CLASSICAL MECHANICS

UNIVERSIDADE FEDERAL DO RIO GRANDE DO SUL

INSTITUTO DE FÍSICA

PROF. DR. MARIA BEATRIZ GAY DUCATI

LECTURE 2
Constraints
From the previous sections one might obtain the impression that
all problems in mechanics have been reduced to solving the set of
differential equations (1.19):
(e)
X
mi r¨i = Fi + Fij .
j

It may be necessary, though, to take into account the constraints

that limit the motion of the system.

One example of such system is the rigid body, where the constraints
on the motion of the particles keep the distances rij unchanged.

If the conditions of constraints can be expressed as equations con-

cerning the coordinates of the particles (and possibly time), they are
called holonomic:
f (r1 , r2 , r3 , ...t) = 0 (1.37)
2
Constraints (cont.)

The simplest example of holonomic constraints is the rigid body,

where the constraints are expressed by equations of the form:

(ri − rj )2 − cij2 = 0.

For a particle constrained to the surface of sphere:

r 2 − a2 = 0,
where r is the distance from the center of a sphere with radius a. In
the other hand, if the particle is able to fall of the sphere due to
gravity, the constraints become nonholonomic:

r 2 − a2 ≥ 0.

3
Constraints (cont.)

Constraints might also be rheonomous (or scleronomous) whether

the equations of constraints are explicitly dependent (or not) on time.

In case of holonomic constraints, we introduce the generalized

coordinates:
r = r1 (q1 , q2 , ..., q3N−k , t)
. (1.38)
..

rN = rN (q1 , q2 , ..., q3N−k , t),

which contain the constraints implicitly.

4
Double Pendulum

Unlike the Cartesian coordinates, q's

will not divide into convenient
groups of three that can be
associated together to form vectors.

In the example of a particle

constrained to move on the surface
of a sphere, the two angles
expressing position on the sphere,
say latitude and longitude, are
obvious generalized coordinates.

In the example of a double pendulum

moving on a plane, the choice of gene-
ralized coordinates might be the two
angles θ1 and θ2.

5
Rolling Disk
Consider a disk rolling with constant velocity:

The coordinates used to describe the motion might be the x, y

coordinates of the center of the disk, an angle of rotation φ about the
axis of the disk, and an angle θ between the axis of the disk and, say, the
x axis.

6
Rolling Disk (cont.)
As a result of the constraint:

v = aφ̇,
where a is the radius of the disk ans it’s direction is perpendicular to
the axis of the disk:

ẋ = vsinθ

ẏ = −vcosθ
Combining the conditions:

dx − asinθdφ = 0,
(1.39)
dy + acosθdφ = 0.

7
 D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations
A virtual displacement of the system refers to a change of δri coor-
dinates, consistent with the forces and constraints imposed on the
system at the given instant t.

For a system in equilibrium, Fi = 0.

Then Fi · δri , which is the virtual work of the force Fi in the

displacement δri also vanishes.

The sum over all particles, likewise:

Fi · δri = 0.
X
(1.40)
i

(a)
Decomposing the force into the applied force, Fi and the force of
constraint, fi ,
(a)
Fi = F i + fi . (1.41)
8
D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations (cont.)
1.40 obtain
(a)
X X
Fi · δri + fi · δri = 0. (1.42)
i i

We restrict ourselves to systems for which the net virtual work of the
forces of constraint is zero.

If a particle is constrained to move on a surface, the force of

constraint is perpendicular to it, while the virtual displacement is
tangent to it, and hence the virtual work vanishes. This is not the case
if sliding forces are present, and this formalism doesn’t apply to
those systems.

If the surface constraining the particle is itself moving in time, the

force of constraint is perpendicular to the surface, and the work
during a virtual displacement is zero, even if the work during an
actual displacement in the time dt doesn’t vanish.
9
D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations (cont.)
Conditions for equilibrium of a system that the virtual work of
applied forces vanishes (principle of virtual work):
X
(a)
Fi · δri = 0. (1.43)
i
Here, the coeÿcients of δri can not be set equal to zero, since the δri are
not completely independent but are connected by the constraints.
So, we must transform the principle into a form involving the virtual
displacements of the δqj, which are independent.
To obtain such a principle, we use a device first thought by
James Bernoulli and developed by D’Alembert.

The equation of motion

Fi = ṗi ,
can be written as
Fi − ṗi = 0.
10
D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations (cont.)
Instead of (1.40), we can immediately write
X
(Fi − ṗi ) · δri = 0. (1.44)
i

and, making the same resolution into applied forces and forces of
constraints, there results
(a)
X X
(Fi − ṗi ) · δri + fi · δri = 0.
i i

If the virtual work of the forces vanishes, we have D’Alembert’s

principle:
(a)
X
(Fi − ṗi ) · δri = 0. (1.45)
i

11
D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations (cont.)
Translation from ri to qj language starts from the transformation
equations (1.38):

ri = ri (q1, q2, ..., qn, t) (1.45’)

assuming n independent coordinates.

Then, we have:
d ri X ∂ri ∂ri
vi ≡ = q̇k + (1.46)
dt ∂qk ∂t
k
Also:
X ∂ri
δri = δqj . (1.47)
∂qj
j

No variation of time is involved here, since a virtual displacements

considers only displacements of the coordinates.
12
D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations (cont.)
In terms of the generalized coordinates, the virtual work of the Fi
becomes:
X X ∂ri X
Fi · δri = Fi · δqj = Qj δqj . (1.48)
∂qj
i i j

where the Qj are called the components of the generalized force,

defined as
X ∂ri
Qj = Fi · . (1.49)
∂qj
i
The other term in (1.45) may be written as:
X X
r˙i · δri = mi r¨i · δri .
i i
Expressing δri by (1.47), this becomes
X ∂ri
mi r¨i · δqj .
∂qj 13
ij
D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations (cont.)

Consider now the relation

∂ri X d  ∂ri
 
d ∂ri

. (1.50)
X
mi r¨i · = mi r˙i · − mi r˙i ·
∂qj dt ∂qj dt ∂qj
i i

In the last term of (1.50) we can interchange the diferentiation with

respect to t and qj , for, in analogy with (1.46),

d

∂ri

∂ r˙i X ∂ 2 ri ∂ 2 ri ∂vi
= = q˙k + = ,
dt ∂qj ∂qj ∂qj ∂qk ∂qj ∂t ∂qj
k

by Eq. (1.46). Further, we also see from Eq. (1.46) that

∂vi ∂ri
= . (1.51)
∂ q˙j ∂qj

14
D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations (cont.)
Substitution of these changes in (1.50) leads to the result that
X ∂ri X d  ∂vi

∂vi

mi r¨i · = m i vi · − m i vi · ,
∂qj dt ∂ q˙j ∂qj
i i

and the second term on the left-handed side of Eq.(1.45) can be

expanded into

( " !# ! )
X d ∂ X1 ∂ X1
mi vi2 − mi vi2 − Qj δqj .
dt ∂ q˙j 2 ∂qj 2
j i i

Identifying i 21 mi vi2 with the system kinetic energy T , D’Alambert’s

P
principle becomes
X  d  ∂T  ∂T  
− − Qj δqj = 0. (1.52)
dt ∂ q˙j ∂qj
j
15
D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations (cont.)
In a system of Cartesian coordinates the partial derivative of T with
respect to qj vanishes.
In terms of diferential geometry, this term arises from the
curvature of the coordinate qj .
In polar coordinates, e.g, it is in the partial derivative of T with
respect to the angle coordinate that the centripetal acceleration
appears.
If the constraints are holonomic, then it’s possible to find sets of
independent coordinates qj that contain the constraints conditions
implicitly in the transformation equations (1.38).
Any virtual displacement δqj is then independent of δqk , and therefore
the only way for (1.52) to hold is for the individual coeficients to
vanish:  
d ∂T ∂T
− = Qj . (1.53)
dt ∂ q˙j ∂qj
There are n such equations in all. 16
D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations (cont.)
When the forces are derivable from a scalar potential function V :
X ∂ri X ∂ri
Qj = Fi · =− ∇i V · ,
∂qj ∂qj
i i

which is exactly the same expression for the partial derivative of a

function −V (r1, r2, ..., rN , t) with respect to qj .

Equations (1.53) can then be written as

 
d ∂T ∂(T − V )
− = 0. (1.55)
dt ∂ q˙j ∂qj
Equations of motion of the form (1.55) are not restricted to conserva-
tive systems; only if V is not an explicit function of time the system
is conservative.

17
D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations (cont.)
As here defined, the potential V does not depend on the generalized
velocities.

Hence, we can write:

 
d ∂(T − V ) ∂(T − V )
− = 0.
dt ∂ q˙j ∂qj
Defining the Lagrangian L as

L = T − V, (1.56)
Eqs. (1.53) become (Lagrange equations)
 
d ∂L ∂L
− = 0. (1.57)
dt ∂ q˙j ∂qj

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D’Alembert’s Principle and Lagrange’s Equations (cont.)
For a particular set of equations of motion, there is no unique choice
of Lagrangian such that (1.57) leads to the equations of motion.

It can be shown, thus, that if L(q, q̇, t) is an approximate Lagran-

gian and F (q, t) is any differentiable function of the generalized
coordinates and time, then

dF
L0 (q, q̇, t) = L(q, q̇, t) +, (1.57’)
dt
is a Lagrangian also resulting in the same equations of motion! And
that’s awesome.

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Velocity Dependent Potentials and Dissipation Function

Lagrange’s equations can be put in the form (1.57) even if there is

no potential function V , in the usual sense, providing the generalized
forces are obtained from a function U(qj , q̇j ) by the prescription
 
∂U d ∂U
Qj = − + (1.58)
∂qj dt ∂ q˙j
Eqs.(1.57) still follows from Eqs.(1.53) with the Lagrangian:

L = T − U. (1.59)

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Velocity Dependent Potentials and Dissipation Function (cont)
U is the "generalized potential", or velocity dependent potential.
Consider an electric charge q, of mass m, velocity v, under E(t, x, y , z),
B(t, x, y , z), then:
F = q[E + (v × B)]. (1.60)
∂A
E = −∇φ − . (1.61a)
∂t
B = ∇ × A. (1.61b)

The force on the charge:

U = qφ − qA · v. (1.62)
The Lagrangian:
1 2
mv − qφ + qA · v. (1.63)
2
21
Velocity Dependent Potentials and Dissipation Function (cont)
Just the x component of the Lagrangian equations:
   
∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az ∂φ dAx
mẍ = q vx + vy + vz −q + . (1.64)
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x dt

Mind:
dAx ∂Ax ∂Ax ∂Ax ∂Ay ∂Az
= + v · ∇Ax = + vx + vy + vz (1.65)
dt ∂t ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

(1.61b) gives
   
∂Ay ∂Ax ∂Az ∂Ax
(v × B)x = vy − + vz − .
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂z
Combining all:

mẍ = q[Ex + (v × B)x ]. (1.66)

(1.66) and (1.60) are identical, thus Lorentz force can be derived
from (1.61) and (1.62).
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Velocity Dependent Potentials and Dissipation Function (cont)
If not all forces can be derived from a potential,
 
d ∂L ∂L
− = Qj ,
dt ∂ q˙j ∂qj
where L contains the potential of the conservative forces as before,
and Qj represents the forces not arising from a potential. Such occurs
when frictional forces are present.
Ffx = −kx vx .
Rayleigh’s dissipation function:
1X (1.67)
F= (kx vix2 + ky viy2 + kz viz2 ),
2
i
where the summation is over the particles of the system.
It turns clear:
∂F
Ffx = − ,
∂vx
or
Ff = −∇v F. (1.68) 23
Velocity Dependent Potentials and Dissipation Function (cont)
The work done by the system against friction is

dWf = −Ff · r = −Ff · vdt = (kx vx2 + ky vy2 + kz vz2 )dt.

Hence 2F is the rate of energy dissipation due to friction.

X ∂ri X ∂ri X ∂ r˙i ∂F

Qj = Ffi ·=− ∇i F · =− ∇i F · =− .
∂qj ∂qi ∂ q˙j ∂ q˙j
i i i
(1.69)
The Lagrangian equation with dissipation becomes
 
d ∂L ∂L ∂F
− + = 0. (1.70)
dt ∂ q˙j ∂qj ∂ q˙j

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