UTFPR – PG

Dpto: DAMEC
Curso: Engª Mecânica
Disciplina: Termodinâmica Aplicada
Prof. Tárik Linhares Tebchirani

1
Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 LECTURES IN
THERMODYNAMICS
Claus Borgnakke
CHAPTER 8

For the 8th Edition of:

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics
Claus Borgnakke, Richard Sonntag
John Wiley & Sons, 2013
 REVISÃO
2ª LEI DA TERMODINÂMICA: ENUNCIADO DE KELVIN-PLANK

“É impossível para qualquer dispositivo que opere como um ciclo, receber calor de um único
reservatório e produzir uma quantidade líquida de trabalho”
A segunda lei afirma que além de quantidade a energia também possui qualidade. Ou seja, os
engenheiro estão preocupados na degradação da energia durante os processos. Este conceito é um
dos pilares da segunda lei e será melhor explicado com o conceito de entropia.

Engª Mecânica - Termodinâmica A – Profº Tárik Linhares Tebchirani

 REVISÃO
2ª LEI DA TERMODINÂMICA: ENUNCIADO DE CLAUSIUS

“É impossível construir um dispositivo que opere segundo um ciclo, não produzir outros efeitos além da
transferência de calor de um corpo frio para um corpo quente”
O enunciado de Clausius não impede a construção de um dispositivo cíclico que transfira calor de um
reservatório frio para um reservatório quente. Na verdade, é isso que os refrigeradores fazem.
Simplesmente o enunciado estabelece que um refrigerador não pode funcionar a menos que uma fonte de
trabalho externo seja acionada.

Engª Mecânica - Termodinâmica A – Profº Tárik Linhares Tebchirani

 O CICLO DE CARNOT

A eficiência de uma máquina térmica depende de como são

executados os processos individuais que compõe o ciclo. A
eficiência pode ser maximizadas com o uso de processos
reversíveis, ou seja, que exijam o mínimo de trabalho ou
resultem no máximo de trabalho. Processos reversíveis não
podem ser realizados na prática, pois as irreversibilidades
não podem ser eliminadas. Entretanto, os ciclos reversíveis
apresentam os limites superiores para o desempenho de
ciclos reais. Provavelmente o ciclo mais conhecido ´´e o
que foi proposto por Sadi Carnot em 1824. O ciclo é
composto de quatro processos reversíveis: dois isotérmicos
e dois adiabáticos. O isolamento do cabeçote pode ser
removido para colocá-lo em contato com diferentes
reservatórios.

Engª Mecânica - Termodinâmica A – Profº Tárik Linhares Tebchirani

 OS PRINCIPIOS DE CARNOT

Podemos extrair conclusões valiosas dos enunciados de Kelvin Plank e Clausius. Duas conclusões referentes a
eficiência térmica de máquinas reversíveis e irreversíveis são conhecidas como os Princípios de Carnot:
1. A eficiência de uma máquina térmica irreversível é sempre menor que uma máquina térmica reversível
operando entre os mesmos reservatórios.
2. A eficiência de todas as máquinas térmicas reversíveis operando entre os mesmos dois reservatórios é a mesma.

Engª Mecânica - Termodinâmica A – Profº Tárik Linhares Tebchirani

 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

Since TH and TL are the only common features when two reversible heat engines are
compared it follows:
QL
Proposition II: ηrev 1 = ηrev 2 = η(TH, TL) = 1 – Q = 1 – ψ(TL, TH)
H
where ψ is a function. Further consideration puts some restrictions on the functional form
to be like ψ(TL, TH) = f(TL)/f(TH). The thermodynamic temperature scale is selected
to have f(T) = T.
TL QL
ψ(TL, TH) = T = Q
H H
This gives the Carnot heat engine efficiency as
QL TL
ηCarnot = 1 – Q = 1 – T
H H

This particular choice was done by Lord Kelvin defining the Kelvin scale [K]. The
corresponding English unit scale is Rankine [R].

Ideal Gas Temperature: Pv = RT

By considering a Carnot cycle it can be proved that this T equals the thermodynamic
temperature scale.
Engª Mecânica - Termodinâmica A – Profº Tárik Linhares Tebchirani 8
 The Ideal Versus Real Machines
Real efficiency will be less than the Ideal Carnot cycle
value. The ideal values can still provide some insight
to the real device trend with a variation in T.
TL = 293 K

Heat engines η ↑ with TH ↑ and TL ↓
QL TL
ηreal thermal = 1 – Q ≤ 1 – T
H H

First = is from energy eq. and definition,

the last term is Carnot value (max possible).
TH
Typical values from some common heat engines:
TL
Coal fired power plant: TH = 800 K, TL = 325 K so η ≤ 1 – T = 0.60, ηreal ≈ 45%
H

TL
Nuclear power plant: TH = 550 K, TL = 325 K so η ≤ 1 – T = 0.40, ηreal ≈ 30%
H
TL
Gas turbine natural gas: TH = 800 K, TL = 325 K so η ≤ 1 – T = 0.60, ηreal ≈ 50%
H

TL
Car gasoline engine: TH = 2000 K, TL = 900 K so η ≤ 1 – = 0.55, ηreal ≈ 35%
TH
Engª Mecânica - Termodinâmica A – Profº Tárik Linhares Tebchirani 9
 The Ideal Versus Real Machines

Real coefficient of performance efficiency β or COP will

be less than the Ideal Carnot cycle value. The ideal values βref
can still provide some insight to the real device trend with βHP
a variation in T.
Refrigerators/heat pumps β ↑ with ∆T ↓
QL TL
βreal ref = ≤
QH − QL TH − TL
TH = 293 K TL = 293 K
First = is from energy eq. and definition, Ref: TL HP: TH
the last term is Carnot value (max possible).

Typical values from some common refrigerators/heat pumps:

TL
Refrigerator: TH = 325 K, TL = 270 K so β≤ = 4.9, β real ≈ 3.5
TH − TL
TL
Deep Freezer: TH = 325 K, TL = 250 K so β ≤ = 3.3, β real ≈ 2
TH − TL
TL
Air conditioner: TH = 320 K, TL = 280 K so β≤ = 7, β real ≈ 4
TH − TL

Engª Mecânica - Termodinâmica A – Profº Tárik Linhares Tebchirani 10

 The Ideal Versus Real Machines

Example 5.4
A heat engine receives 1 MW at 550oC and rejects heat to the ambient at 300 K while it
produces a rate of work as 450 kW. We want to know the rate of heat discarded to the
ambient and the thermal efficiency and compare both to a Carnot heat engine operating
between the same two reservoirs.

Solution ________________________________

CV Heat engine.
. . .
Energy Eq.: QL = QH − W = 1000 – 450 = 550 kW
. .
Efficiency: ηthermal = W / QH = 450/1000 = 0.45
. . TL 300
Carnot: ηCarnot = 1 – QL/QH = 1 – =1– = 0.635
TH 550 + 273
For same source the work becomes
. .
W = ηCarnot QH = 0.635 × 1000 kW = 635 kW
. . .
Energy Eq.: QL = QH − W = 1000 – 635 = 365 kW

Engª Mecânica - Termodinâmica A – Profº Tárik Linhares Tebchirani 11

 The Entropy Balance Equation

Energy Entropy
. .
Storage in CV Ecv Scv
.
Generation in CV - Sgen
. . .
Flux across CS Q, W Q/Tcs

The fluxes across CS are summed over the area,

generally an integral, so then TCS is the local value
Entropy generation: Done by all the irreversible processes inside CV
Friction, Throttling (flow through valve or restriction),
Plastic deformation, Mixing of fluids at two different states,
Unrestrained expansion, Heat Transfer over a finite ΔT
Current through resistor, Mixing of different substances (O2, N2)
Combustion ect…….
Flux is a rate of transport not associated with a mass flow (generic name for many types)
and its value depends on where the control surface is located.
Storage effect, generation are inside CV so they depend on precisely what CV includes.

12
 The Entropy Balance Equation

The previous entropy equation gives the rate form of the Entropy Balance Equation
.
dSCM Q . .
= + Sgen ; Sgen ≥ 0
dt TCS
or integrate in time to get

δQ
S2 – S1 = 
2
  T CS + 1S2 gen ; 1S2 gen ≥0
1  

This is the modern version of the second law for a control mass (CM). This follows the
equations for mass, momentum and energy with one extra term

Change of Entropy = + in – out + gen

stating that we can generate but not destroy entropy.

Notice the T is at the control surface (CS) where the Q enters (or leaves) the control
.
volume. The term Q/TCS is a flux of S (entropy per unit time) into the control volume.

13
 The Entropy Generation, Heat Transfer over ΔT
Example 6.8 modified
Saturated water vapor at 100oC is condensed to saturated liquid in an isobaric process by
heat transfer to the ambient which is at 25oC. Find the entropy generation for the process.
Solution ________________________________
CV water out to ambient at 25oC, a control mass.
Energy eq.: u2 – u1 = 1q2 – 1w2
Entropy Eq.: s2 – s1 = 1q2/TCS + 1s2 gen
Process: P = C  1w2 = P1 (v2 – v1)
State 1: T1, x1 = 1 ; State 2: P1, x2 = 0
From work term and energy equation we get
1q2 = h2 – h1 = –hfg = – 2257 kJ/kg

1s2 gen = s2 – s1 – 1q2/TCS = – sfg – 1q2/Tamb

= – 6.048 kJ/kg-K – (– 2257 kJ/kg)/298.15 K = 1.522 kJ/kg-K
Notice if CV was water only then TCS = 100oC, same 1q2 and we get

1s2 gen = – sfg – 1q2/TCS = – 6.048 kJ/kg-K –(– 2257 kJ/kg)/393.15 K = 0 kJ/kg-K
This should match, sfg = hfg/T. Process is internally reversible, externally irreversible. 14
 The Entropy Generation in an A/C Unit
Example 6.10
Consider an air-conditioner using R-410A working in heat pump mode. It has a COP of 4
with 10 kW of power input. The cold side is buried underground where it is 8oC and the
hot side is a house kept at 21oC. The cycle has T high of 50oC and T low of –10oC, recall
section 5.10. Find where entropy is generated assuming the heat pump is in steady state.
Solution ____________________________________________________
First take CVHP as the heat pump itself. From coefficient of performance
. .
QH = HP  W = 4  10 kW = 40 kW
. . .
Energy Eq. : QL = QH – W = 40 kW – 10 kW = 30 kW
. .
QL QH .
Entropy Eq.: 0= T – T + SgenHP
low high
. .
. QH QL 40 kW 30 kW
SgenHP = – = – = 9.8 W/K
Thigh Tlow 323 K 263 K

Notice this CV excludes the ∆T in the heat exchangers those are in CV1 and CV2.

15
 The Entropy Generation in an A/C Unit

Example 6.10 continued

Now consider CV1 from the underground 8oC to the cycle –10oC
. .
QL QL .
Entropy Eq.: 0 = T – T + SgenCV1
L low .
. . W
. QL QL 30 kW 30 kW
SgenCV1 = T – = – = 7.3 W/K
low TL 263 K 281 K

And finally CV2 from the heat pump at 50oC to the house at 21oC
. .
QH QH .
Entropy Eq.: 0 = T – T + SgenCV2
high H
. .
. Q H Q H 40 kW 40 kW
SgenCV2 = – = – = 12.2 W/K
TH Thigh 294 K 323 K

16
 The Entropy Generation in an A/C Unit
Example 6.10 continued

The total entropy generation rate becomes

. . . .
SgenTOT = SgenCV1 + SgenCV2 + SgenHP
. . . . . .
QL QL QH QH QH QL
= – + – + –
Tlow TL TH Thigh Thigh Tlow
. .
QH QL 40 kW 30 kW
= T – T = 294 K – 281 K = 29.3 W/K
H L

CV Total = CVHP + CV1 + CV2

Using this analysis we cannot specify where the entropy is made,

only the more detailed smaller control volumes can provide this
information.

Bonus question: This misses one effect not shown on the figure.
What is it?

17
 The Statement of Heat Engines From Entropy

CV Heat engine, steady state

. . .
0 = QH – QL – WHE
. .
QH QL .
0 = T – T + Sgen
H L
.
Solve for QL using the entropy equation as
. TL . .
QL = QH + TL Sgen
TH
Substitute this into the energy equation from which we get the work term as
. . . . TL . .
WHE = QH – QL = QH – Q – TL Sgen
TH H
. TL . .
WHE = ( 1 – ) QH – TL Sgen (6.45)
TH
The result can be expressed as and related to the actual efficiency
. . .
WHE = ηHE carnot QH – loss = ηHE actual QH (6.46)

18
 The Statement of Refrigerators From Entropy

CV Refrigerator, steady state

. . .
0 = QL – QH + Wref.
. .
QL QH .
0= – + Sgen
TL TH
.
Solve for QH using the entropy equation as
. TH . .
QH = T QL + TH Sgen
L
and substitute it into the energy equation
. TH . . .
[ ]
0 = QL – T QL + TH Sgen + Wref.
L
.
Now solve for QL to give
. TL . TH TL .
QL = W – S
TH – TL ref. TH – TL gen
. . .
QL = carnot Wref. – loss = actual Wref. (6.50)

19
 Heat Engines, Refrigerators & Entropy: Conclusions

From the results of the analysis of the heat engine and the refrigerator we can conclude:

.
1. We get maximum benefit for a reversible process, Sgen = 0,
. .
Heat Engine: Max WHE for a given QH input
. .
Refrigerator: Max QL for a given Wref. input

2. For a reversible device the analysis predicted

Carnot heat engine efficiency

Carnot refrigerator coefficient of performance

3. For an actual device the analysis shows the decrease in performance

is directly proportional to the entropy generation.

20
 Concept of Exergy, The Possible Work

Quando uma nova fonte de energia é descoberta a

primeira coisa a se fazer é determinar a quantidade de
energia recente nessa fonte. Mais útil ainda, é se
determinar o potencial de trabalho da fonte, ou seja,
a quantidade de energia que podemos extrair como
trabalho útil. Desta forma, é interessante definir uma
propriedade que permitisse a determinação do
trabalho útil de determinada quantidade de energia
em um estado especificado. Essa propriedade é a
exergia.

Exergia = Trabalho disponível = Disponibilidade

Em uma análise exergética o estado inicial é

especificado, portando não é uma variável. O
trabalho é maximizado quando o processo entre dois
estados especificados é reversível. O sistema deve
estar “esgotado” (estado morto) para maximizar o
trabalho produzido.

Engª Mecânica - Termodinâmica Aplicada – Profº Tárik Linhares Tebchirani 21

 Concept of Exergy, The Possible Work

Engª Mecânica - Termodinâmica Aplicada – Profº Tárik Linhares Tebchirani 22

 Concept of Exergy, The Possible Work

Concept of exergy is defined as the possible work we can extract from a given physical
setup when it is allowed to interact with an ambient and the process end state is at Po, To.

Exergy = Φ = Wout given an ambient Po, To T

Q
Example: Heat transfer Q at T
HE W
Wrev H.E. = Q − Qo
cb
Energy:
Q0
Q Qo Qo
T0
Entropy: 0 = T − T = ∆S − T
o o
Solve for Qo
Qo = Q To / T = To ∆S

To
ΦQ T = Wrev H.E. = Q (1 − T )

Exergy is the value of Q expressed as work

Recall: Q = ∫ T dS and ∆S = ∫ dQ/T in a reversible process 23

 Concept of Exergy, The Possible Work

Example: Heat transfer Q from a isobaric (P = C) flow, CV

Energy: Wrev H.E. = Q − Qo

 dQ Qo Qo
Entropy: 0 =  T − T = ∆S − T
 o o
Solve for Qo
Qo = To ∆S

ΦQ T = Wrev H.E. = Q − To ∆S

Comment: To relate this to the flow choose a different CV.

.
Steady state for a period of time flowing m = mi ∆t.

Energy: 0 = m htot i – m htot e – Q

0 = m si – m se – 
dQ
Entropy:  T


Q = m (htot e – htot i) ; 
dQ
 T = m(si – se) = ∆S
 24
 The Actual and Ideal Control Volumes

.
mi
.
The general laws for actual CV: me dmCV dECV dSCV
; ;
dt dt dt
Continuity Equation
Energy Equation
.
Entropy Equation Qj

dmCV . .
dt = ∑ m i − ∑ m e

dECV . . . .
dt = ∑ mi htot i − ∑ me htot e + ∑ Qj − WCV ac
dSCV . . . . .
= ∑ mi si − ∑ me se + ∑ Q j /Tj + Sgen CV ac ; Sgen CV ac ≥ 0
dt

The ideal counterpart to actual CV:

Identical same: Storage terms, Flow terms, Heat transfer terms

. . .
Different: Sgen CV ideal = 0 and WCV ideal = W rev 25
 The Reversible Work, Irreversibility

.
How can Sgen CV ac be substituted with something positive and reversible?
. rev
Only a heat transfer in as Q0 from ?; Only the ambient at T0 is available.
. rev . . rev .
Match rate: Q0 / T0 = Sgen CV ac Q0 = T0 Sgen CV ac

. rev . rev .
Ideal CV energy equation terms: Q0 − W = − WCV ac
Theoretical maximum work out:
. . . rev . .
W rev = WCV ac + Q0 = WCV ac + T0 Sgen CV ac

Definition
. . rev . .
Irreversibility: I =W − WCV ac = T0 Sgen CV ac
= Lost work (lost opportunity to extract work)

Comment: Theory does not say how, only that it is a possibility.

.
Change actual CV process to reduce or elliminate Sgen CV ac.
26
 The Reversible Work Equation
General CV:
dECV . . . .
= ∑ mi htot i − ∑ me htot e + ∑ Qj − WCV ac
dt
dSCV . . . . .
dt = ∑ mi si − ∑ me se + ∑ Q j /Tj + Sgen CV ac ; Sgen CV ac ≥ 0

. rev . . rev . .
W = WCV ac + Q0 = WCV ac + T0 Sgen CV ac

. . . dECV
= ∑ mi htot i − ∑ me htot e + ∑ Qj − dt

dSCV . . .
+ T0 [ − ∑ mi si + ∑ me se − ∑ Q j /Tj ]
dt
Rearrange

. rev T0 .
W = ∑ ( 1 − T ) Qj Heat transfer
j

. .
+ ∑ mi (htot i − T0 si) − ∑ me (htot e − T0 se) Flow terms
dECV dSCV
−[ − T0 ] Storage terms
dt dt 27
 The Reversible Work Equation

. rev T0 .
W = ∑ ( 1 − T ) Qj Heat transfer
j

. .
+ ∑ mi (htot i − T0 si) − ∑ me (htot e − T0 se) Flow terms
dECV dSCV
− [ dt − T0 dt ] Storage terms

Conclusions:
.
Heat transfer: Each Q j contributes as a Carnot heat engine (Tj, T0)
Flow term: Each specific work contribution (htot − T0 s)
Storage term: Work contribution −d m(e − T0 s) /dt
Reversible means maximum possible work, it does not explain how
The reversible work implies a heat transfer even if the actual CV is adiabatic

28
 The Reversible and Actual Work relation

.
Device 1 produces work (WCV ac > 0 like a turbine)
so the actual work is smaller than the reversible
work.
. . rev .
WCV ac = W −I
(+) = (+) − (+)

.
Device 2 requires work input (WCV ac < 0 like a
compressor) so when the actual work is smaller than
the reversible it means more work input is needed.
. . .
WCV ac = W rev − I
(−) = (−) − (+)

29
 The Steady State Process Single Flow
For a steady single flow we get

Reversible work (possibility)

. . T0
w rev = W rev/ m = ∑ ( 1 − ) q j + (htot i − T0 si) − (htot e − T0 se)
Tj
Heat transfer Flow in Flow out
Irreversibility
. . rev
i = I / m = w rev – wCV ac = q0 = T0 sgen CV ac
qj
= T0 [ se – si – ∑ ]
Tj

Actual work (reality)

wCV ac = w rev – i

A second law efficiency can be defined as

wCV ac i
ηII = = 1 –
w rev w rev
This will be revisited when exergy has been defined.
30
 The Steady State Process Single Flow

Example 8.1
A feedwater heater has 5 kg/s water at 5 MPa, 40oC inlet being heated first by 900 kW
from a 100oC reservoir and then by a 200oC source so final exit is 5 MPa, 180oC. Find
the reversible work and the irreversibility.

Analysis__________________________________________________
CV The feedwater heater, steady state, single flow, w = 0.
Energy Eq.: 0 = hi + q1 + q2 – he
Entropy Eq.: 0 = si + q1/T1 + q2/T2 – se + sgen ac
T0 T0
Reversible work: w rev
= (1 − T ) q1 + (1 − T2 ) q2 + T0(se – si) − (he − hi )
1

31
 The Steady State Process Single Flow
Example 8.1 continued
Solution__________________________________________________
From Table B.1.4
hi = 171.95 kJ/kg, si = 0.5705 kJ/kg-K, he = 765.24 kJ/kg, se = 2.1341 kJ/kg-K
. .
q1 = Q1 / m = 900 kW / 5 kg/s = 180 kJ/kg

Energy Eq.: q2 = he – hi – q1 = 765.24 – 171.95 – 900/5 = 413.29 kJ/kg

298.15 298.15
w rev = (1 − ) 180 + (1 − ) 413.29
373.15 473.15
+ 298.15 (2.1341 – 0.5705) − (765.24 − 171.95)
= 36.18 + 152.86 + 466.19 − 593.29 = 61.9 kJ/kg
i = w rev − wCV ac = 61.9 – 0 = 61.9 kJ/kg

Notice also
180 413.29
sgen ac = se – si – q1/T1 – q2/T2 = 2.1341 – 0.5705 − − = 0.2077 kJ/kg-K
373.15 473.15
i = T0 sgen CV ac = 298.15 K × 0.2077 kJ/kg-K = 61.9 kJ/kg
32
 The Reversible Work, Compressor
Example 8.2
An air compressor has air inlet at 100 kPa, 25oC and an exit state of 1 MPa, 540 K. As
the housing is warmer than the ambient a heat loss of 50 kJ/kg takes place. Find the
specific reversible work and the specific irreversibility.
Analysis___________________________________
CV The air compressor out to ambient T, steady state, single flow.
Energy Eq.: 0 = hi – w – qloss – he
Entropy Eq.: 0 = si – qloss/T0 – se + sgen ac
T0
Reversible work: w rev
= – (1 − T ) qloss + T0(se – si) − (he − hi )
0
Solution_________________________________________________
From Table A.7.1
o o
( hi, he ) = ( 298.62, 544.69 ) kJ/kg, ( sT i, sT e ) = (6.86305, 7.46642 ) kJ/kg-K
w = hi – qloss – he = 298.62 – 50 – 544.69 = – 296.07 kJ/kg
w rev = 0 + 298.15(7.46642 – 6.86305 – 0.287 ln 10) − (544.69 – 298.62)
= –17.135 – 246.07 = – 263.2 kJ/kg
i = w rev − w = –263.2 – (–296.07) = 32.9 kJ/kg 33
 The Reversible Work, Compressor
Example 8.2E
An air compressor has air inlet at 14.7 psia, 80F and an exit state of 150 psia, 960 R. As
the housing is warmer than the ambient a heat loss of 22 Btu/lbm takes place. Find the
specific reversible work and the specific irreversibility.
Analysis___________________________________
CV The air compressor out to ambient T, steady state, single flow.
Energy Eq.: 0 = hi – w – qloss – he
Entropy Eq.: 0 = si – qloss/T0 – se + sgen ac
T0
Reversible work: w rev
= – (1 − ) qloss + T0(se – si) − (he − hi )
T0
Solution_________________________________________________
From Table F.5
o o
( hi, he ) = (129.18, 231.20) Btu/lbm, ( sT i, sT e) = (1.63979, 1.77935) Btu/lbm-R
w = hi – qloss – he = 129.18 – 22 – 231.20 = – 124.02 Btu/lbm
w rev = 0 + 539.7(1.77935 – 1.63979 – 0.06855 ln 10.2) − (231.20 – 129.18)
= –10.6 – 102.02 = – 112.62 Btu/lbm
i = w rev − w = –112.62 – (–124.02) = 11.4 Btu/lbm
34
The Reversible Work

35
 The Exergy

Exergy is the potential to produce work closely related to the reversible work. The
various contributions to reversible work represent exergy transfers.
. To .
Heat transfer: ΦQj T = (1 − T ) Qj
j

Flow terms are referenced to the dead ambient state: P0, T0, Vo = 0, Zo
Flow term, exergy per unit mass flow:
 = htot – Tos – reference offset
1
Flow exergy:  = [h – Tos + 2V 2 + gZ] – [ho – Toso + gZo]

Look at the difference between inlet/exit states

1 2
i – e = (hi – Tosi + 2Vi + gZi) – (ho – Toso + gZo)
1 2
– [(he – Tose + 2Ve + gZe) – (ho – Toso + gZo)]

= (htot i – Tosi) – (htot e – Tose)

Notice the reference state offset canceled out.
36
 The Exergy

Storage effect
The reversible work includes a part that relates to the atmosphere as
. .
Wsurr = Po V
This is subtracted from the storage term
. max . rev . dECV dSCV .
Wavail = Wstorage – Wsurr = − [ dt − T0 dt ] – PoV

As the work goes out it will decrease the potential for work inside the CV so
. dECV dSCV .
Storage term: ΦCV = [ dt − T0 dt ] + PoV

This is used to find the stored exergy per unit mass as:
Specific exergy: ϕ ≡ (e – To s + Po v) – (eo – To so + Po vo)

The reference is selected so the dead ambient state has ϕ = 0, eo = uo + gZo.

Comment: Historically, only the flow exergy was originally named exergy.
Now we see exergy equals reversible work minus work to atmosphere 37
 The Reversible Work in Exergy Terms

We can now express the reversible work by changes in exergy.

. rev T0 .
W = ∑ ( 1 − T ) Qj Heat transfer
j

. .
+ ∑ mi (htot i − T0 si) − ∑ me (htot e − T0 se) Flow terms
dECV dSCV
− [ dt − T0 dt ] Storage terms

. . . . . .
W rev = ΦQj T + ∑ mi i − ∑ me e − ΦCV + PoV

. .
For a steady state (ΦCV = 0, V = 0) single flow CV it becomes:

w rev = ϕqj T + i – e

38
The Reversible Work in Exergy Terms

39
 The Second Law Efficiency

Definimos desempenho das máquinas

térmicas como relação somente da
energia produzida e da energia
consumida (eficiência de primeira lei).
A eficiência de primeira lei, no entanto,
não faz referência ao melhor
desempenho possível. Desta forma,
pode ser enganosa. Veja o exemplo ao
lado, as duas máquinas operam com
mesma eficiência, porém a máquina
“A” possui um melhor desempenho
quando comparado a máxima
eficiência possível. Isso se deve pelo
fato dá disponibilidade ou exergia da
fonte de 1.000K ser maior, e portanto,
permitir que a máquina “B” obtivesse
uma eficiência de 70% caso fosse
reversível. A eficiência da segunda lei
para dispositivos reversíveis é de
100%.

40
 The Second Law Efficiency
An efficiency based on reversible work or exergy is called a second law efficiency.
wCV ac wrev – i i
ηII = = = 1 –
wrev wrev wrev
desired output in exergy
= source input in exergy
For an actual adiabatic turbine
wT ac wT ac shaft work out
ηT II = rev = = source flow exergy
w i – e

For an actual compressor

wrev e – i flow exergy gain
ηC II = w = w = source input exergy
C ac C ac

For an actual nozzle

1 2 1 2
2 Ve 2 Ve kinetic energy out
ηnoz II = = =
wrev i – e source flow exergy

Notice the natural switching of terms between turbine (w > 0) and compressor (w < 0)
These efficiencies can also be done for complete cycles (energy conversion devices).
41
 The Second Law Efficiency

Example 8.5
An insulated steam turbine air compressor has flows in and out
shown in the figure. Determine the specific exergy at all 3 states,
the isentropic efficiency and the second-law efficiency for the
turbine.
Analysis_____________________________________
CV The turbine shown in figure, steady state, single flow, q = 0.
. . .
Actual turbine: W˙ ac = m1h1 – m2h2 – m3h3
. . .
Isentropic turbine: W˙ T s = m1h1 – m2h2s – m3h3s
. . .
Reversible work: W˙ rev = m11 – m22 – m33
1
Specific exergy:  = [h – Tos + 2V 2 + gZ] – [ho – Toso + gZo] = h – ho – To(s – so)
Solution_____________________________________________________
From Table B.1
At 100 kPa, 25oC: ho = 104.87 kJ/kg; so = 0.3673 kJ/kg-K
1 = 3115.25 – 104.87 – 298.15(6.7427 – 0.3673) = 1109.6 kJ/kg
42
 The Second Law Efficiency

Example 8.5 continued

2 = 2855.37 – 104.87 – 298.15(7.0592 – 0.3673) = 755.3 kJ/kg
3 = 2361.74 – 104.87 – 298.15(7.2830 – 0.3673) = 194.95 kJ/kg
s2s = s1 = 6.7427 kJ/kg-K & P = 500 kPa  x2s = 0.984  h2s = 2715.4 kJ/kg
s3s = s1 = 6.7427 kJ/kg-K & P = 15 kPa  x3s = 0.8255  h3s = 2184.9 kJ/kg
Then

W˙ rev = 30 × 1109.6 – 5 × 755.3 – 25 × 194.95 = 24 638 kW

W˙ ac = 30 × 3115.3 – 5 × 2855.4 – 25 × 2361.7 = 20 137 kW

W˙ T s = 30 × 3115.3 – 5 × 2715.4 – 25 × 2184.9 = 25 260 kW

20 137
Isentropic efficiency: ηT s = W˙ ac / W˙ T s = 25 260 = 0.797

20 137
Second-law efficiency: ηT II = W˙ ac / W˙ rev = 24 638 = 0.817

43
 The Second Law Efficiency, Dual Flow Heat Exchanger

For a device that have different flows and potentially different terms like heat transfer we
must write the efficiency based on the conversion from the source to desired output and
measure all terms in exergy.

desired output in exergy Φ̇wanted Φ̇ source net – İ CV

ηII = = =
source input in exergy Φ̇source net Φ̇source net

Dual fluid heat exchanger

ṁ1 (2 – 1) exergy gain in low T flow

ηII = = exergy source from high T flow
ṁ3 (3 – 4)

The low T term must be the numerator as exergy drops when Q moves to lower T.

44
 A Dual Fluid Heat Exchanger

Example 8.6
A boiler heats water to steam with combustion product gases as shown. The gases are at 100 kPa
and has an average specific heat CP = 1.09 kJ/kg-K. Determine the second-law efficiency for the
heat exchanger and the irreversibility in the process.
Analysis________________________________________________________
CV The heat exchanger shown in figure, steady state, W˙ = 0, Q˙ = 0.
. .
Energy equation: 0 = mH2O ( h1 – h2 ) + mProd ( h3 – h4 )
. .
Entropy equation: 0 = mH2O ( s1 – s2 ) + mProd ( s3 – s4 ) + S˙gen
. .
Irreversibility: I˙ = W˙ rev – W˙ = mH2O (1 – 2) + mProd (3 – 4) – 0 = To S˙gen
ṁH2O (2 – 1)
ηII =
ṁProd (3 – 4)
exergy gain in low T flow
= exergy source from high T flow

We can find I˙, ηII from the flow exergies,

which is also consistent with I˙ = To S˙gen.
45
 A Dual Fluid Heat Exchanger

Example 8.6 continued

Solution_____________________________
From Table B.1, CP the energy equation gives

ṁProd h2 – h1 2950 – 632.2

= h – h = 1.09 (1100 – 550) = 3.866
ṁH2O 3 4

2 – 1 = h2 – h1 – To(s2 – s1) = 2950 – 632.2 – 298.15(7.0384 – 1.8418) = 768.4 kJ/kg

T3
3 – 4 = h3 – h4 – To(s3 – s4) = CP(T3 – T4) – ToCP ln T (Ideal gas and P = C)
4

= 1.09 (1100 – 550) – 298.15 × 1.09 ln (1373.15 / 823.15) = 433.198 kJ/kg

ṁH2O (2 – 1) 1 768.4

ηII = = 3.866 433.198 = 0.459
ṁProd (3 – 4)

. ṁProd
I˙ / mH2O = (1 – 2) + (3 – 4) = – 768.4 + 3.866 × 433.198 = 906.3 kJ/kg H2O
ṁH2O
46
 The Exergy Balance Equation

The exergy balance equation can be done from the definition

Exergy: mϕ = Φ ≡ E – To S + Po V – (Eo – To So + Po Vo)

Then form Φ̇CV from the rates of the continuity, energy and entropy equations. Alternatively solve
. . .
for Φ̇CV from the relation to the reversible work W rev = WCV ac + I . The result is

. T0 .
ΦCV = ∑ ( 1 − T ) Q j Heat transfer across C.S.
j
. .
− WCV ac + PoV Work transfers across C.S.

. .
+ ∑ mi i − ∑ me e Flow terms across C.S.

− To S˙gen Destruction inside C.V.

47
 The Exergy Balance Equation, Feedwater Heater

Example 8.7
Evaluate the flow and flux terms of exergy for the feedwater
heater in Example 8.1 and find the second law efficiency.
Analysis____________________________________
CV The feedwater heater steady state, W˙ = 0, Z = Zo and V = 0.
1
Specific exergy:  = [h – Tos + 2V 2 + gZ] – [ho – Toso + gZo]

= h – ho – To(s – so)
Exergy destruction: ϕdestruction = ϕq1 + ϕq2 + i – e = To sgen cv = i

Solution________________________________________________________
From Table B.1 at 100 kPa, 25oC: ho = 104.87 kJ/kg; so = 0.3673 kJ/kg-K
Inlet exergy: i = 171.97 – 104.87 – 298.15(0.5705 – 0.3673) = 6.52 kJ/kg
Exit exergy: e = 765.25 – 104.87 – 298.15(2.1341 – 0.3673) = 133.61 kJ/kg

48
 The Exergy Balance Equation, Feedwater Heater

Example 8.7 continued

T0 298.15
Flux from source 1: ϕq1 = (1 – T ) q1 = (1 – 373.15) 180 kJ/kg = 36.18 kJ/kg
1

T0 298.15
Flux from source 1: ϕq2 = (1 – ) q2 = (1 – ) 413.28 kJ/kg = 152.86 kJ/kg
T2 473.15
Exergy destruction: ϕdestruction = 36.18 + 152.86 + 6.52 – 133.61 = 61.95 kJ/kg
ϕgain e – i 133.61 – 6.52 ϕgain – i
Second-law efficiency: ηII = ϕ = = = 0.67 ( = ϕ )
source ϕq1 + ϕq2 36.18 + 152.86 source

49
 The Exergy Balance Equation, Electric Stove

Example 8.8
A 500 W heating element in a stove has the surface at
1000 K. On top of the element is a ceramic top with a
surface at 500 K. Find the flux terms of exergy and find
the exergy destruction.

Solution_____________________________
CV The electric element CV1, steady state, W˙ in = 500 W.

Energy Eq.: 0 = W˙ in – Q˙ out  Q˙ out = W˙ in = 500 W

Entropy Eq.: 0 = – Q˙ out/Tsurf + S˙gen cv1  S˙gen cv1 = Q˙ out/Tsurf = 500 W / 1000 K = 0.5 W/K

Exergy destruction: Φ̇destruction = To S˙gen cv1 = 298.15 K × 0.5 W/K = 149 W

Exergy flux out: Φ̇transfer out = W˙ in – Φ̇destruction = 500 – 149 = 351 W

T0 298.15
= (1 − ) Q˙ out = (1 – ) 500 W = 351 W
T 1000

50
 The Exergy Balance Equation, Electric Stove

202 W
Example 8.8 continued
500 W
Solution_____________________________ 149 W
149 W
CV The ceramic top CV2, steady state, Q˙ in = 500 W.

Energy Eq.: 0 = Q˙ in – Q˙ out 2  Q˙ out 2 = Q˙ in

Entropy Eq.: 0 = Q˙ in/ Tsurf – Q˙ out 2/Ttop + S˙gen cv2

Q˙ out 2 Q˙ in
 S˙gen cv2 = –
Ttop Tsurf
1 1 W W
= [500 – 1000] 500 K = 0.5 K

Exergy destruction:

Φ̇destruction = To S˙gen cv2 = 298.15 K × 0.5 W/K = 149 W

T0 298.15
Exergy flux out: Φ̇transfer out 2 = (1 − T ) Q˙ out 2 = (1 – 500 ) 500 W = 202 W
51
 The Exergy Applications

We may form the second-law efficiency for complete cycles as

Φgain WHE
For a general heat engine: ηII = Φ =
source Φsource

Φsource = ΦQ TH or Φsource = ΦQ TH − ΦQ TL

The expressions for ΦQ TH and ΦQ TL depend on the source (constant T or ?)

To
Constant temperature: ΦQ T = Q (1 − T )

Φgain ΦQ TH + ΦQ TL
For a general heat pump/refrigerator: ηII = Φ = WHP
source

Normal operation only ΦQ TH or ΦQ TL is used. Potentially both could be useful.

52
The Exergy and its Balance Equation

53
 LECTURES IN
THERMODYNAMICS
Claus Borgnakke
CHAPTER 9

For the 8th Edition of:

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics
Claus Borgnakke, Richard Sonntag
John Wiley & Sons, 2013
 Chapter 9

• The Rankine Cycle, Steam Power Plant

• Reheat cycle
• Feedwater Heaters
– Open FWH, Closed FWH
• Combined Heat and Power
– Cogeneration, Process Heat
• The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• Cycle Configurations
– Dual loop, Cascade System, Regeneration
• Absorption Refrigeration Cycle

55
 The Rankine Cycle, A Heat Engine
Rankine Cycle (all processes reversible):

Pump 1-2: Adiabatic Compression, s = C

Boiler 2-3: Isobaric Heat Addition, P = C
Turbine 3-4: Adiabatic Expansion, s = C
Condenser 4-1: Isobaric Heat Rejection, P = C

Standard Assumptions: x1 = 0 and x3 = 1

Common Extension: Superheat to T3' > T3

Steady state: No storage effects

Reversible: sgen = 0
Adiabatic: q = 0 and ∫ dq/T = 0
Isobaric: wshaft = – ∫ v dP = 0

Cycle is two P = C and two s = C processes, resembles

the Carnot cycle (Two T = C instead of P = C).
Parameters to determine cycle:
4*2 - 4 process eqs. - 2 assumptions = 2
parameters, (P3 = P2 and T1).
If superheat then 3 parameters (P3, T3, T1). 56
 The Rankine Cycle, Superheat

In the top of the boiler saturated steam is collected sometimes into a steam
drum and flows out at state 3. If the saturated steam out of the boiler is
being superheated another heat exchanger section is added to the boiler
which heats from 3 – 3’, valve is closed when superheating.

57
 The Rankine Cycle, Device Analysis
Process analysis with energy and entropy equations, all w and q are made positive by
knowing the direction of the transfer, no kinetic or potential energy changes.
Device Process Energy Eq. Entropy Eq.
Pump 1-2: 0 = h1 – h2 + wP 0 = s1 – s2 + 0
Boiler 2-3: 0 = h 2 – h3 + qH 0 = s2 – s3 + ∫ dqH/T
Turbine 3-4: 0 = h3 – h4 – wT 0 = s3 – s4 + 0
Condenser 4-1: 0 = h4 – h1 – qL 0 = s4 – s1 – ∫ dqL/T

Net: 0 = qH – qL + wP – wT 0 = ∫ dqH/T – ∫ dqL/T

wnet = wT – wP = qH – qL; If x4 < 1: ∫ dqL/T = qL/T1
wnet qH – qL qL
Conversion Efficiency ηth = = =1–
qH qH qH

58
 The Rankine Cycle, Practical Comments
Comments to individual processes assuming (P3, T3, T1) determines cycle.
Pump: wP = h2 – h1 ; s2 = s1 => State 2: (P2 = P3, s = s1)
Difficult to interpolate in Table B.1, use incompressibility to find work.
wP = ∫ v dP = v1 (P2 – P1) = vf 1(P2 – Psat) => h2 = hf 1 + wP
Boiler: qH = h3 – h2 ; ∫ dqH/T = s3 – s2 no reason to evaluate integral

Turbine: wT = h3 – h4 ; s3 = s4 => State 4: (P4 = P1, s = s3)

If state 4 is two-phase (s4 < sg) find x4 and then h4
Condenser: qL = h4 – h1 ;

59
 The Rankine Cycle, Example

Example 9.1
A basic Rankine cycle, no superheat, has a high pressure of 2 MPa and a condenser
pressure of 10 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency.
Solution__________________________________________________
Pump: Assume incompressible flow, Table B.1.2 for state 1
wP = v1(P2 – P1) = vf (P2 – Psat) = 0.00101 m3/kg (2000 – 10) kPa = 2.0 kJ/kg
h2 = hf 1 + wP = 191.8 + 2.0 = 193.8 kJ/kg
Boiler: Look in Table B.1.2 or B.1.3 for state 3 at 2000 kPa saturated vapor
qH = h3 – h2 = 2799.5 – 193.8 = 2605.7 kJ/kg
Turbine: wT = h3 – h4 ; s3 = s4 = 6.3409 kJ/kg-K < sg = 8.1501 kJ/kg-K
x4 = (s4 – sf)/sfg = (6.3409 – 0.6493)/7.5009 = 0.7588
h4 = hf + x4 hfg = 191.8 + 0.7588 × 2392.8 = 2007.5 kJ/kg
wT = h3 – h4 = 2799.5 – 2007.5 = 792 kJ/kg
Condenser: qL = h4 – h1 = 2007.5 – 191.8 = 1815.7 kJ/kg
wnet qH – qL 792 – 2 2605.7 – 1815.7
Efficiency: ηth = q = q = 2605.7 = = 0.303
H H 2605.7 60
 The Rankine Cycle, Example
Example 9.2
A Rankine cycle has a boiler exit of 4 MPa, 400oC flowing to the turbine and a condenser
pressure of 10 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency.
Solution__________________________________________________
This is a cycle with superheat.
Pump: Assume incompressible flow, Table B.1.2 for state 1
wP = v1(P2 – P1) = vf (P2 – Psat) = 0.00101 m3/kg (4000 – 10) kPa = 4.0 kJ/kg
h2 = hf 1 + wP = 191.8 + 4.0 = 195.8 kJ/kg

Boiler: Look in Table B.1.3 at 4000 kPa, 400oC

qH = h3 – h2 = 3213.6 – 195.8 = 3017.8 kJ/kg
Turbine: wT = h3 – h4 ; s3 = s4 = 6.7690 kJ/kg-K < sg = 8.1501 kJ/kg-K
x4 = (s4 – sf)/sfg = (6.7690 – 0.6493)/7.5009 = 0.8159
h4 = hf + x4 hfg = 191.8 + 0.8159 × 2392.8 = 2144.1 kJ/kg
wT = h3 – h4 = 3213.6 – 2144.1 = 1069.5 kJ/kg
Condenser: qL = h4 – h1 = 2144.1 – 191.8 = 1952.3 kJ/kg
wnet qH – qL 1069.5 – 4 3017.8 – 1952.3
Efficiency: ηth = q = q = 3017.8 = 3017.8 = 0.353 61
H H
 The Rankine Cycle, Example
Example 9.2E
A Rankine cycle has a boiler exit of 600 lbf/in2, 800 F flowing to the turbine and a
condenser pressure of 0.95 lbf/in2. Determine the thermal efficiency.
Solution__________________________________________________
This is a cycle with superheat.
Pump: Assume incompressible flow, Table F.7.1 for state 1
3 144 (in/ft)2
wP = v1(P2 – P1) = 0.01614 ft /lbm (600 – 0.95) psia = 1.8 Btu/lbm
778 lbf-ft/Btu
h2 = hf 1 + wP = 68.04 + 1.8 = 69.84 Btu/lbm
Boiler: Look in Table F.7.2 at 600 psia, 800 F
qH = h3 – h2 = 1407.55 – 69.84 = 1337.71 Btu/lbm
Turbine: wT = h3 – h4 ; s3 = s4 = 1.6343 Btu/lbm-R < sg = 1.9822 Btu/lbm-R
x4 = (s4 – sf)/sfg = (1.6343 – 0.1296)/1.8526 = 0.8122
h4 = hf + x4 hfg = 68.04 + 0.8122 × 1036.98 = 910.28 Btu/lbm
wT = h3 – h4 = 1407.55 – 910.28 = 497.27 Btu/lbm
Condenser: qL = h4 – h1 = 910.28 – 68.04 = 842.24 Btu/lbm
wnet qH – qL 497.27 – 1.8 1337.71 – 842.24
Efficiency: ηth = q = q = 1337.71 = 1337.71 = 0.37 62
H H
 The Reheat Cycle
Reheat cycle analysis, same flow rate through all components.

HP Turbine: Energy eq.: wT HP = h3 – h4; Entropy eq.: s3 = s4

LP Turbine: Energy eq.: wT LP = h5 – h6; Entropy eq.: s5 = s6
Boiler: Energy eq.: qH = h3 – h2 + h5 – h4
Pump: Energy eq.: wP = h2 – h1 = v1(P2 – P1) Entropy eq.: s2 = s1
Condenser: Energy eq.: qL = h6 – h1
wnet wT HP + wT LP – wP qH – qL
Cycle efficiency: ηth = q = qH = q
H H

The benefit of the cycle is to increase

the quality in the LP section of the
turbine keeping the operational
turbine efficiency high.

This avoids going to high T like 3’.

63
 Rankine Cycle Extension: Open Feedwater Heater

CV Open FWH
. . .
Continuity Eq.: m2 + m6 = m 3
. . . . .
Extraction: y ≡ m6 / m5 (m3 = m4 = m5)
. . . . . .
Energy Eq.: m2h2 + m6h6 = m3h3  (1 – y) m5h2 + y m5h6 = m5h3
h3 – h2
Extraction fraction: y=h –h
6 2

CV Turbine.
. . .
Cont. Eq.: m5 = m6 + m7
. . . .
Energy Eq.: m5h5 = m6h6 + m7h7 + WT
. .
wT = WT/m5 = h5 – yh6 – (1 – y) h7
= h5 – h6 + (1 – y)(h6 – h7)
Entropy Eq.: s5 = s6 = s7 (all sgen = 0)

To see the last one take CV HP-Turbine (5-6)

and CV LP-Turbine (6-7) use entropy equation. 64
 Rankine Cycle Extension: Open Feedwater Heater

Example 9.4
A Rankine cycle has a boiler exit of 4 MPa, 400oC, an open FWH at 400
kPa has its exit as saturated liquid whereas turbine exhaust is at 10 kPa.
Find the thermal efficiency.
Solution_________________________________________
This is a cycle as in Figure 9.12. Properties given are (P3, T3, P6, x3, P1)
Pump 1: Assume incompressible flow, Table B.1.2 for state 1
wP1 = v1(P2 – P1) = vf (P2 – P1) = 0.00101 m3/kg (400 – 10) kPa
= 0.4 kJ/kg
h2 = hf 1 + wP1 = 191.8 + 0.4 = 192.2 kJ/kg
Turbine: wT = h5 – h6 + (1 – y)(h6 – h7) ;
s5 = s6 = s7 = 6.7690 kJ/kg-K < sg = 6.8959 kJ/kg-K
x6 = (s6 – sf)/sfg = (6.7690 – 1.7766)/5.1193 = 0.9752
h6 = hf + x6 hfg = 604.7 + 0.9752 × 2133.8 = 2685.6 kJ/kg
x7 = (s7 – sf)/sfg = (6.7690 – 0.6493)/7.5009 = 0.8159
h7 = hf + x7 hfg = 191.8 + 0.8159 × 2392.8 = 2144.1 kJ/kg
65
 Rankine Cycle Extension: Open Feedwater Heater
Example 9.4 continued

FWH: State 2 known from P1 and state 6 known from turbine.

State 3: 400 kPa, x3 = 0  h3 = 604.7 kJ/kg
h3 – h2 604.7 – 192.2
y = h – h = 2685.6 - 192.2 = 0.1654
6 2

Pump 2: Assume incompressible flow, Table B.1.2 for state 3

wP2 = v3 (P4 – P3) = 0.001084 m3/kg (4000 – 400) kPa = 3.9 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 + wP2 = 604.7 + 3.9 = 608.6 kJ/kg

Boiler: Look in Table B.1.3 at 4000 kPa, 400oC

qH = h5 – h4 = 3213.6 – 608.6 = 2605.0 kJ/kg
Turbine combined work and net work are
wT = h5 – h6 + (1 – y)(h6 – h7)
= 3213.6 – 2685.6 + (1 – 0.1654)(2685.6 – 2144.1) = 979.9 kJ/kg
wnet = wT – (1 – y) wP1 – wP2 = 979.9 – 0.8346 ×0.4 – 3.9 = 975.7 kJ/kg
wnet 975.7
Efficiency: ηth = q = 2605.0 = 0.375 66
H
 Rankine Cycle Extension: Closed Feedwater Heaters
Closed FWH version 2 with trap flow to condenser. Closed FWH (2 versions)
Assumption: T3 = T4 = T6a
1. Drip pump and junction.
. . . .
Cont. Eq.: m4 = m3 = m2 = m5 ; Extraction flow: 6-6a-6b
. . . . 2. Trap and discard to P-low.
Extr. Flow: m6 = y m5 = m6a = m6c Extraction flow: 6-6a-6c
. . . .
Energy Eq.: m5h2 + y m5h6 = m5h3 + y m5h6a Only one version used in a FWH not both.

solve for y as
h3 – h2
y=
h6 – h6a

Trap and discard version

67
 Example of a Real Power Plant Configuration

3 closed and 1 open FWH.

68
Steam Power Plant

69
 Example of a Real Power Plant Configuration
A nuclear power plant
configuration.

As the nuclear reactor does not

run at very high T’s a moisture
separator is removing all the
liquid before expanding in the
low pressure turbine.

FWH FWH
FWH

70
 Example of a Real Power Plant Configuration
A nuclear power plant configuration for a submarine.

A transfer fluid is used between the reactor and the

steam generator to minimize water contamination.

71
 Process Heat, Combined Heat and Power

Previously the power plant was considered as a heat engine with electrical power as output.
In many industrial applications process heat or steam is needed: heating of a bath for surface
treatment of metal pieces, food processing, drying of lumber for furniture, drying of specimens
after painting, sterilization in a hospital, commercial laundry etc.

When steam is the primary requirement the

power generation is called co-generation or
CHP Combined Heat and Power. Even the
heat from the condenser can be useful.

In some cases the steam is not returned, but

in other cases the energy is extracted and
the water is returned to the cycle as liquid
called condensate.

When all requirements are considered in the

design stage of the facility it is possible to
get a very high efficiency or utilization of
the primary energy source.

72
Rankine Cycle, Steam Power Plants

73
 The Brayton Cycle, A Heat Engine, Gas Turbine

Real open cycle Ideal model closed cycle

The Brayton cycle is the ideal model of
a gas-turbine with the same 4 processes
as in the Rankine cycle taking place in
the ideal gas region.
This is internal (in working substance)
combustion vs. Rankine external.
Many new power plants using natural
gas runs in this (open) cycle.
Power density, as net work per size of
the plant Wnet/m or Wnet/V, is high.

74
 The Brayton Cycle, A Heat Engine, Gas Turbine

Ideal model closed cycle

The 4 processes are:
1 – 2 reversible adiabatic compression, compressor
2 – 3 isobaric heat addition (combustion)
3 – 4 reversible adiabatic expansion, turbine
4 – 1 isobaric heat rejection, assumed heat exchanger

4 parameters determine this cycle typically:

P1, T1, rp = (P2/P1), T3
Everything is steady state with a single flow through 4
different components. The individual process analysis is:

Component Energy Eq.: Entropy Eq.: Process:

Compressor 0 = h 1 + w C – h2 0 = s1 – s2 + (0/T) + 0 q = 0, s1= s2
Combustion 0 = h2 – h3 + qH 0 = s2 – s3 +  dq/T + 0 P3 = P2 = C
Turbine 0 = h3 – h4 – wT 0 = s3 – s4 + (0/T) + 0 q = 0, s3 = s4
Heat exchanger 0 = h4 – h1 – qL 0 = s4 – s1 –  dq/T + 0 P4 = P1 = C

75
 The Brayton Cycle

From the process analysis

qH = h3 – h2; qL = h4 – h1; wnet = wT – wC = qH – qL
qL h4 - h1 CP(T4 - T1) T1 (T4/T1 – 1)
th = 1 – q = 1 – h - h  1 – C (T - T ) = 1 – T (T /T – 1)
H 3 2 P 3 2 2 3 2

The two isentropic processes give

P3 P2  T3 k/(k-1)  T2 k/(k-1) T3 T2 T3 T4
P4 = P1 =  T4 
=T   T =T 
 1 4 1 T2 = T1
qL T1 –(k–1)/k
Thermal efficiency: th = 1 –  1 – = 1 – rP
qH T2
Compression ratio: rP = P2 / P1

The compression ratio can be 14-18

with latest compressor technology.
Total net power can be 5-375 MW.

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 The Brayton Cycle

Example 10.1
A gasturbine has air enter the compressor at 100 kPa, 15oC. After the compressor the air is at
1000 kPa and the maximum cycle temperature is 1100oC. Find (P, T) for each state, the specific
work and heat transfer terms and the cycle efficiency using cold air properties.
Analysis_________________________________________
The cycle is determined by 4 parameters: P1, T1, P2 and T3.
Solve in order the P-v or T-s diagrams can be constructed
4 known parameters + 4 process equations.

State 1: P1, T1  State 2: P2, s2 = s1

State 3: P3 = P2, T3  State 4: P4 = P1, s4 = s3

rP = P2 / P1 = 1000/100 = 10

th = wnet / qH = (wT – wC ) / qH

–(k–1)/k
= 1 – rP (only if cold air properties)

77
 The Brayton Cycle
Example 10.1 continued
Solution_________________________________________
Compressor:
(k-1)/k
T2 = T1 rP = 288.15 K × 100.2857 = 556.3 K
wC = h2 – h1 = CP (h2 – h1) = 1.004 kJ/kg-K (556.3 – 288.15) K
= 269.2 kJ/kg
Combustion chamber:
qH = h3 – h2 = CP (h3 – h2) = 1.004 kJ/kg-K (1373.15 – 556.3) K
= 820.1 kJ/kg
Turbine:
(k-1)/k
T4 = T3 / rP = 1373.15 K / 100.2857 = 711.2 K
wT = h3 – h4 = CP (T3 – T4) = 1.004 kJ/kg-K (1373.15 – 711.2) K
= 664.6 kJ/kg
Heat Exchanger:
qL = h4 – h1 = CP (T4 – T1) = 1.004 kJ/kg-K (711.2 – 288.15) K = 424.7 kJ/kg

wnet = wT – wC = 664.6 – 269.2 = 395.4 kJ/kg

–(k–1)/k
th = wnet / qH = 395.4 / 820.1 = 0.482 = 1 – rP = 1 – 10−0.2857
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 The Brayton Cycle Regenerator

Use exhaust gas in a regenerator:

79
 The Brayton Cycle Regenerator

A regenerator works only when T2 < T4

Higher rP means higher T2 and a limit exists.

The cut off compression ratio can be found for

the condition where the two efficiencies are equal.
T2 T1
th regen = 1 – T = th = 1 – T
3 2

They are equal if T2 = T1 T3 resulting in

k
rP limit = [ T3 / T1 ] 2(k-1)

η
In the example shown the limit becomes rp = 11.3

As modern gas-turbines operates with higher

compression ratio’s the regenerator is not used.

rp

80
 The Brayton Cycle Regenerator
Example 10.3
Determine the cycle efficiency if the Brayton cycle in Example 10.1 uses an ideal regenerator.
Solution_______________________________________________________
Ideal regenerator:
Tx = T4 = 711.2 K, Ty = T2
qH = h3 – hx = CP (T3 – Tx) = wT = 664.6 kJ/kg
wnet = wT – wC = 664.6 – 269.2 = 395.4 kJ/kg
th regen = wnet / qH = 395.4 / 664.6 = 0.595

81
 The Brayton Cycle Regenerator Efficiency

Regenerator efficiency:
hx – h2 Tx – T2
th = h – h ≈ T – T
x' 2 x' 2

This expresses energy gain in flow before combustor relative to max. possible gain.

A regenerator works only when T2 < T4 : higher rP means higher T2 a limit exists.

x’, y’ are the limits for x, y 82

 The Brayton Cycle, Intercooling

Intercooling can reduce compressor work Curves to scale for 1: 100 kPa, 290 K and rp = 9
Shaft work out: w = –  v dP + ke + pe – loss
Total work in: wC = wC1 + wC2 = h2 – h1 + h4 – h3 Work saved

Cooling: qout = h2 – h3
For T3 = T1 it can be shown min wC:

P2 = P3 = P1 P4
Notice it is the wC2 part that is reduced, see figure.

83
The Brayton Cycle, Intercooler, Regenerator and Reheat

Reheat

84
 The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle:

Compressor: 1-2 Adiabatic Compression, s = C

Condenser: 2-3 Isobaric Heat Rejection, P = C
Throttle: 3-4 Isenthalpic expansion, h = C
Evaporator: 4-1 Isobaric Heat Addition, P = C

Standard assumptions: x1 = 1 and x3 = 0

Steady state: No storage effects

Reversible: sgen = 0 (throttle is irreversible)
Adiabatic: q = 0 and ∫ dq/T = 0
Isobaric: wshaft = – ∫ v dP = 0

Parameters to determine cycle:

4*2 - 4 process eqs. - 2 assumptions = 2
Parameters (P3 = P2) determined by the compressor and
T1 implicitly determined by heat transfer.

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 The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle Processes

Compressor: Energy Eq.: 0 = h1 – h2 + wC ; Entropy Eq.: 0 = s1 – s2

Condenser: Energy Eq.: 0 = h2 – h3 – qH Entropy Eq.: 0 = s2 – s3 – ∫dqH/T
Throttle: Energy Eq.: 0 = h3 – h4 ; Entropy Eq.: 0 = s3 – s4 + sgen
Evaporator: Energy Eq.: 0 = h4 – h1 + qL ; Entropy Eq.: 0 = s4 – s1 + ∫dqL/T

qL qL h1 – h3 qH
COP: COPref = βref = w = q – q = h2 – h1 ; COPHP = w = βref + 1
C H L C

We generally have no need to evaluate the integrals as they do equal the change in s.

86
 The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle Processes
Example 9.6
A refrigeration cycle uses R-134a with the evaporator at –20oC and the condensation
takes place at 40oC. With a mass flow rate of 0.03 kg/s find the COP and the cooling
capacity of the cycle.
Solution________________________________________________
This cycle is determined as (T1 = –20oC, T3 = 40oC, x3 = 0, x1 = 1).
From Table B.5.1: h1 = 386.1 kJ/kg, s1 = 1.7395 kJ/kg-K,
P3 = Pg 40C = 1017 kPa, h3 = 256.5 kJ/kg
CV Compressor: Energy Eq.: wC = h2 – h1 ; Entropy Eq.: s1 = s2
State 2, B.5.2 (P2 = 1017 kPa, s2 = 1.7395 kJ/kg-K):
T2 = 47.7oC, h2 = 428.4 kJ/kg
wC = h2 – h1 = 428.4 – 386.1 = 42.3 kJ/kg
CV Valve: h4 = h3 = 256.5 kJ/kg
CV Condenser: qL = h1 – h4 = 386.1 – 256.5 = 129.6 kJ/kg
qL 129.6
COP: βref = w = 42.3 = 3.06
C
. .
Cooling capacity: QL = m qL = 0.03 kg/s × 129.6 kJ/kg = 3.89 kW 87
 The Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
To Heat engine section Std. refrigeration section
ηHE ≤ 1 − T
s
To
. . .
Win = WP + ηHE Q'H

. .
QL = COP Win

. .
COP’ = QL / Q'H
. .
= COP (ηHE + WP / Q'H)

To

88
 The Typical Engine Characteristics

Number of cylinders, Ncyl: 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 typically in V or I configuration.

Compression ratio, rv: 8 - 9 - 10 (for gasoline increasing over 20 years)

12 - 15 - 18 (Diesel also increasing over time)
Advances in electronic ignition & controls and fuel technology

Size of engines, Vdispl:
50, 250, 500, 750 cc motorcycles, small cars, utility eng.
1, 1.3, 2, 3, 4, 6 L cars, I4, V6, V8 (V2 motor cycle)
6, 10 L, …, trucks, ships mainly diesels
25 000 L = 25 m3 worlds biggest diesel container ship
This produces 108 000 hp

Power density: 50 hp/L older 200 hp, 4.2L V8, non-stressed engine
80 hp/L, new 280 hp 3.6 L V6, van or V8 SUV medium stressed
150-200 hp/L, highly stressed turbocharged engines, race cars.

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 The 4 Stroke Gasoline Engine Processes

Process or Crank Volume Piston Process: Valve

State angle θ: change: motion: position:
Intake 0 – 180 Vmin → Vmax 1S P=C Inlet open
Compression 180 – 360 Vmax → Vmin 1S q = 0, s = C closed
Combustion* 360 -- 0S V=C closed
Expansion 360 – 540 Vmin → Vmax 1S q = 0, s = C closed
Exhaust 540 – 720 Vmax → Vmin 1S P=C Exhaust open
* In the engine combustion starts with a spark before piston reaches TDC, spark advance timing.

log-log scales

Linear scales

90
 The Otto Cycle model of a Gasoline Engine

Table 10.2 The Otto cycle processes

Process Energy Eq.: Entropy Eq.: Process Eq.:

Compression u2 – u1 = – 1w2 s2 – s1 = (0/T) + 0 q = 0, s1 = s2
Combustion u3 – u2 = qH s3 – s2 =  dqH/T + 0 v3 = v2 = C
Expansion u4 – u3 = – 3w4 s4 – s3 = (0/T) + 0 q = 0, s3 = s4
Heat rejection u1 – u4 = – qL s1 – s4 = –  dqL/T + 0 v4 = v1 = C

The closed cycle model has 2

strokes neglecting the intake
exhaust strokes, substituted
with a heat rejection (4-1).
Combustion is instantaneous.
4 parameters determines cycle
physically you determine:
P1, T1 (inlet), rv geometry
qH implicitly by fuel flow

91
 The Otto Cycle model of a Gasoline Engine
From the process analysis
qH = u3 – u2; qL = u4 – u1; wnet = 1w2 + 3w4 = qH – qL
qL u4 - u1 Cv (T4 - T1) T1 (T4/T1 – 1)
th = 1 – q = 1 – u - u  1 – C (T - T ) = 1 – T (T /T – 1)
H 3 2 v 3 2 2 3 2

The two isentropic processes give

T2  v1  k-1  v4  k-1 T3 T3 T4
T1 =  v2  =v 
 3
= T =>
4 T2 = T1
T1 1–k
Thermal efficiency: th  1 – T = 1 – rv
2

Compression ratio: rv = CR = v1/v2

Current engines

92
 An Otto Cycle Example

Example 10.7
An Otto cycle has compression ratio of 10 and the heat added is 1800 kJ/kg. The gas before
compression is at 100 kPa, 15oC. Determine: All (P, T), thermal efficiency and Pmeff.
Analysis_________________________________________
The cycle is determined by 4 parameters: P1, T1, rv and qH.
Solve in order the P-v or T-s diagrams can be constructed
4 known parameters + 4 process equations.
State 1: P1, T1  State 2: v2 = v1/ rv, s2 = s1
State 3: v3 = v2, u3 = u2 + qH  State 4: v4 = v1, s4 = s3
1–k
th  1 – rv wnet = th qH = Pmeff (v1 – v2)
Solution_________________________________________
v1 = RT1/P1 = 0.287 kJ/kg-K ×288.15 K /100 kPa = 0.827 m3/kg;
v2 = v1/rv = 0.827/10 = 0.0827 m3/kg
k
P2 = P1 r v = 100 × 101.4 = 2512 kPa;
k–1
T2 = T1 r v = 288.15 × 100.4 = 723.8 K
93
 An Otto Cycle Example

Example 10.7 continued

T3 = T2 + qH/Cv = 723.8 K + 1800 kJ/kg / 0.717 kJ/kg-K = 3234.3 K,

P3 = P2 × T3 / T2 = 2512 kPa × 3234.3 K / 723.8 K = 11 225 kPa
k–1
T4 = T3 / r v = 3234.3 K / 100.4 = 1287.6 K;
P4 = P1 × T4/T1 = 100 kPa × 1287.6 K / 288.15 K = 446.8 kPa
k
also (P4 = P3 / r v )
1–k
th  1 – rv = 1 – 10-0.4 = 0.602;
wnet = th qH = 0.602 × 1800 kJ/kg = 1083.6 kJ/kg
wnet 1083.6 kJ/kg
Pmeff = = = 1456 kPa
v1 - v2 0.827 - 0.0827 m3/kg

94