. Upon - (formal preposition) on.
1. Imagine you were flying over the ocean and you suddenly encountered severe
turbulence en route. What would you do in this situation?
2. In your opinion, are there technologies to detect clear air turbulence?
3. In your opinion, what may be the possible outcomes of a turbulence?
4. Imagine you had a fearful passenger on board, and you were passing through a
moderate turbulence while flying. This passenger starts to shake, and you
discovered later that he was suffering from Panic Syndrome. In this situation, what
would you do to calm down this passenger and how would you report this situation
to the controller?
and why.
“The consequences of rapid rates of change in wind velocity, described as wind shear,
can be particularly dangerous at low altitude where any loss of control may occur
sufficiently close to terrain making recovery difficult.”
6. Look at the picture below. In your opinion, how can this type of testing on aircraft
help the plane builders?
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7. Look at the picture below and then describe it.
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7.42 Unlawful Interference
Description:
Unlawful interference (aircraft hijacking) has been recognized as a considerable

danger to the safety of aviation. The international community has witnessed the
disastrous potential of such acts in a number of accidents. As individuals or groups
used aircraft hijacking to pursue political, economic or individual goals, so governments
and the aviation industry upgraded security regulations and requirements. More recent
incidents brought changes to aircraft design, some of which were publicly announced,
and others logically concealed from public view.
(Skybrary.aero)
According to ICAO Annex 17, a set of international security requirements, ‘unlawful

interference’ is defined as “… acts or attempted acts such as to jeopardize the safety
of civil aviation, including but not limited to:
• unlawful seizure of aircraft,

• destruction of an aircraft in service,
• hostage-taking on board aircraft or on aerodromes,
• forcible intrusion on board an aircraft, at an airport or on the locations of an
aeronautical facility,
• introduction on board an aircraft or at an airport of a weapon or hazardous device
or material intended for criminal purposes,
• use of an aircraft in service for the purpose of causing death, serious bodily injury,
or serious damage to property or the environment,
• communication of false information such as to jeopardize the safety of an aircraft
in flight or on the ground, of passengers, crew, ground personnel or the general
public, at an airport or on the locations of a civil aviation facility”.
(www.to70.com)
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Effects:
Acts of unlawful interference do not follow any specific scenario - sometimes even the
confirmation of that such action is in progress proves to be a challenge. The outcome
and the effects might vary significantly depending on the situation:
• Hindered or complete loss of communication with the crew;

• Immediate descent and landing, if cockpit security and safety of passengers is
not affected;
• Single or multiple, unannounced, flight path deviations - vertical/horizontal;
• Diversion to an airport, not listed in the flight plan;
• Possible on-board bomb threat;
• Selective compliance to instructions;
• Runway blockage after landing;
• Medical help might be required.
Anticipated Impact on Crew:

In all cases, the hijacking dramatically increases the stress level for the entire crew.
Among other implications are:
• Possible injuries to, or death of, one or more crew members;

• Injuries to, or death of, passengers or hijackers;
• Incompatibility between hijacker demands and flight safety;
• Complications due to diversion from planned route or altitude - fuel deficiency /
shortage, Airspace Infringement, landing at unsuitable airport;
• Prolonged hostage situation with additional complications such as lack of water,
food and medical supplies.
What should be expected by a controller when such a situation happens?
• Broken or incomplete communication;

• Sudden course changes;
• Non-adherence to instructions.
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Controllers should provide:
Best practice embedded in the ASSIST principle could be followed: (A - Acknowledge;

S - Separate, S - Silence; I - Inform, S - Support, T - Time).
• Increased separation;
• Any required information about the airport for landing;
• Compliance with pilot’s requests as far as possible;
• All available information for the sector, the affected aircraft is about to enter;
Prevention Methods:
The methods or procedures listed here were not mentioned by SkyBrary, however
there is a collection of information from similar situations preventions such as “unruly
passengers”. Broadly speaking, the means of controlling and protecting airports is:
Protect / Prevent, Detect and Respond.
• Screening process before plane embarkation;

• Video surveillance and intelligent CCTV – closed circuit television (technology
and trained personnel aiming suspicious passengers);
• Use of perimeter and protective fences;
• Use of technology: infrared cameras, intelligent video software, xray
machines…
• Airline procedures and regulations regarding the carriage of weapons on board
aircraft;
• Security training;
• Aircraft equipped with reinforced, bullet proof cockpit doors.
Local procedures addressing such events and the State’s law enforcement agencies
should also be consulted.
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(September 11th accident – The attack against the USA)
(World Trade Center complex being attacked)
Definitions by Cambridge Dictionary:

1. Concealed: kept hidden or where it cannot easily be seen.
2. Hijack: to take control of an aircraft or other vehicle during a journey, especially
using violence.
3. Hinder: to limit the ability of someone to do something, or to limit the development
of something.
4. Hostage: someone who is taken as a prisoner by an enemy in order to force the
other people involved to do what the enemy wants.
5. Jeopardize: to put something such as a plan or system in danger of being harmed
or damaged.
6. Seizure: the action of taking something by force or with legal authority.
7. Witness: a person who sees an event happening, especially a crime or an accident.
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1. In your opinion, how dangerous may an unlawful interference be?
2. What are airlines, government and airport authorities doing to prevent such
occurrence?
3. What has changed after the September 11th?
4. Do you think our existing laws are enough to prevent any more aircraft hijackings?
5. Now, read the statement below and tell me to what extent you agree or disagree
with it.
“Unlawful interference is by far one of the most problematic occurrences regarding the
flight safety and it has always been a concern to the government, police authorities
and airlines.”
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7.43 Unruly Passengers
Definition
An unruly passenger is someone who, by action or stated intent, jeopardizes or might

jeopardize the safety of the aircraft, persons or the accepted level of good order and
discipline on board.
To help airlines more easily identify the problem, IATA has developed and
promulgated a "non-exhaustive" list of examples of what is considered unruly or
disruptive behavior whilst on board an aircraft.
This list includes:
• Illegal consumption of narcotics;

• Refusal to comply with safety instructions (not following Cabin Crew requests
such as direction to fasten a seat belt, to not smoke, to turn off a portable
electronic device or by disrupting the safety announcements);
• Verbal or physical confrontation with crew members or other passengers;
• Uncooperative passenger (examples include interfering with the crew’s duties,
refusing to follow instructions to board or leave the aircraft);
• Making threats of any kind towards the crew, other passengers or the aircraft;
• Sexual abuse / harassment (to harass someone)
• Other type of riotous behavior (examples include screaming, annoying
behavior, kicking and banging heads on seat backs or tray tables).
Possible Causes to Passengers Become Unruly
There are numerous factors and triggers that can lead a typical member of the
travelling public towards unruly behavior. These include, but are not limited to:
• Intoxication;
• Drug use (both prescription and non-prescription);
• Mental health issues;
• Anxiety (including a fear of flying);
• Fatigue;
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• Frustration as a result of personal issues or from travel related dissatisfiers such
as:
o Pre-boarding issues:
▪ Long queues;
▪ The security and screening process;
▪ Departure delays (and the lack of timely information);
▪ Missed connections.
o Post-boarding issues:
▪ Crowded conditions;
▪ Lack of personal space;
▪ Unserviceable equipment (seat won't recline, in-flight
entertainment system inoperative, etc.);
▪ Annoying individuals in one's vicinity (loud passengers, seat
kickers, crying babies, etc.).
Of all of the causal factors listed, intoxication is the single item that triggers the
majority of unruly passenger events.
Reducing the Risks of an Unruly Behavior
Identification and mitigation measures for the prevention of, or the control of an unruly
passenger incident must occur at all stages of the journey, beginning when the
passenger first enters the terminal at the point of origin. To do this, company and airport
employees must be vigilant when interacting with the travelling public.
1. Bang - to hit a part of the body against something by accident.
2. Crowded - if a place is crowded, it is full of people.
3. Disruptive - causing trouble and therefore stopping something from continuing
as usual.
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4. Harassment - illegal behavior towards a person that causes mental or
emotional suffering, which includes repeated unwanted contacts without a
reasonable purpose, insults, threats, touching, or offensive language.
5. Jeopardize - to put something such as a plan or system in danger of being
harmed or damaged.
6. Majority - the larger number or part of something.
7. Promulgate - to spread beliefs or ideas among a lot of people.
8. Queue - a line of people, usually standing or in cars, waiting for something.
9. Riotous - very loud and uncontrolled, and full of energy.
10. Trigger - an event or situation, etc. that causes something to start.
11. Unruly - unruly people are difficult to control and often do not obey rules.
12. Vicinity - the area immediately surrounding something.
1. Imagine that you were taxiing on the runway prior from takeoff and the cabin crew
informed you of a passenger who was harassing a flight attendant. What would you
do in this situation and how would you report this to the controller?
2. What do you think that should be done in order to prevent any passenger to behave
unruly?
3. Have you ever had to deal with a similar situation? If yes, what did you do? If not,
what would you do to solve this issue?
4. Look at the picture below. Create a short story for it. Remember to speak about
what you think happened before the picture was taken and what will happen next.
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226

7.44 Volcanic Ashes
Definition
Volcanic ashes are very small solid particles ejected from an active volcano. During an
eruption many quantities of material can be ejected into the atmosphere, possibly
reaching great height. In addition, these particles drift with the wind in clouds, therefore
they could put the flight safety at risk.
As these types of ashes are solid, very dry and tiny particles, aircraft’s meteorological
radars can’t detect them. Furthermore, volcanic ashes carry electrical charges, so
when they arise into the air from a volcano, these particles may create Thunder and
Lightning in the area immediately overhead the eruption.
FIGURE 33 - VOLCANIC ASHES ARISING FROM AN ACTIVE VOLCANO
Smoke is generalized as the air that comes from a fire. So, one can smell smoke or
see smoke. But fumes are something that you smell. E.g. I noticed a fire in my kitchen,
after the fumes from the smoke started to make me cough.
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Indications of Volcanic Ash to Flight Crew
• St Elmo's Fire - A visible luminous electrical discharge observed around

parts of an aircraft when the electrical charge on the aircraft becomes
sufficiently intense. It is created when charged ash particles hit the aircraft.
FIGURE 34 - ST ELMO’S FIRE INFLIGHT
• Sulphurous smell;
• Dust;
• Low visibility.
Effects in Case You Encounter Volcanic Ashes In-Flight
• Engine malfunction – engine flameout/engine failure;

• Long Term Engine Damage;
• External Surface Corrosion;
• Damage airfoils; flaps; radome, etc;
• Delays;
• Divert;
• Decrease situational awareness.
Preventing / Reducing the Risks
• Check PIREP’s (Pilot Reports);

• Avoidance: ICAO has implemented a system of Nine Volcanic Ash Advisory
Centres (VAAC) which are tasked with issuing information on the location
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and flight level of volcanic ash clouds through SIGMET charts and in
Volcanic Ash Advisory messages.
• Check METAR’s, TAF’s, SIGMET, etc;
• Avoid areas known with recent volcano activity.
1. Arise - to come into existence or begin to be noticed; happen.
2. Avoid - to stay away from someone or something, or prevent something from
happening, or not allow yourself to do something.
3. Drift - to move slowly, esp. as a result of outside forces, with no control over
direction.
4. Issue - to produce or provide something official.
5. Tiny - extremely small.
1. What would you do if you faced volcanic ashes while on cruise phase of flight?
2. In your opinion volcanic ashes are more dangerous during the night or during the
day?
3. How would you report this situation to the ATCO?
4. Are there technologies to detect this type of meteorological condition? If not, do you
think that there will be any equipment able to detect volcanic ashes?
5. Take a look at the picture below and tell me: how would you describe it?
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What do you think will happen after this picture was taken?
and why.
“Volcanic ash is considered a small threat to aviation as it is very rare to happen and
its effects on aircraft are minimums as they are designed to withstand the impact of
these particles.”
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7.45 Wind Tunnels
Definition:
According to Nasa, wind tunnels are large tubes with air moving inside. Additionally,
they are used to copy the actions of an object in flight as it moves air around an object,
making it seems like the object is really flying. Engineers use wind tunnels to learn
more about how an aircraft will fly, its aerodynamic effects, understanding the boundary
layer and many more.
NASA uses wind tunnels to test scale models of aircraft and spacecraft. Incredibly,
some wind tunnels are big enough to hold full-size versions of vehicles.
How Does It Work?
Very commonly, big, powerful fans move air through the tube. The object to be tested
is fastened in the tunnel so that it will not move. Researchers test small aircraft models,
vehicles, heavy-lift launch vehicle, space shuttle, rockets, etc.
You may have already seen a picture of a tennis ball in a wind tunnel: it is as simple
as we could think but it helps us understanding how the air moves on the object’s
surface as the air pass around the still object.
FIGURE 35 - TENNIS BALL IN A WIND TUNNEL
Smoke or dye can be placed in the air, so it makes visible for engineers to see the
airflow as it moves. Threads can also be attached to the object to show how the air is
moving. Special instruments are often used to measure the force of the air on the
object.
The wind tunnel test is controlled from a separate building called the control room.
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The Control Room:
FIGURE 36 - WIND TUNNEL CONTROL ROOM
There are three main functions that are performed by teams of engineers and
technicians in the control room. One team controls the operation of the wind tunnel.
They set the speed of the fan and monitor conditions in the test section. Should any
emergency arise, it is their job to bring the air in the tunnel to a stop as quickly and
safely as possible.
Another team of engineers control the aircraft model. Many models employ variable
geometry or the model itself may be maneuvered during the test on its mounting. This
team also monitors the operation of the diagnostic instrumentation present on the
model.
The third team usually performs some preliminary data reduction for the test. The
results are compared with pre-test predictions to uncover any possible problems during
the test, or to guide the selection of future test conditions.
Why Do Manufacturers Use Wind Tunnels?
Wind tunnels allow researchers to understand the airflow so that companies are able
to build, design and improve older and new means of transport making air travel safer.
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Applications of wind-tunnel research range from routine testing of airframes to
fundamental research on the boundary layer, the slow-moving layer of air adjacent to
any wind-exposed body surface.
FIGURE 37 - AIRCRAFT IN WIND TUNNEL
There are many types of wind tunnels and NASA has many of them to test their space
shuttle, rockets and other projects. The wind tunnels come in a lot of sizes, some are
only a few inches square, and some are large enough to test a full-size airplane. Some
wind tunnels test aircraft at very slow speeds but others are made to test at hypersonic
speeds. That is more than 4,000 miles per hour!
1. Data Reduction - “data reduction is the transformation of numerical or alphabetical
digital information derived empirically or experimentally into a corrected, ordered,
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and simplified form. the basic concept is the reduction of countless amounts of data
down to the meaningful parts.”
2. Dye - to change the color of something using a special liquid.
3. Fan - an electric device with blades that turn quickly, used to move the air around.
4. Fasten - to (cause something to) become firmly fixed together, or in position, or
closed.
5. Manufacturer - a company that produces goods in large numbers.
6. Still - staying in the same position; not moving.
7. Threads - (a length of) a very thin fiber.
1. In your opinion, what are the advantages of using wind tunnels to design aircraft?
2. What types of objects can be subjected to be tested on wind tunnels?
3. Now, look at the picture below, and tell me what you can see in this picture and
what you think is happening in it. Then ask the question below.
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4. In your opinion, how long do companies take to design an aircraft and what should
they consider on a project?
and why.
“The usage of wind tunnels is very important to design an aircraft. However, there are
some circumstances on the real flight that engineers cannot predict by only using wind
tunnels, for example the aeroelastic effects on the aircraft surfaces or other particular
scenarios that engineers aren’t able to create.”
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8. GENERAL EXERCISES
8.1 100+ ICAO TEST QUEST IONS
Simple Present Questions
1. Do you fly international? Why or why not?

2. Do you prefer VFR or IFR flights? why?
3. What do you usually do before every takeoff?
4. Do you intend to fly other types of aircraft?
5. What do you have to do in case of engine failure?
6. Do you think air companies help pilots with the ICAO level?
7. What do pilots do in case of unruly passengers onboard?
8. How do you deal with stress?
9. What do you when you have to cancel a flight?
10. Which is the shortest runway that you know?
11. Broadly speaking, what is the role of the pilots after the ending of each flight?
12. What could possibly happen to your aircraft if you were inside a CB cloud? What
can this situation lead to?
13. Are there regulations and procedures in Brazil, regarding the carriage of dangerous
goods on board?
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Simple Past Questions
1. Why did you decide to become a pilot?

2. What difficulties did you have to become a pilot?
3. How enjoyable was your training to become a pilot?
4. How did your family support your decision to become a pilot?
5. Talk about your first solo flight.
6. What was your best landing ever?
7. Why were the airports in brazil rebuilt?
8. When did you fly international for the first time? How was the experience?
9. How did pilots get prepared to fly solo 10 years ago?
10. How were the airports 10 years ago?
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Present Perfect Questions
1. Have you ever had an emergency?

2. Have you ever had to divert due to unruly passengers onboard?
3. Have you ever had to contact ATC to report a given malfunction? How was it?
4. Has aviation in brazil changed a lot recently?
5. What has changed in the flight deck procedures after September 11th?
6. Have you ever had to communicate with ATC in a different language? How was it?
7. Have you ever carried a VIP passenger?
8. Have flight attendants changed their role in the low fare low cost airlines recently?
9. Have you ever travelled abroad as a passenger? How was this experience?
10. Have you ever been sick during the flight? How did you manage it?
11. What was the worst situation you ever had in your career?
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Present Continuous Questions
1. Are you feeling more prepared for the ICAO TEST now?
2. How are Brazilians dealing with the new inflight service technologies aboard the
aircraft nowadays?
3. How are you getting ready for job interviews these days?
4. What are pilots doing to deal with the new challenges to get a job in Brazil?
5. How is the government doing to handle the increasing demands in traffic and new
flight routes in Brazil?
6. Which airline companies are having more success in Brazil nowadays?
7. Are you looking for a new job?
8. What are you doing to succeed in aviation?
9. Is general aviation becoming more popular these days?
10. Are airline companies helping pilots to get a better English level?
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Future – Will Questions
1. What will you do in case a passenger smoke onboard?

2. What will you do after you get your ICAO level?
3. How will airlines deal with drone collisions in the near future?
4. Will computers drastically reduce pilot’s workload much more in the future?
5. Will flight attendants be unnecessary in the near future?
6. How will passengers be charged in case of excessive use of wireless connection
during the flight?
7. Will cockpits change in the next decade? How so?
8. How will pilots deal with stress in the next ten years to come?
9. What will change in your life if your kids become pilots too?
10. How will airlines deal with social media in the next years to come?
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Future – Going to Questions
1. Which are going to be the airplanes of the future?

2. How are pilots going to be hired in the future?
3. What do you think is going to be required from pilots in a job interview?
4. How are the airline companies going to train pilots for a captain position in the next
decade?
5. Do you think pilots are going to use datalink technologies as a standard
communication tool in the future?
6. Is datalink going to substitute pilots and ATC voice communication?
7. What is going to be the standard procedure in case of a drone collision?
8. How are the airports going to be in the next years to come?
9. How likely is a pilot to speak other languages in the future?
10. Is Chinese going to be most spoken language in aviation?
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Opinion Questions
1. What is your opinion about the use of tablets onboard the flight deck?
2. What is your opinion about pilots using mobiles in the flight deck?
3. What is your opinion on the use of drones by civilians?
4. How do you foresee the use of robots at the airport maneuvering areas?
5. What should be done by airport authorities to minimize the risk of ground collisions?
6. How difficult is to become a successful pilot nowadays?
7. How safe are the airports nowadays?
8. How should a pilot deal in case there is a federal authority who wants to carry a
gun onboard?
9. Should flight crew members be trained in martial arts (in order to improve safety)?
10. What should airports do in order to reduce the likelihood of bird strikes?
11. Do you know of any incidents where miscommunication has caused a runway
incursion? Why is miscommunication a problem?
12. What can the aviation industry do to reduce the number of runway incursions?
13. Are hotspots becoming more or less a problem at the airports?
14. What factors increase the possibility of hotspots?
15. What are the regulations for ultralights in your country?
16. Should pilots have to be qualified before they are allowed to use ultralights?
17. What are the advantages and disadvantages of fixed wing aircraft compared to
rotor wing aircraft?
18. In your opinion, what airplane has revolution air travel?
19. Which do you prefer: Flying VFR or IFR? Why?
20. Why do diabetics sometimes have problems when flying?
21. What event causes most deaths on board planes?
22. What are the two main causes of injury on board planes?
23. When can asthma be especially dangerous on flights?
24. What have some Airlines done to prevent some allergic reactions?
25. Have you received training to deal with medical emergencies? What lessons you
learned?
26. Have you ever witnessed a medical emergency in your job? How you deal with a
pilot incapacitation?
27. What do you think is the most common cause of fire on board?
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28. What incidents caused by fire have you heard about?
29. What is windshear and why is it so dangerous to aircraft?
30. How can arriving and departing aircraft avoid windshear?
31. Do you think that narrow body aircraft will take over the market of wide body aircraft
in the future?
32. In your opinion, do you think that long taxiways can be confused with runways,
therefore leading to runway incursions?
33. Do you think that aerodromes that feature many runway signs can be confusing for
pilots and possibly lead to runway incursions?
34. What can airliners do to promote flights with more safety on board planes and in
airports?
35. What impact do large aircraft may cause to the environment?
36. Do you think that wide-body aircraft may cause more impact to the environment
than narrow-body airplanes?
37. What do you think about specific regulations for drone flights?
38. How likely is the possibility of robots with artificial intelligence to take over the pilot’s
seat in the cockpit in the future?
39. What may be the possible outputs from an overweight landing?
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Statements
Up to what extent you agree or disagree with the following statements:
1. Pilots and ATCO’s should cooperate much more. In doing so, this would increase
safety in communications 100%.
2. Unmanned aircraft pose a threat to flight safety no matter where they are. That`s
why they should be banned.
3. Flight instruction in the majority of air clubs is not safe as it should be. That`s the
number one reason why the number of fatalities has increased in the last decade.
4. There is only one rule to be followed by pilots during the critical phases of flight:
sterile cockpit. Failure to follow this rule always leads to accidents.
5. A good pilot is always the result of a good flight experience.
6. There are many ways to perform a smooth landing, although only a few are used.
7. There is no substitute for studying hard in aviation. Safety depends on hard study.
8. The majority of pilots have a deficient English level. Proficiency is required.
9. Passengers are very reluctant to follow in flight safety rules. That`s the reason why
many accidents occur in general aviation.
10. The airline industry demands much more from pilots today than in the early days of
aviation.
11. The first officer is equally trained as the captain to be able to deal with any abnormal
situation and emergencies on board, however the final decision is up to the captain.
12. The main duty of flight attendants is to serve passengers snacks, beverages and
comfort.
13. Pilots are the only responsible for the safety of the flight.
14. “Dangerous goods are solids, liquids, or gases that can harm people, other living
organisms, property, or the environment. Identifying this type of goods is one of the
most important ways to prevent any incident or an accident from happening.”
15. Spreading a layer of fire suppression foam on an airport runway prior to an
emergency landing will reduce the chances of fire, therefore, increasing the airport
security and flight safety.
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8.2 PICTURE DESCRIPTION EXERCISES
In order to practice and improve your picture description abilities we are going to give
you some good examples of picture description and then you should create your own.
EXAMPLE 1:
This picture is evidencing one of the most hazardous situations that pilots may face
during their career in aviation. As shown in the picture, there is a flock of birds flying
very close to the plane during its takeoff, so I would assume that at least one of these
birds got ingested by the right engine through the engine’s air inlet. A bird strike
scenario is very common in airports where there are dumping grounds in its vicinity,
therefore the risks are increasingly high when operating in these areas. Luckily
enough, I have never had a similar situation before. There is an accident that got very
famous: the ditching on the Hudson river where captain Sully safely succeeded in
ditching the aircraft on the river without having casualties after suffering a bird strike
during takeoff.
After this picture was taken, I assume that the pilot will probably inform the controller
of his situation and request priority landing for a new approach, as a bird got ingested.
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EXAMPLE 2:
In this picture I can see a small twin-engined jet parked on the apron as it is being held
with chocks, probably this is a private jet and it is totally covered in ice. Apparently, the
aircraft in the background also have their surfaces frozen by ice. If the pilot tries to fly
a plane in this situation without removing the existing frozen moisture from the aircraft
fuselage, engines and control surfaces a catastrophic scenario will probably happen
as the ice accretion on aircraft will certainly increase its weight and drag resistance
force, reduce its lift, leading to an accident as the aircraft performance has been
extremely modified. That is why de and anti-icing procedures are very important to be
used in a situation like this, as the de-icing procedure will remove the ice by using
proper chemical substances on its parts and the anti-icing process will ensure that the
aircraft will not have any ice accretion until it is airborne.
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EXAMPLE 3:
This picture made me remember an accident that happened with an airplane from the
Southwest Airlines fleet, where the pilots had an unexpected uncontained engine
failure. This uncontained engine explosion threw engine’s debris in many directions
and one hit the aircraft’s passenger window, causing a sudden decompression. Can
you imagine this situation happening to you? I mean, image you are enjoying the flight
at a high altitude when suddenly a loud bang is heard by the passengers, and from all
of a sudden there is a decompression in the cabin, oxygen masks being deployed from
the overhead bin to be donned, this is extremely dangerous! I’ve heard that a woman
was almost sucked out from the window due to the explosive depressurization,
however the passengers managed to pull her back inside the cabin.
As it is possible to see in this picture, the captain could land the aircraft in the nearest
suitable airport with emergency services standing by so upon its landing, they would
assist them. The left engine got completely destroyed and it is very likely that this
aircraft will remain grounded for several months for maintenance work to be done.
Now it’s your turn! Look at the pictures below and try to describe them using
rich vocabulary, good structures, wide range of discourse markers and, of
course, use your imagination.
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PICTURE 3
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PICTURE 5
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PICTURE 7
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PICTURE 9
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PICTURE 11
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PICTURE 13
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8.3 PICTURE COMPARISON EXERCISES
In the exercises below, you are going to look at two pictures which may be related to
an incident, accident scenario or just an ordinary routine. After carefully analyzing both
pictures, you are going to compare them in terms of severity: which one do you think
is the most dangerous to deal with? Which one do you think is the easiest to deal with
and why?
IMPORTANT NOTE
This exercise was created by Pilots Fluency with the objective to practice your
skills of comparing situations in terms of severity, just like how you would do
in Part 3 of the SDEA – Unexpected Situations. However, in this activity you
will be comparing pictures instead of comparing situations you would hear
from the audios in the Unexpected Situations test part.
Always remember to use discourse markers of comparison, contrasting,

speculating, to express opinion, etc., such as: they both show…; there
are…in both photos; the main difference between…and…is…; maybe this was
caused by…; it is likely that…; in my opinion…; and so on (check the
Discourse Markers list chapter).
ANSWER SAMPLE
To start with, picture number one (the one from the left) there is a common activity
happening, I mean, a wide-body aircraft, apparently an Airbus A380, being pushed-
back from the terminal parking position towards the taxiway. I’m saying that because
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the aircraft is connected to the tow truck via a tow bar. In the picture from the right the
same procedure was being done, however the tow truck accidently hit the narrow-body
airplane. I can’t say exactly what caused this incident, nevertheless I would say that
the truck driver started the push-back without being authorized to. Being that said, the
picture from the left is the easiest situation to be dealt with, as nothing unusual was
happening and the flight will carry on normally. Finally, picture number 2 (the left one),
is the most dangerous situation as the tow truck damaged the aircraft’s radome. The
radome of an aircraft is a compartment where the weather radar is located, therefore
if the tow truck damages this antenna the pilots won’t be able to carry on with the flight
as no weather information will be displayed on the navigation display. It will cause the
flight to be delayed or even cancelled.
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EXERCISE 2
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EXERCISE 6
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8.4 LISTENING
Aviation Herald News Report
It is time for you to practice and improve your listening abilities. Below there are some
accidents and incidents news we took and adapted from Aviation Herald
(av.herald.com). Listen to the audios from each exercise and fill in the blanks with the
correct words you hear. The audios are available at our website, on the book
platform.
1. (Track AVH1) Incident: Canada A333 near Dublin on, free shower in cabin.
An Air Canada Airbus A330-300, from ________ to_______, was en-route at FL____
about ____nautical miles northwest of Dublin about to enter the Oceanic Crossing
when the crew _______________ to Dublin due to a ________ problem. The crew
subsequently advised a passenger service unit (containing the lights and
______________) was _______ water, no emergency services were needed. The
aircraft ______________ back on Dublin's runway ____ about ____ hour later.
The aircraft remained on the ______ for about _____ hours, then departed again and
is estimated to reach Toronto with a delay of about __ hours.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4bc864ea&opt=0
2. (Track AVH2) Incident: France B789 at Paris, air conditioning problem.
An Air France Boeing ________, performing flight _______ from _____ Charles de
Gaulle (France) to ______ (Colombia), was __________ of Paris when the crew
stopped the ____________ due to a problem with the ___________ and decided to
_______ to Paris for a safe landing on Charles de Gaulle's runway _____ about
__________ after departure.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4bca8123&opt=0
3. (Track AVH3) Incident: Argentinas B738 at Buenos Aires, bird strike.
An Aerolineas Argentinas Boeing 737-800, registration ________, performing flight

________ from Buenos Aires Aeroparque, to Ushuaia (Argentina), was in the
___________ out of Aeroparque's __________ when one of the engines
______________ prompting the crew to ______ the climb at _______, enter a _____
to burn off fuel and ______ to Aeroparque for a safe landing on runway ____ about
_________ after departure. The rotation was cancelled, and the occurrence aircraft
returned to service about ___ hours after landing back.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4bc6723b&opt=0
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4. (Track AVH4) Incident: Andes B738 at Iguazu, bird strike.
A Boeing 737-800, registration ________ performing flight _________ from Buenos Aires
Aeroparque, to Iguazu (Argentina), was on ______________ to Iguazu's runway ____
when a _____ impacted and penetrated the bottom part of the _________. The aircraft
continued for a safe ________ but was ________ to depart for the return flight _______.
The occurrence aircraft was still ____________ about ___ hours after landing.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4bc1a84d&opt=0
5. (Track AVH5) Incident: Ibex CRJ7 at Fukuoka, hydraulic problem.
An Ibex Airlines Canadair ________, registration ________ from Komatsu to Fukuoka

(Japan) with ___ people on board, was _________ towards Fukuoka when the crew
reported _____________. The aircraft continued for a safe landing. The aircraft was
_______ to the apron.
Japan's Ministry of Transport reported the aircraft suffered hydraulic problems and was
towed to the apron.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4be1230e&opt=0
6. (Track AVH6) Incident: AirExplore B738, fuel system problem.
An AirExplore Boeing _______, registration ________ from Poland to Turkey, was

climbing out of Poland when the crew stopped the climb at about ______ reporting they
had a problem with the _____________, no assistance was needed on the ground. The
aircraft returned to Poland for a safe landing on runway ___ about ___ minutes after
departure. A replacement Boeing 737-800 reached Bodrum with a delay of __ hours. The
occurrence aircraft remained ___________ for about __ hours.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4be10c64&opt=0
7. (Track AVH7) Incident: Delta MD88 at Richmond, engine failure.
A Delta Airlines McDonnell Douglas, registration________ performing flight

______________ from Richmond, to Atlanta, (USA) with ___ people on board, was in
the _________ out of Richmond's runway ___ when the crew reported they had
____________. The aircraft climbed to __________, the crew decided to ______ to
Washington DC (USA) where the aircraft landed ______ on runway _____ about ___
minutes after departure. Residents underneath the departure path of runway 02,
reported there was _____________ raining down while an aircraft passed over their
houses. The airline reported the crew reported a possible ______________.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4bdfabc4&opt=0
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8. (Track AVH8) Incident: Delta B764 at Dublin, a little bit of vibration.
A Delta Airlines Boeing 767-400, registration _________, from Dublin to New York, was
climbing out of _________________ when the crew advised they needed to take care
of an _______, they had "a little bit of __________". The crew requested to remain
___________________ and entered a hold at __________ MSL. The aircraft returned
to Dublin and the crew advised they were hoping to be able to _________________
at the end. Following landing, the crew advised they were vacating the runway and
____________ the _________ temperatures, and subsequently taxied to the
__________.
The aircraft is still on the ground about __ hours after landing back. Flight __________
was ___________ and the passengers were sent to hotels. The airline reported a
______________ issue.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4be5d66f&opt=0
9. (Track AVH9) Incident: LATAM A321 at Sao Paulo. Landed on wrong runway.
A LATAM Brasil Airbus A321-200, registration ___________ performing flight JJ-4627

from Fortaleza to Guarulhos, with ______ passengers and __ crew, was cleared to
land on Guarulhos' runway ____, however, touched down on runway ____ and rolled
out without further incident. The aircraft ________ to the apron.
The airline confirmed the occurrence and advised an investigation by authorities is in

progress. Brazil's CENIPA reported the aircraft landed on runway ____ although having
been cleared to land on runway _____. The occurrence was rated as a serious incident
and is _____ investigated.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4be5a587&opt=0
10. (Track AVH10) Incident: SAS B736 near Lulea. Engine shut down in flight.
A Scandinavian Airlines Boeing 737-600, performing flight ___________ from Kiruna

to Stockholm, was _______ at _______ about _____ northwest of Lulea when the
___________ engine emitted a ______ and _______ of flame. The crew shut the
engine down and diverted to Lulea for a _____ landing on runway ___ about ___
minutes later. The airline reported one of the engines suffered a _______________
and was shut down. Passengers reported the engine emitted a _______________ and
subsequently caught fire.
(Source: avherald.com/h?article=4be477d0&opt=0)
11. (Track AVH11) Accident: India B773 at Mumbai. Flight attendant falls off
aircraft.
An Air India Boeing ____, registration _________, was preparing for ________ from
the gate. A ___________________________ attempted to close one of the doors of
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the aircraft, however, ____________ the aircraft onto the ________ and received
_________________ injuries. The flight attendant was taken to a hospital. The airline
reported an unfortunate ___________ when the flight attendant _________ the aircraft
and received ____ injuries while attempting to close a door. She has been taken to a
local hospital and an investigation is under way. The aircraft reached Delhi with a
________________.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4beff6a0&opt=0
12. (Track AVH12) Incident: Transavia B738 at Rotterdam, flaps problem.
A Boeing 737-800, performing flight ____________ from Spain to Rotterdam

(Netherlands), was on _____________ to Rotterdam's ____________ when the crew
initiated a __________ reporting a _______ problem. The crew subsequently decided
to __________ Amsterdam. They declared an __________ reporting the flaps were
not ____________ and they needed to perform a __________ landing. The aircraft
landed safely on Amsterdam's runway ____ at a higher than normal speed about
___________ later.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4beff6a0&opt=0
13. (Track AVH13) Accident: Frontier A319 near Denver. Turbulence injures flight
attendant.
A Frontier Airlines Airbus A319-100, registration ____________ performing flight

___________ from Denver, to Austin (USA), was climbing out of Denver when the
aircraft encountered ________________ causing __________ to a flight attendant.
The crew __________ the climb at _______ and returned to Denver for a safe landing
about ___________ after departure.
The FAA reported that the flight attendant _______________ when the aircraft
encountered severe turbulence. The occurrence was rated as an ___________ and
the aircraft remained on _____________ for about _____________, then departed
again and reached Austin with a delay of about ___________.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4bf02802&opt=0
14. (Track AVH14) Incident: Polar Cargo at Cincinnati. Runway excursion on

landing.
A Polar Air Cargo Boeing 747-400 freighter, registration __________ from Anchorage
to Cincinnati (USA) with ________, was on approach to Cincinnati's __________ when
the crew ___________, positioned for another approach to runway ___ and touched
down about ___ minutes. The aircraft however ________________ the runway and
came to a stop on ___________ between taxiways ___ and ___. There were __
injuries.
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15. (Track AVH15) Accident: Jetstar A320 at Melbourne. Odor sickens two flight
attendants.
A Jetstar Airbus A320-200, registration ___________ performing flight _________ was

climbing out of Melbourne's runway __ when an _________ developed in the cabin
causing ___ flight attendants to increasingly feel unwell. The flight crew decided to
_____________ at ______ and return to Melbourne for a safe landing on runway __
about ___ minutes after departure. The two flight attendants were taken to a hospital.
The airline reported the two flight attendants were taken to a hospital for observation.
The _______ potentially came from some ________________ and it remains unclear
however what caused the sickness of the flight attendants. A replacement A321-200
registration _____________ reached Adelaide with a delay of ____ hours. The
occurrence aircraft is still on the ground about _________ after landing back.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4bf3696c&opt=0
16. (Track AVH16) Incident: British Airways over Atlantic. Electrical problems.
A British Airways Boeing _______, registration G-CIVD performing flight _________

from London Heathrow, to New York, was ______________ over the Atlantic Ocean
about ________ west of Shannon (Ireland) when the crew decided to return to
_________ due to ________________. The aircraft landed safely at Heathrow Airport
about ______ hours after departure. The flight was ____________.
A passenger reported the inflight entertainment system ______ shortly after departure
soon followed by the lighting in cabin and lavatories. Some more time later the
________ lost power and the only lights remaining were the passenger
_________________. The cabin crew detected an unusual ______ and the flight crew
performed an inspection of the cabin to determine the source of it. The aircraft
subsequently turned around and _____________ later the captain announced they
were returning to Heathrow due to __________ with one of the ________________.
After landing the passengers were accommodated near the airport and they were
rebooked onto flights the next day.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4bf42e0c&opt=0
17. (Track AVH17) Incident: Flydubai B738 at Odessa rejected takeoff.
A Flydubai Boeing 737-800, performing flight _________ from Odessa (Ukraine) to

Dubai, was accelerating for takeoff from Odessa's ________ when the crew rejected
takeoff at __________. The aircraft came to a stop about ___________ down the
runway. _________ was observed from the aircraft and _____________ services
responded. Ukraine National Police in Odessa reported an investigate task force has
been dispatched on site. It was determined that the _________ originated from the
region of the _____________.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4bf8dd5c&opt=0
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18. (Track AVH18) Incident: Lufthansa A333 near Ankara, cracked windshield.
A Lufthansa Airbus A330-300, registration _________ performing flight ________ from

Munich (Germany) to Mumbai (India) with _____ people on board, was enroute at
_______ about ______ northeast of Ankara (Turkey) when the crew decided to return
to Munich due to a ____________________. The aircraft ____________________ for
the return and landed safely back in Munich about _______ later. A replacement A330-
300 registration __________ is estimated to reach Mumbai with a delay of about
_______.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4bf821ec&opt=0
19. (Track AVH19) Crash: Lion B38M near Jakarta. Aircraft lost height and crashed
into Java Sea.
A Lionair Boeing 737-800 MAX, registration ________ performing flight JT-610 with
____ passengers and _______, was climbing out of Jakarta (Indonesia) when the
aircraft reached a maximum altitude of about _________, then lost ________ and
radar contact was lost about ____ northeast of Jakarta over the Java Sea. Rescue
services are on their way to the suspected __________, first ships have reached the
crash site and located ___________ as well as _______ from the aircraft including
mobile phones and first body parts. Later the day, __ bodies were recovered.
Authorities state there is no hope for survivors.
Boeing reported Indonesia's Ministry of Transport has confirmed the _________ of the
737 MAX 8 has been located conducting flight JT-610. Boeing is saddened by the loss
of flight JT-610 and expresses condolences to the families. Boeing stands ready to
provide __________________ to the accident investigation.
Oil Slick - a layer of oil that is floating over a large area of the surface of the sea, usually because
an accident has caused it to escape from a ship or container
20. (Track AVH20) Incident: British Airways B772 near Savannah: brakes problem.
A British Airways Boeing 777-200, registration ________ performing flight __________

from Orlando (USA) to London Gatwick (UK), was enroute at _______ about ____
southeast of Savannah (USA) when the crew received a high _______________
indication and decided to descend the aircraft to ________ and lowered the gear. The
crew subsequently set course to return to Orlando, but re-decided to divert to New
York's JFK Airport. The aircraft landed safely on New York's _____ about 2 hours after
leaving FL370. The crew stopped on the runway and requested emergency services
to check the brakes, in particular of the ___ wheel.
The airline reported the aircraft diverted to JFK due to a _____ technical problem.
269

The aircraft remained on the ground in JFK for about ____, then departed for Gatwick
as flight ________ and reached London about __ later.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4bfd9449&opt=0
21. (Track AVH21) Incident: Avianca A318 near Cali. GPWS alert and Alpha Floor.
An Avianca Airbus A318-100, performing flight _________ from Bogota to Cali

(Colombia), was descending towards Cali following the ___________ standard arrival
route, when the crew received a GPWS alert "TERRAIN! TERRAIN! PULL UP!" at
____________ MSL and a radar height of ________. The crew initiated an evasive
maneuver and ALPHA FLOOR* had been activated. The aircraft subsequently
continued the approach for a safe landing in Cali.
In preliminary information Colombia's AIP reported the captain acting as ___________

for the first officer was pilot monitoring, the first officer undergoing line training was pilot
flying. About ____ ahead of the Cali VOR the crew received a GPWS alert "Terrain!
Pull up!" while at __________ MSL, while the ___________ was __________ feet
MSL. The crew initiated an evasive maneuver and climbed to ___________ MSL, then
continued the approach to Cali's runway ___ without another incident .
*Alpha Floor is a low speed protection (in normal law) which is purely an autothrust mode. When
activated, it provides TOGA thrust. As the aircraft decelerates into the alpha protection range, the Alpha
Floor is activated, even if the autothrust is disengaged. Activation is roughly proportional to the rate of
deceleration. (...) at low speeds, if a rapid avoidance maneuver is required to avoid terrain, windshear
or another aircraft, it is safe to rapidly pull the sidestick fully aft and/or bank and hold it there. The aircraft
will pitch up to max Alpha, engage TOGA thrust and climb away.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4b740005&opt=0
22. (Track AVH22) Incident: Monarch A321 at Menorca, undercut by a private

plane on final ILS approach.
A Monarch Airlines Airbus A321-200, registration __________ performing flight

__________ from England to Menorca (Spain), had been cleared for an ____
approach to Menorca's runway ____ and was fully established on localizer and
glideslope on final approach.
A private aircraft performing a ____ flight crossing through Menorca terminal area had
been instructed to _________________ past the A321, however, crossed exactly
underneath the A321 causing a TCAS resolution advisory with the A321. The A321
crew upon receiving the TCAS resolution advisory to "Level Off" initiated a
___________, climbed out to safety, positioned for another approach and landed
safely on second approach. The private aircraft also continued to its destination.
270

Spain's authorities reported the private aircraft crossed the localizer ________ below
the A321, ________ before the runway threshold. The A321 crew received a TCAS
resolution advisory to level off and initiated a go around.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4ad95645&opt=256
23. (Track AVH23) Accident: Ryanair B738 near Frankfurt. Loss of cabin pressure,
passengers feeling unwell.
A Ryanair Boeing 737-800, performing flight _______ from Ireland to Zadar (Croatia)
with _____ people on board, was enroute at _______ about _____ southwest of
Frankfurt (Germany), still in French Airspace, when the crew initiated an
________________ to ________, the passenger oxygen masks were released. The
crew reported a number of passengers felt unwell with ear pain and nausea, a few
passengers were bleeding out of their ears. The aircraft landed safely on Frankfurt's
_____ about ________ after leaving FL370.
Germany's Police authorities reported that passengers stated there had been a _____
sound, not all too loud, then the passenger oxygen masks came down and the crew
initiated a descent. The passengers complained about ____ in their ears and nausea.
___ passengers were treated by medical staff attending to the aircraft and were taken
to hospitals.
The airline reported an inflight ______________, in line with standard operating

procedures the crew released the passenger oxygen masks and initiated a controlled
descent. The aircraft landed safely, passengers disembarked, and a small number of
travelers received medical attention as precaution. Hotel accommodation was
authorized, however, there was shortage of hotel rooms available. The passengers are
to be taken to Croatia by a replacement aircraft the following day. A replacement
Boeing 737-800 registration ________ reached Zadar the following day with a delay of
about _____.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4bb20f20&opt=256
24. (Track AVH24) Incident: Canada A319 at Calgary, bird strikes into both
engines.
An Air Canada Airbus A319, registration _______ performing flight ________ from
Calgary to Ottawa (Canada) with __ people on board, was climbing out of Calgary's
runway ___ when the aircraft flew through a ______________ and sustained a number
of bird hits. The crew declared an _________ and returned to Calgary for a safe landing
on runway __ about ______ after departure.
The Canadian TSB reported maintenance found two ________ of the left-hand engine
as well as a ______ at the engine _____ leading edge. In addition, __ fan blades of
the right-hand engine were found bent. The left engine inlet cowl was replaced, and
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the fan blades were found within limits. The __ fan blades of the right-hand engine
were replaced, and both engines revealed no internal core damage in borescope
inspections. Following engine runs, the aircraft was returned to service _____ after
landing back.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4c0a9c9e&opt=0
25. (Track AVH25) Accident: Aeroflot B738 at Moscow, man strike.
An Aeroflot Boeing 737-800, registration _________ performing flight __________

from Moscow (Russia) to Athens (Greece), was in the initial climb out of Moscow's
runway ____ when the crew reported they believed that had encountered a collision
with an _______ on the runway. There was no abnormal indication and the crew
continued the flight to Athens. A runway inspection found _______ remains as well as
a ______, documents and other personal belongings on the runway. The occurrence
aircraft landed in Athens without further incident.
A post flight inspection of the aircraft revealed damage to the _________. The
occurrence aircraft is still on the ground in Athens about ________ later.
Moscow's Interregional Transport Prosecution Office opened an investigation into the

accident. A _________ Armenian citizen was being deported from Spain to Armenia
via an intermediate stop in Moscow. During the flight from Spain to Moscow he had
_______ on board of the aircraft and was received by Moscow police who escorted the
man to the departure gate to Armenia. Instead of entering the bus to the aircraft the
man however stepped onto the apron and __________. A criminal case has been
opened during which the prosecution office also reviews whether the airport fulfills all
the laws on aviation safety.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4c090bef&opt=256
26. (Track AVH26) Incident: Cathay Dragon A321 at Hong Kong.
A Cathay Dragon Airbus A321, registration _________ performing flight __________

from Hong Kong to Wuhan (______), was climbing out of the Hong Kong when the
crew stopped the climb at _________ reporting ____ of their Inertial Reference
Systems (____) had failed and they were having __________ problems. ATC inquired
whether they were able to follow vectors for the return to Hong Kong which the crew
affirmed. ATC provided vectors for the return to Hong Kong, the aircraft entered a
______ while the crew was working the related checklists and landed safely back on
Hong Kong's runway ___ about ___ after departure. A replacement Airbus registration
_________ reached Wuhan with a delay of _________.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4c10a877&opt=0
272

27. (Track AVH27) Incident: Van L410 at Dubrovnik.
A Van Air Europe Let _______ on behalf of Trade Air, registration __________
performing flight _________ from Split to Dubrovnik (Croatia) with __ passengers and
__ crew, landed on Dubrovnik's _________ at about _______ but touched down before
the ___________ threshold of the runway. The aircraft rolled out safely and became
________ among machinery and workers that were performing runway reconstruction
work. There were no injuries, the aircraft did not sustain any damage. About ________
later a taxi path was cleared for the aircraft and it was able to taxi to the _______.
Croatia's Civil Aviation Authority have opened an investigation and Trade Air confirmed
their aircraft had landed on the _________ portion of Dubrovnik's runway. Fire brigades
and ambulances responded however, did not need to interfere. A short time later the
aircraft was able to taxi to the apron, where the passengers disembarked normally. The
aircraft had been __________ from Van Air Europe.
Lease Out is a Contract which we do when we rent out our property to a tenant
Lease In is a Contract which we do when we rent a property and stay as tenant.
Tenant - a person who pays rent for the use of land or a building
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4c10c0e3&opt=0
28. (Track AVH28) Accident: Contact F100 at Stuttgart, landing without main gear.
The crew of a Contact Air Fokker 100 on behalf of Lufthansa, registration _________,
with ___ passengers and ___ crew on board, received an _________ gear indication
after lowering the gear on approach to Stuttgart. The pilot __________ the approach
and entered a _________ to troubleshoot the problem. The main gear could not be
lowered despite _________ troubleshooting, so that the crew was forced to land
without main gear. The airplane landed on its _____ on _______ and was evacuated
via slides. One passenger and one flight attendant received _______ injuries. The
runway was _________ - in the meantime takeoffs and landings of small aircraft were
possible after authorities granted permission to use the parallel taxiway for such
takeoffs and landings. A total of ______flights had to be cancelled.
ContactAir reported that the crew could not __________________ the main gear
despite multiple attempts. The airport __________ the runway in preparation for the
gear up landing. An experienced captain (aged 60, ___________ flight hours) and a
copilot (age 30, _________ flight hours) were at the controls, a second first officer on
line training (age 27, 2605 flight hours) was also in the cockpit. The airplane had
performed ____________ landings since its introduction to line service in November
________. The airplane was repaired and ferried back on November 11th, re-entering
service on November 12th.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=41fbf5b9&opt=0
273

29. (Track AVH29) Incident: Cargojet at St. John's. Undeclared dangerous goods
in cargo leaking.
A Cargojet Boeing 767-300, registration _________ performing freight flight

___________ from Moncton to St. John (Canada) with _________, concluded a
seemingly uneventful flight with a ______ landing in St. John's.
The Canadian TSB reported however that upon _____________ the aircraft ground
workers found a _____________ leaking _______. A package was discovered
containing two _____ of Evotherm M1, a class __ dangerous goods, which had not
been _____________. One ____ had leaked its entire content, about ________ of
liquid. Maintenance cleaned up the spill and returned the aircraft to service. The
contracting company cleaned the unit load device (ULD) and is going to follow up with
the shipper regarding the ____________ dangerous goods.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4b849b9f&opt=0
30. (Track AVH30) Incident: Saudia near Brussels. Smoke in the cabin.
A Saudi Arabian Airlines Boeing 777-300, registration ___________ performing flight

__________ from London Heathrow (UK) to Jeddah (Saudi Arabia) with _____ people
on board and dangerous goods (mainly _________), was enroute at _________ about
______ south of Brussels (Belgium) when the crew decided to ________ to Brussels
reporting ________ in the cabin. The aircraft landed safely on Brussels' runway
______ about ____ minutes after leaving _________ and taxied to the apron.
The airline reported a precautionary landing in Brussels due to smoke in cabin. The
aircraft is still on the ground in Brussels about _____ after landing.
Souce:avherald.com/h?article=49a81619&opt=0
31. (Track AVH31) Accident: Aeroflot at Moscow. Aircraft bursts into flames during
rollout and burns down.
An Aeroflot Sukhoi Superjet, registration ___________ performing flight __________

from Moscow (Sherementyevo) to Murmansk (Russia) with ____ passengers and ___
crew, departed Sherementyevo's runway _______ but stopped the climb at about
__________ following a ____________ strike, declared loss of radio communication
first, later emergency via transponder codes and returned to Sherementyevo for a
landing on runway _______. During the roll out the aircraft burst into flames, veered
left off the runway and came to a stop on the grass adjacent to the runway, the aircraft
burned down. ______ occupants died in the accident (_____ occupants still missing
were declared dead), ______ occupants were able to evacuate the aircraft via both
front door emergency __________, the ____ flight crew escaped via the escape
_________ through the cockpit windows, there were _____ injuries. The aircraft's tail
section completely burned down and was destroyed.
274

Emergency services reported the fire was extinguished about _____ minutes after
landing. According to preliminary information there were ____ fatalities. Emergency
services later updated the count to _____ fatalities, ____ injuries and a still
undetermined number of missing occupants.
A ground observer reported he witnessed the landing. The aircraft bounced, on the
third critical touchdown both main gear supports ___________, and the aircraft
________ fire.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4c78f3e6&opt=0
32. (Track AVH32) Incident: Iberia over Atlantic. Flaps problem.

An Iberia Airbus A340-600, registration _________ performing flight __________ from
Madrid (Spain) to Sao Paulo Guarulhos, was enroute at _______ about _________
southwest of Madrid when the crew decided to ________ to Madrid. The aircraft
_______________ to _______ for the return, subsequently descended to ________
and ________ while ___________________ and positioned for an approach to
Madrid's runway ______. The aircraft landed safely at a higher than normal speed
(________ over ground).
After the aircraft had been shut down back in Madrid the crew informed the passengers
they had suffered a problem with the _________.
The occurrence aircraft is still on the ground about _________ after landing.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4c83bdca&opt=0
33. (Track AVH33) Incident: Porter DH8D near Montreal.
A Porter Airlines Dash 8-400, registration _________ performing flight _________ from
Halifax to Ottawa (Canada) with ____ passengers and _______ , was enroute at
_______ when the crew noticed a _______________ and initiated a fuel transfer from
the _____ hand main to the _____ hand main fuel tank. The crew subsequently
realized that the _____ fuel tank was indicating only _______ and stopped the fuel
transfer. Cabin crew did not observe any __________. The crew declared PAN PAN
and diverted to Montreal,QC in Canada. During the approach the ______ hand fuel
quantity indication returned to normal, the crew cancelled PAN and continued for a
______________ in Montreal.
The Canadian TSB reported the operator's maintenance identified the left wing fuel
indication system was __________.
Source: avherald.com/h?article=4c83b7b4&opt=0
275

AVHERALD NEWS REPORT : ANSWER KEY
1. Dublin (Ireland), Toronto (Canada), FL360, 260nm, requested to return,

mechanical, oxygen mask, dripping, landed safely, 28, one, ground, 2,5h, 5h.
2. 787-900, AF-428, Paris, Bogota, climbing out, climb at FL290, air conditioning,
return, 08L, 80 minutes.
3. LV-FUA, AR-1878, initial climb, runway 13, ingested a bird, stop, FL060, hold,
return, 31, one hour, 26.
4. LV-HKZ, OY-570, final approach, runway 31, bird, radome, landing, unable, OY-
571, on the ground, 27.
5. CRJ-700, JA09RJ, 58, descending, hydraulic problems, towed.
6. 737-800, OM-JEX, FL270, fuel system, 29, 30, 5, on the ground, 4.
7. N996DL, DL-1198, 60, initial climb, 02, lost the #1 engine, 8000 feet, divert, safely,
01R, 30, metallic debris, engine problem.
8. N826MH, Dublin's runway 28, issue, vibration, close to the airfield, 7000 ft, vacate
runway 28, monitoring, brakes, apron, 8, DL-45, cancelled, mechanical.
9. PT-MXH, 184, 8, 27L, 27R, taxied, 27R, 27L, being.
10. SK-1049, enroute, FL320, 75nm, left hand, bang, streaks, safe, 14, 20, technical
problem, loud bang.
11. Boeing 777, VT-ALN, departure, 53 years old flight attendant, fell off, tarmac,
serious leg, incident, fell off, leg, delay of 75 minutes.
12. HV-5022, final approach, runway 24, go around, a flaps problem, divert to,
emergency, responding, flaps up landing, 18R, 30 minutes.
13. N926FR, F9-190, severe turbulence, injuries, stopped, FL270, 50 minutes, broke
his ankle, accident, on the ground, 65 minutes, 2 hours.
14. N451PA, 2 crew, runway 27, went around, 27, 12, veered right off, soft ground, K6,
K7, no.
15. VH-VQL, JQ-772, 27, odor, two, stop the climb, FL240, 16, 35. Odor, cleaning
product, VH-VWZ, 4.5, 16 hours.
276

16. Boeing 747-400, BA-177, enroute at FL360, 800nm, London, electrical problems,
5:15, cancelled, failed, galleys, overhead signs, odor, 15 minutes, issues, electrical
systems.
17. FZ-724, runway 16, low speed, 1000 meters, Smoke, emergency, smoke, landing
gear.
18. D-AIKN, LH-764, 248, FL370, 130nm, cracked windshield, descended to FL360, 3
hours, D-AIKB, 7.5 hours.
19. PK-LQP, 181, 7 crew, 5400 feet, height, 35nm, crash site, oil slicks, debris, 6,
wreckage, technical assistance.
20. G-VIIR, BA-9601, FL370, 70nm, brakes temperature, FL200, Runway 31L, FL370,
#3, minor, 20 hours, BA-2272, 6h.
21. AV-9745, MANGA 8, GPWS, 14,000 feet, 1500 feet, instructor, 40nm, 13,980 feet,
MSA, 17,000ft, 20,640 ft, 02.
22. G-OZBH, ZB-942, ILS, 01, VFR, cross the localizer, go around, 400 feet, 2.5 nm.
23. FR-7312, 189, FL370, 120nm, emergency descent, FL080, runway 03, 35 minutes,
bang, pain, 33, depressurization, EI-EVD, 13h.
24. C-GAPY, AC-352, 88, 35L, flock of birds, urgency, 29, 10 min., fan blades, Dent,
Inlet, 7, 7, 46h.
25. VP-BCG, SU-2112, 24L, animal, human, wallet, fuselage, 17 hours, 25-year-old,
rioted, ran away.
26. B-HTJ, KA-854, China, FL170, two, IRS, navigation, hold, 07L, 40m, B-HTI, 3:15
hours.
27. L-410, OK-LAZ, C3-821, 7, 3, runway 12, 12:45L, displaced, stuck, 10 minutes,
apron, closed, leased in.
28. D-AFKE; 73; 5; unsafe; aborted; holding; 90 minutes; belly; R07; minor; closed;
167; fully extend; foamed;17,443; 2,309; 33,541; 1995.
29. C-GCIJ; W8-620; 2 crew; safe; unloading; mail bag; fluid; cans; 9; declared; can;
one liter; undeclared.
30. HZ-AK25; SV-116; 144; gasoline; FL370; 20nm; divert; smoke; 25R; 23; FL370; 21
hours.
31. RA-89098, SU-1492, 73, 5, 24C, FL100, lightning, 24L, 41, 28, 35, slides, 2, ropes,
11, 45 minutes, 10, 13, 6, collapsed, caught.
32. EC-IZY, IB-6827, FL350, 580nm, return, descended, FL340, FL190, FL120, dumping
fuel, 32L, 195 knots, flaps, 19 hours.
277

33. C-GKQA, PD-242, 72, 4 crew, FL240, fuel imbalance, right, left, left, 200 lbs, fuel
leak, left, safe landing, left, faulty.
278

8.5 VOCABULARY
Vocabulary Check
Listen to the audios from each exercise and complete the blanks with the correct
vocabulary you hear from the audio. Take notes of those that are new for you.
Enter the following website to listen to the audios: https://bit.ly/2rSyVmX or visit our
website (www.pilotsfluency.com/aluno) and click on the Global Xpress topic.
PRE-FLIGHT INSPECTION:
1. Before the________________, the pilot should set the_____________ or install

the _______________for the____________ of the_________________.
2. The main reason for an ___________________is to ensure the _____________
and ___________of the flight.
3. The pilot should look for any ______________on the _____________and-
______________, and check if the ____________________and
_____________________are free.
4. The pilot has to make sure there is no blockage in the______________,
_______________, ________________and in the fuel tank _______________.
5. It is extremely important to check the ________________of the aircraft.
__________or _____________tires can cause problems during takeoff and
landing.
6. It is essential to ensure that all_____________, _______________and
____________are properly______________.
7. During the preflight, the pilot needs to make sure all __________________is
working properly. If needed, the pilot can connect the ____________to the aircraft
to avoid draining the battery.
8. The pilot should always check the _______________for obstructions.
9. During the walk around, I inspect the aircraft for any
_______________or______________, especially near the fuel tanks,
____________and________________. If any is found, the aircraft has to
be_________________ for further inspection and maintenance.
10. Before pushback, the pilot has to verify if the ________________is on.
11. If the pilot rotates the aircraft very quickly on takeoff, the _______________will
protect it against a tail strike.
279

12. During the walk-around, the pilot has to verify if there is any ice on the aircraft, and,
if needed, request ____________or________________.
13. The ______________is usually only used during ground operations.
COCKPIT PREPARATION:
14. One of the first things pilots should do after entering the ______________is
an__________________.Then, they should check the aircraft’s _____________for
any discrepancies.
15. Before starting the engines, the pilot must perform a ______________and always
verify if the __________are in the idle position.
16. A good cockpit preparation ____________should include all _____________on the
______________and_____________________, as well as the
______________________.
17. The pilot should always ______________________on the _____________while
waiting for the _____________________to arrive. Then, he has to confirm the
___________________, especially the required ____________ ______________.
PUSHBACK TO LINE-UP:
18. The pilot should always complete the ______________________before requesting

__________________for pushback and start.
19. ______________________has to be advised when the aircraft is cleared for
pushback and start. While they_________ the aircraft to position, the crew should
pay attention to the _____________for any problems during engine start.
20. It is common practice for the pilot to wait at the _____________while passengers
board the airplane.
21. If the pilot is unsure how to proceed after receiving the__________________, he
should ask for a____________________. If one isn’t available, he should ask
ATC_______________________________.
22. You should be careful while standing behind an airplane because of the
_______________________.
23. Pilots can use _____________________ for tight turns during taxi.
280

24. The ________________________should be done before the aircraft lines up on
the runway.
25. The advantage of having ____________________is that the
__________________can be the one with a greater headwind component.
26. Qantas 2952, _________________! There is an Airbus crossing the taxiway in front
of you.
27. Pilots should taxi to the ___________________and expect clearance to
_______________or to take off.
28. Before taking off, pilots are expected to perform
the__________________________. Once airborne, they must perform the
____________________________.
FROM TAKEOFF TO TOC (TOP OF CLIMB)
29. The controller will be expecting that the pilot performs a _________________if the
instruction was to line up and takeoff.
30. In short runways with a soft field, pilots may perform a ________________or a
________________together with a ____________________.
31. The _________________must perform the ___________during the takeoff, such
as________, _____________, ___________________________, etc. The pilot
flying must say ____________ when the pilot monitoring says positive rate of climb.
32. When lined up on the _________________, the _________________ of a B737 is
expected to push the throttle levers until the engines reach 40% of N1 and then
press the ____________________switch to assure that
____________________will be set by the ____________________system.
33. Pilots may be instructed to maintain the _____________________to avoid
___________________.
34. Once airborne, the aircraft will accelerate to _____________until it reaches the
_____________________where the pilot flying must set the calculated
_____________________and start the __________________procedure.
35. Before taking off, pilots are supposed to _________________the
__________________ to assure
that the takeoff __________________are in the correct position and make sure
they are under the_____________________________.
281

36. A _____________and a negative _______________will increase the takeoff
distance required.
37. Normally, the __________________________requires the aircraft to maintain its
______________________until certain altitude.
38. During the__________________, the ______________________can
be_______________, a ___________________may be requested and pilots must
call _________________for further instructions.
39. By observing the__________________, pilots can determine if they are
encountering
a __________________, a ___________________or a
______________________condition.
40. The __________________________assures that the aircraft will reach its final
altitude in the shortest period of time.
Pilots should change the altimeter setting from QNH to QNE when they pass the
___________________.
41. Pilots should change the altimeter setting from QNH to QNE when they pass the
________________.
42. __________________________should be maintained until the aircraft reaches the
FL100.
43. ________________________have caused several accidents and incidents around
the world.
44. 1,000 FT before reaching the____________________, the pilot monitoring must
say______________________.
45. While rotating the aircraft, pilots must watch the aircraft’s ________________to
avoid having a tail strike.
46. When turbulence is predicted, the _______________________will illuminate.
CRUISE TO DESCENT
47. When leveled off, the _________________will assure that the calculated
__________________will be maintained.
48. Heavy aircraft may perform ______________to be always flying in its
__________________to guarantee the lowest____________________.
282

49. _____________________is determined by adding the wind components to
the________________.
50. Commercial jets fly using the ____________________until certain altitude where
they start using a ____________________as the reference airspeed.
51. Usually, the captain performs a _______________with some information about the
flight.
52. Normally, the _______________is always bellow 10,000 FT in commercial jets.
53. The ____________________must be performed before reaching the
____________________point.
54. The trail left by a jet aircraft when flying in high altitudes is called
______________________
55. ______________________is used during the descent.
56. The ___________________helps pilots to establish if a
____________________will be needed.
57. ____________________are panels mounted on the upper surface of the wing that,
when extended, both increase drag and decrease lift by disrupting the airflow over
the wing.
58. During the descent, if an aircraft does not have the other____________________,
________________can be expected from ATC in order to keep a safe separation
between them.
59. Usually, when passing an altitude of 18,000ft, the pilots should change their
___________________from QNE to ___________, so they will be equally adjusted
with all aircrafts in the __________________that are performing a
__________________.
60. If airspace is too congested, the crew can expect from ATC to proceed to a
___________________over a specific________________, where an
________________should occur.
APPROACH TO PARKING
61. As the aircraft approaches to the airport, it starts to be prepared to land. That’s
when the______________________ occurs, usually when passing through the
___________________. By that time, crew should expect the
__________________to be alive on their instruments. Passing through
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the________________________, the aircraft captures the
____________________, begins the____________________, and is set to
the____________________, which consists by extending_________________,
putting_____________________, turning________________, and finally,
completing the_______________________________.
62. During the____________________, the crew has to be totally alerted about the
procedure, especially when flying under IMC (Instrument Meteorological
Conditions). There is a limit altitude called ____________________to where they
can descent to, which is specified by the ___________________, referred to the
sea level, or___________________, referred to the ground, and set by
the____________________. By that time, the pilots should establish
______________________either with the
____________________________or_____________________, therefore,
proceeding to land, if they have the_____________________. If not, the best
decision is to immediately initiate a ______________________procedure.
63. A _________________is an extension of an instrument approach procedure which
provides for visual circling of the aerodrome prior to landing. In other words, it is the
____________________segment of an instrument approach.
64. There are also some other _________________to assist pilots seeing the runway,
which are the___________________(Visual Approach Slope Indicator) and the
______________(Precision Approach Path Indicator), both located in the sides of
the runway.
65. Commonly, during the landing, a soft _________________is achieved by a
good_____________, and also by maintaining the correct____________, which is
the threshold reference speed.
66. During an ILS Cat III, the pilots are not allowed to __________________the
autopilot and ________________________the aircraft until it touches the ground
by itself. That is called an ________________procedure. Some autoland systems
require the pilot to steer the aircraft during the ____________ phase on the runway
after landing.
67. A _____________is a signal line that comes from a VOR and it is measured by
the________________________________.
68. There are some natural factors, such as ___________and ________________that
can lead the aircraft into an ______________________condition.
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69. A ___________________means that the aircraft must be stabilized for landing by
1,000ft above airport elevation in IMC, and 500ft in VMC.
70. After the aircraft perform the_________________, it is necessary to make the
_____________and _________________the runway as soon as possible for the
next traffic. After that, the crew have to proceed to the specific
______________informed by the Tower, located on the _____________.
71. The _______________is an equipment that inverts the direction of the thrust from
the engines, thus, helping the aircraft to decelerate after landing.
72. There are several kinds of systems made to stop the aircraft during landing, such
as_______________, located on the wheel assembly, and
the__________________, located on the wings.
73. In a condition of_______________, the ________________will increase the
_______________over the surface and reduce the possibility of
a__________________.
74. The_________________ is the equipment that alerts the crew of a near obstacle.
75. During a pilot’s training, it is expected from the student a lot of
_________________practice before getting the license.
76. During an abnormal start-up, an _________________checklist must be followed.
77. Fatigue is the main cause for the pilots to reduce the _____________________of
their actions, which is the amount of time to fulfill a request.
Author: Paulo G. Faria Araújo.
Now count how many words you got then look at the table below to check if you would
be considered a Level 3 (Pre-Operational), Level 4 (Operational) or a Level 5
(Advanced) in comprehension.
01 < 60 Phrases LeveL 4 > 61 - 77 Phrases

LeveL 3 &
LeveL 5
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VOCABULARY CHECK: ANSWER KEY
Preflight Inspection:
1. Walk around; parking brake; wheel chocks; inspection; main aircraft structures;
2. External inspection; safety; security.
3. Damage; fuselage; antennas; angle of attack sensor; flight controls.
4. Aircraft sensors; pitot tube; static port; vent line.
5. Tire condition; flat; worn.
6. Access panels; engine cowlings; cargo doors; latched.
7. External lighting; GPU.
8. Engine inlet.
9. Fuel; oil leakage; main; nose wheels; grounded.
10. Gear pin.
11. Tail skid.
12. Anti-ice; de-ice.
13. APU.
Cockpit Preparation:
14. Flight deck; oxygen test; logbook.

15. Fire test; thrust levers.
16. Scan; switches; overhead panel; glare shield; flight instruments.
17. Program the route; FMC; load sheets; performance data; fuel; quantity.
Pushback to Line-up
18. Before start checklist; ATC clearance.

19. Ground personnel; tow; marshaller.
20. Jetway.
21. Taxi clearance; follow me car; for progressive taxi instructions.
22. Jet blast.
23. Differential braking.
24. Take off briefing.
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25. Crossed runways; active runway.
26. Hold position.
27. Hold short; line up and wait.
28. Before takeoff checklist; after takeoff checklist.
From takeoff to TOC (Top of Climb)
29. Rolling takeoff.

30. Short field; static takeoff; soft field takeoff.
31. Pilot monitoring; callouts; V1; rotate; positive rate of climb; gear up.
32. Threshold; pilot flying; TOGA – takeoff / go around; takeoff thrust; power thrust.
33. Runway heading; obstacles.
34. V2; acceleration altitude; climb thrust; flap retraction.
35. Crosscheck; aircraft configuration; flaps and slats; takeoff weight.
36. Tail wind; runway slope.
37. Noise abatement procedure; best angle of climb.
38. Initial climb; autopilot; engaged; frequency change; departure control.
39. Windsock; headwind; crosswind; tailwind.
40. Best rate of climb.
41. Transition altitude.
42. Sterile cockpit.
43. F.O.D’s – Foreign Object Debris.
44. Top of climb; one thousand to level off.
45. Pitch attitude.
46. Fasten seat belt sign.
47. Cruise thrust; cruise speed.
48. Step climb; optimum cruise level; fuel consumption.
49. Ground airspeed; true airspeed.
50. Indicated airspeed; mach number.
51. Speech.
52. Cabin altitude.
53. Approach briefing; top of descent.
54. Contrail or condensation contrail.
55. Idle thrust.
56. Weather radar; weather deviation.
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57. Spoilers.
58. Traffic in sight; vectors.
59. Altimeter setting; QNH; terminal area; step descent.
60. Holding pattern; way point; aircraft sequence.
Approach to Parking
61. Flap extension; initial approach fix (IAF); localizer; final approach fix (FAF); glide
slope; ILS approach; landing configuration; full flaps; landing gear down; landing
lights on; before landing checklist.
62. Final approach; minimums; decision altitude (DA); decision height (DH); radio
altimeter; visual reference; approach lighting system (ALS); runway lights; runway
in sight; go around.
63. Circling approach; visual approach.
64. Visual references; VASI; PAPI.
65. Touchdown; flare; Vref.
66. Disengage; manually fly; Autoland; rollout.
67. Radial; DME – distance measure equipment.
68. Gust; windshear; unstabilized approach.
69. Stabilized approach.
70. Touchdown; backtrack; vacate; gate; apron.
71. Reverser.
72. Auto brakes; speed brakes.
73. Wet runway; anti-skid; braking action; runway excursion.
74. GPWS.
75. Touch and go.
76. Engine shutdown.
77. Turnaround time.
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Vocabulary Practice Exercises
1. Look at the words below and choose the correct definition for each:
1. Dispatch a) Barriers used to protect people, aircraft, vehicles

2. Apron from jet blast and prop wash.
3. Localizer b) Open area in front of terminal or hangar.
4. De-icing vehicle c) Used to spray de and anti-icing substances onto
5. Blast Fences aircraft.
6. Hot Spot d) Prevent intrusions and increase security at an
7. Perimeter Fences aerodrome.
8. Volcanic Ashes e) Service that provide flight crew with flight
9. Jet Blast information.
10. Prop Wash f) Force generated from a propeller driven aircraft.
g) Blast force generated behind a jet engine.
h) Part of ILS equipment.
i) Small solid particles ejected from an active
volcano.
j) Location on an aerodrome movement area with a
history or potential risk of collision or runway
incursion. Usually runway and taxiway
intersections.
2. Complete the sentences using the technical vocabulary from the list below.
[ Garbled ] [ Clogged ] [ Empty ] [ Cracked ] [ Jammed ] [ Broken ]

[ Dangerous ] [ Disconnected ] [ High ] [ Leaking ] [ Unserviceable ]
a) BHZ Tower, apparently our landing gear is ____________. We request a low

pass for a visual check. ANAC 123.
b) Pilots should remove the pitot cover and always check if it is ___________ up.
c) The pilot’s last transmission was ____________.
d) Flying inside CB clouds is very _______________.
e) The oil pressure gauge is indicating a _______ pressure.
289

f) There may be a hole in the fuel tank as there is fuel ____________.
g) The pilot _______________ the autopilot to land the aircraft manually.
h) The aircraft’s APU is ___________ therefore it will be ______________ for this
flight.
i) We are running out of fuel! The tanks are almost _________.
j) The windshield was __________ due to a flock of birds on takeoff.
3. Look at the sentences below and complete them using the words below.
caused resulted in so because forced because of unmanned put out

due
a) All flights were cancelled ___________ the volcanic ashes in the airport vicinity.
b) The aircraft’s leading edge is severely damaged. This was _________ by a
hailstorm.
c) The thunderstorm caused the runway to be slippery, _____ the braking action
will be poor.
d) The passenger who was missing from the aircraft _________ the pilots to delay
the takeoff.
e) Some types of batteries cannot be carried on board _________ they may
explode onboard.
f) After the aircraft landed, the fire was ____________ by the fire fighters.
g) Drones, also known as ______________ aerial vehicle, pose a threat to the
flight safety.
h) The pilots rejected takeoff ______ to a master caution light indication.
i) Their decision to reject the takeoff _____________ the flight being delayed.
4. Match the technical vocabulary to their correct definition:

1. MSA (Minimum Sector Altitude) 4. Runway Incursion
2. NOTAM (Notice to Airmen) 5. Cruising Level
3. Runway Excursion 6. Hot Spot
a) A location on an aerodrome movement area with a history or potential risk of

collision or runway incursion, and where heightened attention by pilots/drivers
is necessary.
290

b) “The lowest altitude which may be used which will provide a minimum clearance
of 300m (1000 ft) above all objects located in an area contained within a sector
of a circle of 46km (25 NM) radius centered on a significant point, the airport
reference point (ARP) or the heliport reference point (HRP).” (2018, General
Airway Manual, Jeppesen).
c) A level maintained during a significant portion of a flight.
d) A written notification issued to pilots before a flight, advising them of
circumstances relating to the state of flying.
e) An incident where aircraft, vehicle or person is on a runway without being
cleared to.
f) It occurs when an aircraft departs the runway in use during the take-off or
landing run.
5. Complete the sentences with the verbs in the box:
felt noticed appears looks were was heard didn’t smell
a) The first officer __________ that the oil pressure from the aircraft’s system was
low.
b) The aircraft in front of us ___________ to be taxiing towards the gate.
c) During the flight there was severe turbulence enroute and passengers ______
the sudden bumps and drops.
d) Yesterday the pilots _______ behind schedule due to truck drivers’ strike.
e) He _______ see the taxiway markings, as a result he entered the wrong taxiway.
f) I think there is something burning. Can you _______ it too?
g) It ______ like as if the cargo door is not locked.
h) During the flight the pilots _______ a loud bang coming from the engine.
i) The copilot ______ doing the walk around inspection before the flight.
291

6. Below there are some vocabulary you will find in an operational atmosphere. You
are going to select each word (1-12) to its correct definition (a-l).
1) Drizzle a) an aborted landing of an aircraft that is on final

approach.
2) Go-around b) ICAO regulation that allows twin-engine aircraft to fly
more than 60 minutes from a diversion airfield.
3) IMC c) Instrument Meteorological Conditions
4) Orbit d) assigned departure time
5) Slot e) location where aircraft stop before being authorized to
line up on the runway.
6) VMC f) snow lifted and blown by the wind from the surface.
7) Drifting Snow g) Visual Meteorological Conditions
8) Vector h) a 360º turn to the right or left as a form of delaying
action.
9) Flare i) rain in very small, light drops.
10) Holding Point j) navigational guidance given by the controller to pilots.
11) Behind Schedule k) action of rotating the aircraft’s nose to cause a
touchdown on the runway.
12) ETOPS l) not according to the schedule; late.
m)
7. Now, look at airport signs and markings below. Write the according letter to its
correct description in the blanks. (Source: www.faa.gov/runwaysafety)
A B C D E F
G H I J
292

K L M N
Holding side
O P Q
1. ___ This sign identifies the runway on which your aircraft is currently located.
2. ___ This sign indicates the termination of the taxiway and is located at the
far end of the intersection.
3. ___ This sign alerts you that you are approaching a runway and, on a
taxiway, is accompanied by a runway holding position marking.
4. ___ This sign indicates thousands of feet remaining to the end of the runway.
5. ___ An aircraft that taxis past this sign may interfere with the navigational
landing aid signals that an approaching aircraft is using.
6. ___ These lights outline the edges of a taxiway.
7. ___ These lights outline the edges of a runway.
8. ___ This sign identifies the location in conjunction with multiple intersecting
taxiways.
9. ___ This marking indicates where an aircraft is to hold before entering the
runway.
10. ___ This sign indicates an exit from the runway.
11. ___ This painted marking indicates the edge of the ILS critical area. Ground
control may ask you to hold short at this line if an aircraft is using the ILS.
12. ___ This sign indicates the direction to a destination runway.
13. ___ Taxiing past this sign may interfere with operations on the runway even
though it is not located at a runway intersection.
14. ___ This sign indicates an area prohibited to aircraft from entering.
15. ___ This array is located at the intersection of two runways and a taxiway.
16. ___ This sign identifies the taxiway you are currently on.
17. ___ This sign means the runway or taxiway is closed.
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8. Rearrange the words to make questions and sentences.
a) in / low / we / system / Jet Star 1789 / have / pressure / our / hydraulic.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b) the / difficult / it / bank / is / the / and / pitch / to / of / aircraft / control / the.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
c) career / start / did / when / aviation / you / your / in?

___________________________________________________________________
d) a / long / to / pilot / how / did / become / you / train?

___________________________________________________________________
e) is / important / pilots / language / English / the / aviation / in / extremely / for

/ ATCO’s / and.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
f) most / do / your / enjoy / job / the / aspect / what / of / you?

___________________________________________________________________
g) do / work / usually /many / how / month / hours / per / you?

___________________________________________________________________
h) known / is / luxury / on / board / for / Emirates / its / worldwide

___________________________________________________________________
i) pilot / did / become / decide / why / you / to / a?

___________________________________________________________________
j) often / practice / you / how / do / English?

___________________________________________________________________
k) as / at / Brazil / in / worked / pilot / I / several / have / airports / a.

___________________________________________________________________
l) case / smoke / there / in / goggles / don / is / pilots / on board / must / smoke.

___________________________________________________________________
m) ever / language / ATC / a / have / communicated / different / you / with /

using?
___________________________________________________________________
294

9. Look at the photos below and select the correct definition for each.
a. Airstairs i. Jetway (also referred as

b. Aisle seat Walkway, Jetty, Passenger
c. Baggage carousel Bridge and Airbridge)
d. Baggage claim j. Overhead compartment (also
e. Cargo hold referred as overhead bin)
f. Carry-on baggage k. Oxygen masks
g. Checked baggage l. Truck mounted airstairs
h. In-flight entertainment system m. Wheel chocks
n. Window seat
o. Window shade
1___________________________________________________ 2___________________________________________________
3 (Name of the area where passengers pick their baggage up)
__________________________________
5___________________________________________________
4 (Name of the equipment which passengers pick their baggage
up)
___________________________________________________
295

6___________________________________________________ 7 (Name of the seat located in the aisle side)
___________________________________________________
9 (Type of baggage that passengers may carry inside the cabin)

8 (Name of the seat located in the window side)
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
10___________________________________________________
296

12 (Used to store baggage in the passengers’ cabin)
11 (Baggage that goes into the cargo hold)
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
14___________________________________________________
13___________________________________________________
15___________________________________________________
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VOCABULARY PRACTICE EXERCISES: ANSWER KEY
1. 1-E 2-B 3-H 4-C 5-A 6-J 7-D 8-I 9-G 10-F
2. a) jammed b) clogged c) garbled d) dangerous e) high f) leaking g) disconnected
h) broken, unserviceable i) empty j) cracked.
3. a) because of b) caused c) so d) forced e) because f) put out g) unmanned h) due
i) resulted in.
4. 1-B 2-D 3-F 4-E 5-C 6-A
5. a) Noticed b) appears c) felt d) were e) didn’t f) smell g) looks h) heard i) was
6. 1-I 2-A 3-C 4-H 5-D 6-G 7-F 8-J 9-K 10-E 11-L 12-B
7. 1-F 2-Q 3-O 4-L 5-A 6-D 7-E 8-I 9-P 10-H 11-K 12-N 13-B 14-G 15-J 16-
17-M
8. Answers:
a. Jet Star 1789, we have low pressure in our hydraulic system.
b. It is difficult to control the bank and the pitch of the aircraft.
c. When did you start your career in aviation?
d. How long did you train to become a pilot?
e. The English language in aviation is extremely important for pilots and
ATCO’s.
f. What aspect of your job do you enjoy the most?
g. How many hours per month do you usually work?
h. Emirates is known worldwide for its luxury on board.
i. Why did you decide to become a pilot?
j. How often do you practice English?
k. I have worked at several airports in Brazil as a pilot.
l. Pilots must don smoke goggles in case there is smoke on board.
m. Have you ever communicated with ATC using a different language?
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9. Answers:
1. K 6. O 11. G
2. M 7. B 12. J
3. D 8. N 13. L
4. C 9. F 14. A
5. H 10. E 15. I
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8.6 STRUCTURE EXERCISES
1. Look at the verbs below and put the ones in blank into the correct tense.
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

Am, be Was, were
Began Begun
Blow Blown
Break
Catch Caught Caught
Did Done
Drink Drunk
Drove Driven
Eat Ate Eaten
Fall Fallen
Fight Fought
Flew Flown
Get Got
Gave
Go
Hear Heard
Hid Hidden
Know
Lead Led
Learn Learned
Let
Lose Lost
Made
Pay Paid
Put
Read Read
Request Requested
Run Ran Run
Say Said
300

Saw Seen
Sleep Slept
Speak
Take Took
Teach Taught
Threw Thrown
Write
2. Complete the sentences below using the correct form of the verb.
a) When the pilot _________ (readback) the instructions, the controller had
__________ (realize) that he misunderstood him.
b) Controllers will _______ (repeat) the instructions if a pilot ______ (give) an
incorrect readback.
c) “Hold short of the runway and wait for further instructions”, _____ (say) the
controller.
d) The tow truck driver _______ (think) the pilot had ________ (issue) him
clearance to start the push-back.
e) The controller __________ (instruct) the truck driver to cross the runway.
f) The pilot from the Boeing 777 to our right _____ (say) he has never ______ (be)
to United States.
g) The pilots _______ (be) expediting their rate of climb as they ______ (be)
behind schedule.
h) Air traffic controllers should _______ (issue) simple and short instructions.
i) The A380 _______ (go) around due to an animal on the runway.
j) Jhon ______ (say) he had already ______ (fly) inside a CB cloud and it _____
(be) a very bumpy ride.
k) I ____ (do) my first solo flight when I _____ (be) 19 years old. Never have I ever
___________ (experience) something like this before in my life.
l) At that time I was _________ (fly) a Cessna 172.
m) The pilot readback the controller instructions and _________ (request) to cross
the active runway.
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n) I ___________ (understand) that the pilot ________ (declare) an emergency
due to fire in his right engine. Apparently, he _________ (collide) with a flock of
birds and one bird _____ (get) ingested into right engine.
o) Flight simulators have been _______ (use) to train experienced and pilots
without experience.
p) Datalink _______ (allow) routine air traffic instructions and requests to be
______ (send) as text messages instead of via tradditional voice
communications.
STRUCTURE EXERCISES: ANSWER KEY
1. Look at the table below:
PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE

Am, be Was, were Been
Begin Began Begun
Blow Blew Blown
Break Broke Broken
Catch Caught Caught
Do Did Done
Drink Drank Drunk
Drive Drove Driven
Eat Ate Eaten
Fall Fell Fallen
Fight Fought Fought
Fly Flew Flown
Get Got Got
Give Gave Given
Go Went Gone
Hear Heard Heard
Hide Hid Hidden
Know Knew Known
Lead Led Led
Learn Learned Learned
302

Let Let Let
Lose Lost Lost
Make Made Made
Pay Paid Paid
Put Put Put
Read Read Read
Request Requested Requested
Run Ran Run
Say Said Said
See Saw Seen
Sleep Slept Slept
Speak Spoke Spoken
Take Took Taken
Teach Taught Taught
Throw Threw Thrown
Write Wrote Written
2. a) Readback, realized. b) Repeat, gives. c) Said. d) Thought, issued. e) Instructed.

f) Said, been. g) Were, were. h) Issue. i) Went. j) Said, flown. k) Did, was,
experienced. l) Flying. m) Requested. n) Understood, declared, had, collided, got.
o) Used. p) Allows, sent.
303

8.7 STANDARD PHRASEOLOGY EXERCISES
1. Now, imagine you are flying a multi-engine aircraft. We are going to give you some
situations and you will have to report them to the respective Air Traffic Controller.
Your call sign is always ANAC 123.
a) While on takeoff roll, you hit a flock of birds after V1. Call GRU Tower to report the
situation and your intention to climb to the MSA in order to check your systems.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b) During your descent, the fire warning system started to ring. You decided to contact
Kennedy Center and declare an emergency, requested a priority landing and fire
fighters upon arrival.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
c) Imagine that you had a tail strike during takeoff. Inform Miami Tower of this problem
and your intention to return to Miami Airport.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
d) While you were approaching Dubai airport, the aircraft had a sudden navigation
failure. Inform Dubai approach of this problem and your intention to perform a visual
approach.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
304

e) During your taxi one flight attendant informed you of a passenger suffering an
epileptic seizure. Inform Belo Horizonte ground your situation and the intention to
return to the gates with medical personnel upon returning.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
f) You were on cruise flight at FL450 when suddenly the passenger oxygen masks
deployed. After checking the cabin differential pressure indicator, you immediately
don your oxygen mask and start to descent with the maximum rate of descent to
FL100 in order to check the QRH. Inform Recife Center your situation and your
intentions.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
g) Imagine that while you were on final approach to runway 27 from Guarulhos Airport
your captain fainted. You decide to continue the approach and request medical
assistance to assist him. Inform Guarulhos approach your situation and your
intentions.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
h) When crossing four thousand feet, you see on your weather radar that there is a
CB cloud in your 12 o’clock position and you decide to deviate to the right. Call
Buenos Aires Departure and say your intentions.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
305

i) While leaving the runway to the terminal building your nose landing gear bogged
down on the mud. As you cannot move your aircraft you decide to disembark the
passengers on the runway and request a bus to carry them to the terminal. Call
Bruxells Tower to report your situation and say your intentions.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
j) On final approach you notice there is a tow truck crossing the runway. Inform
Confins Tower to report the situation and your intention to go around and perform
the missed approach procedure.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Now you are going to look at some pilots’ and controllers’ transmissions and answer
the following question: what did the pilot / controller say? Remember that in this
part you are going to use the reported speech.
a) “Easy 459, Guarulhos Tower, I understood that you are rejecting takeoff due to a
tire blowout. You are cleared to return to the gates via taxiways M, J and K.
Maintenance personnel are being advised. Do you need medical assistance?”
What did the controller say?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
b) “Speedbird 7844, we are aware of your descent to a lower flight level. Maintain this
frequency and confirm you have lost thrust in both engines?” What did the
controller say?
306

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
c) “ANAC 123, Belo Horizonte Approach. Cleared to climb to flight level 200. When
passing FL 190, contact Belo Horizonte Center on 134.25 and confirm you had a
near miss during climb?” What did the controller say?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
d) “China Southern 258, there is no traffic in this sector, turn right and fly heading 180.
Confirm you have unreliable altimeter indications?” What did the controller say?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
e) “Lan 965, Santiago Center, increase rate of climb until passing FL 060. Confirm you
need to deviate to the right due to bad weather enroute?” What did the controller
say?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
f) “LATAM 458, Brasilia Tower. Cancel your takeoff intentions, I say again, cancel your
takeoff. There is an unauthorized aircraft crossing the runway.” What did the
controller say?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
g) “Varig 457, France Tower. You’re cleared to France as filed. KANNES 5E departure,
LONDON C1 transition. After takeoff, climb to FL410 without restrictions and inform
when reaching.” What did the controller say?
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
h) “Aeromexico 852, São Paulo Center. Expedite your speed until reaching FL 250
and contact Rio de Janeiro Center on 119.0 when passing FL200.” What did the
controller say?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
i) “ANAC 123, Kennedy Center. I understood you’re declaring an emergency due to

a highjacker on board trying to enter the cockpit. I will give you priority to land at
JFK Airport. Police enforcement and medical assistance have been advised.
Change your frequency to 121.5.” What did the controller say?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
j) “Lotus 315, you’re cleared to land at Pampulha airport, runway 13. Wind 135/10
knots, altimeter 1021. Report when established on the localizer.” What did the
controller say?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
k) Emirates 368, taxi slower. Ice patches and drifting snow were reported on taxiway
November. Be advised, the runway is slippery so braking action will be poor. What
did the pilot say?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
l) Confins Tower, ANAC 123 reporting a large flock of birds near the threshold of
runway 16. What did the pilot say?
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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
m) Bristol Tower, Ryanair 163. We are rejecting our takeoff due to brakes malfunction.
We request an isolated parking position to disembark our passengers and
maintenance assistance standing by. What did the pilot say?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
n) Paris Ground, Lufthansa 2597. Our APU is unserviceable at the moment, would
you please send a GPU to our parking position? What did the pilot say?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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3. Picture interaction and listening exercises.
Below you are going to look at some pictures related to aviation incidents or accidents.
After carefully analyzing the pictures you are going to:
• Step 1 - Report the situation and your intentions to the controller, just like how you
would do in Part 2 of the test (interacting as a pilot).
• Step 2 - After the situation is reported, you will listen to the controller audio and
read back.
• Step 3 - Finally, after the situation is read back, you will answer the question at the
end of the exercise.
Got it?! Let’s get to work then!
Important: you will find the audio files (tracks 01 – 12) and transcriptions on the book
platform; the suggested interaction answers are at the end of this chapter.
309

a) Call sign: ANAC 123. Controller: Brasilia Tower. Intentions: during the landing
this situation happened to you. Request emergency assistance and interact.
Step 1: State your Intentions.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Step 2: Listen to the controller and read back. (Track 01)

___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
Step 3: Question: what are the contributory factors to a tail strike?

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310

b) Call sign: ANAC 123. Controller: Miami Tower. Intentions: inform to the controller
you will have to perform this situation due to the loss of the hydraulic system and
request firefighters upon arrival.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
Step 3: Question: how dangerous may a belly landing be?

___________________________________________________________________
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c) Call sign: ANAC 123. Controller: Guarulhos Tower. Intentions: inform to the
controller you suffered this situation due to nose landing gear malfunction, request
assistance and inform that no one is injured.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
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Step 3: Question: how are pilots prepared to cope with emergency situations?
___________________________________________________________________
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312

d) Call sign: ANAC 123. Controller: Manchester Center. Intentions: this situation
happened to your captain during your flight due to sleep deprivation. Inform the
controller what happened and request a diversion.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Step 3: Question: what are the main causes for a pilot incapacitation scenario and how
dangerous can it be?
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e) Call sign: ANAC 123. Controller: Rio control. Intentions: inform to the controller
that you have this at your one o’clock position and request a deviation.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Step 3: Question: do you think this type of activity may put the flight safety at risk?
Why?
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f) Call sign: ANAC 123. Controller: Kennedy Tower. Intentions: inform to the
controller that you are performing a go around due to the situation of the picture.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Step 3: Question: how can airport authorities and airlines help prevent runway
incursions?
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g) Call sign: ANAC 123. Controller: Confins Ground. Intentions: inform to the
controller what happened to your aircraft and say your intentions.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Step 3: Question: in your opinion, what is more dangerous: a tire blowout during taxi
or during takeoff? Why?
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316

h) Call sign: ANAC 123. Controller: Mexico Center. Intentions: inform to the
controller the situation below and request to deviate.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Step 3: Question: what can volcanic ashes cause to the flight and the aircraft itself?
___________________________________________________________________
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317

i) Call sign: ANAC 123. Controller: London Tower. Intentions: inform to the
controller you had the situation below when backtracking your aircraft to leave the
runway, request a tow truck to tow your aircraft to the gate and inform that no one
is injured.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Step 3: Question: what situations can lead to a landing gear bog down?
___________________________________________________________________
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318

j) Call sign: ANAC 123. Controller: Rio Control. Intentions: during your takeoff this
situation happens to you. Inform this situation to the controller and that your right-
hand engine failed.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Step 3: Question: in your opinion, what actions should a pilot take in case of a bird
strike?
___________________________________________________________________
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319

k) Call sign: ANAC 123. Controller: London Tower. Intentions: On final approach to
land at London Heathrow this situation happens to your aircraft (look at the picture
below) and you decided to go around. According to your files, you have 190
passengers on board and 1:30 hours of fuel remaining. Inform this situation to the
controller and your intentions.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Step 3: Question: From your point of view, what factors could have caused this
situation to happen?
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___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
320

l) Call sign: ANAC 123. Controller: Brasilia Ground. Intentions: You have just
refueled your aircraft for another flight. After refueling, you see the following
situation (look at the picture below). Call the controller, inform him that your flight
will be delayed because of what happened and your intentions.

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Step 3: Question: How dangerous may a fuel leak be and what are the procedures to
deal with this situation?
___________________________________________________________________
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321

STANDARD PHRASEOLOGY EXERCISES: ANSWER KEY
1. (Suggested Answers)
a) Pan Pan, Pan Pan, Pan Pan, GRU Tower, ANAC 123. We have just hit a flock
of birds after V1 and we are climbing to the Minimum Safe Altitude to check if
we have any damage in our systems.
b) MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY, Kennedy Center. We are experiencing an in-flight
fire. We request a priority landing with firefighters upon arrival. ANAC 123.
c) Miami Tower, ANAC 123, we had a tail strike during takeoff and we are climbing
out to the MSA. We request vectors to return to Miami.
d) PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN, Dubai Approach, ANAC 123. We’ve just had a
navigation failure during our approach. We will continue for a visual approach.
e) Belo Horizonte Ground, one of our passengers is having an epileptic seizure /
medical issue on board. We request to return to the gate and medical personnel
to assist the passenger. ANAC 123.
f) MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY, Recife Center, ANAC 123. We are experiencing
a sudden cabin depressurization and we are descending rapidly to FL 100 to
check the Quick Reference Handbook.
g) Bristol Approach, this is ANAC 123. The captain fainted / passed out during our
approach to runway 23, I will continue the approach normally and I request
medical assistance upon arrival to assist him.
h) Buenos Aires Departure, we are deviating to the right due to a CB cloud in our
12 o’clock position. ANAC 123.
i) Bruxells Tower, ANAC 123. While we were leaving the runway, our nose landing
gear bogged down on the mud. We will need to disembark our passengers on
the runway. We request a bus to take them to the terminal building.
j) Confins Tower, we are going around due to a truck on the runway. We will
perform the missed approach procedure and return for a new approach. ANAC
123.
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a) The controller understood that the pilot rejected takeoff due to a tire blowout and
cleared him to return to the gates via taxiways M, J and K. He also asked him if he
needed medical assistance.
b) The controller was aware of the pilot’s descent to a lower flight level and
instructed him to maintain that frequency. He also asked him to confirm if he had
lost thrust in both engines.
c) The controller cleared the pilot to climb to FL200 and instructed him to contact
BHZ center on frequency 134.25 when passing FL190. He also asked him to
confirm if he had a near miss during climb.
d) The controller informed the pilot that there was no traffic in that sector and
instructed him to turn right and fly heading 180. He also asked him to confirm if he
had unreliable altimeter indications.
e) The controller instructed the pilot to increase his rate of climb until passing FL060
and asked him if he needed to deviate to the right due to bad weather enroute.
f) The Brasilia tower controller instructed the pilot to cancel his takeoff intentions as
there was an unauthorized aircraft crossing the runway.
g) The controller cleared the pilot to France as filed. He also authorized the
KANNES 5E departure and PARIS C1 transition. The controller instructed the pilot
to climb to FL410 without restrictions and asked him to inform when reaching.
h) The São Paulo Center controller instructed the Aeromexico 852 pilot to expedite
his speed until reaching FL250 and asked him to contact Rio de Janeiro center
when passing FL200.
i) The controller understood the pilot was declaring an emergency due to a

highjacker on board who was trying to enter the cockpit. He said he would give the
pilot priority to land at JFK airport. Police enforcement and medical assistance had
been advised.
j) The controller cleared the pilot to land at Pampulha’s runway 13 and informed
him the wind that was 135º with 10knots and the altimeter 1021. He asked the pilot
to report when established on the localizer.
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k) The controller instructed the pilot to taxi slower as ice patches and drifting snow
were reported on taxiway November. He also informed him that the runway was
slippery, therefore the braking action would be poor.
l) The pilot reported a large flock of birds near the threshold of runway 16.
m) The pilot from Ryanair 163 informed the Bristol tower controller that he rejected
takeoff due to brakes malfunction. He requested an isolated parking position to
disembark the passengers and maintenance assistance to assist him.
n) The pilot from Lufthansa 2597 requested a GPU to his parking position as the
APU was unserviceable at that moment.
a) Step 1: Brasilia Tower, we had a tail strike during our landing. We request
emergency vehicles standing by. ANAC 123.
Step 2: Brasilia Tower, NEGATIVE, our landing gear has not collapsed. Waiting for
emergency assistance. ANAC 123.
b) Step 1: MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY, Miami Tower this is ANAC 123, we are going
to perform a belly landing as we lost our hydraulic systems. We request full
emergency assistance standing by.
Step 2: Miami Tower, AFFIRM, we lost our hydraulic system and we’ll perform a
belly landing. We have “X” passengers and “X” kg/lb of fuel on board. ANAC 123.
c) Step 1: Guarulhos Tower, ANAC 123. We suffered a veer off / skidded off to the left
side of the runway due to a nose landing gear malfunction, no one is injured. We
request assistance.
Step 2: Guarulhos Tower, NEGATIVE, I veered off the left side of the runway due
to nose landing gear malfunction. No one is injured. ANAC 123.
d) Step 1: Manchester Center, ANAC 123. The captain has just fainted / is
unconscious. I request an immediate diversion to the closest airfield.
Step 2: Manchester Center, NEGATIVE. Our captain passed out due to fatigue.
Cleared to divert to Gatwick Airport and turn right heading 050. Descending to
FL100. ANAC 123.
e) Step 1: Rio control, there is a hot air balloon at my one o’clock position, we request
a deviation to the left / right. ANAC 123.
324

Step 2: Rio control, NEGATIVE, there is a hot air balloon at my 1 o’clock position.
Turning 30 degrees to the left, ANAC 123.
f) Step 1: Kennedy Tower, this is ANAC 123. We are going around due to another
aircraft on the active runway. We will follow the standard missed approach
procedure.
Step 2: Kennedy Tower, NEGATIVE. We are going around due to another aircraft
on the runway. We are following the missed approach chart and will standby for
further vectors.
g) Step 1: Confins Ground, we request to maintain our position due to a tire burst /
tire blowout during taxi and a tow truck to assist us. ANAC 123.
Step 2: Confins Ground, NEGATIVE, our left main landing gear blew out during
taxi. We are holding our position. ANAC 123.
h) Step 1: Mexico center, ANAC 123. We request a deviation due to volcanic ashes
enroute.
Step 2: Mexico Center, roger, cleared to deviate at our discretion. No traffic
reported. We would / would not like to alternate.
i) Step 1: London Tower, this is ANAC 123. We left the runway while backtracking the
aircraft and we are now stuck / bogged down. We request a tow truck to tow us to
the gate. No passenger is injured.
Step 2: London Ground, AFFIRM. We left the runway during backtrack and we are
waiting for the tow truck. No one is injured.
j) Step 1: Rio control, this is ANAC 123. We’ve hit a flock of birds during takeoff and
our right-hand engine failed. We request to climb to the MSA to check our systems.
Step 2: Rio control, NEGATIVE, our right-hand engine failed. Climbing to the MSA
and waiting for further instructions. Yes / No, we are / aren’t declaring an
emergency. (the candidate should decide what’s the best option).
k) Step 1: London Tower this is ANAC 123. We initiated a go around due to a twisted
nose landing gear / nose gear malfunction. We request to climb to the MSA in order
to read the checklist for a new approach (intentions as desired by the candidate).
We have 190 passengers on board and 01:30 hours of fuel on board.
Step 2: London Tower, NEGATIVE. We have a nose landing gear malfunction, 190
pax. on board and 1:30 hours of fuel on board. Following the missed approach
procedure and will call back when ready for a new approach. ANAC 123.
325

l) Step 1: Brasilia Ground, this is ANAC 123. Our flight will be delayed as I have fuel
leaking from the left-wing fuel tank. I request fire fighters to prevent fire from igniting.
Step 2: Brasilia Ground, NEGATIVE, I have fuel leaking from the left-wing fuel tank.
Waiting for assistance. ANAC 123.
326

9. MOCK TEST PRACTICE BY PILOTS FLUENCY
Below there’s one example of a Santos Dumont English Assessment Test created by
Pilots Fluency, based on situations reported by students. You should try listening to the
audios and answer the questions asked by the examiners. Do not look or try to pick
the audios scripts, only read the audio scripts if you are in doubt. Good luck.
Part 1 – Aviation Topics
Ok, shall we start? Part One: “Aviation Topics”. In this part, you will answer some
questions related to aviation.
1. What are your main responsibilities after landing?

2. What were the main characteristics of the aircraft you flew 1 year ago?
3. In your opinion what will change in relation to Brazilian regulations for pilots in
the next few years to come?
Thank you. This is the end of part one. Let’s move on to the second part of the test.
Part 2 – Interacting as a Pilot
Part Two: “Interacting as a Pilot”. In this part, you will interact with the Air Traffic Control
in five
different situations. You may ask the controller to say again once. After listening to the
controller, you should interact as the pilot. All information is important. You may take
notes if you wish.
Examiner: You are the pilot of a twin-engined aircraft. Your call sign is ANAC
123.
Situation 1) You are approaching Guarulhos International Airport. Listen to Guarulhos

Control and read back.
AUDIO 01
ANAC 123, YOU ARE [CLEARED TO TUCA POSITION], [RUNWAY 09R].
[DESCEND TO 4000 FT] AND [CONTACT GUARULHOS TOWER ON 118.40]. [4]
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Minimum Interaction: Cleared to TUCA position, runway 09R.
Descending to 4000 ft and will contact GRU TWR on 118.40.
Examiner: Now, while approaching the aerodrome you noticed that your engine
number 2 started to vibrate and you decided to shut it down and perform an
emergency landing. Call GRU Tower to report the situation and say your
intentions. Then listen to the controller and interact.
Minimum Interaction: MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY. Guarulhos

Tower, ANAC 123. We have a severe engine vibration and we had to
shut down our engine number 2. We are going to perform an emergency
landing.
AUDIO 02
ANAC 123, ROGER. [TURN LEFT] [TO INTERCEPT
LOCALIZER IGR], [RUNWAY 09R]. CONFIRM YOU HAD TO [SHUT
DOWN ENGINE NUMBER 2] [DUE TO FUEL STARVATION]? [5]
Minimum Interaction: Guarulhos Tower, NEGATIVE. We had to shut

down our engine number 2 due to an engine vibration. Turning left to
intercept localizer IGR, runway 09R. ANAC 123.
Examiner: What did the controller say?
Minimum Interaction: The controller asked me to confirm if I had to shut

down my engine number 2 due to fuel starvation and instructed me to
turn left and to intercept localizer IGR from runway 09R.
Examiner: Thank you. This is the end of situation number 1. Now,

situation number 2.
Situation 2) You are departing from New York to Washington. Listen to New
York Clearance and read back. Are the instructions clear?
328

AUDIO 03
ANAC 123, [YOU ARE CLEARED TO BALTIMORE AIRPORT],
[KENNEDY ONE DEPARTURE]. AFTER TAKEOFF [CLIMB TO 5000
FT]. [SQUAWK1040]. [4]
Minimum Interaction: Cleared to Baltimore Airport, Kennedy One
Departure. After takeoff we will climb to 5000 ft. Squawk 1040. ANAC
123.
Examiner: Now, while on takeoff roll, you had a tire blow out and suffered a
veer off to the left side of the runway. You decided to request emergency
services and medical assistance to assist injured passengers. Call New York
Tower to report the situation and say your intentions. Then listen to the
controller and interact.
Minimum Interaction: New York Tower, ANAC 123. We had a tire

blowout during takeoff and veered off the left side of the runway. We
request emergency services and medical assistance to assist injured
passengers. ANAC 123.
AUDIO 04
ANAC 123, ROGER. [I UNDERSTOOD THAT YOU VEERED
OFF THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE RUNWAY] [DUE TO A TIRE
BLOWOUT]. [MEDICAL ASSISTANCE AND EMERGENCY
SERVICES] [WILL BE PROVIDED IN 3 MINUTES]. [4]
Minimum Interaction: New York Tower, NEGATIVE. We veered off the

left side of the runway due to a tire blowout. I understood that medical assistance and
emergency services will be provided in 3 minutes. ANAC
123.
Minimum Interaction: The controller understood that I veered off the
329

right side of the runway due to a tire blowout and informed me that
medical assistance and emergency services would be provided in 3
minutes.
Examiner: Thank you. This is the end of situation number 2. Now, situation
number 3.
Situation 3) You are on cruise flying from Spain to France. Listen to France
Centre and read back.
AUDIO 05
ANAC 123, [DESCEND TO FL 450] AND [CONTACT CANNES
CENTER ON 124.68]. [BE ADVISED, A HAILSTORM HAS BEEN
REPORTED] [50 MILES AHEAD OF YOU]. [4]
Minimum Interaction: Descending to FL450 and will contact Cannes

Center on 124.68. I am advised that there is a hailstorm reported 50
miles ahead of us.
Examiner: Now, after changing the communication frequency one flight

attendant informed you that one passenger was having an epileptic seizure.
You immediately decided to divert to the nearest suitable airport and
requested medical assistance upon arrival. Inform the controller of the
situation and your intentions. Then interact appropriately.
Minimum Interaction: Pan Pan, Pan Pan, Pan Pan, Cannes Center,
ANAC 123. We have been informed by our flight attendant that one of our passengers
is having an epileptic seizure. We request to divert to
the nearest suitable airport with medical assistance upon arrival.
AUDIO 06
ANAC 123, [THE NEAREST SUITABLE AIRPORT IS
CORLIER INTERNATIONAL AIRPORT]. [MEDICAL ASSISTANCE
WILL BE PROVIDED UPON ARRIVAL]. [WAIT FOR FURTHER
330

INSTRUCTIONS AND YOU WILL BE VECTORED]. [CONFIRM
YOUR FLIGHT ATTENDANT IS HAVING AN EPILEPTIC
SEIZURE?] [3]
Minimum Interaction: Cannes Center, NEGATIVE. One of our

passengers is having an epileptic seizure. I understood that the
nearest suitable airport is Corlier Int. and medical assistance will be
provided upon arrival. Waiting for further instructions. ANAC 123.
Minimum Interaction: The controller informed me that the nearest

suitable airport was Corlier International and that medical assistance
would be provided upon arrival. He also told me to wait for further
instructions so that I would be vectored and asked me to confirm if
our flight attendant was having an epileptic seizure.
number 4.
Situation 4) You are on Curitiba Airport waiting for taxi instructions. Listen to
Curitiba Tower and read back.
AUDIO 07
ANAC 123, [CLEARED TO TAXI VIA TAXIWAYS ALFA],
[BRAVO], [FOXTROT] [UNTIL HOLDING POINT OF RUNWAY 33].
[WHEN REACHING TAXIWAY B, GIVE WAY TO THE 767] [THAT
WILL BE IN YOUR RIGHT-HAND SIDE]. [6]
Minimum Interaction: Cleared to taxi via taxiways A, B, F until

holding point of R33. When reaching taxiway B we will give way to the
767 in our right side.
Examiner: Now, as the weather conditions were poor, after you started your
331

take off roll you experienced this situation (show the picture to the task taker).
Inform Curitiba Tower that there weren’t any casualties, only minor injuries to
your passengers and request emergency services at your position. Then, listen
to the controller and interact.
Minimum Interaction: Curitiba Tower, ANAC 123. Due to poor weather

conditions we overran the runway. We don’t have any casualties, only
passengers with minor injuries. We request emergency services at our
position.
AUDIO 08
ANAC 123, [I UNDERSTOOD YOU OVERRAN THE RUNWAY]
[DUE TO ADVERSE WEATHER CONDITIONS] [AND PASSENGERS SUFFERED
ONLY MINOR INJURIES]. [EMERGENCY SERVICES ARE
BEING PROVIDED]. [4]
Minimum Interaction: Curitiba Tower, AFFIRM. We overran the runway

due to adverse weather conditions and we have passengers with minor
injuries only. We are waiting for emergency services to be provided.
ANAC 123.
332

Minimum Interaction: The controller understood that I overran the
runway due to poor weather conditions and that passengers suffered
minor injuries. He also said that emergency services were being
provided.
number 5.
Situation 5) You are waiting for clearance instructions at Santos Dummont

Airport. Listen to Santos Dummont clearance and readback.
AUDIO 09
ANAC 123, [CLEARED TO CONFINS] VIA [IH 1B
DEPARTURE]. [FLY RUNWAY HEADING UNTIL 600 FT], [THEN
TURN RIGHT] TO [INTERCEPT RADIAL 131 OF CAXIAS VOR]. [5]
Minimum Interaction: Cleared to Confins via IH 1B Departure. Will fly

runway heading until 600 ft, then turning right to intercept radial 131 of
Caxias VOR. ANAC 123.
Examiner: Now, while you were being push-backed, this situation

happens to you (show the picture to the test taker) and you decided to cancel the flight.
Call Santos Dummont Ground to inform them of your
situation and your intentions. Then, listen to the controller and interact.
333

Minimum Interaction: Santos Dummont Ground, ANAC 123. We are
cancelling our take off intentions, I repeat, we are cancelling our take off
intentions. A tow truck struck our radome and we don’t have conditions to
fly anymore.
AUDIO 10
ANAC 123, ROGER. [HOLD YOUR POSITION],
[MAINTENANCE PERSONNEL ARE BEING ADVISED]. [CONFIRM A
CATERING TRUCK STRUCK YOUR AIRCRAFT]? [3]
Minimum Interaction: Santos Dummont Ground, NEGATIVE. A tow

truck struck our radome. We are holding our position and waiting for
maintenance personnel. ANAC 123.
Minimum Interaction: The controller acknowledged the situation and

instructed me to hold my position. He informed me that maintenance
personnel were being advised and asked me to confirm if a catering
truck struck our aircraft.
Examiner: Thank you. This is the end of part two. Let’s move on to the third
part of the test.
Part 3 – Unexpected Situations
Part Three: “Unexpected Situations”. In this part of the test, you will listen to three
different communications between pilots and air traffic controllers.
The recordings will be played twice. There is a five-second pause before the recording
is repeated. After listening to the recording, you should tell me everything that the pilot
and the controller said. I will then ask you a question.
At the end of Part three, I will ask you to compare the three situations, so please take
notes. All information is important. Do you have any questions?
334

Situation 1)
AUDIO 11
PILOT: SANTA FÉ TOWER, QATAR 374. ONE OF OUR
PASSENGERS IS DRUNK AND STARTED HARASSING OUR
FLIGHT ATTENDANT. WE REQUEST INSTRUCTIONS TO
RETURN TO THE GATES AND POLICE AUTHORITIES.
ATCO: QATAR 374, ROGER. MAKE THE RIGHT TURN AT

JULIETTE, JOIN ALPHA AND HOLD SHORT OF MIKE ALPHA.
POLICE ASSISTANCE WILL BE PROVIDED. DO YOU NEED
MEDICAL ASSISTANCE?
Minimum Interaction:
I understood that the pilot from QATAR 374 informed Santa Fé
Tower that a passenger was drunk and started harassing their
flight attendant. He also requested instructions to return to the
gates and police authorities.
The controller instructed the pilot to make the right turn at Julliet to
join Alpha and to hold short of Mike Alpha. He also said that police
assistance would be provided. The controller asked the pilot if he
needed medical assistance.
(1) Examiner: What factors may trigger passengers to behave

unruly?
Situation 2)
AUDIO 12
ATCO: FLY DUBAI E68, QATAR CENTER. VOLCANIC ASHES HAVE
BEEN REPORTED AT YOUR 11 O’ CLOCK POSITION, 35 MILES
AWAY. TURN RIGHT HEADING 180 AND CLIMB TO FL 300.
PILOT: MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY. QATAR CENTER, FLY DUBAI

E68. UNABLE. WE ENCOUNTERED VOLCANIC ASHES EN-ROUTE
335

AND WE ALREADY LOST ENGINE NUMBER TWO. WE MIGHT NEED
TO PERFORM AN EMERGENCY LANDING. REQUEST VECTORS TO
THE NEAREST SUITABLE AIRPORT.
The controller from Qatar Center informed the pilot from Fly Dubai
E68 that volcanic ashes had been reported at their 11 o’clock
position, 35 miles away. He also instructed the pilot to turn right
heading 180 and to climb to FL300.
I understood that the pilot informed the controller that he was
unable to comply with the instructions and declared an emergency
because they encountered volcanic ashes en-route and had
already lost engine number two. He also said that he would need
to perform an emergency landing. At last, he requested vectors to
the nearest suitable airport.
(2) Examiner: Why volcanic ash is considered a big threat to the

flight safety? Are there ways to detect volcanic ashes?
Situation 3)
AUDIO 13
PILOT: SÃO PAULO GROUND, PR-AHJ. APPARENTLY, THE CARGO
DOOR IS NOT PROPERLY LATCHED. WE REQUEST TO RETURN TO
THE STAND AND MAINTENANCE ASSISTANCE.
ATC: PR-AHJ, ROGER. YOU ARE CLEARED TO RETURN TO STAND

A2 VIA TAXIWAY B, D AND HOLD SHORT OF L. WAIT FOR
FURTHER INSTRUCTIONS. MAINTENANCE ASSISTANCE IS BEING
ADVISED.
The pilot from PR-AHJ informed São Paulo Ground that the cargo
door was not properly latched. He requested to return to the stand
and maintenance assistance.
336

The controller cleared him to return to stand A2 via taxiway B, D
and to hold short of L. He also instructed him to wait for further
instructions and that maintenance assistance was being advised.
(3) Examiner: What are the possible outputs from an open cargo
door while taxiing?
Now, after listening to these three situations:

(4) Examiner: How would you compare them, which one do you think is the most
difficult to deal with and why? You may want to compare them in terms of severity,
possible solutions or ways of prevention.
Thank you! This is the end of part three. Let’s now move on to the last part of the test,
part four.
Part 4 – Picture Description and Discussion
Part 4: “Picture Description and Discussion”. In this part of the test, you will tell me
what you can see in this picture (show the picture to the test taker) and what you
think is happening in it. After that, I will ask you some questions. (Pause) Look at the
picture carefully. You may take a few moments to think before you start talking.
1 - Please describe this picture to me.
337

2 - What do you think happened before this picture was taken?
3 - Now imagine that this picture has just been taken: What do you think will happen
next?
4 - What are the possible reasons that could lead to a situation like this?
5 - How could runway incursions be prevented?
6 - Now, I am going to read a statement to you and then you will have to tell me to what
extent you agree or disagree with it.
“Poor infrastructure design has contributed to the quantity and severity of previous
runway incursions. Good aerodrome design can directly reduce the potential for
runway incursions whilst maintaining operating efficiency and aerodrome capacity.
338

10. AUXILIARY SOURCES INDICATION
Nowadays there are too many online resources and materials for students to practice
their English, however they may end up full of documents and lose they “situational
awareness”. In other words, students must learn strategies to study, instead of reading
and sharing hundreds of topics that may drive them crazy. They should focus on one
or maybe two topics per day such as structure, listening, reading, pronunciation and
so on. The student has to arrange his timetable with his disposable time for studying
and the subject he is going to work on this hour or day.
In the list of websites below there are many resources and useful information that
students can search and, therefore, improve their everyday English in terms of
pronunciation, structure, comprehension and fluency.
• Avherald.com;
• Aviation English by Macmillan (book);
• CambridgeDictionary.org;
• Duolingo (app);
• English Central (app) – Pilots Fluency’s students have academic access to this
outstanding application.
• Flight Path by Cambridge (book);
• Learningenglish.voanews.com;
• Pilots Fluency Online Elementary Course;
• Pilots Fluency Online Intermediate Course;
• Pilots Fluency Online Preparatório ICAO/SDEA;
• SKYbrary.aero;
• VASAviation (channel on YouTube.com) – listen to real ATC and Pilots
communications in normal and abnormal situations. Great tool to practice the
standard phraseology listening, improve your comprehension and learn new
vocabulary.
• Captain Joe (channel on YouTube.com) – airline pilot that talks about his career
and creates videos explaining parts of aircraft, airport procedures and many
more. Great tool to increase technical vocabulary.
339

11. SOURCES
• baesystems.com/en/feature/aircraft-technologies-of-the-future
• businessinsider.com/flying-today-better-than-in-golden-age-of-aviation-2013-
12
• casa.gov.au/safety-management/standard-page/least-wanted-dangerous-
goods
• dictionary.cambridge.org
• disciplesofflight.com/aviation-industry-airline-pilot-shortage/
• Eurocontrol - http://www.eurocontrol.int/news/rapid-rise-low-cost-carriers
• FCE Knock Out Student’s Book – Oxford.
• http://aviationknowledge.wikidot.com/aviation:human-factors-of-flight-
simulation
• http://www.anac.gov.br/assuntos/setor-regulado/profissionais-da-aviacao-
civil/arquivos/escaladeniveisdaoaci.pdf/view
• http://www.anac.gov.br/assuntos/setor-regulado/profissionais-da-aviacao-
civil/arquivos/lista-das-principais-palavras-que-os-pilotos-precisam-melhorar-
a-pronuncia.pdf/view
• https://www.britannica.com/technology/wind-tunnel
• https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/tuncon.html
• https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-are-
wind-tunnels-k4.html
• https://www.proflight.com/en/full-flight-simulatoren/technologie.php
• https://www.smart-words.org/quotes-sayings/idioms-meaning.html
• ICAO Doc 9835 AN/453
• myenglishteacher.eu/ask/question/list-of-sentence-connectors-in-english/
• sites.google.com/site/maycaingles2011/writing/linkers-and-connectors
• Traveler Tips - https://www.travelertips.org/advantages-disadvantages-of-low-
fare-airlines/2112/
• www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/phrasal%20verb
• 2018. JEPPESEN, General Airway Manual.
• ICAO, Annex 10 Radiotelephony Procedures, Volume ll, Chapter 5., 2001.
(Available at:
340

www.icao.int/safety/acp/Inactive%20working%20groups%20library/ACP-WG-
C-3/wgc3_wp7.doc).
• www.faa.gov
• http://article.sapub.org/10.5923.j.logistics.20120102.01.html
• www.to70.com/unlawful-interference/
• https://www.artofmanliness.com/articles/how-to-develop-the-situational-
awareness-of-jason-bourne/
• http://files.fpz.hr/Djelatnici/ifrancetic/Radiotelephony-communications-1-
handbook.pdf
• https://www.smart-words.org/quotes-sayings/idioms-meaning.html
• https://www.fluentu.com/blog/english/essential-english-idioms/
341

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1

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Bem-vindos a bordo do curso Global Xpress 3.0 módulo ICAO! Este

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

MARCELO OLIVEIRA MEINICKE

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

1. ICAO TEST DEFRAGMENTED – A PROVA DESFRAGMENTADA ...................... 7

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Ansiedade e nervosismo aqui podem e, provavelmente, serão inimigos do candidato,

1st Part: AVIATION TOPICS

Esse é o momento em que o piloto deverá mostrar suas primeiras impressões ao

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Bem, este é um exemplo de uma resposta bem estruturada e com um vocabulário

Finalmente, após respondida as perguntas iniciais, seguimos para a segunda parte da

2nd Part: INTERACTING AS A PILOT

Aqui entramos no mundo da fraseologia padrão o qual o candidato se posiciona como

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

What did the controller say?

Alguns examinadores podem também realizar algumas perguntas extras sobre as

Após as 5 situações, entramos na parte 3 da prova, Unexpected Situations.

3rd Part: UNEXPECTED SITUATIONS

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

• What are the procedures in case of a hydraulic loss?

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY. MIAMI CENTER, GLOBAL 123, WE ARE

GLOBAL 123, ROGER. I UNDERSTOOD YOU ARE DESCENDING TO A LOWER

Example of note taking strategy:

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

4th Part: PICTURE DESCRIPTION AND DISCUSSION

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Vamos dar um exemplo de uma descrição de figura, conforme abaixo:

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Para sair um pouco do padrão de respostas dadas, em questão de statement, vamos

• I completely agree – (eu concordo completamente);

Finalmente, como todos esperavam, chegamos ao final da prova. Agora, cabe ao

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Segundo o CambridgeDictionary.org, parafrasear é repetir algo escrito ou falado

• CLARIFYING & CONFIRMING:

Muitas vezes na fraseologia perdemos algumas informações dadas pelos

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Quando pedimos por uma clarificação queremos obter um entendimento claro e

Conforme o exemplo a seguir, a palavra Confirm é a fraseologia padrão para solicitar

A seguir há uma tabela da escala de níveis de proficiência linguística da ICAO, onde

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

 Strategy 1 – Be sure you understood 100% of the question.

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

3.1 ICAO Radiotelephony Spelling Alphabet

Abaixo há uma tabela criada pela ICAO do alfabeto aeronáutico e a pronúncia

A Alfa 'ælf AL FAH

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

De maneira a evitar que os números informados pelos pilotos e controladores

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency

3.2 The Most Mispronounced Words

Um dos pontos onde muitos podem ter dificuldade e, consequentemente, interferir no

Global Xpress 3.0 Pilots Fluency