Arquivos de Ciências do Esporte Artigo Original

Archives of Sport Sciences doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.17648/aces.v6n1.2362

Correlação entre a composição corporal e a altura do salto em atletas

profissionais de voleibol

Correlation between body composition and jump height in professional volleyball athletes

Vitor Xavier Crivelin1

Alexandre Moreira2
Ronaldo Luiz Finotti3
Charles Ricardo Lopes4
Mayara Ramos3
Marcelo Saldanha Aoki3
Caroline Dário Capitani1,*

Resumo
Objetivo: O presente estudo teve como objetivo descrever o comportamento dos parâmetros
antropométricos de jogadores profissionais de voleibol ao longo do período competitivo e investigar a
existência de correlação entre o perfil antropométrico e a altura do salto vertical nesses jogadores.
Métodos: A composição corporal nos jogadores (n=13) foi determinada por meio da mensuração de 7
dobras cutâneas, utilizando adipômetro. A altura do salto contra movimento foi feita por meio do tapete
de contato em 3 tentativas, obtendo a média entre os resultados. A coleta dos dados foi realizada em 3
momentos da temporada competitiva (C1, C2, C3). Foi utilizado a ANOVA one-way e post hoc com
Tukey. Posteriormente, foi determinado o coeficiente de correlação de Pearson. O nível de significância Afiliação dos autores
adotado foi de p<0,05. Resultados: Não houve diferença estatística em função do tempo para todas as 1
Faculdade de Ciências Aplicadas,
medidas corporais e a altura do salto (p>0.05). Foi observada correlação (C1: r=0,75; C2: r=0,76; C3: Universidade de Campinas, Limeira,
r=0,75, p<0.01) entre a massa magra (kg) e a altura do salto (cm). Também, foi detectada correlação São Paulo, Brasil.
(C1: r= 0,92; C2: r=0,92; C3: r=0,93, p<0.001) entre a massa magra (%) e a altura do salto (cm). 2
Escola de Educação Física e
Conclusão: A massa magra apresentou correlação com a altura do salto em jogadores de voleibol Esporte, Universidade de São Paulo,
profissional. Os resultados sugerem que a massa magra deve ser monitorada ao longo da temporada São Paulo, São Paulo, Brasil.
3
competitiva, considerando sua relação com o desempenho de saltos. Escola de Artes, Ciências e
Humanidade da Universidade de
Palavras-chave: voleibol, perfil antropométrico, altura do salto, atletas, desempenho. São Paulo, São Paulo, São Paulo,
Brasil.
4
Faculdade de Educação Física,
Universidade Metodista de
Piracicaba, Piracicaba, São Paulo,
Brasil.
Abstract
Objectives: The present study aimed to describe the anthropometric profile of professional volleyball *Autor correspondente
players during the competitive season and to investigate the relationship between the anthropometric Universidade Estadual de Campinas,
profile and the jump height in these players. Methods: Body composition was assessed using a 7 Faculdade de Ciências Aplicadas ,
skinfolds protocol, with a calibrated caliper. Counter-Movement Jump Height was measured with a jump R. Pedro Zaccaria, 1300 - Jd. Santa
mat in 3 attempts, and the mean value was retained for analysis. The data collection was conducted in 3 Luiza, Limeira, SP, Brasil.
moments of the competitive season (C1, C2, C3). Also, one-way ANOVA was used followed by the e-mail:
Tukey post hoc. In addition, the Pearson correlation coefficient was determined. The level of statistical caroline.capitani@fca.unicamp.br
significance was at p<0,05. Results: There was no statistical difference (p<0,05) in body composition
and jump height during the competitive season. A strong correlation (C1: r=0,75; C2: r=0,76; C3: r=0,75, Conflito de interesses
p<0,01) between absolute free fat mass (kg) and jump height (cm). In addition, there was a strong
Os autores declararam não haver
correlation (C1: r= 0,92; C2: r=0,92; C3: r=0,93, p<0,001) between relative free fat mass (%) and jump conflito de interesses.
height (cm). Conclusion: Free fat mass was positively correlated with jump height (cm) in professional
volleyball players. The results suggest that free fat mass should be constantly monitored during the Processo de arbitragem
competitive season, considering its relationship with jump performance.
Recebido: 14/09/2017
Key-words: volleyball, anthropometric profile, jump height, athletes, performance. Aprovado: 19/04/2018

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Crivelin et al.
Introdução
O voleibol é um esporte complexo, que exige o
desenvolvimento de diversas capacidades e habilidades
motoras, por parte dos seus praticantes. As características
observadas nos jogadores são: o nível técnico, o perfil
antropométrico e capacidades físicas1 . Além disso, a
especificidade das diferentes posições impõe diferentes
demandas técnicas e fisiológicas2. Dentre as capacidades
físicas necessárias para o sucesso na partida de voleibol, a
altura do salto vertical é apontada como a característica mais
importante1,3. Em uma partida, estima-se que a média de saltos
realizados por atacantes fique em torno de 40 a 70 saltos 4,5,
variando em função do volume de jogo. Ainda, as habilidades de
ataque e bloqueio caracterizam aproximadamente 45% dos
movimentos totais dos jogadores e cerca de 80% dos pontos de
uma partida é dependente da realização do salto vertical 6. A
melhor performance do ataque e bloqueio está relacionada com
a altura na qual os atletas conseguem atingir, pois existe
correlação significante entre a altura do salto e as chances de
sucesso de um bloqueio ou ataque7.
A composição corporal também parece ser capaz de afetar o
desempenho dos atletas8. Atletas de alto nível possuem
constituição corpórea diferente da população não-atleta. Os
atletas de voleibol possuem maior quantidade de massa magra
e também menor quantidade de gordura corporal9, maior
estatura e membros mais compridos 10. Quanto à porcentagem
de gordura corporal, não existe padrão de referência para o
voleibol. Estudos prévios apresentam variação entre 11,2 % e
22,3 %7-9, 14, 15, 20-23, 27,30.
Entretanto, considerando a importância do desempenho de
saltos para a modalidade, a gordura corporal poderia influenciar
negativamente, impondo maior demanda energética e,
consequentemente, causando exaustão precoce. Por outro lado,
o aumento de massa magra poderia ser benéfico, pois contribui
para o aumento de força12. Stamm et al. em 200313 mostraram
que as medidas antropométricas possuem influência relevante
na performance de componentes técnicos e táticos, como o
ataque e bloqueio. Ao avaliar as características antropométricas
por posições, Mielgo-Ayuso et al. em 201514 observaram que os
líberos são os mais baixos e também os mais leves e que os
jogadores mais altos são os menos ágeis. Esses autores
também verificaram que a força dos membros superiores estava
positivamente relacionada ao perímetro das panturrilhas 14.
Além de ser considerado componente de aptidão física, o
perfil antropométrico também pode ser um indicador de risco
para lesões. Um estudo feito com jogadores de voleibol
masculino e feminino mostrou que patologias associadas com o
tendão patelar estão presentes em 41% dos jogadores 15. Altura
elevada, peso elevado e relação cintura/quadril acima do
recomendado estão relacionados com o aparecimento de lesões
no tendão patelar15. Atletas com circunferência do quadril maior
ou igual a 83cm possuem 2,5 vezes mais chances de
desenvolver uma patologia no tendão patelar15. Dados
antropométricos também estão relacionados com o nível de
treinamento dos atletas. Estudo comparativo entre times
nacionais, sub-19 e juniores, concluiu que os jogadores do time
nacional possuem altura maior e apresentam maior alcance
vertical em relação as duas outras divisões inferiores 12.
Diante do exposto, é razoável assumir que o
acompanhamento das medidas antropométricas é relevante em
modalidades como o voleibol, que dependem do desempenho
de saltos verticais para a realização das principais ações de
ataque e defesa. Dessa forma, o presente estudo teve como
objetivo descrever o comportamento dos parâmetros
antropométricos de jogadores profissionais de voleibol ao longo
do período competitivo e ainda de investigar a existência de
correlação entre o perfil antropométrico a altura do salto vertical
em jogadores profissionais de voleibol.
Métodos
A abordagem experimental utilizada no presente estudo é do
tipo transversal, observacional-descritiva, durante a primeira
fase da SuperLiga 2015/2016. A amostra é constituída por
atletas profissionais de voleibol, com idades entre 19 e 35 anos,
pertencentes a equipe vice-campeã da SuperLiga. Os dados
foram coletados durante o período de 2 meses (início; C1, 4 a
semana; C2 e 8 a semana; C3) referentes à primeira fase da
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‘ Altura do salto e antropometria 25
SuperLiga 2015/2016. O estudo teve início após aprovação do
Comitê de ética em Pesquisa EEFE-USP (CAAE:
02313512.5.0000.5391) e assinatura do Termo de
Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido (TCLE).
Análise Corporal
Foi realizado avaliação antropométrica individual com
balança e estadiômetro, previamente, calibrados para
determinação da massa corporal (kg) e altura (cm),
respectivamente (Sanny, Brasil). A massa corporal foi
mensurada para o 0,1 kg mais próximo e altura foi mensurada
para o 0,5 cm mais próximo. Aferiu-se as dobras cutâneas por
meio do protocolo de 7 dobras16 (peitoral, axilar, triciptal,
subescapular, abdominal, supra-ilíaca e coxa), utilizando o
adipômetro (Lange, EUA). Para estimar a Massa Magra (MM)
kg, Massa Magra Relativa (MMR) %, Massa Gorda (MG) kg e
Massa Gorda Relativa (MGR) %, foi utilizada a equação bi-
compartimental29, separando a composição corporal em MM e
MG. O cálculo da estimativa de porcentagem corporal de
gordura foi realizado por meio da equação: “Densidade Corporal
(DC) = 1,11200000 - [0,00043499 (Somatória das Dobras) +
0,00000055 (SD)²] - [0,0002882 (idade)]”16 e após o resultado,
DC é inserido em outra equação: “%Gordura corporal =
[(4,95/DC) - 4,50] x100”29, sendo o valor final a porcentagem de
gordura corporal do indivíduo. Foi realizado 3 medidas
consecutivas para cada local, sendo a média retida para
posterior análise. Durante o período de 2 meses, as coletas dos
dados antropométricos foram realizadas 3 vezes, início (C1), 4 a
semana (C2) e 8 a semana (C3) da temporada competitiva.
Análise do Impulso Vertical
A avaliação da capacidade de impulsão vertical (altura do
salto) foi realizada por meio do tapete de contato (CEFISE,
Brasil), a partir da média de 3 repetições de saltos consecutivos,
separados pelo intervalo de 5 minutos entre cada tentativa. A
aplicação desse teste foi feita no início das sessões de
treinamento, após o aquecimento, para que os atletas estivem
em um estado ótimo de condição física. As coletas do salto
vertical foram realizadas juntamente com análise
antropométrica, ao longo de 2 meses, divididos em 3 encontros
com a equipe. O padrão de movimentos utilizados nos testes de
salto vertical foi realizado com contramovimento (SCM) e
também com a utilização dos braços no auxílio do impulso17.
Análise Estatística
Os dados foram expressos em média ± desvio padrão. A
normalidade dos dados foi confirmada pelo teste de Shapiro-
Wilk e para verificar se houve mudanças corporais em função do
tempo, o método de análise ANOVA one-way e post hoc com
teste de Tukey foi utilizado. Para investigar a correlação entre os
dados antropométricos com as alturas atingidas na impulsão
vertical, foi realizado o coeficiente de correlação de Pearson,
com significância estabelecida em p<0,05. As análises foram
conduzidas com o auxílio do software Office Excel 2013 e
GraphPad 6.01.
Resultados
Na tabela 1 estão apresentados os valores obtidos pela
análise antropométrica e também os valores da altura do salto
sobre o tapete de contato, durante as 3 coletas. Não houve
diferença estatística em função do tempo para todas as medidas
corporais e também para a altura do salto (p<0,05). Em geral, os
parâmetros de composição corporal avaliados não oscilaram
durante os 2 meses de coleta.
Os dados referentes à correlação entre as medidas
antropométricas e as altura dos saltos estão apresentados na
Tabela 2. Foi observada correlação significante (r=0.717 ;
p<0,01) entre o peso (kg) dos atletas e a altura do salto.
Também foi detectada correlação significante (C1: r=0,759; C2:
r=0,762; C3: r=0,755, p<0.01) entre a MM (kg) nas 3 coletas
(C1, C2 e C3). Outro resultado encontrado foi a correlação
significante (C1: r=0,928; C2: r=0,928; C3: r=0,931, p<0.001)
entre a MMR (%) e a altura dos saltos em todas as coletas (C1,
C2 e C3).
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Crivelin et al.
Tabela 1
Parâmetros antropométricos ao longo de 2 meses (n=13). Valores
apresentados em média ± DP.
1a Coleta 2a Coleta
Peso (kg) 90,6 ± 11,2 90,1 ± 11,0
Massa Magra (kg) 81,6 ± 10,9 81,6 ± 11,0
Massa Gorda (kg) 9,1 ± 4,4 8,5 ± 4,2
Massa Magra Relativa (%) 90,0 ± 4,8 90,6 ± 4,8
Massa Gorda Relativa (%) 10,0 ± 4,8 9,4 ± 4,8
Altura do salto (cm) 54,4 ± 7,0 57,1 ± 7,6
Tabela 2
Correlação entre os parâmetros antropométricos e a altura do salto.
Valores apresentados em média ± DP.
Altura do salto (cm)
1ª Coleta 2ª Coleta
Peso (kg) 0,717** 0,724**
Massa Magra (kg) 0,759** 0,762***
Massa Gorda (kg) -0,062 -0,062
Massa Magra Relativa (%) 0,928*** 0,928***
Massa Gorda Relativa (%) -0,041 -0,041
**p<0,001; ***p<0,0001
Em relação a esses dados, a quantidade de MG (kg) e a de
MGR (%) não apresentaram correlação com a altura dos saltos,
demonstrando que, para esses atletas, a quantidade de gordura
não se relaciona com a altura do salto.
Discussão
O presente estudo teve como objetivo descrever o
comportamento dos parâmetros antropométricos de jogadores
profissionais de voleibol ao longo do período competitivo e ainda
de investigar a existência da correlação entre o perfil
antropométrico e a altura do salto vertical em jogadores
profissionais de voleibol.
Os principais resultados foram: 1) a não alteração dos
parâmetros de composição corporal investigados em função do
tempo (Peso total (kg), MM, MG, MMR, MGR) e altura do salto
vertical (cm), 2) foi detectada correlação significante (p<0,01)
entre a MM para a altura do salto vertical (cm) em todas as
coletas e 3) foi observada correlação significante (p<0,001) entre
a MMR e a altura do salto (cm) nos 3 momentos, C1, C2 e C3.
Como dito anteriormente, não foi possível observar alteração
significante na composição corporal e na altura do salto dos
jogadores ao longo do tempo (C1, C2 e C3). Esses resultados
podem ser explicados pelo período relativamente curto (2
meses) de observação desses parâmetros. Em trabalhos
anteriores que demonstraram mudanças corporais significantes
ao longo da temporada, foi utilizado períodos entre 4 meses e 2
anos3,8,21. Ainda, por se tratar de uma população altamente
treinada, as respostas aos estímulos de treinamento desses
indivíduos são menores, necessitando de uma combinação de
estímulos diferenciados por longos períodos para que alguma
adaptação seja perceptível. Uma observação interessante é que
a manutenção desses parâmetros nos indica que os atletas não
estão em déficit calórico em período competitivo, o que poderia
ser negativo para o desempenho.
Além da composição corporal dos atletas, a altura do salto é
determinante para atingir um resultado satisfatório nas partidas,
sendo essa a característica mais importante para um jogador de
voleibol1,3. O presente estudo encontrou resultados de C1: 54,4
± 7,0 cm; C2: 57,1 ± 7,6 cm; C3: 51 ± 5,0 cm para a altura dos
saltos, obtendo a média entre os 3 períodos de 54,1 ± 6,8 cm,
não separando os atletas por tamanho ou posição. Estudos
anteriores encontraram resultados semelhantes em relação à
impulsão vertical. Aouadi et al. em 201223 encontrou valores de
50,0 ± 3,9 para o SCM com o balanço do braço. Sattler et al. em
201525 identificou uma altura no SCM de 49,1 ± 5,6 cm para
jogadores profissionais. Jogadores da liga regional italiana
tiveram uma média de 47,9 ± 5,7 cm26, jogadores da liga
nacional belga obtiveram resultados bem semelhantes
encontrados no presente estudo, 56,5 ± 4,6 cm para atletas da
primeira divisão e de 51,2 ± 2,3 cm para atletas da segunda
divisão27. Estudos realizados com a seleção espanhola de
voleibol observou valores de 56,5 ± 3,5 cm para o time de 2006,
56,8 ± 6,4 cm para o time de 2007 e de 59,8 ± 5,1 cm para o
time de 200828. Esses valores comprovam que, apesar da
regionalidade dos jogadores, as alturas dos saltos são similares
quando comparados em mesmo nível de treinamento. Portanto,
por meio da compreensão das características corporais e da
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‘ Altura do salto e antropometria 26
altura do salto, foi levantada a hipótese de que existiria relação
entre esses parâmetros, pois os saltos verticais são ações de
jogo dependentes da condição atual do atleta, portanto,
3a Coleta investigar a existência dessa relação é fundamental para o
91,0 ± 11,6 processo de preparação de atletas de voleibol.
81,9 ± 11,2 Foi possível observar forte correlação entre o peso total dos
9,1 ± 4,1 atletas e a altura do salto. Os valores de R encontrados para os
90,0 ± 4,4
10,0 ± 4,4 três momentos no estudo foram de 0,717, 0,724, 0,758,
51,8 ± 5,0 respectivamente. No entanto, os mesmos resultados não foram
encontrados em estudos anteriores, nos quais não foi observada
relação entre esses parâmetros (r=0,08714 e r=0,17023). O
primeiro estudo14 foi realizado com atletas profissionais do sexo
feminino, que apresentaram média da altura de salto vertical
menor do que a do presente estudo. Ainda, o peso total dessas
3ª Coleta atletas apresentou grande variação, sendo a atleta com o menor
0,758** peso de 52,6 kg e com maior peso de 79,1 kg. A mensuração da
0,755** composição corporal foi realizada por um método diferente do
0,204
0,931***
aplicado no presente estudo, logo a comparação entre os
0,238 resultados requer cautela. Porém, nesse mesmo estudo, a força
gerada durante o salto vertical demonstrou forte correlação com
o peso total (r=0,746). No segundo estudo, a correlação entre o
peso total e a altura atingida durante o salto foi de r=0,17023.
Nesse estudo participaram atletas profissionais com média de
peso total menor do que a encontrada no presente estudo, mas
com valores de salto vertical próximos. A diferença dos
resultados pode ser devido à grande heterogeneidade das
amostras utilizadas nesses estudos14, 23, enquanto que o atual
trabalho utilizou uma população mais homogênea. Além disso,
os resultados do presente estudo levam em consideração que
os atletas mais pesados conseguem saltar mais, e isso porque
esses atletas provavelmente são mais pesados (e
provavelmente possuem mais MM), são mais altos e
provavelmente possuem membros inferiores mais longos. Já foi
demonstrado que o tamanho dos membros inferiores está
correlacionado (r=0,69) com a melhor performance do salto7.
Existe ainda, a contribuição da massa muscular em produzir
trabalho dentro da divisão do peso total. É possível que a
correlação do peso total atinja um determinado limite, um platô,
visto que a quantidade de MG e MGR possuem correlações
desprezíveis e em alguns momentos até negativa de acordo
com resultados do presente estudo. Os dados reforçam a ideia
de que o peso total tem uma importante parcela na contribuição
da altura atingida, visto que o peso total foi semelhante em três
momentos distintos.
Em relação aos resultados da MM e MMR, a média desses
parâmetros entre C1, C2 e C3 é de 81,2 ± 10,4 (kg) e de 90,2 ±
4,5 (%) respectivamente. Esse resultado vai de encontro com
resultado anterior que analisou indivíduos de times nacionais:
77,9 ± 7,1 (kg)20. Para os valores de MMR, resultado semelhante
foi encontrado: 87,7 ± 1,924. A maioria dos estudos destacam os
resultados antropométricos do peso total (kg) e da gordura
corporal (%), não especificando os valores relacionados a MM e
MMR, o que dificulta as comparações. Ademais, esses dados
apresentados corroboram os resultados do presente estudo.
Para as correlações realizadas com a MM, os valores
encontrados foram de r= 0,759; 0,762; 0,755, indicando forte
correlação entre a quantidade de MM e altura do salto vertical.
Ainda mais surpreendente, foram os resultados encontrados
entre a MMR e a altura do salto vertical (r= 0,928; 0,928; 0,931),
apresentando correlações muito forte entre esses parâmetros.
Como elucidado por outros estudos 9,19, os atletas de voleibol
possuem maior quantidade de MM e MMR e também menores
quantidades de MG e MGR quando comparados com
populações que não praticam atividade física10. Ainda, as
correlações podem ser justificadas pelo fato de salto vertical ser
de natureza explosiva, o que necessita de elevada potência
muscular12.
Em relação a MG dos atletas, especificamente no voleibol,
por se tratar de um esporte com uma alta quantidade de saltos,
a gordura corporal pode influenciar negativamente exigindo
maior demanda energética e uma exaustão precoce. A
correlação entre a quantidade de MG (r= -0,062; -0,062; 0,204) e
a MGR (r= -0,041; -0,041; 0,238) nos atletas não foi significante,
ou seja, para a população de jogadores profissionais em
específico, não existe influência da porcentagem de gordura
com a altura do salto, não sendo esse um bom parâmetro para
predizer performance nesses atletas. Esse resultado deve ser
interpretado com cautela, pois a população do presente trabalho
tem baixíssima quantidade de gordura. Esses dados corroboram
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Crivelin et al.
com as atuais recomendações do American College of Sports
Medicine, onde não limitam a porcentagem de gordura corporal
para os atletas de voleibol11.
Contudo, o estudo apresenta algumas limitações. A
metodologia utilizada para mensuração da composição corporal
é dependente da experiência e técnica utilizada pelo profissional
com o adipômetro. Outro ponto que merece destaque é o
reduzido tamanho da amostra.
Conclusão
A composição corporal é capaz de influenciar a altura do
salto vertical de jogadores de voleibol. O peso total (kg) e a
quantidade de MM (kg) são fatores que influenciam na altura
atingida no salto vertical. Mais especificamente, a quantidade
relativa de MM (%) apresentou ótima relação com a altura do
salto vertical. Esses dados revelam a importância de monitorar a
composição corporal dos atletas, pois esta possui impacto direto
na performance de saltos, que é crucial para a execução de
outras ações de ataque e defesa determinantes para o resultado
do jogo.
Agradecimentos
Os autores agradecem a Comissão Técnica, em especial ao
Prof. Alexandre Stanzioni, pelo apoio para realização dessa
investigação.
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Sports Med
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0862-z

REVIEW ARTICLE

The Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations

Timothy J. Suchomel1 • Sophia Nimphius2 • Christopher R. Bellon3 •

Michael H. Stone4

Ó Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

Abstract This review covers underlying physiological
characteristics and training considerations that may affect
muscular strength including improving maximal force
expression and time-limited force expression. Strength is
underpinned by a combination of morphological and
neural factors including muscle cross-sectional area and
architecture, musculotendinous stiffness, motor unit
recruitment, rate coding, motor unit synchronization, and
neuromuscular inhibition. Although single- and multi-
targeted block periodization models may produce the
greatest strength-power benefits, concepts within each
model must be considered within the limitations of the
sport, athletes, and schedules. Bilateral training, eccentric
training and accentuated eccentric loading, and variable
resistance training may produce the greatest comprehen-
sive strength adaptations. Bodyweight exercise, isolation
& Timothy J. Suchomel
timothy.suchomel@gmail.com
1
Department of Human Movement Sciences, Carroll
University, Waukesha, WI 53186, USA
2
Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, Edith
Cowan University, Joondalup, Australia
3
Department of Exercise Science, LaGrange College,
LaGrange, GA 30240, USA
4
Department of Exercise and Sport Sciences, Center of
Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East
Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614, USA
exercises, plyometric exercise, unilateral exercise, and
kettlebell training may be limited in their potential to
improve maximal strength but are still relevant to strength
development by challenging time-limited force expression
and differentially challenging motor demands. Training to
failure may not be necessary to improve maximum
muscular strength and is likely not necessary for maxi-
mum gains in strength. Indeed, programming that com-
bines heavy and light loads may improve strength and
underpin other strength-power characteristics. Multiple
sets appear to produce superior training benefits compared
to single sets; however, an athlete’s training status and the
dose–response relationship must be considered. While 2-
to 5-min interset rest intervals may produce the greatest
strength-power benefits, rest interval length may vary
based an athlete’s training age, fiber type, and genetics.
Weaker athletes should focus on developing strength
before emphasizing power-type training. Stronger athletes
may begin to emphasize power-type training while
maintaining/improving their strength. Future research
should investigate how best to implement accentuated
eccentric loading and variable resistance training and
examine how initial strength affects an athlete’s ability to
improve their performance following various training
methods.

123
 T. J. Suchomel et al.

2 Literature Search Methodology

Key Points
Muscular strength development is underpinned by a
combination of morphological and neural factors
including muscle cross-sectional area and
architecture, musculotendinous stiffness, motor unit
recruitment, rate coding, motor unit synchronization,
and neuromuscular inhibition.
Bilateral training, eccentric and accentuated
eccentric training, and variable resistance appear to
offer some advantages in producing the greatest
comprehensive strength adaptations. Bodyweight
exercise, isolation exercises, plyometrics, unilateral
exercise, and kettlebell training may be limited in
their potential to improve maximal strength but are
still relevant to strength development by challenging
time-limited force expression and differentially
challenging motor demands.
Weaker athletes should focus on developing a
foundation of strength before emphasizing power-
type training; however, stronger athletes may begin
to emphasize power-type training while maintaining
or improving their strength levels.
Original and review journal articles were retrieved from
electronic searches of PubMed and Medline (EBSCO)
databases. Additional searches of Google Scholar and rel-
evant bibliographic hand searches with no limits of lan-
guage or year of publication were also completed. The
search strategy included the search terms ‘periodization’,
‘muscular strength’, ‘hypertrophy’, ‘cross-sectional area’,
‘bodyweight training’, ‘machine resistance training’,
‘weightlifting’, ‘weightlifting derivatives’, ‘plyometric
training’, ‘eccentric training’, ‘postactivation potentiation’,
‘unilateral resistance training’, ‘variable resistance train-
ing’, ‘kettlebell training’, ‘training to failure’, ‘training
status’, ‘rest interval’, ‘inter-repetition rest interval’, and
‘cluster sets’. The search concluded in July 2017.
Muscular strength may be expressed in several different
forms including maximal dynamic strength, isometric
strength, and reactive strength [1]. This review primarily
focuses on improving maximal dynamic strength. How-
ever, it should be noted that by improving maximal
dynamic strength, an athlete may also enhance maximal
isometric strength [4, 5] and reactive strength characteris-
tics [6–8]. A number of RT methods are discussed in this
article and those discussed were found to be the most
prevalent within the existing literature.

3 Physiological Factors Affecting Muscular

Strength
1 Introduction
Muscular strength development is underpinned by a com-
A recent review highlighted the importance of muscular
bination of several morphological and neural factors.
strength with regard to general and specific sport skills and
However, the mechanisms that improve muscular strength
their underpinning force characteristics, in addition to
are considered multifactorial and can be influenced by
reducing injury rates [1]. Given the relationship that
other confounders such as initial strength [9], training
strength (i.e., the ability to produce force against an
status [10], and genetics [11]. The following provides a
external resistance [2, 3]) has with a variety of attributes,
brief overview of the morphological and neural factors that
information regarding how to improve strength and the
may combine to affect muscular strength. Understanding
underpinning physiological factors that affect muscular
these factors before discussing training considerations sets
strength appears vital. If practitioners seek to improve their
the context for the variety of responses in each of these
athletes’ strength, they must first understand what physio-
underpinning factors that culminate to elicit muscular
logical changes have occurred or may occur in order to
strength improvements. Although a thorough discussion is
effectively prescribe resistance training (RT) progressions.
beyond the scope of this review, it should be noted that an
With a variety of training methods to choose from, it is
athlete’s history of muscle contraction (e.g., fatigue, post-
important that practitioners consider the literature that is
activation, temperature, etc.) may influence the expression
available in order to make informed programming deci-
of muscular strength [12, 13].
sions to produce the best programs relative to the indi-
vidual characteristics and needs of their athletes. The
3.1 Muscle Hypertrophy and Architecture
purpose of this review is to identify underlying physio-
logical factors and other training considerations (i.e.,
Evidence indicates that residual effects from previous
methods, loading strategies, set configurations, and training
training phases carry-over into future training phases
status) that may affect muscular strength development.

123
The Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations
[14, 15]. Therefore, increasing hypertrophy in an effort to
subsequently improve one’s strength has to do with
potentiation and residual training effects [16–18]. Thus, it
appears that there is a sequence or progression of training
that, when followed, elicits the greatest benefits from RT.
Specifically, evidence suggests that an order of first
increasing the muscle’s cross-sectional area (CSA) (i.e.,
hypertrophy) and work capacity (i.e., force production
capacity) [17–19], followed by a subsequent phasic pro-
gression [20, 21], can produce superior strength-power
gains. Alterations in skeletal muscle hypertrophy can
greatly impact a muscle’s ability to produce force and
power. Simple observation offers some evidence as to the
importance of larger CSAs in creating greater absolute
force production; indeed, sports with body weight classes,
such as powerlifting and weightlifting, support this obser-
vation. The rationale behind this is that a greater muscle
fiber CSA, particularly type II fibers, may alter the force–
velocity characteristics of the whole muscle [16, 22]. Pre-
vious research indicated that strong relationships
(r = 0.70) existed between muscle CSA and greater force
production [23]. Further literature suggested that muscle
CSA increases and muscle architecture alterations may
account for approximately 50–60% of the changes in force
production following short-term RT [24], albeit with rela-
tively untrained subjects. Physiologically, muscle CSA
increases may improve force production due to an increase
in the number of cross-bridge interactions between actin
and myosin within the previously- and newly-formed sar-
comeres. Kawakami et al. [25] indicated that muscle fiber
pennation angles are greater in hypertrophied muscles than
in normal muscles. Larger pennation angles may increase
the number of cross-bridge interactions due to the packing
of more muscle fascicles within the area. Despite some
evidence to support the association between muscle
hypertrophy and strength, it should be noted that changes in
muscle size and strength can vary between individuals.
Such variance between muscle hypertrophy and subsequent
strength changes could be due to time-course differences
between the measured adaptation, subsequent expression
during the strength task, methodological issues associated
with the determination of hypertrophy (e.g., physiological
CSA vs. anatomical CSA; magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA)
measurements vs. girth measurements, etc.), or that
enhanced strength can be affected by other physiological or
neural factors beyond CSA [9]. In summary, increases in
muscle CSA set a platform that combines with concomitant
or subsequent changes in muscle architecture, fiber type,
and other neural factors such as motor unit (MU) recruit-
ment and muscle activation pattern to enhance the ability to
increase maximum strength [17, 18, 26]. While a number
of factors (e.g., muscle damage, metabolic alterations,
tension, etc.) may affect the hypertrophic response, a
thorough discussion of training methods is beyond the
scope of this review. For further information, readers are
directed to a series of recent systematic reviews and meta-
analyses that discuss best training practices for improving
muscle hypertrophy [27–31].
3.2 Musculotendinous Stiffness
Inherent to force production, and the subsequent force
expression as a measure of strength, is the concept of our
tissues expressing spring-like behavior which influences
subsequent muscle performance [32]. Indeed, increased
tissue stiffness (i.e., the relationship between a given force
and the amount of stretch the tissue undergoes [33]) can
enhance force transmission. Therefore, tendon stiffness
adaptations [34], as well as the structures within the muscle
(e.g., actin, myosin, titin, and connective tissue), can
influence muscular strength and associated characteristics
such as rate of force development (RFD) [35, 36] and
power [34, 37]. However, a commonly overlooked aspect
of skeletal muscle force generation and expression of
strength using the aforementioned measures is the role of
the large protein or viscoelastic spring within the sarcom-
ere, titin [38]. Titin could be responsible for generating
passive tension in the sarcomere [39], which may be why
recent evidence has suggested greater importance of the
role of titin in muscle function [35, 39–41]. However, it
should be noted that increased sarcoplasmic calcium may
actively increase the stiffness of titin, contributing to the
stiffness of the entire sarcomere [40]. Therefore, changes in
muscular strength and force transmission may be partially
influenced by changes in tissue stiffness within and sur-
rounding the muscle.
3.3 Motor Unit Recruitment
Henneman et al. [42] indicated that MUs are recruited in a
sequenced manner based on their size (smallest to largest).
Thus, a pool of MUs will be recruited based on the mag-
nitude of force and RFD required during a given task. For
example, smaller MUs that include slow-twitch type I
fibers will be recruited when smaller force magnitudes and
RFD are required, while larger MUs that include fast-
twitch type IIa/IIx fibers may only be recruited if higher
forces and RFD are required. The recruitment order may be
maintained during slow, graded, isometric [43], and bal-
listic actions [44, 45]. Although lower thresholds for MU
recruitment may occur during ballistic-type movements
due to the required RFD, the size principle appears to hold
[36, 46].
The type and intent of the activity may directly affect
which MUs are recruited and how they adapt [46–49]. For
123

example, distance runners may only recruit low-threshold,
slow-fatiguing MUs that contain type I fibers given the
moderate forces that are required repeatedly during a race.
Due to the nature of the task, high-threshold MUs that
contain type II fibers may only be recruited when MUs that
contain type I fibers fatigue and additional force production
is needed to sustain the activity. Thus, while type I MUs
may increase force production capability, the maximal
strength expressed when using a combination of all MU
types may still be relatively low in distance runners
because of infrequent recruitment of MUs that contain type
II fibers during training. In contrast, weightlifters fre-
quently perform ballistic tasks (e.g., snatch, clean and jerk,
etc.) that require both high force and RFD magnitudes, and
thus MUs that contain type II fibers are targeted. Based on
the recruitment order and lower recruitment thresholds,
weightlifters likely recruit MUs that contain both type I and
type II fibers, allowing both MU types to be trained. Pre-
vious research demonstrated that while the orderly
recruitment of MUs existed during both slow ramp and
ballistic actions following ballistic-type training, MUs
were recruited at lower force thresholds [46]. Regarding
strength development, it appears to be beneficial to recruit
high-threshold MUs during training. Moreover, ballistic
training methods may promote the recruitment of larger
MUs that contain type II fibers at lower thresholds, thus
raising the potential for positive strength-power adapta-
tions to occur.
3.4 Rate Coding (Firing Frequency)
After specific MUs are recruited, the frequency at which
the a-motoneurons discharge action potentials to the MU’s
muscle fibers can modify its force production properties.
Research indicated that force magnitude may increase
300–1500% when the firing frequency of recruited MUs
increases from its minimum to its maximum [50]. Addi-
tional research indicated that RFD may be impacted by the
firing frequency of MUs due to high initial firing fre-
quencies being linked to increased doublet discharges (i.e.,
two consecutive MU discharges in B 5-ms interval) [46].
Thus, it may be postulated that the increased firing fre-
quency of MUs that results in greater force magnitudes and
RFD may aid strength-power development. Previous
research indicated that 12 weeks of ballistic training may
enhance MU firing frequency [46]. Thus, it is possible that
other ballistic training methods, such as weightlifting
movements [51] and sprinting [52], may enhance MU fir-
ing frequency, ultimately benefitting strength-power
characteristics.
123
T. J. Suchomel et al.
3.5 Motor Unit Synchronization
While some literature indicates that MU synchronization
may be more related to RFD than to force production
magnitude [53], it is possible that simultaneous activation
of C 2 MUs enhances peak force production by expressing
greater RFD over short time periods. Previous research
indicated that 6 weeks of RT increased MU synchroniza-
tion [54], while another study indicated that MU synchro-
nization strength was larger in both the dominant and non-
dominant hands of weightlifters compared to musicians
and untrained individuals [55]. These findings are sup-
ported by research that suggested heavy RT may increase
MU synchronization and force production [56]. While
evidence strongly indicates that changes in muscular
strength coincide with traditional RT, literature discussing
MU synchronization changes following ballistic-type
training is somewhat mixed. One study noted that MU
synchronization did not change following ballistic-type
training [46], while other studies indicated that MU syn-
chronization was enhanced during ballistic tasks [46, 57].
Practically speaking, it appears that training strategies that
include heavy RT and/or ballistic-type movements may
improve MU synchronization. Although research examin-
ing changes in MU synchronization within RT literature
associated with gross motor movements is limited, the link
between improved neuromuscular activation patterns and
subsequent force production cannot be discounted.
3.6 Neuromuscular Inhibition
Neuromuscular inhibition refers to a reduction in the neural
drive of a given muscle group during voluntary muscle
actions that may negatively affect force production due to
the neural feedback received from muscle and joint
receptors [58]. While the previous neural mechanisms may
produce positive strength-power adaptations, a neural
mechanism that negatively affects strength-power devel-
opment may affect potential training adaptations. Previous
research indicated that heavy RT may down-regulate Ib
afferent feedback to the spinal motoneuron pool, leading to
reductions in neuromuscular inhibition and increased force
production [56]. Further research reported an enhanced
neural drive from both the spinal and supraspinal levels
following RT that simultaneously decreased neuromuscular
inhibition [59], increased power output via reciprocal
inhibition during complex training [60], downregulated
recurrent inhibition following explosive-type training [61],
and enhanced RFD [62].
The Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations
4 Periodization and Programming
There are many methods of programming that exist within
the strength and conditioning field. While basic peri-
odization and programming tactics to enhance muscular
strength are covered in this section, additional literature
provides more thorough discussions [19, 20, 63, 64].
Specifically, this section will discuss the annual plan (AP),
differences between periodization and programming, and
provide a brief introduction to block periodization (BP) and
phase potentiation.
4.1 The Annual Plan and Periodization
Despite the importance of periodization, planning for ath-
letic success begins with the construction of an AP. The AP
includes all training, competition, and athlete-monitoring
endeavors scheduled to take place over the entire training
year [63]. Periodization is the logical, phasic method of
manipulating training variables in order to increase the
potential for achieving specific performance goals [65].
Thus, periodization is the concept used to organize the AP
into fitness phases and timelines. Regarding maximal
strength improvement, periodized training has been shown
to produce greater benefits compared to non-periodized
training [66].
Generally, periodization consolidates the AP into
preparatory, competitive, and transition phases (Fig. 1),
which are used to induce physiological adaptations in a
manner that maximizes specific performance qualities at
desired time-points of the competitive season [20]. These
phases are performed over designated timelines (e.g.,
macrocycles, mesocycles, and microcycles), which are used
to define the length of time invested in developing or
emphasizing certain performance qualities. Similarly, vari-
ous programming strategies can be used to emphasize
desired fitness characteristics and effectively manage neu-
romuscular fatigue [63]. It is important to note that although
Fig. 1 Single-targeted block
periodization and phase
potentiation model implemented
over an annual plan for strength-
power enhancement. RFD rate
of force development
the concept of periodization and practical programming
aspects can appear to be similar, they are separate entities
that play different roles in the training process. While peri-
odization relates to the organization and timing of fitness
adaptations, programming tactics ‘‘drive’’ the appropriate
adaptation during training phases in order to achieve the
desired fitness characteristic. Programming includes exer-
cise selection, sets and repetitions, rest periods, and load
selection. Indeed, programming strategies may differ
markedly (e.g., daily-undulating vs. block) [63, 65].
While a recent review indicated that BP may produce
superior training outcomes [63], a variety of programming
methods that exist that may benefit the strength-power
characteristics of individual and team-sport athletes
[67–69]. The model of programming may not have a pro-
found effect on the improvement of muscular strength in
previously untrained athletes; however, it should be noted
that each model may produce different strength-power
outcomes on athletes with a greater training age. Further, in
sports with consistent, year-long competition schedules
(e.g., tennis, golf, etc.) or ‘‘non-traditional sports’’ (e.g.,
surfing, skateboarding, etc.), a realistic sport schedule
requires considerable modification of the more formal
training phases described in the previous paragraph.
However, practitioners must recall that the role of maximal
strength extends beyond the ability to produce maximal
force. Instead, strength should be perceived as a ‘‘vehicle’’
driving the enhancement of several key performance vari-
ables, particularly RFD and power [1]. Because the time-
frame needed to express maximal strength (e.g., C 300 ms)
often exceeds those inherent to most sport skills (e.g.,
sprinting, jumping, change-of-direction, etc.), the ability to
express high RFD and power is often viewed as the most
central quality to sport success [70–72]. Therefore, peri-
odization and programming strategies should not only be
viewed through the lens of developing maximal strength,
but also RFD and power. There is sufficient evidence to
suggest that these goals are effectively attained through the
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 T. J. Suchomel et al.

use of sequenced training (i.e., BP and phase potentiation) Table 2 The theoretical potential of resistance training methods to
(Fig. 1) [15, 26, 63–65, 73]. Thus, the periodization and benefit hypertrophy, strength, and power
programming tactics covered in this review will be dis- Resistance training method Hypertrophy Strength Power
cussed within the context of the BP paradigm, but the
Bodyweight exercise ? ? ??
concepts should be considered within the limitations of the
sport, athletes, and schedules. Machine-based exercise ?? ?? ??
Weightlifting derivatives ??? ??? ?????
4.2 Block Periodization Plyometrics ? ?? ????
Eccentric training ????? ????? ????
a
BP differs from other paradigms with respect to how fitness Potentiation complexes ??? ?????
characteristics are matured throughout the training process Unilateral exercise ??? ?? ???
[63–65, 74]. For example, other periodization models (e.g., Bilateral exercise ???? ???? ???
classic model) aim to simultaneously develop several fit- Variable resistance ????? ???? ????
ness qualities throughout the training process [65, 75]. Kettlebell training ?? ?? ???
While the limitations of the classic model are beyond the Ballistic training ?? ??? ?????
scope of this paper, previous literature suggested that this Resistance training methods ranked on scale from ?, meaning low
concept does not address contemporary issues in athletics, potential and ?????, meaning high potential
such as effective management of neuromuscular fatigue Assigned exercises, volume-load prescription, and an athlete’s rela-
and fostering multiple peak performances during the tive strength may influence adaptations
a
competitive season [75]. Due to these modern issues, and Limited research available
depending upon the sport, BP can take two forms: single-
or multi-targeted BP [74]. Table 1 provides an overview of may be implemented concurrently or during specific times
single- and multi-targeted BP. of the training year to elicit the desired physiological
adaptations. It should be noted that the areas of weakness
that an athlete displays may be addressed by implementing
5 Resistance Training Methods one or several of the methods discussed in this sec-
tion. Although dependent on the individualized needs of
This section outlines a number of the most commonly each athlete, Table 2 indicates, in relative terms, how
implemented RT methods that may be used to develop an beneficial each training method may be in terms of
athlete’s strength-power characteristics. Each of following increasing muscle hypertrophy, strength, and power.

Table 1 Description of single- and multi-targeted block periodization training models

Purpose(s) Rationale Loading strategies Additional benefits

Single- Aims to develop a single fitness Useful in sports where Concentrated loads Superior delayed
targeted characteristic while relatively few tasks are Higher volume of compatible training effects
block maintaining previously developed, especially those factors following period
periodization developed characteristics developed simultaneously of restitution
Minimal volume of non-compatible
Example: track and field factors Phase potentiation
effects
Summated microcycles
Retaining loads
Multi-targeted Aims to develop multiple Useful in sports in which Emphasis on training compatible
block fitness characteristics different factors must be fitness characteristics (e.g.,
periodization simultaneously developed simultaneously strength-power, speed, and
Examples: basketball, soccer, change-of direction ability)
hockey, etc. Incompatible stimuli avoided during
training (e.g., speed and aerobic
endurance training)
Concentrated loads: unidirectional loading that fosters specific adaptations (e.g., hypertrophy) that underpin a desired fitness quality (e.g.,
maximal strength) [47]
Phase potentiation: enhancement of subsequent training phases through the exploitation of delayed training effects that are the product of
sequenced concentrated loading [18, 20, 45–47]
Retaining loads: minimal load doses needed to maintain specific fitness characteristics [46]
Summated microcycles: consecutive microcycles that display a similar pattern of volume and loading intensity [46]

123
The Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations
5.1 Bodyweight Exercise
Bodyweight exercises are basic RT exercises that may be
used as training tools or as part of a progression to more
complex or loaded movements. Common exercises include
bodyweight squats, push-ups, pull-ups, and sit-ups. While
bodyweight exercises have several advantages (e.g.,
closed-chain exercises, target multiple muscle groups,
improve relative strength, accessibility, and versatility), the
ability to provide an overload stimulus is limited, which
may prevent significant improvements in maximum
strength and related characteristics [76]. To continue
overloading bodyweight exercises, practitioners often pre-
scribe more repetitions or alter the movement (e.g., incline
or elevated-feet push-ups). However, it should be noted
that maximal strength adaptations may be compromised if
practitioners continue to increase the repetition volume as
this may develop endurance-type characteristics. In some
cases, such as with young children, novices, or athletes
returning to play, implementing bodyweight exercises to
improve basic strength and movement characteristics could
be considered before progressing to other training methods
that may provide a greater overload stimulus. Furthermore,
bodyweight or reduced-bodyweight activities may have
implications for increasing explosive performance when
training the low-load, high-velocity end of the force–ve-
locity spectrum [77, 78]. Further detail will be included on
this concept in Sect. 5.4.
5.2 Continuum of Isolated Machine-based to Multi-
joint Free-weight Exercises
Machine-based exercises or free-weight isolation exercises
are often used during injury rehabilitation for targeted tis-
sue capacity development. However, using single-joint,
machine-based exercises for enhancing strength-power
characteristics that transfer to sport performance may be
questioned given that athletic movements rarely include
muscle groups working in an isolated manner [79, 80]. As a
result, task specificity and the resulting transfer from iso-
lation exercises to athletic performance is limited [80–83].
However, exercises that incorporate multiple muscle
groups may provide a superior training alternative for
developing strength-power characteristics [80, 84–86]. The
isolation of a single-joint that is typically performed during
machine-based exercises may improve an athlete’s
strength, but may fail to improve coordinative capacity to
improve subsequent sporting performance due to a lack of
transfer of coordinative patterns [80]. For example,
throwing velocity, a direct measure of performance in
softball, was only significantly improved after 12 weeks of
closed-kinetic chain exercises (3.4%, p\0.05) in com-
parison to open-kinetic chain exercises (0.5%, p value not
specified) [87]. Further literature indicated that free-weight
exercises may recruit muscle stabilizers to a greater extent
compared with machine-based exercises [80, 88]. Collec-
tively, it appears that free-weight, multi-joint exercises
require greater coordination and muscle recruitment
demands that may produce greater strength-power adapta-
tions which transfer to sport performance. However,
exercises may be selected along the continuum from those
programmed primarily for enhanced tissue capacity (e.g.,
machine isolation exercises) to those with the greatest
coordination requirement (e.g., free-weight multi-joint
exercises) based on needs of the individual athlete. It
should be noted that free-weight isolation and multi-joint
machine exercises may serve as potential progressions or
regressions within the aforementioned ends of the
continuum.
5.3 Weightlifting Movements and Derivatives
Training with weightlifting movements (e.g., snatch, clean
and jerk) and their derivatives (i.e., those that omit a por-
tion of the full lift) has been shown to produce superior
strength-power adaptations compared to traditional RT
[89–92], jump training [93, 94], and kettlebell training
[95]. Furthermore, weightlifting movements may allow for
more effective absorption of an external resistance [96].
Thus, it is not surprising that weightlifting movements have
become commonplace within RT programs. Weightlifting
movements and their derivatives are unique in that they
may exploit both the force and velocity aspects of power by
moving moderate-heavy loads with ballistic intent [97].
Ultimately, this may produce favorable neuromuscular
adaptations (i.e., MU recruitment, rate coding, etc.), which
may improve strength-power characteristics.
Practitioners traditionally prescribe weightlifting
movements that include the catch phase (e.g., power
snatch/clean, hang power snatch/clean, etc.) [98–104].
While these exercises have been shown to produce favor-
able strength-power benefits, weightlifting pulling deriva-
tives that omit the catch phase (e.g., snatch/clean mid-thigh
pull, jump shrug, etc.) [105–110] may provide unique
force–velocity overload stimuli that may further benefit
strength-power adaptations [111]. The catch phase may be
omitted for some athletes as it may not be necessary for the
desired adaptation, but also due to technique complexity,
mobility issues, or previous or current injuries. Previous
studies indicated that weightlifting pulling derivatives
produce similar [112, 113] or greater [114–118] force
production characteristics during the propulsion phase (i.e.,
second pull) compared to catching derivatives. Moreover,
weightlifting pulling derivatives may provide a similar
[119] or greater [120] external load absorption stimulus
compared to weightlifting catching movements. Practically
123

speaking, weightlifting pulling derivatives allow practi-
tioners the option to prescribe loads greater than an ath-
lete’s one repetition maximum (1RM) snatch/clean or
power snatch/clean [111, 121–124], potentially benefitting
maximal strength adaptations. Furthermore, certain
weightlifting pulling derivatives may benefit power adap-
tations by producing greater RFD [112, 113, 115] and
velocity [116, 117] magnitudes.
5.4 Plyometric Training
Plyometric exercises are explosive movements that utilize
the stretch–shortening cycle, where a concentric muscle
action is enhanced by a previous eccentric muscle action.
Although not commonly prescribed to exclusively train
muscular strength, their inclusion in RT programs is likely
due to their ballistic nature and their ability to transfer
maximal strength to power production and RFD. A meta-
analysis indicated that plyometric training may produce
similar improvements in vertical jump height compared to
weightlifting movements [125]. However, other studies
indicated that weightlifting movements may produce
greater power adaptations and allow for improvements
over a broader performance spectrum [93, 94]. Although
conflicting literature exists, the effectiveness of plyometric
training benefitting power cannot be overlooked.
A potential limitation of bodyweight plyometric exer-
cises is the ability to continually provide an overload
stimulus that produces positive strength adaptations. While
small loads may be added to plyometric exercises, practi-
tioners should note that heavier loads may result in greater
impact forces and lengthen the transition time between
eccentric and concentric muscle actions, thus diminishing
the overall training stimulus. Instead of adding a load to a
given plyometric exercise, practitioners may consider
choosing a moderate-high intensity plyometric exercise
[126–130] or adjusting the training volume to produce the
desired adaptations. Given the limitation of loading plyo-
metric exercises, the potential strength adaptations that
may result from such training may be limited compared to
other RT methods, yet they have clear benefit within the
context of power development.
5.5 Eccentric Training
Eccentric actions are those in which the musculotendinous
unit lengthens throughout the contraction as a result of
greater force applied to the musculotendinous unit than
force produced by the muscle. The molecular and neural
characteristics of eccentric muscle actions have been out-
lined in recent reviews [131, 132]. It was concluded that
eccentric training (ET) may benefit performance by pro-
ducing favorable adaptations in mechanical function (i.e.,
123
T. J. Suchomel et al.
strength, power, RFD, and stiffness), morphological
adaptations (i.e., tendon and muscle fiber CSA), neuro-
muscular adaptations (e.g., fast MU recruitment and firing
rate), and performance (e.g., vertical jumping, sprint speed,
and change-of-direction) compared to concentric, isomet-
ric, and traditional (eccentric/concentric) training. Due to
its potential adaptations, it is not surprising that ET has
received considerable attention.
While previous literature briefly discussed ET methods
including the 2/1 technique, two-movement technique,
slow/superslow, and negatives with supramaximal loads
([100% 1RM) [133], limited research supports the use of
these methods. In contrast, much literature supports the use
of another ET method termed accentuated eccentric load-
ing (AEL) [134]. AEL requires individuals to perform the
eccentric phase of a lift with a heavier load than the con-
centric phase due to a portion of the load being removed by
a weight-release system [135], spotters [136], or the athlete
dropping it [137]. Collectively, the previous studies have
indicated that AEL may produce greater jumping, sprint-
ing, and power adaptations compared to other RT methods.
Further literature indicated that AEL may lead to positive
strength [136, 138, 139], RFD and power [140], and per-
formance adaptations [137, 140], but also a decreased
injury rate [141]. For a thorough discussion on AEL,
readers are directed to a recent review [134].
To the authors’ knowledge, only one article has pro-
vided general recommendations on implementing ET into
RT programs [133]. Previous literature indicated that
adaptations from eccentric exercise may be based on
exercise intensity [142, 143] and contraction speed
[144, 145]. Specifically, the previous studies suggested that
heavier eccentric loads may produce favorable muscle
hypertrophy and strength adaptations compared to lighter
loads and that faster muscle actions produce greater
adaptations compared to slower actions. From a loading
standpoint, practitioners have the opportunity with ET to
prescribe supramaximal loads ([1RM). The use of such
loading with AEL has been shown to improve maximal
strength [136, 138]. Despite the general recommendations
made within previous literature and the current review,
future research on ET, including AEL, should focus on the
placement of eccentric exercise in training phases, training
volume, inter-set rest intervals, and loads that should be
prescribed to produce optimal results.
5.6 Potentiation Complexes
Postactivation potentiation refers to an acute performance
enhancement based on the muscle’s contractile history
[146]. Traditionally, a high force or power exercise is used
to potentiate the performance of a subsequent high power
exercise, often termed a strength-power potentiation
The Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations
complex [146, 147]. An abundance of research has
designed potentiation complexes to enhance the power
output of a subsequent exercise. In contrast, only two
studies using whole-body vibration [148, 149] and two
studies using plyometric exercise [150, 151] as potentiating
stimuli have sought to improve measures of muscular
strength. Previous literature examined the acute effects of
whole-body vibration on 1RM back squat [148] and half-
squat performance [149]. While no differences in 1RM
back squat were found during the whole-body vibration
condition compared to the control condition examined in
one study [148], untrained and recreationally-trained par-
ticipants improved their 1RM half-squat during the whole-
body vibration condition in another study [149]. While the
latter findings are interesting, practitioners may question
the applicability and safety of performing squatting
movements on vibration platforms. Additional literature
examined the effect of plyometrics on 1RM back squat
performance [150, 151]. Bullock and Comfort [150] indi-
cated that a single set of two, four, or six 33 cm depth
jumps resulted in acute improvements in 1RM squat
strength, with six jumps producing the greatest effects.
Similar improvements were shown following tuck jumps
and 43.2 cm depth jumps [151]. While mixed findings exist
using potentiation complexes to benefit strength perfor-
mance, plyometric exercises, such as depth jumps, may
benefit strength the most. For further information on the
use of plyometric exercises and other ballistic potentiating
stimuli, readers are directed to a review by Maloney et al.
[152].
5.7 Unilateral versus Bilateral Training
A frequently discussed topic within RT programming is the
implementation of unilateral exercises given the unilateral
nature of various sport tasks (e.g., sprinting, cutting, etc.).
Unilateral/partial-unilateral movements are defined as
those where the load is primarily lifted by a single limb
(e.g., lunge), whereas bilateral movements are those that
lift the load with two limbs [153]. An overwhelming
amount of RT programs include predominantly bilateral
exercises for the purposes of strength-power development.
This is not surprising considering that strong relationships
exist between bilateral strength and jumping, sprinting, and
change-of-direction performance [1]. However, given the
proposed specificity of unilateral exercises to sport tasks,
additional information regarding the effectiveness of
training with unilateral exercises is needed.
Limited research has compared the effects of unilateral
and bilateral training on strength adaptations. McCurdy
et al. [153] indicated that strength-power adaptations were
similar following 8 weeks of unilateral or bilateral RT and
plyometric exercise in untrained subjects, suggesting that
Table 3 Example strength-endurance training block integrating
unilateral exercise
Day 1 Day 2 Day 3
Back squat Clean grip pull to knee Back squat
Bench press Clean grip shoulder shrug Bench press
Barbell split squat Stiff-legged deadlift Barbell split squat
Military press Dumbbell row Military press
General preparatory period; higher volume and lower intensity; rel-
atively simple unilateral exercises; example set and repetition
scheme: 3 9 10
both training methods may be equally as effective. Another
study indicated that 5 weeks of training with either the
rear-foot elevated split-squat or traditional back squat
produced similar improvements in unilateral (estimated
1RM rear-foot elevated split-squat) and bilateral strength
(estimated 1RM back squat), sprint speed (10 and 40 m),
and change-of-direction speed (Pro Agility) in academy
rugby players [154]. McCurdy et al. [155] also indicated
that gluteus medius, hamstring, and quadriceps activation
were greater during a modified split-squat compared to a
traditional bilateral squat. While the latter findings are not
surprising, practitioners should consider that the decreased
stability of unilateral exercises may limit the safe pre-
scription of heavier loads or performance in a fatigued
state. As greater stability within movements leads to a
greater ability to express force [79], bilateral exercises can
inherently provide a greater total mechanical platform to
improve an athlete’s strength-power characteristics com-
pared to unilateral exercises. This does not mean that
unilateral exercises should be excluded when developing
strength; however, they should be implemented during
specific phases to supplement the primary bilateral lifts,
particularly during preparation phases. Tables 3 and 4
display example strength-endurance and maximal strength
training blocks in which unilateral exercises may be
implemented as assistance exercises.
5.8 Variable Resistance Training
Multi-joint RT exercises such as the back squat and bench
press are commonly prescribed in RT programs. Tradi-
tionally, these exercises are performed using eccentric and
concentric muscle actions with a constant external load
through a full range-of-motion. While training in this
manner can certainly improve strength, it is not without its
limitations. For example, an athlete performing a back
squat may be limited at specific knee and hip angles
because of mechanical disadvantages [156]. As a result,
athletes experience a ‘‘sticking point’’ as they ascend due to
a diminished ability to produce external force [157]. In
123

Table 4 Example maximal Day 1
strength training block
integrating unilateral exercise Back squat
Push press
Barbell walking lunge
Bench press
Special preparatory period; lower volume and higher intensity; more complex unilateral exercises; example
set and repetition scheme: 3 9 5
contrast, external muscle force production (i.e., force
applied to the external load that results from muscle con-
tractile force) may continue to increase beyond the sticking
point and peak during the finish of the squat [158–160].
Given these limitations, it would be advantageous to
implement a training method that trains each portion of a
lift based on its mechanical advantage/disadvantage.
Variable RT is a training method that attempts to modify
the external resistance experienced by the athlete during
each repetition in order to maximize external muscle force
throughout the entire range-of-motion [161]. While there
have been a number of attempts at variable loading using
machines, these have generally not produced desired
results [80]. More recently, the addition of chains or elastic
bands to free-weight exercises has received considerable
attention. Adding chains or elastic bands may alter an
exercise’s loading profile by altering force, velocity, and
power production characteristics during the movement
(e.g., greater force during the early eccentric phase and
latter concentric phase of a back squat) [162]. This in turn
may allow athletes to better match changes in mechanical
advantage/disadvantage [67] and overcome greater detri-
ments (i.e., greater mechanical disadvantages) at various
joint angles [159, 163]. Some information indicates that
variable RT produces its greatest effects at the range-of-
motion in which the increased resistance occurs [80]. Thus,
care must be taken in matching the athlete’s physical
characteristics to appropriate chain lengths, etc., as inap-
propriate loading could slow acceleration and appropriate
adaptation [80]. Previous literature indicated that greater
strength gains were produced following variable RT during
the bench press [164] and back squat [165] compared to
traditional RT. Further research displayed acute strength
improvements following variable RT as part of a potenti-
ation complex [166, 167]. The existing literature suggests
that variable RT may be used as an effective training
strategy for developing muscular strength. Thus, more
training studies are needed to examine the effect that
variable RT has on strength-power characteristics. For
example, no studies have compared variable RT with tra-
ditional (full movement) plus partial movements in which
additional loading of the stronger portion of the range-of-
motion is overloaded during the partial movement.
123
T. J. Suchomel et al.
Day 2 Day 3
Mid-thigh pull Back squat
Clean pull from floor Push press
Bent over row Barbell walking lunge
Pull-up Bench press
Therefore, the extent of transfer to sport movements for
variable RT, and the underlying mechanisms driving these
potential training outcomes, remain to be elucidated.
5.9 Kettlebell Training
Kettlebells are RT implements that consist of a weighted
ball and handle [168]. Common kettlebell exercises include
swings, goblet squats, and modified weightlifting exercises
(e.g., one-arm snatch). Previous literature indicated that
kettlebell training may improve various measures of mus-
cular strength [95, 169–172] and vertical jump perfor-
mance [95, 169]. However, additional studies indicated that
vertical jump [172] and sprint performance [173] were not
enhanced following kettlebell training when compared to a
control group. The available research suggests that kettle-
bell training may produce strength improvements during
various exercises (trivial to moderate effect sizes); how-
ever, more traditional training methods, such as
weightlifting movements, may produce superior strength-
power adaptations [95]. This notion is supported by the fact
that kettlebell exercises are limited in their capacity to
provide an overload stimulus to the lower extremities. For
example, an athlete may be able to power clean 100 kg, but
cannot perform a kettlebell swing with the same load using
proper technique. Furthermore, a kettlebell’s handle size
may get larger as the load increases, potentially making it
more difficult to grip the implement. Compared to other
training methods, limited research has examined the long-
term strength-power benefits of kettlebell training. Thus,
further research is needed to determine the role of kettle-
bells within RT programs focused on strength develop-
ment. However, given their explosive nature, practitioners
may find value in implementing kettlebell exercises in
training blocks where low load, high velocity training is an
emphasis (e.g., speed-strength).
5.10 Ballistic Training Methods
Ballistic exercises are those that accelerate throughout the
entire concentric movement. Commonly prescribed ballis-
tic exercises may include jump squats, various weightlift-
ing derivatives, and bench press throws. Previous literature
The Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations
displayed that ballistic exercises produced greater force,
velocity, power, and muscle activation compared to the
same exercises performed quickly [174, 175]. Further
research displayed that ballistic exercises may also produce
greater potentiation effects compared to non-ballistic
exercises [176–178]. As noted in Sect. 3.3, ballistic exer-
cises may lead to neural adaptations including the lowering
of recruitment threshold of MUs [44, 46] and may also
allow the entire motoneuron pool to be activated within a
few milliseconds [49]. Recruiting a greater number of
motor units will ultimately lead to greater force production,
RFD, and eventually power development (see Sect. 4
above). Previous literature has highlighted the superiority
of ballistic exercises as an explosive training stimulus.
Suchomel and Comfort [179] displayed the relative power
outputs produced during a variety of ballistic and non-
ballistic exercises. It is clear that the ballistic exercises
have the capability to produce greater relative power out-
puts compared to non-ballistic RT exercises such as the
back squat, deadlift, and bench press. Thus, it should be
obvious as to why ballistic exercises are so popular within
RT programs. While these exercises may be implemented
throughout the training year, the goals of each training
phase may alter which exercises are prescribed. For
example, jump squats may not be prescribed during a
strength-endurance phase of training due to the focus on
improving work capacity and muscle CSA as well as the
repetitive landing that is included with the exercise.
Finally, ballistic exercises may be prescribed for all ath-
letes to benefit explosive strength (i.e., RFD and power
characteristics), assuming the exercises are performed
using appropriate technique. However, it should be noted
that ballistic exercises may not be featured in an athlete’s
RT program until they have improved their maximal
strength [180].
6 Loading Strategies
6.1 Training to Failure
There is little doubt that lifting heavy loads will improve
muscular strength. A common belief is that by training to
failure (TF), a relative maximum is achieved that mecha-
nistically provides adequate overload for maximum
hypertrophy and strength gains [181]. ‘‘Failure’’ was pre-
viously described as the point where the barbell stops
moving, the sticking point lasts longer than one second, or
full range-of-motion repetitions can no longer be com-
pleted [182]. The TF concept capitalizes on the idea that
training with RM loads will lead to greater strength adap-
tations compared to submaximal loads. However, meta-
analyses indicated that TF does not produce superior gains
and is perhaps counter-productive [183, 184]. The same
authors suggested that if practitioners program TF, it
should be used sparingly to prevent potential injuries and
overtraining. While TF likely stimulates high-threshold
MU recruitment, it does not appear to be superior to non-
failure training [185]. In addition, the ability to TF for long
training periods may be limited, particularly if RT is part of
a larger sport training program [184]. Furthermore, TF for
consecutive sets may significantly reduce the number of
repetitions an individual can perform at specific loads
[186–188], which may require practitioners to reduce the
prescribed loads for an individual in an effort to maintain
the selected training volume for a given training phase.
However, it should be noted that a reduction of load may
result in a less effective stimulus for muscular strength
adaptation [189–191]. While there are training phases in
which the primary emphasis should be lifting very heavy
loads (90–95% 1RM) to improve maximal strength quali-
ties, TF is not required in an athlete’s RT program.
6.2 Combined Heavy and Light Loading
As mentioned in the previous section, training with heavy
loads benefits muscular strength. However, given the nat-
ure of strength phase goals (e.g., enhanced force production
and early RFD development), it may be useful to imple-
ment a combined loading strategy that uses heavy and light
loads. Previous literature indicated that both maximal
strength and RFD underpin power [1, 16, 71]. Thus, while
the primary emphasis will be using heavier loads during
maximal and absolute strength phases, lighter loads may
benefit an athlete’s RFD, ultimately facilitating RFD and
power development during subsequent phases that are often
termed strength-speed and speed-strength. Previous litera-
ture supports the use of a combined loading strategy for the
development of an athlete’s force–velocity profile [70];
however, it should be noted that an emphasis may be
placed on either force- or velocity-dominant training based
on an athlete’s force and velocity characteristics in ballistic
actions [192].
The prescribed training loads should complement the
exercises that are being used. For example, heavier loads
may be prescribed using core exercises (e.g., squats,
presses, and pulls) and certain weightlifting movements
(e.g., power clean, pull from the knee, mid-thigh pull)
which have the goal of emphasizing high force production.
In contrast, lighter loads may be prescribed to emphasize
higher velocities during ballistic exercises (e.g., lighter
pulling movements, jump squat, bench press throw).
Combination loading may also be achieved through the
implementation of both weight training (high force) and
plyometric exercise (high velocity). An effective method is
to program heavy/light training days in which the same
123

exercises are prescribed on different days [15, 193, 194],
and the second day is lighter than the first. This method
provides a velocity-power spectrum across the week and
emphasizes fatigue management [63, 64]. Previous litera-
ture examined this method of programming for track and
field athletes [15, 64, 73]. For example, Harris et al. [15]
found superior training responses using a combined loading
method performing back squats at 80% 1RM on their
heavy day and back squats at 60% 1RM on their light day.
Finally, a combined loading stimulus within a single
training session is realized through working, warm-up, and
warm-down sets of each exercise, provided maximum
efforts are used. While the high force portion of combined
loading will likely improve maximal strength characteris-
tics, the velocity portion will favor RFD and power. Thus, a
combined loading method may produce the desired
strength adaptations while also underpinning RFD and
power adaptations that are important to sport performance.
However, it should be noted that improvements in strength
and strength-related characteristics do not always show
statistical differences (e.g., p-value) when comparing dif-
ferent programs of strength training. This was the case
within a previous study by Painter et al. [73] that compared
daily undulating programming versus BP programming
among strength-power track and field athletes. In this
study, the BP programming, that included substantial
combinations of heavy and light loading, showed advan-
tages in dynamic and isometric maximum strength and
isometric RFD based on effect size magnitude. Further-
more, these gains were achieved using substantially less
volume load therefore demonstrating significantly better
training efficiency [73].
7 Exercise Set Considerations
7.1 Single Versus Multiple Sets
While some literature indicated that single exercise sets
produce similar adaptations to multiple sets [195–200], a
larger body of literature indicates that multiple sets produce
greater hypertrophy, strength, and power adaptations
[189, 201–216]. It should be noted, however, that an ath-
lete’s training status, as well as the dose–response rela-
tionship for muscular strength development, must be taken
into consideration [183, 217]. Specifically, smaller doses of
RT (e.g., 2–3 sets per exercise) may be sufficient to
enhance muscular strength in less-trained individuals,
whereas larger doses of RT (e.g., 4–6 sets per exercise)
may be required to attain the same level of improvement in
well-trained athletes. Practitioners must also be cautious of
venturing beyond the athlete’s ability to adapt to prescribed
training loads, as chronically elevated training volumes
123
T. J. Suchomel et al.
may expose the athlete to overtraining syndrome [65].
Additionally, the inclusion of more sets may also come at
the cost of sufficient training intensity (e.g., * 80% of set-
rep best), possibly limiting further CSA and strength
enhancements [16]. Collectively, it appears that performing
multiple exercise sets, to a certain extent, is advantageous
in developing maximal strength. However, practitioners
must consider the training status and current goal(s) of the
athlete because there is an optimal number of sets that is
specific for each individual. Furthermore, a comprehensive
monitoring protocol should be implemented to ensure
sufficient loading and prevention of excess fatigue and
overtraining [218, 219].
7.2 Set Configurations
Exercise sets are traditionally completed by performing
every repetition in succession until the desired number of
repetitions is reached. Indeed, set length is used as a pro-
gramming tool to achieve specific goals (e.g., hypertrophy,
metabolic work capacity, etc.). Thus, higher repetitions per
set may be reasonable depending upon training goals;
however, the length of the set performed may result in a
performance decline (e.g., force, velocity, etc.). This in
turn may negatively impact the desired strength-power
adaptations. Previous research has indicated that a longer
set length resulted in an increased metabolic demand (ATP
turnover, phosphagen and glycogenolysis ATP production,
and blood lactate concentration) in recreational male ath-
letes, which was correlated with decreased mean power
production [220]. In a follow-up study with similar subjects
and multiple sets, Gorostiaga and colleagues [221] indi-
cated that an increased metabolic demand during longer
sets may be the result of decreased energy stores, which
may contribute to fatigue. While the above performance
changes were noted during a traditional set of 10 repeti-
tions, performance was maintained during traditional sets
of five repetitions. Although traditional sets remain com-
monplace within RT programs, previous literature has
challenged this method regarding hypertrophy, strength,
and especially power development.
A growing body of literature has examined the use of
cluster sets (CS) during RT. CS are defined as traditional
exercise sets that are split into smaller sets of repetitions
separated by rest intervals. The theory behind CS is that
short intra-set/inter-repetition rest periods allow individuals
to maintain their velocity and power throughout an exercise
set [222]. This in turn would increase the overall quality of
work (i.e., ability to improve and/or maintain performance
during an exercise set) [122] and potentially allow the use
of greater loads, collectively leading to greater perfor-
mance adaptations. Previous literature indicated that CS
may be beneficial during exercise sets focused on
The Importance of Muscular Strength: Training Considerations
Table 5 Cluster set rest interval recommendations for specific
resistance training goals [234]
Training goal Cluster set rest interval length (s)
Hypertrophy 5–15
Strength 20–25
Power 30–40
hypertrophy [223–227] and power [122, 226, 228, 229];
however, mixed findings were found when investigating
the effects of CS on muscular strength. While Oliver et al.
[225] indicated that CS produced greater strength
improvements compared to a traditional set configuration,
additional literature indicated that CS offered no additional
benefit to isometric or dynamic elbow flexion strength
[230], bench press or leg press 1RM [231], or bench press
6RM [232]. Therefore, longitudinal training using CS may
benefit muscle hypertrophy and power; however, limited
research supports their use for strength development. For a
more thorough discussion on the theoretical and practical
applications of cluster sets, readers are directed to a recent
review by Tufano et al. [233]. Cluster set rest interval
recommendations from Haff [234] are presented in
Table 5.
8 Rest Intervals
The rest intervals implemented in training may be over-
looked when it comes to improving maximal strength.
Although previous recommendations have promoted
shorter rest intervals for the development of muscle
hypertrophy [235, 236], longer rest intervals may produce
superior strength-power adaptations [237]. Previous
research displayed that 1.5- to 3-min rest intervals pro-
duced greater muscle hypertrophy, strength, and power
adaptations compared to 0.5- to 1-min rest intervals
[238, 239]. Further research indicated that 2.5- to 5-min
rest intervals resulted in a greater volume of work com-
pleted during a workout [188, 240], ability to train with
heavier loads [186], and strength increases [239, 241, 242]
compared to 0.5- to 2-min rest intervals. In contrast, no
statistical differences in strength gains were found between
2- and 4-min rest intervals [240]; however, those who
trained with longer rest intervals produced larger practical
effects [243]. In line with previous recommendations
[235, 236, 244], it is suggested that practitioners implement
2- to 5-min rest intervals when training to improve
strength-power characteristics. However, it should be noted
that the rest interval length range may be determined by the
prescribed training loads, an athlete’s training age [240],
fiber type, and genetics [245].
9 Training Status Considerations
An athlete’s training status may dictate: (1) what exercises
and loads they can tolerate and (2) what their training
emphasis should be. As with any type of training, practi-
tioners should be mindful of an athlete’s abilities as exer-
cise competency will dictate whether it is appropriate to
implement certain exercises or progress using various
training methods. Relative strength (i.e., load lifted/ath-
lete’s body mass) is commonly used to determine if an
athlete is considered ‘‘weak’’ or ‘‘strong’’ [1]. While no
specific standards of relative strength exist, the following
paragraphs discuss general RT recommendations based on
the existing literature for athletes who may fall into either
category.
9.1 Weaker/Less-Skilled Athletes
As muscular strength serves as the foundation upon which
a number of other abilities are enhanced [1], the training
emphasis for weaker and/or less-skilled athletes should be
increasing their maximal strength. It should be noted that
almost any RT method discussed in Sect. 5 may make an
untrained participant stronger through the neural adapta-
tions discussed in Sect. 3. Although a common error,
practitioners emphasize high velocity/power training too
early during an athlete’s development. Increased maximum
strength is strongly associated with the ability to produce
not only higher forces, but also increased RFD, velocity,
and power [1, 16]. Furthermore, considerable evidence
indicates that increased maximum strength lays the foun-
dation for future gains in RFD, velocity, and power
[1, 16–18, 246]. Indeed, it was concluded in a recent meta-
analysis that youth would benefit more from RT prior to
completing power-type training [247]. Furthermore,
strength training in youth would initially assist in opti-
mizing motor control and coordination followed by a shift
to adaptations associated with neural and morphological
changes. Therefore, power-type exercises (e.g., jumping,
bounding) are not intended to be omitted from a weaker
athlete’s program as they provide valuable execution con-
text for motor coordination; however, they may not be
featured as exclusively until an athlete improves their
maximum strength using core RT exercises (i.e., squats,
presses, and pulls).
9.2 Stronger/More-Skilled Athletes
While weaker and/or less well-trained athletes should focus
on improving maximal strength before emphasizing power-
type training, the training focus may shift for those with
greater relative strength. Previous literature indicated that
123

while muscular strength influences an athlete’s perfor-
mance, the magnitude of its influence may diminish when
athletes maintain high strength levels [248]. Thus, the
opportunity to continue to make large strength improve-
ments decreases while an athlete continues to get stronger.
Additional literature suggested that a shift towards power-
type training while maintaining or increasing strength
levels is necessary after achieving specific strength stan-
dards to allow an athlete to continue to improve their
performance [1, 16, 64, 65]. While research investigating
different strength standards is lacking, several studies
indicated that individuals who squatted C 2 9 their body
mass produced greater vertical jump power [72, 249],
sprinted faster and jumped higher [250], and potentiated
earlier [177, 251] and to a greater extent [177, 251, 252]
compared to weaker individuals. Through achieving high
levels of maximum strength, an athlete may maximize the
benefits of incorporating training methods such as plyo-
metrics and potentiation complexes. This does not mean
that an emphasis on improved strength should be aban-
doned, but rather the long-term training process is one of
emphasis/de-emphasis (e.g., if maximum strength decrea-
ses, power may also decrease) [1]. Thus, a greater
requirement for unique training strategies that enhance the
utilization of one’s strength within the context of their sport
may be required for further performance enhancement.
10 Conclusions
Muscular strength development is underpinned by a com-
bination of several morphological and neural factors
including muscle CSA and architecture, musculotendinous
stiffness, MU recruitment, rate coding, MU synchronization,
and neuromuscular inhibition. There are a number of peri-
odization methods that can improve muscular strength;
however, single- or multi-targeted BP may produce the
greatest improvements in strength and related force–time
characteristics (e.g., RFD and power). While a variety of RT
methods exist, bilateral training, ET, AEL, and variable RT
may have the greatest potential to improve muscular
strength. In contrast, bodyweight exercise, isolation exer-
cises, plyometrics, unilateral exercise, and kettlebell training
may be limited in their potential to produce large maximal
strength improvements but are still relevant to strength
development by challenging time-limited force expression
and differentially challenging motor demands. Therefore, no
single exclusive training method can achieve the range of
adaptations required for strength and related force–time
characteristics. The extant literature suggests that TF is not
necessary when the goal is to improve muscular strength.
Combining heavy and light loads may produce the desired
strength adaptations while underpinning RFD and power
123
T. J. Suchomel et al.
characteristics that are important to sport performance.
Multiple sets may produce superior training benefits com-
pared to single sets; however, prescription of sets should be
based on an athlete’s training status and the dose–response
relationship for muscular strength development. While CS
may benefit hypertrophy and power adaptations, they may
not benefit strength improvements. Inter-set rest intervals
ranging from 2 to 5 min may provide the greatest strength-
power benefits; however, rest interval length may vary based
on an athlete’s training age, fiber type, and genetics. Weak-
er/less-skilled athletes should focus on developing a strength
foundation before power-type exercises and training meth-
ods (plyometrics and potentiation complexes) are empha-
sized. In contrast, stronger/more-skilled athletes may begin
to emphasize power-type exercises and training strategies
while maintaining/improving their strength levels.
Despite the information presented within this review,
additional research questions exist. Given the potential
benefits of AEL and variable RT, future research should
consider investigating the placement of AEL and variable
RT within training phases as well as the volume, inter-set
rest intervals, and loads that should be prescribed to pro-
duce optimal results. Further research should investigate
what effect, if any, CS may have on strength development.
Research should also examine how initial strength levels
affect an athlete’s ability to improve their performance
using the described training methods or how best to
transfer one’s strength to specific motor demands required
across various sports and activities. Finally, the evaluation
and determination of individual adaptations by regimented
monitoring should be explored to highlight and understand
the varying rates of change and responsiveness of different
athletes to the proposed training methods and periodization
models discussed in the current review.
Compliance with Ethical Standards
Funding No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation
of this article.
Conflicts of interest Timothy Suchomel, Sophia Nimphius,
Christopher Bellon, and Michael Stone declare that they have no
conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this review.
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Motriz, Rio Claro, v.24, Issue 4, 2018, e101841 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1980-65742018000400XX

Original Article (short paper)

Effect of linear and undulating training periodization models on

the repeated sprint ability and strength of soccer players

Pamela R. G. Gonelli1 , Tiago V. Braz1,2 , Rozângela Verlengia1 , Ídico L. Pellegrinotti1 , Marcelo C. César1 ,
Márcio A. G. Sindorf1 , Alex H. Crisp1 , Marcelo S. Aoki4 , Charles R. Lopes2,3

Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba, UNIMEP, Human Performance Research Laboratory, SP, Piracicaba,
1

Brazil; 2Faculdade de Americana, Americana, SP, Brazil; 3Faculty Adventist of Hortolândia, Hortolândia, SP,
Brazil; 4School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University de São Paulo ,USP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.

Abstract –– Purpose: The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of linear and undulating strength-power
training scheme on the repeated sprint ability (RSA) and lower body strength of soccer players. Method: Twenty soccer
players (under-20 category) were split into 2 groups: the linear load (LL, n=10) and the undulating load (UL, n=10).
In the commencement and at the end of the 6-week pre-season period, the RSA test (6 x 35m) and the 1RM parallel
squat test (1RMsquat) were conducted. The LL and UL performed the same type and number of sessions. The training
stimulus in the strength training was different between LL (Weeks 1 and 2 = Muscular Endurance; Weeks 3 and 4 =
Strength; Weeks 5 and 6 = Power) and UL (daily load variation in the same week). Results: A improvement in RSAmean
and 1RMsquat was detected in LL and in UL. No significant difference was noted between LL vs UL for all variables.
Conclusion: Both groups improved maximal muscle strength in parallel back squat and RSA. UL induced a greater
gain in RSA.

Keywords: soccer; strength; speed; athletic training.

Introduction intensity throughout the training cycle10. Such training models

The repeated-sprint ability (RSA) is the ability to produce
the best possible average sprint performance over a series of
sprints (≤10 seconds), separated by short (≤60 seconds) recovery
periods1. This ability is a complex quality to be related to both
neuromuscular (determining maximal sprint speed, e. g., neural
drive, motor unit activation or muscle strength) and metabolic
sprint ability (involved in the ability to repeated sprints, e. g.,
oxidative capacity for phosphocreatine (PCr) recovery, lactate-H+
buffering or Na + /K + transport capacity)2,3. It also discriminates
against professional soccer players from amateurs4. In addition,
stronger lower body soccer players have better performance
during sprints, change of direction and vertical jump5. Strength
is relevant to soccer players; therefore, it is recommended
including different training strategies to improve their physical
attributes6. Organizing soccer training sessions is especially
challenging because it requires many fitness components [e.g.,
aerobic capacity, RSA, maximal muscle strength and (or) power
strength] essential for elite soccer players7.
Most popular strength-power training schemes are the linear
(LL) and the undulating linear strength-power training schemes
(UL)8. In LL the initial cycle volume is high and the intensity is
low and, as the training progresses through specific cycles, the
training volume decreases, whereas the training intensity gradually
increases9. Therefore, the second cycle is featured by moderate
intensity and volume, and by a marked increment in intensity and
a concomitant decrement in volume, in the last cycle8. On the other
hand, the UL relies on the non-linear manipulation of volume and
combine short, high-volume and short, high-intensity training
periods which are alternated by 1-week intervals8.
Fleck and Kraemer8 suggested the use of UL strength-power
training scheme in team sports who must have a higher performance
level (muscular strength, power, endurance, and aerobic capacity)
throughout the entire course of the competitive season. These
authors have stated that the low performance at the beginning
of the season and the risk of fatigue accumulation due to high
training volumes are the disadvantages of LL strength-power
scheme training. Moreover, most studies about strength training
(ST) in the soccer modality are associated with the exercises (i.e.,
full squat vs. plyometric exercises)11, the training method (i.e.,
traditional strength training vs complex contrast training)10, and the
combination with other training sessions or with the period of the
season. Few studies have assessed the effect of LL and UL strength-
power scheme training approaches on athletic populations13,14,
especially on soccer players. In addition, there is limited research
about the LL and UL strength-power scheme training, especially
concerning volume and intensity in soccer players15.
The present study has compared the chronic effect of 2
distinct strength-power training schemes (LL and UL), with
equated volume and intensity on the RSA and 1RM parallel squat
performed by elite young Brazilian soccer players (Under 20)
from the same soccer club. Based on the concept by Fleck and
Kraemer8, the initial hypothesis of the present study states that
the UL would induce superior training outcomes (RSA and
1RMsquat) than the LL strength-power training schemes. As far
as it is known by the authors, the present research is the first one

1
Gonelli P. R. G. & Braz T. V. & Verlengia R. & Pellegrinotti I. L. & César M. C. & Sindorf M. A. G. & Crisp A. H. & Aoki M. S. & Lopes C. R.
to compare the chronic effects of the LL and UL strength-power
training schemes on young elite soccer players from the same club.
Methods
The present study followed a stratified-randomized
longitudinal design involving 20 young male elite Brazilian
soccer players. Participants were pair-matched according to
baseline strength (1RMsquat) and then randomly assigned to
(LL, n=10) and (UL, n=10) groups (table 1). The subjects were
selected in a soccer team (under-20 category) participating in the
category’s national championship. The study was conducted in
the beginning and at the end of the 6-week pre-season training.
Goalkeepers were excluded from the experiment. Each participant
visited the laboratory 2 times, in a 24-hour interval. All subjects
were already familiar with the tests applied. The preliminary
session was focused on explaining and recommending the
experimental protocols. The subjects underwent anthropometry
and body composition measurements, as well as maximum
cardiorespiratory tests on the treadmill. The second session
consisted of assessing the 1RMsquat and the RSA through the
running anaerobic sprint test (RAST). The subjects attended 30
training sessions and the tests were performed before and after
the herein proposed intervention.
Subjects
Twenty male athletes (under-20 category) have volunteered to
participate in the present study (Table 1). All participants belonged
to a soccer team participating in Brazilian national tournaments (1st
division). The inclusion criteria were: (a) having at least 4 years
of experience in soccer; (b) having at least 1-year experience in
resistance training; (c) attending all training sessions and matches;
(d) not having any injury able to interfere in the study; (e) not
being away from training for over a month prior to the beginning
of the study. Parents or guardians have signed the under-age
athletes’ consent form. The present study was approved by the
local Research Ethics Committee (protocol n. 16/14).
Procedures
Training Periodization. The participants attended 3
strength-training sessions per week (Mondays, Wednesdays,
Table 1. Sampling of descriptive features (mean ± SD).*
Age Height Body Mass
Groups % Fat
(years) (m) (Kg)
LL (n=10) 18.1±0.7 1.82±0.1 74.9±6.9 10.2±2.0
UL (n=10) 18.3±0.9 1.80±0.1 75.9±9.4 10.9±2.3
LL= linear load group; UL= undulating load group; % Fat= fat rate; VT= ventilatory threshold; RCP= respiratory compensation point; VO2max=
maximal oxygen uptake; 1RMsquat = maximal muscle strength in parallel squat test; *= no significant differences were found between the LL
and UL groups (p>0.05).
2 Motriz, Rio Claro, v.24, Issue 4, 2018, e101841
and Fridays), besides the normal training session with the
whole team, for 6 consecutive weeks, during the pre-season
(November/December). The 18 strength-training (ST) sessions
were divided into 6 strength endurance (SE), 6 maximum
strength (MS) and 6 power strength (PS) sessions. The MS
training sessions were conducted in the morning (M - 8.30-
10.30 am), and the others, in the afternoon (A - 14.30-16.30 pm).
The endurance training consisted of 3 sets of 15RM repetitions,
with 60-second intervals between them, and 2-minute intervals
between exercises such as the back squat, leg press, leg curls,
calf raise, bench press, seated cable row, frontal bar lifting, and
upper and dorsal abdominals. The maximal strength training
comprised 3 sets of 3RM, 2 to 4 minutes between the series
and the squatting, leg curl, bench press, paddling and leg press
exercises. The power strength training consisted of 4-6 series
of 8 continuous jumps over 60-cm obstacles and of 5-meter
sprints. Subsequently, the athletes performed other 5-8 series
of 8 drop jumps with 60-cm fall height and 2 to 3-minute
intervals between the series and the exercises.
The conventional training consisted of 6 sessions of Small
Sided Games (SSG), 24 tactical technical training sessions
(TT) and 12 Repeated Sprint Ability Trainings (RSA). The SSG
was performed with 8 sets of 4 minutes, 3 vs. 3 soccer players
(without the goalkeeper) in a 25-m width and 18-m long field.
The RSA was split into 2 types of the training session (RSA1;
RSA2). The RSA1 consisted of 5 series of 5 (40m) sprints, with
20-second intervals between repetitions and 10-minute intervals
between series. The RSA2 was performed in 1 series of 15 (10m)
sprints with direction change every 15 meters, a 1-minute interval
between series and 8-minute intervals between exercises. The
SSG and RSA sessions were conducted in the afternoon. The TTs
were performed in the morning. All training sessions began with
standardized warm-up exercises for approximately 10 minutes
(running drills and stretching exercises). Over the course of
each training week, all subjects performed the same exercises
and repetition volume in sessions SSG, TT, and RSA throughout
the duration of the study (Table 2).
Subjects in the LL group were trained using the linear
load distribution in the ST sessions (Weeks 1 and 2 = Strength
Endurance; Weeks 3 and 4 = Maximum Strength; Weeks 5 and
6 = Power). The UL group underwent the same ST sessions;
however, using daily load variations within the same training
week (Weeks 1 to 6 = Strength Endurance, Maximum Strength
and Power). Both groups (LL and UL) performed the same type
and attended the same number of sessions; however, the load
distribution in the ST was different (figure 1).
VT RCP VO2max 1RMsquat
(km/h) (km/h) (mL.min-1.kg-1) (kg)
11.1±1.1 13.4±1.0 63.3±5.2 145±35
11.2±0.6 13.4±0.8 62.0±4.6 153±16
 Linear and undulating strength training models in soccer

Table 2. Distribution of training sessions for the Linear Load and Undulating Load groups.
Period Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday
Linear Load distribution of the strength training (LL)
M TT TT TT TT TT
Week 1
A SE (315) SSG SE (315) RSA1 SE (315)
M TT TT TT TT TT
Week 2
A SE (3 )15
SSG SE (3 ) 15
RSA 1
SE (315)
M MS (3 )4
TT MS (3 ) 4
TT MS (34)
Week 3
A RSA2 SSG RSA2 RSA1 RSA2
M MS (34) TT MS (34) TT MS (34)
Week 4
A RSA 2
SSG RSA 2
RSA 1
RSA2
M TT TT TT TT TT
Week 5
A PS (48HJ+58DJ) SSG PS (48HJ+58DJ) RSA1 PS (48HJ+58DJ)
M TT TT TT TT TT
Week 6
A PS (68HJ+88DJ) SSG PS (68HJ+88DJ) RSA1 PS (68HJ+88DJ)
Daily Undulating Load distribution of the strength training (UL)
M MS (34) TT TT TT TT
Week 1
A RSA2 SSG PS (48HJ+58DJ) RSA1 SE (315)
M MS (34) TT TT TT TT
Week 2
A RSA 2
SSG PS (4 +5 )
8HJ 8DJ
RSA 1
SE (315)
M MS (3 )4
TT TT TT TT
Week 3
A RSA 2
SSG PS (4 +5 )
8HJ 8DJ
RSA 1
SE (315)
M MS (34) TT TT TT TT
Week 4
A RSA 2
SSG PS (6 +8 )
8HJ 8DJ
RSA 1
SE (315)
M MS (34) TT TT TT TT
Week 5
A RSA2 SSG PS (68HJ+88DJ) RSA1 SE (315)
M MS (34) TT TT TT TT
Week 6
A RSA2 SSG PS (68HJ+88DJ) RSA1 SE (315)
LL= Linear Load Group; UL= Undulating Load Group; M= Morning (8.30-10.30 am); A= Afternoon (14.30-16.30 pm); MS= Maximal
Strength; PS= Power Strength Training; SE = Strength Endurance; RSA= Repeated Sprint Ability Training; SSG= Small Sided Games
Training; TT= Tactical Technical Training; 315, 34 and 68= Numbers 3-6 represent the number of sets, whereas the numbers 4-8-15 describe the
number of repetitions; HJ = Horizontal Jump; DJ = Drop Jump.

Figure 1. Mean weekly (W) values for number of strength training

repetitions in linear load (LL) and undulating load (UL) during the study.

Motriz, Rio Claro, v.24, Issue 4, 2018, e101841 3

Gonelli P. R. G. & Braz T. V. & Verlengia R. & Pellegrinotti I. L. & César M. C. & Sindorf M. A. G. & Crisp A. H. & Aoki M. S. & Lopes C. R.

Tests. The athletes rested the day before the evaluations
and were instructed to keep the regular dietary intake (food
and beverages), as well as to avoid having stimulating drinks
(e.g. caffeinated drinks) and alcohol consumption 24 hours
before the adopted procedures. One year before to research,
all subjects had already performed the tests (RSA, 1RMsquat)
on at least 5 occasions.
Repeated sprint ability test (RSA). The RSA test was
performed on a natural grass surface in the team’s field. It
consisted of 6 (35 m) straight shuttle sprints. The participants
started a newsprint every 10 seconds of passive recovery. An
electronic photocell system was used to record the time of the
sprints (Speed Test 6.0 CEFISE®, Nova Odessa, SP, Brazil). The
best sprint time (RSAbest), the mean sprint time (RSAmean) and
the sprint decrease rate (RSAindex) were recorded for statistical
analyses. The RSAindex was calculated according to the following
equation: [(Σ 6 times / RSAbest x 6) -1] * 100); wherein Σ 6
times is the time spent to complete the 6 x 35m shuttle sprints3.
The Maximal Muscle Strength in parallel squat exercises
(1RMsquat). The maximal muscle strength in the parallel squat
exercise (Smith machine) was assessed through the 1 RM test16.
Briefly, the subjects performed 2-3 sets of warm-ups with 5–10
repetitions at approximately 40% to 60% of their estimated 1
RMs, before the protocol. The subjects were asked to perform
squatting exercises until reaching up to 90° knee-angle (tightly
controlled). The test was performed with at most 5 (3–5 minutes)
rest intervals between each attempt.
Statistical analyses
The variance normality and homogeneity were assessed
through the Shapiro-Wilk and Levene tests, respectively. The
paired t-test was used to check the RSA and 1RMsquat differences
from pre to post training. The adopted significance was p≤0.05.
Analyses were conducted in SPSS-22.0 software (IBM Corp.,
Armonk, NY, USA). The practical significance was assessed
by calculating the Cohen’s d effect size (ES). The equation
1 for time [(post-test score – pre-test score)/pooled pre-test
and post-test standard deviation)] and 2 for comparing groups
[(mean change group 1 – mean change group 2) / pooled
standard deviation of the change score] were used. The ES <0.2,
0.2–0.6, 0.6–1.2, 1.2–2.0 and 2.0–4.0 were considered trivial,
small, moderate, large and very large, respectively17. If the
90% confidence limits overlapped, small positive and negative
values for the magnitude were deemed unclear; otherwise,
that magnitude was deemed to be the observed magnitude17.
Data analysis was performed using a modified statistical Excel
spreadsheet17.
Results
No difference was observed between pre vs post-test in the
RSAbest in LL (p = 0.692; ES = -0.16, 90%CI = 0.72) and UL
(p = 0.204; ES = -0.53, 90%CI = 0.71). There was improvement
in RSAmean in the LL group (p = 0.028; ES = -1.10, 90%CI = 0.76)
and in the UL group (p =0.001; ES = -1.90, 90%CI =0.53)
when compared to the pre-intervention scores. The RSAindex was
improved in the UL group (p = 0.024; ES = -0.98, 90%CI = 0.66),
but not LL (p = 0.089; ES = -1.00, 90%CI = 0.97). However,
similar ES and relative improvement (%) were found in LL
and UL (-25.4% vs -24.0%; ES = -1.00 vs -0.98), respectively.
A significant increase in the 1RMsquat was observed in the LL
group (p = 0.023; ES = 0.73, 90%CI = 0.49) and in the UL
group (p = 0.004; ES = 0.82, 90%CI = 0.39) after the training
intervention (Table 3).
There was no significant difference noted between LL vs UL
in RSAbest (d = 0.32; 90%CI = 0.78; small unclear ES; p = 0.48),
RSAmean (d = 0.38; 90%CI = 0.82; small unclear ES; p = 0.41),
RSAindex (d = 0.01; 90%CI = 0.35; trivial ES; p=0.98) and 1RMsquat
(d = 0.20; 90%CI = 0.80; trivial ES; p=0.66) (figure 2).

Table 3. Maximal strength and repeated sprint ability results before and after the linear (LL) and undulating loads (UL).
ES (±90% CL) ES (±90% CL)
Variables LL (n=10) Δ% p UL (n=10) Δ% p
classification classification
Pre 1RMsquat (kg) 145 ± 35 153 ± 16
RSAbest (s) 4.70 ± 0.27 4.61 ± 0.24
RSAmean (s) 5.18 ± 0.26 5.10 ± 0.12
RSAindex (%) 10.5 ± 5.8 10.9 ± 5.8
0.73 (0.49) 0.82 (0.39)
Post 1RMsquat (kg) 166 ± 23* 18.2 0.023 170 ± 26* 10.8 0.004
moderate moderate
-0.16 (0.72) -0.53 (0.71)
RSAbest (s) 4.66 ± 0.10 -0.4 0.692 4.50 ± 0.15 -2.2 0.204
trivial small
-1.10 (0.76) -1.90 (0.53)
RSAmean (s) 4.96 ± 0.11* -3.9 0.028 4.81 ± 0.17* -5.8 <0.001
moderate large
-1.00 (0.97) -0.98 (0.66)
RSAindex (%) 6.5 ± 1.8 -25.4 0.089 6.8 ± 2.1* -24.0 0.024
moderate moderate
LL= linear load group; UL= undulating load group; 1RMsquat = maximal muscle strength in parallel squat test; RSAbest= best sprint time;
RSAmean = mean sprint time; RSAindex = percent sprint decrease; ES= Effect Size; CL= Confidence Limits. *Significant difference in the
comparison of pre intervention (P < 0.05).

4 Motriz, Rio Claro, v.24, Issue 4, 2018, e101841

 Linear and undulating strength training models in soccer
Figure 2. Differences in maximum strength in parallel back squat (1RMsquat), sprint decrease rate (RSAindex), best sprint time
(RSAbest) and mean sprint time (RSAmean) between groups linear (LL) and undulating load (UL). Was used Cohen effect-size principle
± IC 90% compared absolute differences in raw values of the variables. The grey area represented trivial differences (see methods).
Discussion
The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence
of the LL and UL strength-power training schemes on the
RSA and on the lower limb maximal strength of young elite
Brazilian soccer players. The major finding in the present study
was the significant improvement in the RSAmean and 1RMsquat,
regardless of the implemented strength-power training scheme.
The comparison between strength-power training scheme didn’t
show any difference in variables for LL and UL. All effects sizes
comparisons were trivial or small unclear. The present study was
the first one to investigate the LL and UL strength-power training
schemes throughout the pre-season, in young elite players in
the same soccer team (under-20 category).
The 6-week period was enough to improve RSAmean
in the LL (-3.9%) and UL (-5.8%) groups. These rates were
higher than the results found by Buccheit, Mendez-Villanueva,
Delhomel, Brughelli, Ahmaidi18 (-2.5% RSAmean, 10-week
training) and Tønnessen, Shalfawi, Haugen, Enoksen19 (-2.2%
RSAmean, 10-week training). It is worth highlighting that these
2 studies did not apply traditional strength exercises, such
as parallel squat, leg press and leg curl under high intensity
(i.e. 3RM), as it was proposed to the UL and LL groups in
the present study. With regard to the strength/power training
methods used by soccer players, the high-intensity resistance
training (i.e. >80% 1 RM) seemed to be more efficient than
the moderate-intensity resistance training in explosive effort
and capacity RSA20,21.
Theoretically, the changes (daily or weekly) in the strength
training applied to the UL group could minimize training
monotony. There was no improvement in RSAindex in the UL
and LL groups after the 6-week training period (figure 2). Pre
and post-intervention comparisons showed similar ES and
relative improvement (LL vs UL = -25.4% vs -24.0%; ES =
-1.00 vs -0.98). This training stimuli variation for both groups,
Motriz, Rio Claro, v.24, Issue 4, 2018, e101841
associated with progressive strength training, is important to
the RSAindex performance, since the effort and recovery patterns
in soccer matches can be better described as random (i.e. they
are imposed by tactical factors and by the player’s ability to
self-select the intensity and nature of their efforts)1. Indeed,
Hill-Haas, Bishop, Dawson, Goodman, Edge 21 showed an
improvement in the RSA of 18 recreationally-active female
athletes from different teams after 5 weeks of training (2-5 sets
of 15-20RM) with 20-second rest intervals (+12.5%) and with
80-second rest intervals (+5.4%). These data showed that the
recovery variation and load (work-rest- ratio) in the ST (UL
and LL) may improve the RSAindex.
On the other hand, no difference was found between the
RSAbest after the training scheme (table 3). Although some
studies confirmed the improvement in RSAbest in 5-week22,
8-week11 and 10-week18 training periods, the improvement
in the best sprint performance after the strength and specific
training sessions was not entirely confirmed among highly
trained soccer players20. The impact of strength training on
RSA remains unclear2. For example, 15 young soccer players
who compete in the English Premier League did not present
any sprint (30m) improvement after 5 weeks of training, even
after 10 additional strength-training sessions were provided
to the team’s traditional training program23. A similar result
was found by López-Segovia24 in their study regarding 30m
sprints after 16 weeks of training (Team A: 4.25 vs 4.35s, ES
= 0.58; Team B: 4.40 vs 4.36s, ES = -0.25) applied to 2 soccer
teams (under-19 category). According to these researchers24,
the lack of improvement in the former sprint variables was
attributed to the high volume of aerobic exercise, since soccer
is a concurrent modality wherein endurance competes with
strength/power training20. Furthermore, highly trained soccer
players need to increase their 1RM half-squat by 23.5%, on
average, to achieve approximately 2% improvement in their
best sprint performance at 40-m distances20. Such values did
5
Gonelli P. R. G. & Braz T. V. & Verlengia R. & Pellegrinotti I. L. & César M. C. & Sindorf M. A. G. & Crisp A. H. & Aoki M. S. & Lopes C. R.
not meet those observed in the present study (1RMsquat = LL
+18.2%, UL +10.8%).
Regardless of the chosen strength-power training scheme, the
6-week pre-season practice period, with 3 weekly sessions, was
enough to provide maximal strength (1RMsquat) gains in both the
LL (+18.2%) and the UL (+10.8%) groups in the current study.
These results corroborate those found by Alvar, Wenner, and
Dodd15 in their study about collegiate athletes (Division 1), as
well as those found by Christou, Smilios, Sotiropoulos, Volaklis,
Pilianidis, Tokmakidis25, Enright, Morton, Iga, Drust23 and Lopes
et al. 16 in their study involving young soccer players. They found
values close to those found in the present study in the 6-week
cycle (Table 2) by applying a LL periodization approach (5
weeks, 3 sets of 8 repetitions, 60–80 % of 1RM/, subsequently,
another 5 weeks, 4 sets of 6 repetitions and 85 % of 1RM).
Several limitations should be mentioned in the present study.
It was not possible implementing a control group to compare
the effect of the current interventions. The intervention period
(pre-season) was relatively short (6 weeks) and did not examine
the maintenance of the training effects on each group during
the competitive season. However, due to the nature of the
population and to the relatively small sample size (i.e., young
elite professional soccer players), it was not possible having
multiple experimental training groups or individuals performing
isolated strength-training protocols23. Examining periodized ST
among competitive athletes (e.g. young elite soccer players) is
a major challenge since the control groups do not have athletes
who avoid ST.
Conclusion
The current results indicate that strength-power training
schemes are equally effective in organizing training sessions in
order to improve the physical performance of young elite soccer
players. Both the LL and UL models appear to increase the
maximal strength in the parallel squat and the mean RSA within
the 6-week pre-season. However, there was no improvement
in the best sprint of the assessed sample group. It was possible
identifying performance improvement in the same variables, in
both groups (RSAmean and 1RMsquat); and in the RSAindex only in
the UL induced a performance increment. Although, the current
study pointed out some directions, it is necessary repeating the
study using a larger sample and longer duration (>6 weeks) in
order to draw more precise conclusions.
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Motriz, Rio Claro, v.24, Issue 4, 2018, e101841 7

 ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Description of training loads using whole-body exercise

during high-intensity interval training
Alexandre F. Machado,I,* Alexandre L. Evangelista,II João Marcelo Q. Miranda,I,II Cauê V. La Scala Teixeira,III,IV
Roberta Luksevicius Rica,I Charles R. Lopes,V,VIII Aylton Figueira-Júnior,I Julien S. Baker,VI Danilo S. BocaliniVII
I
Laboratorio de Fisiologia Translacional, Departamento de Educacao Fisica, Universidade Sao Judas (USJT), Sao Paulo, SP, BR. II Departamento de Educacao,
Universidade Nove de Julho (UNINOVE), Sao Paulo, SP, BR. III Departamento de Biociencias, Universidade Federal de Sao Paulo, Santos, SP, BR. IV Faculdade
de Educacao Fisica, Faculdade Praia Grande, Praia Grande, SP, BR. V Grupo de Pesquisa em Performance Humana, Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba
(UNIMEP), Piracicaba, SP, BR. VI Institute of Clinical Exercise and Health Science, Applied Physiology Research Laboratory, School of Science and Sport,
University of the West of Scotland, Hamilton, Lanarkshire, Scotland. VII Laboratorio de Fisiologia e Bioquimica Experimental, Centro de Educacao Fisica e
Deportos, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo (UFES), Vitoria, ES, BR. VIII Faculdade Adventista de Hortolandia, Hortolandia, SP, Brasil.
Machado AF, Evangelista AL, Miranda JM, Teixeira CV, Rica RL, Lopes CR, et al. Description of training loads using whole-body exercise during high-intensity
interval training. Clinics. 2018;73:e516
*Corresponding author. E-mail: xdmachado@gmail.com

OBJECTIVES: To describe external training load and internal training load through sets of a single session of
high-intensity interval training (HIIT) body work.
METHODS: Twenty male individuals (24±3 years) performed a HIIT body work protocol consisting of a single
bout of exercise with 1:1 stimuli. The exercises used were 30 min in duration with ‘‘all-out’’ intensity. The
exercises included jumping jacks, mountain climbers, burpees and squat jumps, totaling 20 min of exercise.
During exercise, total movement capacity, blood lactate measurement, ratings of perceived exertion and
recovery, training load and intensity were monitored.
RESULTS: The single bout examined showed a total of 382±89 movements. Differences (po0.01) in the total
amount of movement for each exercise were noted, reflecting the difficulty of maintaining exercise over time.
Increases in lactate concentrations (before: 0.98±0.16, after: 14.10±1.66; mmol/L) were found postexercise.
Significant differences (po0.01) were found after the fifth set, and the values for movement capacity remained
higher than the values of the first set, demonstrating high load in a single session. No differences in ratings of
perceived exertion (RPE) during the sets were found. However, the ratings of perceived recuperation from the
second set were significantly (po0.01) lower than those from the first set.
CONCLUSIONS: The exercise protocol used in this study was of high intensity and produced large values for
stress during performance, with increases recorded for the internal load indicators.

KEYWORDS: Whole-Body Exercise; Training Monitoring; High-Intensity Interval Training.

’ INTRODUCTION Although HIIT has been shown to be an effective method to

Participation in regular physical activity is associated with
many health benefits, which include body fat reduction (1),
cardiovascular improvement and lean body mass enhance-
ment (2), the development of increased self-esteem (3) and a
more efficient functional capacity (4). For this reason, numerous
strategies have been developed to encourage greater partici-
pation in physical activity (5). High-intensity interval training
(HIIT) is an effective method to reduce insulin resis-
tance (6) and provide improvement in sports performance (7)
while promoting positive changes in body composition (8).
Copyright & 2018 CLINICS – This is an Open Access article distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
No potential conflict of interest was reported.
Received for publication on December 11, 2017. Accepted for publi-
cation on April 26, 2018
DOI: 10.6061/clinics/2018/e516
promote physical activity gains, the extent of the benefit is
dependent on the quality and quantity of the training stimuli (9).
Recently, the association between HIIT and exercises using
whole-body mass or HIIT body work has gained popularity
in fitness clubs and among professional athletes. However,
knowledge about the adaptations resulting from this exercise
modality remains inconclusive (9). The work of Gist et al. (10)
demonstrated that HIIT body work led to physiological develop-
ment and was convenient with regard to time management,
cost-effective, and required little operational management com-
pared to traditional training methods. Although this modality
is considered simple and easy to use, training load manipula-
tion should be well monitored to guarantee feasible control,
efficacy and security (11).
Monitoring of the training load is one of the main factors
in the design of physical training programs (12). According
to Impellizzeri et al. (13), the training load could be used/
implemented in external (ETL) and internal training condi-
tions (ITL). The exact definition of ETL remains unclear and
needs clarification, but parameters such as total volume,
work completed and time under pressure can be quantified.

1
Training loads using high-intensity exercise
Machado AF et al.
These values can be obtained using the number of repeti-
tions per overload used, distance covered, number of sprints
and amplitudes reached. These values are all frequently used
indicators (11). The ITL can be considered an individual-
specific physiological adaptation that has occurred as the
result of a workload (physical training stress) provided
by external ITL. This observation highlights that there are
individual physiological and psychological characteristics
that respond to external exercise stimuli (13). ITL parameters,
such as heart rate variability, oxygen consumption, lactate
concentration and subjective perception of effort, are often
used to measure responses to exercise (12).
Additionally, the monitoring of training session methods
has also been considered an important strategy for adjusting
training loads (14,15). The model developed by Foster et al.
(16), which quantifies the training load using the subjective
perception of effort and the volume of exercise in minutes,
has been the most prominent. Nevertheless, there are no
experimental studies characterizing HIIT body work using
ETL and ITL parameters. Therefore, the objective of this
study was to describe ETL and ITL through sets of a single
session of HIIT body work.
’ MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sample
After approval by the university research ethics commit-
tee (no 1.738.246/2016), a consent document was signed by
twenty healthy adult men (24±3 years) who were physically
independent and volunteered to participate in this study.
The following parameters were used as exclusion criteria:
positive clinical diagnosis of diabetes mellitus, smoking,
musculoskeletal complications and/or cardiovascular altera-
tions confirmed by medical evaluation. All of the procedures
were in accordance with the ethical standards of the respon-
sible committee on human experimentation (institutional or
regional) and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, which
was revised in 1983.
Exercise protocols
A single acute bout of high-intensity interval training based
on full-body exercise was performed according to Machado
et al. (11). Briefly, the training session involved a 5-min warm-up,
followed by 20 sets of 30s of all-out exercise and 30s of pas-
sive recovery between sets. Jumping jacks, mountain climbs,
burpees and squat jumps were used in the protocol.
Evaluated parameters
Anthropometric. Height was measured using a Cardio-
Med (WCS model, Parana) stadiometer, with an accuracy
of 115/220 cm. The measurement was performed with the
cursor at an angle of 90o, with the patient in a standing
position with feet together in contact with the stadiometer. The
subjects were instructed to stay in inspiratory apnea, with the
head parallel to the ground. Total body mass was measured
using a calibrated Filizola electronic scale (Personal Line
Model 150), with a 100 g scale and a maximum capacity of
150 kg. Body mass index (BMI, kg/m2) was calculated using
the equation BMI=weight/height2.
Total movement capacity. The total amount of exercise
movement realized in each set was used as the external train-
ing load, as suggested by Machado et al. (11).
2
CLINICS 2018;73:e516
Blood lactate measurement. Capillary blood samples
were collected from a sterile fingertip using a sterile lancet.
The first drop of blood was discarded, and freely flowing
blood was collected in glass capillary tubes. All blood samples
(25 ml) for lactate analysis were evaluated using an Accutrends
(Roche – Basel, Switzerland).
Rating of perceived exertion and recovery. Subjects
reported their ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) immediately
after and before each exercise set, according to Borg (17).
Recovery (RPR) was measured with a scale adapted by
Laurent et al. (18), with values ranging from 0 to 10. The
higher the value is, the greater the perception of recovery
by the practitioner.
Training load and intensity. Heart rate (HR) was recorded
continuously throughout the training session using Polar
HR monitors (Polar Oy, Finland). The HR data were recorded
every 5s. In an attempt to reduce HR recording error during
training, all subjects were asked to check their HR monitors
before each session and after each set (B10 min). Following each
training session, the HR information was then downloaded to a
mainframe computer using Polar Advantage software.
In addition, an HR-based method of determining work-
load involved integrating the total volume of the training
session with the total intensity of the exercise session.
An exercise score for each training bout was calculated by
multiplying the accumulated duration in each HR zone by
a multiplier allocated to each zone (50% to 60% HRmax=1,
60% to 70% HRmax=2, 70% to 80% HRmax=3, 80% to 90%
HRmax=4, and 90% to 100% HRmax=5) and then totaling the
results. Maximal heart rate (HRmax) was determined accord-
ing to the equation by Tanaka et al. (19)
The intensity of the single session was measured using the
RPE, which was assessed for each subject. The calculation
consists of multiplying the duration of the training session
in minutes by the exercise intensity, as indicated by the RPE
scale (20). Briefly, the subjects were asked to choose a number
from 0 to 10 (the maximum value corresponds to the highest
physical exertion experienced by the individual, and the mini-
mum value is the resting condition). The subjects were asked
to respond to the question: ‘‘How was your training today?’’
at 20 to 30 min postexercise. Additionally, the internal training
load was calculated by multiplying the total movements per-
formed in a single session by the RPE.
Statistical analysis
The D’Agostino–Pearson test was applied for Gaussian
distribution analysis. A paired Student’s t-test and repeated-
measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), followed by Kruskal–
Wallis post hoc tests, were performed to compare differences
observed during the exercise sessions. An alpha of 0.05 was
used to determine statistical significance. All data values
were expressed as the means ± standard deviations. All
analyses were performed using SPSS software (v 15.0; IBM,
Armonk, NY, USA).
’ RESULTS
The participants presented no injuries as a result of the
workout during or after the exercise session. The biometric
parameters assessed are described in Table 1.
CLINICS 2018;73:e516 Training loads using high-intensity exercise
Machado AF et al.

Figure 1 shows the total number of movements in each
exercise. No differences were found between the sets of
exercises. However, differences (po0.01) in the total number
(382±89) of movements were found in combined exercises,
indicating difficulty in the maintenance of exercise with high
metabolic rates.
As shown in Figure 2, significant differences (po0.001) in
lactate concentration were found (before: 0.98±0.16, after:
14.10±1.66; mmol/L).
As shown in Figure 3, the values for HR (Panel A) and %
based on HRmax (Panel B) at 5 to 10 min and at 16 to 20 min
were significantly higher than in the first set. As described in
Figure 1, these data suggest that combined exercises impair
maintenance and require greater efforts due to high meta-
bolic demand. Furthermore, it is possible to state that the first
set of the total exercise session, comprised of pattern exercises,
did not promote significant changes when compared to com-
bined exercises.
The internal load of the single exercise session is described
in Figure 4. Significant differences (po0.01) were found after
the fifth set, and the values remained higher than those of the
first set, demonstrating high load in a single session. Addition-
ally, all subjects engaged in high-intensity exercise according to
RPE (9.5±0.85), and the internal load characterized by move-
ments performed in a single session and RPE was 3,824±893.
RPE and the rate of recovery are shown in Figure 5.
No differences (p40.05) were found in RPE during the sets.
However, the rates of perceived recuperation values from the
second set were significantly (po0.01) lower than those from
the first set.
is used. This issue makes it extremely difficult to objectively
quantify the external loads used.
Many authors (9,11) have suggested that HIIT exercise
programs should be conducted in an all-out format. Thus,
the subjects should be performing the exercises at maximal
intensity, with the highest number of movements and the
most repetitions in the exercise period. However, research
relating to the immediate physiological responses resulting
from this type of activity is scarce. The main findings in the
present study correspond to the quantification of variables
consolidated in the literature as training load indicators. Our
results revealed that the number of movements performed in
each exercise series diminished in comparison to the first
series for both the burpees and the squat jump exercises.
The blood lactate concentration increased significantly
at the end of the exercise period. This finding indicates
high glycolytic contribution, metabolic acidosis, and poten-
tial fatigue. These metabolic conditions did not impair the

’ DISCUSSION
The control of loads during the performance of HIIT is
challenging for coaches and practitioners when body weight

Table 1 - Anthropometric characteristics.

Parameters Mean ± SD 95% of IC

Body mass (kg) 74.0±17.5 61.5-86.5

Height (cm) 1.7±0.1 1.6-1.7
BMI (kg/cm2) 26.3±4.6 23.0-29.6
Figure 2 - Values are presented as the means ± standard devia-
Values are presented as mean ± standard deviation. tions. *po0.001 vs. before.

Figure 1 - Values are presented as the means ± standard deviations. *po0.01 vs. the first set of each exercise.

3
Training loads using high-intensity exercise CLINICS 2018;73:e516
Machado AF et al.

Figure 3 - Values are presented as the means ± standard deviations. Panel A: absolute heart rate. Panel B: relative heart rate (% of max).
*po0.001 vs. the first set.

Figure 4 - Values are presented as the means ± standard deviations of the rate of internal load immediately after and before each
exercise set. *po0.001 vs. the first set.

4
CLINICS 2018;73:e516
Figure 5 - Values are presented as the means ± standard deviations of the ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and recovery (RPR)
immediately after and before each exercise set. *po0.001 vs. the first set.
performance of jumping jacks and mountain climb series,
which indicates that exercises requiring greater muscular
strength (burpees and squat jumps) are more prone to the
effects of acidosis and muscular fatigue.
Indeed, Fink et al. (21) showed that under high metabolic
stress conditions, the number of repetitions made in a sub-
sequent series of strength exercises diminishes drastically.
Our results contribute to the development of bodywork HIIT
programs, for which the objective is to maintain the number
of exercise repetitions during the training session. In addition
to the reduction observed in the number of repetitions of the
exercises with higher physiological demand, both the burpees
and squat jumps provided a greater increase in cardiovascular
response than the first series and the mean values recorded,
which was not observed for the other exercises.
Although the subjective perception of effort remained
near the maximum value of ‘‘10’’ in almost all of the series,
characterizing the effort as all out, the internal load mean
values trended higher for the complex exercises. This result
confirms that such exercises (those mobilizing a greater quan-
tity of muscular mass, with greater technical difficulty) call
for more strength and greater physiological response when
compared to exercises demanding less strength. A possible
explanation for this fact, in addition to the metabolic demand
previously documented in the literature, could be that the
higher-intensity exercises result in more occlusion in the
capillary muscles, caused by muscular tension. This mechan-
ism can contribute to an increase in peripheral vascular resis-
tance and, consequently, an increase in HR (22).
Another tool commonly reported in the literature as a
viable strategy to control training load is the use of scales of
subjective perception of effort. This tool has been used for years
as a reliable way to monitor the intensity of workouts (19).
Foster et al. (16) pointed out that these scales are ideal for
controlling the internal load in cyclical high-intensity activities,
because they isolate the specific demands of different forms of
training.
In the present study, RPE was maximum in almost all of
the 20 series. Additionally, recovery, which was monitored
5
Training loads using high-intensity exercise
Machado AF et al.
by RPR, fell appreciably following the beginning of the
exercise series. Several factors may contribute to these obser-
vations: 1) the movement’s complexity; 2) the speed
demanded in the stimuli (all out); and 3) the short interval
for recovery (30s).
Additionally, the exercises used in this study involved
integrated actions, such as jumping and pushing, which
demand a greater contribution from muscular volume during
their execution. This demand is also related to the complexity
of the movements involved. Tasks of greater complexity are
more liable to generate central and peripheral fatigue, which
directly affect the quality of recovery (23), as observed in this
study following the burpee exercise. Moreover, the execu-
tion of high-speed movements could also be associated with
fatigue due to the increase in intensity during the exercise
period (24).
It is well documented in the literature (25,26) that short
intervals during the recovery phase also contribute to greater
residual fatigue between stimuli. This effect is associated
both with PCr and ATP concentrations, which stimulate
glycolytic metabolism during this type of activity, thereby
increasing blood lactate levels (27).
Finally, there are several determinants of involvement in
physical activity programs. As such, there are many methods
and systems of training to encourage the general population
to keep an active lifestyle. Among these training methods,
HIIT has been considered an important, time-efficient strategy
for improving physical status and body composition. How-
ever, there some barriers that should be considered to general
prescription, such as those suggested by Gray et al. (28). The
use of whole-body-type strategies to perform physical exercise
has been considered an important trend by the American
College of Sport Medicine. However, there is a lack of infor-
mation about the physiological impact of this program in the
literature. Our study shows for the first time that a single bout
of HIIT whole-body training performed at all-out intensity
generated considerable acidosis, with different external loads
according to physical exercise type (simple and complex
characteristics). As such, choosing a physical exercise program
Training loads using high-intensity exercise
Machado AF et al.
should take into consideration each individual motor experi-
ence and exercise in order to optimize the best results, con-
sidering that the external load is an important parameter for
exercise programs. Another interesting point was that through-
out the session, the cumulative impact of exercise stimuli
directly affected the potential recovery of the subjects during
rest. Therefore, parameters of both choice and exercise order
may promote different loads (internal and external) during
exercise sessions.
’ AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Machado AF, Evangelista AL and Bocalini DS conceived, designed and
conducted the study. Miranda JM, Figueira-Júnior A and Bocalini DS also
analyzed the data. Miranda JM, Teixeira CV, Rica LR, Lopes CR and
Figueira-Júnior A provided critical advice on manuscript writing. Baker JS was
responsible for approving the final version of the manuscript for submission.
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BRASIL E CUBA NO CENÁRIO ESPORTIVO INTERNACIONAL

Brazil and Cuba in the international sports scene

1
Luis Roberto Rigolin Silva ,
1
Armando Diaz González ,
2,3
Charles Ricardo Lopes

Artigo de Opinião
E-mail:
1-Programa de Pós-Graduação Lato Sensu da charles_ricardo@hotmail.com
Universidade Gama Filho.
2-Programa de Mestrado Educação Endereço para correspondência:
Física/FACIS/UNIMEP. Charles Ricardo Lopes
3-Faculdade de Educação Física – UNASP – Faculdade de Educação Física – UNIMEP,
Hortolândia.
CEP: 13400-911, Piracicaba-SP
Fone: 19 31241503

Brasil e Cuba no cenário esportivo obrigatório. A partir do ensino médio o período

internacional é integral. Todas as escolas possuem
programa de estudo único, que sofre
O Brasil é um país extenso, repleto de aperfeiçoamento em períodos programados,
diversidade e de pessoas praticando esportes. que é controlado e avaliado por um centro
Algumas modalidades esportivas como o nacional. As universidades possuem uma boa
futebol de campo, voleibol, natação e judô já qualidade de ensino.
conseguiram resultados expressivos em Brasil: No Brasil o ensino não é
Olimpíadas. Entretanto, o Brasil nunca esteve obrigatório. A parte do ensino fundamental e
entre os dez primeiros países em uma médio é de graça e de péssima qualidade
Olimpíada. Entre as possíveis justificativas (está aí o resultado do Enem para comprovar).
estão: a falta de investimento, a ausência de Quem possui condições de pagar, pode obter
políticas esportivas eficientes, a má formação um ensino de melhor qualidade em algumas
da maior parte dos técnicos, entre outras escolas particulares. São poucas as escolas
possibilidades. de ensino fundamental e médio que são em
Há questão de oito meses fui ministrar período integral. São realizadas avaliações
uma palestra para o Projeto Olímpico de constantes (uma delas é o próprio Enem), mas
Pindamonhangaba. Lá conheci o professor Dr. a qualidade do ensino fundamental e médio
Armando Díaz González, que se formou em permanece deficiente há décadas. Quanto às
Educação Física e atuou com o esporte em universidades; a maior parte das públicas
Cuba. Conversamos informalmente sobre possui boa qualidade de ensino e algumas são
vários assuntos e em parceria com o professor em período integral. Já as particulares, uma
Dr. Charles Ricardo Lopes decidimos escrever parte delas transformou o ensino em um
um ensaio sobre questões esportivas que negócio, o qual, um quer vender (a
envolvem Brasil e Cuba. A discussão se universidade), outro quer comprar (o aluno) e
transformou em um artigo de opinião, com existe alguém que pode atrapalhar o processo
diferentes temas, que teve como objetivo (o professor exigente). A outra parte das
justificar o desempenho dos dois países no universidades particulares (a menor) possui
cenário esportivo mundial. ensino de boa qualidade.

Ensino Fundamental, Médio e Universitário Os critérios utilizados para que os

profissionais possam trabalhar na prática
Cuba: A cerca do ensino em Cuba, esportiva
podemos aclarar dois pontos importantes,
primeiro, todo ensino em Cuba é de graça e Cuba: A formação acadêmica é
subsidiado 100% pelo estado, e segundo, é obrigatória. Ninguém é contratado em centros

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esportivos ou escolas para trabalhar se não
tiver graduação. Em todos os âmbitos
esportivos é exigido dos professores que eles
aprimorem sua formação de graduação com
cursos de pós-graduação, que passa pelo
estudo de idiomas, comunicação, liderança e
específicos da área esportiva. Para se
trabalhar em centros de alto rendimento as
exigências são maiores. São necessários
estudos em nível de mestrado e doutorado e a
comprovação de uma longa experiência na
prática esportiva. A exigência em relação aos
estudos se estende aos atletas também, os
mesmos não podem deixar de estudar porque
são atletas. Precisam concluir o ensino
fundamental, médio, universitário e alguns
deles, chegam a fazer o mestrado e
doutorado. Em Cuba é possível afirmar que os
resultados conseguidos em competições
nacionais e internacionais são produto da
relação que existe entre a teoria e a prática, ou
seja, os profissionais não trabalham somente
em razão de suas experiências práticas, eles
também utilizam o conhecimento teórico. Um
bom exemplo dessa assertiva é o treinador de
Boxe Alcides Zagarra, que possui mais de 40
medalhas olímpicas como treinador e é doutor
em Ciências do Esporte.
Brasil: A formação acadêmica não é
obrigatória. Em praticamente todos os âmbitos
esportivos, não é exigido que os profissionais
aprimorassem seus conhecimentos e que
façam cursos de especialização, mestrado e
doutorado. Existem vários profissionais
provisionados trabalhando com o esporte. A
maior parte dos técnicos que atua com o
esporte de alto de alto rendimento é um ex-
atleta que na melhor das hipóteses, é
graduado em Educação Física. Na escola a
exigência é um pouco maior e dificilmente será
possível encontrar um provisionado
trabalhando. Geralmente é um licenciado em
Educação Física. De uma forma ou de outra,
os profissionais que possuem formação além
de graduação, o fizeram por conta própria.
Quanto aos atletas, a maior parte deixa de
estudar desde o ensino médio para se dedicar
exclusivamente ao esporte. Quando encerram
suas carreiras, enfrentam grandes dificuldades
para se adequarem profissionalmente
(conseguirem um trabalho) e para se
manterem financeiramente. No Brasil não é
possível afirmar que os resultados
conseguidos em competições nacionais e
internacionais são produto da relação que
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existe entre a teoria e a prática, isto é, os
profissionais (principalmente os técnicos)
trabalham exclusivamente em razão de suas
experiências práticas; raramente eles se
apoiam em algum tipo de conhecimento
teórico.
O treinamento nas categorias de base
Cuba: O trabalho nas categorias de
base é realizado dos 6 aos 18 anos de idade
por meio de um programa de preparação
esportiva. Cada grupo etário tem seus
objetivos específicos para os componentes do
treinamento (físico, técnico, tático, psicológico,
etc.), que são controlados por pedagogos do
treinamento esportivo, em todas as áreas de
treinamento em todo o país. O trabalho se
fundamenta também em princípios
pedagógicos, que visam, essencialmente, a
formação integral das crianças e dos jovens. A
competição não tem um peso forte nas
categorias, exceto para aqueles esportes que,
tradicionalmente, começam mais cedo.
Brasil: O trabalho nas categorias de
base não é realizado com base em um
programa, com base em métodos de
treinamento. Os técnicos trabalham de acordo
com suas experiências práticas. Cada técnico
tem uma forma de ministrar o treinamento,
que, geralmente, é muito parecida com o que
foi aplicado no mesmo quando era atleta. A
competição tem um peso forte nas categorias
de base e os resultados são cobrados tanto
em clubes, quanto em algumas escolas.
Independente da modalidade esportiva, o
Brasil é um país que prima pela especialização
precoce.
As características dos profissionais que
trabalham com as categorias de base
Cuba: A principal característica dos
profissionais que trabalham com as categorias
de base é que eles devem ser graduados em
Licenciatura em Cultura Física e Esporte por
uma das instituições educacionais do país.
Existem profissionais que são graduados
como Técnicos Esportivos, mas para trabalhar
com as crianças e adolescentes, é necessário
estar cursando Licenciatura em uma
universidade. Para se trabalhar nos centros de
alto rendimento, onde se formam os jovens
atletas, deve-se ter no mínimo, especialização
em uma área do treinamento, dois anos de
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experiência prática no tipo de atividade e endereço do atleta, área onde treina, cidade,
resultados na formação de atletas de base. região, etc. Cada modalidade esportiva possui
Em Cuba quando se fala em resultados, não critérios de seleção de talentos que são
significa, necessariamente resultados em embasados em conceitos científicos, mas
competição e sim, o número de atletas que o inicialmente, os atletas praticam várias
profissional consegue formar com qualidade. modalidades esportivas (para que suas
Brasil: No Brasil existem vários potencialidades sejam identificadas) para que
provisionados trabalhando na formação e no futuro (nas categorias juvenis), sejam
existe uma ampla discussão no país sobre a selecionados e especializados na modalidade
aprovação da lei que permite que monitores de que possuem maior talento.
esporte trabalhem com a formação. Alguns Brasil: Os critérios da seleção da
técnicos possuem graduação em Educação promoção de talentos estão embasados nas
Física (Licenciatura ou Bacharelado), mas experiências práticas de cada técnico.
muitos deles não se atualizam. São poucos Dificilmente critérios científicos são utilizados.
técnicos que permanecem estudando e que Como os parâmetros dos técnicos são muito
aplicam princípios pedagógicos e biológicos do diferentes uns dos outros, é possível afirmar
treinamento esportivo em suas sessões de que no Brasil não existe um programa de
treinamento. Na maior parte das escolas e dos seleção e de promoção de talentos. Pode-se
clubes não existe exigência quanto ao afirmar também, que os atletas que
aprimoramento da formação acadêmica dos conseguiram ascender ao esporte de alto
profissionais (especialização, pós-graduação, rendimento, são aqueles em que a seleção
etc.). A exigência que costuma ser feita pelos natural atuou de forma decisiva. Dois vivas a
clubes e por algumas escolas é que o técnico Darwin!
tenha capacidade para ganhar competições. A
qualidade do seu trabalho, sua competência O papel da escola na formação esportiva
em formar os praticantes com qualidade, são
colocadas em segundo plano. Cuba: A escola é o primeiro passo das
crianças nas atividades esportivas, criando a
O desenvolvimento do treinamento em motivação para que elas participem de várias
longo prazo modalidades esportivas. Na escola o professor
tem a oportunidade de iniciar o processo de
Cuba: Como já dito anteriormente, formação e de observar as crianças que
durante o trabalho de formação a competição possuem potencialidades. O amor pelo
é colocada em segundo plano. Os objetivos do esporte inicia nas escolas. Na grade curricular
treinamento visam resultados em longo prazo. existe o ensino da história esportiva do país e
Em 100% dos atletas classificados para as da região onde a escola se situa, deixando
olimpíadas de Londres foi fruto do trabalho em claro que o esporte é utilizado também para
longo prazo efetuado nas categorias de base. ampliação da cultura geral dos alunos.
Brasil: No Brasil o trabalho de Durante as viagens esportivas pelo país, os
formação visa resultados em curto prazo. alunos têm contato com as particularidades de
Cada técnico quer tirar o máximo de seu atleta cada região e são ensinados quanto à cultura
na faixa etária em que atua. local.
Consequentemente, a maior parte dos atletas Brasil: Muitos atletas brasileiros
que alcançam o esporte de alto rendimento, começaram sua carreira esportiva nas
possuem várias lesões e deficiências técnicas, escolas. Eles se destacaram nas aulas de
táticas e físicas. Educação Física e foram direcionados aos
clubes esportivos. Algumas escolas possuem
A forma que é realizada a seleção de equipes de treinamento em horário
talentos extracurricular e essas escolas participam dos
campeonatos escolares. Especificamente em
Cuba: Cada modalidade esportiva tem relação às aulas de Educação Física, pode-se
uma lista de atletas em todo o país, que se dizer que existem duas tendências diferentes:
chamada reserva esportiva ou atletas de a cultura corporal e a tecnicista. Os adeptos da
perspectiva (curto, médio e longo prazo). cultura corporal são radicalmente contra o
Existe um banco de dados que consta o ensino do esporte nas aulas de educação

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física e possuem vários argumentos para tal, formados também. Essa decadência
como, afirmar que o esporte é alienante, que econômica e, consequentemente, esportiva,
ele exclui os menos favorecidos pode ser notada nos resultados de Cuba nas
geneticamente e que causa lesões. A maior Olimpíadas nos últimos 10 anos: Barcelona
o o
parte dessas pessoas certamente se frustrou 1992 (5 lugar); Atlanta 1996 (8 lugar);
o o
com o esporte em algum momento de suas Sydney 2000 (9 lugar); Atenas 2004 (11
o
vidas. Como profissionais, transferem essas lugar); Pequim 2008 (27 lugar); Londres
o
frustrações aos seus alunos, é certo que o 2012(16 lugar).
esporte pode causar vários males, mas se o Brasil: Ao contrário de Cuba, o Brasil
profissional tiver conhecimento e experiência tem se desenvolvido economicamente. Em
para agregar outros valores além do 2008 a estabilidade financeira brasileira fez
rendimento, como, cultura, lazer, cidadania, com que o país não sofresse tanto com a crise
saúde, o esporte não será danoso como os econômica, que afetou negativamente quase
seguidores da cultura corporal afirmam ser. que o mundo todo. Atualmente o Brasil é
Quanto aos tecnicistas, são aqueles considerado a sétima economia do mundo. Se
profissionais que só sabem ensinar as de um lado o Brasil melhorou
habilidades motoras e a tática de algumas economicamente, de outro, sua participação
modalidades esportivas como vôlei, futsal, em continua irregular. Na última olimpíada e
basquete e handebol. Esses profissionais na penúltima, o Brasil ficou apenas na
visam os alunos mais habilidosos e, vigésima segunda colocação. Em Sidney,
geralmente, excluem os menos favorecidos vergonhosamente, em quinquagésimo
geneticamente. Esses profissionais não segundo lugar. Apesar de o Brasil ter passado
compreendem que o esporte pode ser por momentos econômicos melhores do que
praticado como atividade física e que muitos Cuba, esse fato não se refletiu nos resultados
alunos poderiam criar o hábito de uma vida olímpicos; a única Olimpíada em que
saudável por meio das aulas de Educação conseguiu ficar à frente foi na de Pequim. Vale
Física. a pena ressaltar, também, que o Brasil nunca
esteve entre os dez melhores do mundo:
o o
É possível afirmar que a qualidade do Barcelona 1992 (25 lugar); Atlanta 1996 (25
o
trabalho de formação esportiva é a lugar); Sydney 2000 (52 lugar); Atenas
o o
responsável pelos resultados na categoria 2004(16 lugar); Pequim 2008 (22 lugar);
o
adulta? Londres 2012 (22 lugar).

Cuba: Em 100%. CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS

Brasil: No Brasil os resultados, em sua
maioria, são obra do acaso. Pelo que foi apresentado nesta
discussão, o Brasil não possui uma boa
A situação econômica dos dois países nos educação formal (em nível fundamental e
últimos anos e a relação com a médio), não apresenta boa educação
classificação em Olimpíadas universitária (salvo algumas exceções), não
tem planejamento administrativo, técnico e
Cuba: Cuba tem passado por sérios pedagógico em longo prazo, nem tão pouco
problemas econômicos nos últimos anos. Boa políticas esportivas em longo prazo e a maior
parte desses problemas foi ocasionada pelo parte dos profissionais não se preocupa em
embargo imposto pelos Estados Unidos. relacionar teoria e prática. Na parte
Muitas carências materiais têm afetado o econômica, o Brasil tem se destacado
desenvolvimento social em todas as esferas. internacionalmente. Em termos demográficos
Os investimentos em esporte, educação e o Brasil possui mais de 190 milhões de
cultura diminuíram muito. Um exemplo dessa habitantes.
assertiva é que Cuba não tem participado de Cuba tem uma boa educação formal e
várias competições internacionais por falta de universitária, tem planejamento administrativo,
apoio financeiro. O problema alcançou técnico e pedagógico em longo prazo, possui
também as escolas de formação esportiva, políticas esportivas em longo prazo e os
pois o número de matrículas diminuiu profissionais se preocupam em relacionar
sensivelmente e a quantidade de talentos teoria e prática. Na parte econômica Cuba tem

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w w w . i b p e f e x . c o m . b r / w w w . r b f f . c o m . b r

passado por sérias dificuldades. Em termos

demográficos Cuba possui aproximadamente
11 milhões de habitantes.

CONCLUSÃO

Levando-se em consideração todas as

informações contidas neste texto, conclui-se
que, o conhecimento científico e o
planejamento em longo prazo, são
fundamentais ao país que almeja se tornar
uma potência Olímpica.
A parte econômica e a estrutura
esportiva também são importantes, no entanto
Cuba é a prova visceral de que conhecimento
científico e planejamento podem superar
carências econômicas e estruturais.

Recebido para publicação 10/05/2013

Aceito em 23/05/2013

Revista Brasileira de Futsal e Futebol, São Paulo, v.5, n.16, p.164-168. Maio/Jun/Jul/Ago. 2013. ISSN 1984-4956
DOI: 10.4025/jphyseduc.v31i1.3144

Artigo Original

SESSÃO DE TREINAMENTO DE FORCA SUPERVISIONADA AUMENTA A

CARGA TOTAL LEVANTADA E AS RESPOSTAS SUBJETIVAS EM SUJEITOS
TREINADOS

SUPERVISED RESISTANCE TRAINING SESSION INCREASES THE VOLUME LOAD

AND THE SUBJECTIVE RESPONSES IN WELL-TRAINED MEN
1,2,3 1,4 1 1,3
Charles Ricardo Lopes , Enrico Gori Soares , Luan Oenning , Felipe Alves Brigatto , Paulo Henrique
5
Marchetti
1
Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba, Piracicaba-SP, Brasil.
2
Instituto Adventista São Paulo, Hortolândia-SP, Brasil.
3
Centro Universitário Anhanguera, Leme-SP, Brasil.
4
Universidade Nove de Julho, São Paulo-SP, Brasil.
5
California State University, Northridge-CA, Estados Unidos da América.

RESUMO
O treinamento de forca (TF) com supervisão pode afetar a carga total levantada (CTL), o número total de repetições (NTR), o
tempo líquido sob tensão (TLT) e a percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) em indivíduos experientes em TF. O objetivo do
presente estudo foi avaliar o efeito da supervisão do personal trainer na sessão de indivíduos experientes em TF. Quinze
homens (20,0±2 anos; 176,0±4 cm; 79,3±4,7 kg) experientes com o TF realizaram duas sessões compostas com exercícios
para o corpo todo. Na sessão sem supervisão do personal trainer (SPT) os sujeitos auto selecionaram as intensidades
utilizadas nos exercícios e foram orientados à “selecionar a sobrecarga que eles tipicamente utilizam para realizar 10
repetições”; na sessão com a supervisão do personal trainer (CPT) os sujeitos auto selecionaram as intensidades utilizadas
nos exercícios e foram orientados à “realizar o máximo de esforço possível”. Foi observada maior CTL (P<0,001, Δ%=30),
NTR (P<0,001, Δ%=29), TLT (P=0,003, Δ%=21) e PSE (P<0,001, Δ%=29) na sessão de TF. O presente estudo concluiu que
as sessões com supervisão de um personal trainer afetam positivamente as variáveis do treinamento.
Palavras-chave: Treinamento de Força; Personal Training; Desempenho.

ABSTRACT
Supervised resistance training may affect several acute variables such as volume load (VL), the maximum number of
repetitions (NRM), time under tension (TUT), and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) in resistance trained-men. The present
study aimed to evaluate the influence of the personal trainer’s supervision on a resistance training session in resistance
trained-men. Fifteen resistance-trained men (20,0±2 years; 176,0±4 cm; 79,3±4,7 kg) performed two training sessions
composed of whole-body exercises. In the session without personal trainer’s supervision (NPT) the subjects self-selected
their loads for each exercise and were oriented to “select a load typically employed to perform 10 repetitions”; in the session
with personal trainer’s supervision (WPT) the subjects self-selected their loads for each exercise and were oriented to
“perform maximum effort”. It was observed greater VL (P<0,001, Δ%=30), NRM (P<0,001, Δ%=29), TUT (P=0,003,
Δ%=21), and RPE (P<0,001, Δ%=29) in the resistance training session WPT. The present study concluded that supervised
sessions positively affect resistance training variables.
Keywords: Resistance Training; Personal Training; Performance.

Introdução

A prescrição individualizada e o acompanhamento das sessões de treinamento de força

(TF) são as principais funções do personal trainer1. Além de selecionar a melhor combinação
das variáveis agudas do TF, esse profissional deve supervisionar diariamente as sessões de
seus clientes para garantir que a técnica e a intensidade adequada sejam utilizadas nos
exercícios1-4. Entretanto, existem poucas evidencias na literatura científica que investigaram o
efeito da supervisão do personal trainer na sessão de TF de praticantes experientes (>1 ano
ininterrupto) com o TF4.

J. Phys. Educ. v. 31, e3144, 2020.

Página 2 de 7 Lopes et al.

Estudos prévios investigando praticantes iniciantes sugerem que a supervisão de um

personal trainer afeta positivamente as cargas auto selecionadas4-6 e causam maiores índices
de esforço percebido na sessão de TF5,6. Focht6 compararam a percepção subjetiva de esforço
(PSE) após a realização de uma sessão de TF com intensidade imposta (75% de uma repetição
máxima [1RM]) ou auto-selecionada por mulheres inexperientes com o TF. Foi observado
que as mulheres utilizaram intensidades de ~53% de 1RM e reportaram índices de esforço
percebido menores que a sessão com intensidade imposta. Similarmente, Ratamess et al.,4
reportaram que praticantes mulheres auto-selecionaram intensidades menores em uma sessão
de TF sem supervisão (~ 42% de 1RM para realizar 10 repetições) se comparada com a
supervisão do personal trainer (~51% de 1RM para realizar 10 repetições).
No que tange o atual conhecimento dos autores, nenhum estudo investigou como
homens experientes em TF respondem à supervisão de um personal trainer. Normalmente,
indivíduos experientes empregam intensidades maiores, tipicamente utilizam repetições até
atingir a falha muscular concêntrica e reportam mais precisamente os índices de esforço
percebido nas sessões de TF7-10. Por outro lado, esses indivíduos podem apresentar platôs de
treinamento e maior dificuldade para aumentar as cargas de treinamento11. Portanto, o
objetivo do presente estudo foi avaliar o efeito da supervisão do personal trainer na sessão de
TF em indivíduos treinados. A principal hipótese do presente estudo é que a supervisão irá
afetar positivamente a sessão de TF de praticantes experientes.

Métodos

Participantes
Quinze homens hígidos se voluntariaram para participar deste estudo (Idade: 20±2
anos; estatura: 176,0±4,0 cm; massa corporal total: 79,3±4,7 kg). Todos os participantes
reportaram praticar TF ininterruptamente por mais de um ano (Tempo de prática:1,8±0,8 ano)
com uma frequência mínima de 3 sessões na semana (Frequência semanal: 4±1 sessões) e ter
como principal objetivo o aumento da massa muscular. Adicionalmente, nenhum dos
participanetes reportou ter treinado com a supervisão de um personal trainer previamente, ou
ter quaisquer acometimentos (lesões ou cirurgias) osteomioarticulares nos 6 meses prévios às
coletas de dados, além de não terem reportado qualquer dor/restrição que limitasse a
realização ou o desempenho nos exercícios selecionados. Os participantes leram e assinaram
um Termo de Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa
com Seres Humanos da Universidade (Protocolo n° 39/13).

Procedimentos
Todos os participantes realizaram 3 sessões ao labotatório, espaçadas por 72 horas. Na
primeira sessão foram coletados os dados pessoais e antropométricos dos participantes.
Posteriormente, foi realizada familiarização com os procedimentos experimentais para
garantir que os participantes fossem capazes de realizar os exercícios com a técnica correta e
sem a supervisão do personal trainer. A familiarização foi composta pelos exercícios: (i)
supino reto; (ii) tríceps na polia; (iii) remada baixa; (iv) rosca direta; (v) agachamento; (vi)
cadeira extensora; (vii) cadeira flexora. A técnica de execução de cada um dos exercícios foi
baseada nas recomendações da National Strength and Conditining Association1. Foram
realizadas 2 séries de 10 repetições com a carga auto-selecionada, utilizando 1 minuto de
recuperação entre as séries e 2 minutos entre exercícios.
A sessão de TF foi elaborada para aproximar-se a prática dos participantes. Os
exercícios selecionados faziam parte das rotinas de TF dos participantes para minimizar
efeitos de aprendizagem em equipamentos diferentes; a cadência foi auto-selecionada
(Nobrega et al.12); as sobrecargas foram auto-selecionadas baseadas na seguinte orientação:
J. Phys. Educ. v. 31, e3144, 2020.
Efeito da supervisão em uma sessão de treinamento de força Página 3 de 7

“você deve selecionar a sobrecarga que tipicamente utiliza para realizar 10 repetições em cada
uma das séries e exercícios”. Assim, foi permitido que o participante aumentasse ou reduzisse
a sobrecarga caso desejasse. Todos os participantes foram orientados a realizar 4 séries de 10
repetições utilizando 1 minuto de intervalo de recuperação entre séries e 2 minutos entre
exercícios. A segunda e terceira sessões foram aleatorizadas entre os participantes através do
software Research Randomizer (https://www.randomizer.org/) e serviram para comparar as
sessões sem e com a supervisão do personal trainer. Trinta minutos após o término de ambas
as sessões, a percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) foi avaliada por meio da escala CR-10 de
acordo com as recomendações de Sweet et al.13. Os participantes reportaram o esforço geral
da sessão através de uma escala de 0 a 10 unidades arbitrárias, sendo o valor zero associado
ao repouso/nenhum esforço e 10 o maior esforço possível em uma sessão de TF. A pergunta
padrão utilizada foi: Baseado na escala de 0 a 10, qual foi seu esforço durante o treino?

Sessão sem supervisão do Personal Trainer (SPT)

Esta sessão foi composta pelos mesmos exercícios realizados previamente e seguiram
as mesmas orientações que a familiarização. Cada participante completou 4 séries de 10
repetições com a carga auto-selecionada, utilizando 1 minuto de recuperação entre as séries e
2 minutos entre os exercícios. Os participantes foram orientados verbalmente baseados na
seguinte orientação: “você deve selecionar a sobrecarga que tipicamente utiliza para realizar
10 repetições em cada uma das séries e exercícios”. Assim, os participantes eram livres para
aumentar ou reduzir as sobrecargas caso desejassem. A PSE após o término da sessão, as
sobrecargas utilizadas em cada uma das séries e exercícios foram avaliadas.

Sessão com supervisão do Personal Trainer (CPT)

Esta sessão foi composta pelos mesmos exercícios realizados previamente e seguindo
as mesmas orientações que a familiarização. Cada participante completou 4 séries de 10
repetições com a carga auto-selecionada, utilizando 1 minuto de recuperação entre as séries e
2 minutos entre os exercícios. Os participantes foram orientados verbalmente baseados na
seguinte orientação: “você deve selecionar a sobrecarga que tipicamente utiliza para realizar
10 repetições em cada uma das séries e exercícios”. Os participantes também foram
encorajados pelo Personal Trainer a “realizar o máximo esforço possível” e a focar sua
atenção no exercício (foco externo) e não especificamente no grupo muscular trabalhado
(foco interno). Nos exercícios com barras (supino reto, tríceps na polia, remada baixa, rosca
direta e agachamento) os participantes foram instruídos a “exercer força para levantar,
abaixar, empurrar ou puxar a barra”. Nos exercícios com máquinas (cadeira extensora e
cadeira flexora) os participantes foram instruídos a “exercer força para empurrar ou puxar o
rolete de espuma”.
Todas as orientações e o encorajamento verbal foram realizados ligeiramente acima de
um volume normal de conversa. Entretanto, os participantes ainda eram livres para aumentar
ou reduzir as sobrecargas caso desejassem. Caso o participante atingisse a falha muscular
concêntrica, o Personal Trainer auxiliou no término da última repetição; entretanto esta
última repetição não foi incluída na análise posterior. A PSE após o término da sessão, as
sobrecargas utilizadas em cada uma das séries e exercícios foram avaliadas.

Análise dos dados

Todos os dados foram transferidos para um computador pessoal e tabulados em uma
planilha. Todos os dados foram reportados através de media e desvio padrão da media. O
número total de repetições (NTR) foi somado em cada uma das séries para cada exercício. A
carga total levantada (CTL) para cada exercício foi calculada pela fórmula: CTL = Σ séries
(número total de repetições x sobrecarga em kgf). Posteriormente, a CTL da sessão foi
J. Phys. Educ. v. 31, e3144, 2020.
Página 4 de 7 Lopes et al.

calculada pela soma da CTL em cada exercício. O tempo líquido sobre tensão (TLT) foi
calculado subtraindo a somatória dos intervalos de recuperação do tempo total da sessão.

Análise estatística
A normalidade dos dados e a homogeneidade das variâncias foram confirmadas pelo
teste de Shapiro-Wilk e Levene, respectivamente. Para a comparação das médias das variáveis
dependentes (NTR, CTL, TLT e PSE) foi empregado o teste t pareado. O cálculo do tamanho
do efeito (d) foi realizado através da fórmula de Cohen (Cohen-d): d = Média1 – Média2 /
Desvio Padrãocombinado, sendo Desvio Padrãocombinado = √[(Desvio Padrão12 + Desvio
Padrão22)/2]. Os resultados foram baseados nos seguintes critérios: <0,2 = efeito trivial; ≥0,2-
0,5 efeito pequeno; ≥0,5-0,80 efeito moderado; e ≥0,8 efeito grande[14]. Significância (α) de
5% foi adotada em todos os testes estatísticos, através do software SPSS versão 22.0 (IBM
Corp., Armonk, NY, EUA).

Resultados

Os valores médios de NTR, CTL, TLT e PSE da sessão supervisionada (CPT), foram
maiores quando comparados a sessão sem supervisão (SPT) (Tabela 1).

Tabela 1. Média e desvio padrão das variáveis do TF entre as sessões com e sem supervisão
SPT CPT P d Δ%
NTR (rep) 280±0 363±40* <0,001 2,9 [G] 29,63
CTL (kgf) 9618±2350 12535±2958* <0,001 1,09 [G] 30,27
TLT (min) 14±3 17±2* 0,003 1,17 [G] 21,42
PSE 7±1 10±0* <0,001 2,9 [G] 29,63
Nota: SPT = sessão sem supervisão, CPT = sessão com supervisão, NTR = número total de repetições, CTL = carga total
levantada, TLT = tempo líquido sob tensão, PSE = percepção subjetiva de esforço, G = grande efeito. * significa diferença
significante entre sessões de treinamento de força (CPT vs. SPT)
Fonte: Os autores

Discussão

Os principais achados do presente estudo indicam que o número total de repetições, a

carga total levantada, o tempo líquido sob tensão e a percepção subjetiva de esforço foram
significativamente maiores na sessão de TF com a supervisão de um Personal Trainer quando
comparada à sessão sem supervisão. Tais resultados corroboram com a hipótese inicial. Estes
achados corroboram com estudos prévios que demonstram superioridade do TF
supervisionado4,15. Dias et al.15 verificaram que as cargas auto selecionadas no leg press,
supino reto, cadeira extensora e rosca de bíceps foram respectivamente 15, 26, 12 e 22%
maiores em uma sessão de TF supervisionada por personal trainer quando comparada a uma
sessão sem supervisão. Similarmente, Ratamess et al.4 observaram que mulheres selecionam
sobrecargas relativamente maiores para realizar 10 repetições nos exercícios supino máquina,
legpress, remada sentada e cadeira extensora na presença de um personal trainer.
Estudos crônicos também apresentam resultados favoráveis à supervisão no TF2,3.
Mazzetti et al.,3 compararam as mudanças na força máxima, potência e resistência de força
após 12 semanas de treinamento periodizado supervisionado ou não por um Personal Trainer.
Não foram observadas diferenças na potência e na resistência de força entre os grupos
supervisionado e não supervisionado. Entretanto, os autores verificaram maior CTL no grupo
supervisionado no exercício agachamento entre as semanas 7 a 11 e no exercício supino reto
entre as semanas 7 a 12. Adicionalmente, as taxas de melhora na força e a força máxima
nesses dois exercícios foram significantemente maiores no grupo supervisionado. Por fim,
J. Phys. Educ. v. 31, e3144, 2020.
Efeito da supervisão em uma sessão de treinamento de força Página 5 de 7

somente o grupo supervisionado apresentou aumento da massa corporal total, massa de

gordura total e massa livre de gordura. Storer et al.,2 compararam as mudanças na força
máxima e na composição corporal após 12 semanas de TF periodizado supervisionado ou não
por um Personal Trainer. Somente os indivíduos supervisionados aumentaram a massa livre
de gordura. Adicionalmente, os ganhos de força para os exercícios supino reto e leg press
foram maiores no grupo supervisionado. Coletivamente, os resultados do presente estudo e de
estudos prévios demonstram agudamente e cronicamente a superioridade do TF
supervisionado por um Personal trainer.
Uma das principais diferenças da sessão supervisionada foi o encorajamento verbal
para realizar o máximo esforço possível. McNair et al.16 obervaram 5% de aumento no pico
de força na flexão do cotovelo quando os sujetos foram verbalmente encorajados a realizar o
teste de contração voluntária máxima isométrica. Weakley et al.17 compararam a velocidade
da barra durante a realização do exercício agachamento (10 repetições a 75% de 1RM) com e
sem encorajamento verbal de um técnico de força e condicionamento. Os resultados
revelaram que a velocidade da barra foi em média 6,6% maior na condição com
encorajamento se comparada à condição sem encorajamento. No presente estudo, o
encorajamento verbal ea atenção do indivíduo para o exercício realizado podem ter afetado os
resultados obtidos. A orientação para um exercício pode direcionar um indivíduo a focar sua
atenção nos movimentos corporais e grupos musculares (foco interno) ou focar sua atenção no
exercício e no ambiente (foco externo)18,19. Um exemplo disso é orientar durante o exercício
agachamento “contraia o glúteo na subida” (foco interno) ou “empurre a barra para cima”
(foco externo)[18]. Estudos indicam ser possível enfatizar a ativação de certos grupos
musculares em um exercício utilizando o foco interno20,21; entretanto, a revisão realizadas por
Wulf19 demonstra que o desempenho em atividades força-dependentes (resistência de força,
força máxima isométrica/dinâmica e potência) é maior quando os praticantes são orientados a
focar externamente na atividade. Marchant et al.22 comparou o número de repetições máximas
nos exercícios agachamento e supino reto realizados com 75% de 1RM após a instrução para
“focar em exercer força na barra” (orientação para foco externo) ou “focar em exercer força
com os braços/pernas” (orientação para o foco interno). Os resultados indicaram aumento de 9
e 11% no número de repetições máximas realizadas no exercício agachamento e supino,
respectivamente. No presente estudo, o Personal Trainer utilizou as orientações para que os
praticantes focassem externamente nos exercícios. Apesar deste estudo não ter como objetivo
direto comparar o foco externo e interno, as orientações voltadas para o foco externo podem
ter favorecido o maior número de repetições, carga total levantada e tempo líquido sob tensão.
Adicionalmente, todos os participantes do presente estudo reportaram maior PSE na
sessão com supervisão do Personal Trainer. Tiggermann et al.9 propuseram que os sinais
aferentes dos músculos, articulações e pele são combinados com um recordatório de
atividades quando o valor de PSE é reportado. Segundo os autores, a principal variável que
afetaria a PSE seria a realização do exercício até a falha muscular concêntrica. Desta forma, é
possível que apenas através da supervisão os participantes tenham realizado o esforço
máximo. Barbosa-Neto et al.23 demonstraram que, em uma amostra composta por 160 homens
com mais de 6 meses de experiência em TF, a maioria dos indivíduos conseguiu realizar um
número de repetições acima do previsto para a carga auto selecionada. Nesse estudo, foi
analisado o número de repetições máximas que os praticantes de TF conseguem realizar com
a sobrecarga comumente utilizada (auto-selecionada) para executar 10 repetições em suas
rotinas de TF. O exercício avaliado foi o supino reto e, dos 160 sujeitos, apenas 22%
atingiram a falha muscular concêntrica na margem de 10-12RM, 31% executaram entre 13-
15RM e 47% da amostra realizou mais de 15RM. Excluindo os sujeitos que de fato
executaram 10RM com a sobrecarga auto selecionada, o estudo mostrou que 95,6% dos
indivíduos treinam de maneira submáxima. Apesar de não haver consenso na literatura que a
J. Phys. Educ. v. 31, e3144, 2020.
Página 6 de 7 Lopes et al.

falha muscular concêntrica seja fundamental24,25, o número adicional de repetições e o

consequente aumento na CTL e TLT parecem favorecer as adaptações do TF26-31.
O presente estudo apresenta algumas limitações. A sessão de TF foi aguda e
desenvolvida para assemelhar-se à prática de indivíduos experientes com o objetivo principal
de ganho de massa muscular. Portanto, os resultados encontrados podem não ser
generalizados para outras populações ou objetivos.

Conclusões

O presente estudo concluiu que as sessões de TF com supervisão afetam positivamente

as variáveis de treinamento como número total de repetições, carga total levantada, tempo
líquido sob tensão e percepção subjetiva de esforço quando comparadas sessões sem
supervisão de um Personal Trainer.

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ORCID dos autores:

Charles Ricardo Lopes: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0003-4278-4969
Enrico Gori Soares: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-8168-9828
Luan Oenning: https://orcid.org 0000-0002-6832-6715
Felipe Alves Brigatto: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0003-4351-0855
Paulo Henrique Marchetti: https://orcid.org/ 0000-0002-2016-936X
Recebido em 21/11/18.
Revisado em 03/12/19.
Aceito em 20/02/20.
Endereço para correspondência: Charles Ricardo Lopes. Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba, Campus Taquaral – Bloco 7
sala 41, Piracicaba, Rodovia do Açúcar s.n. São Paulo, Brasil. E-mail:
charles_ricardo@hotmail.com

J. Phys. Educ. v. 31, e3144, 2020.

 Artigo de Revisão

Características e monitoramento do tapering no

triathlon: uma revisão sistemática

Characteristics and monitoring of tapering

in triathlon: a systematic review

BUCK KH, BRAZ TV, VILELA JUNIOR GB, LOPES CR. Características e
Kelmerson H. Buck1
monitoramento do tapering no triathlon: uma revisão sistemática. R. bras. Ci. e
Tiago V. Braz1
Mov 2017;25(3):150-158. Guanis B. Vilela Junior1
Charles R. Lopes1
RESUMO: O tapering é o momento da periodização em que a carga de treino é reduzida visando à
minimização do estresse fisiológico, biomecânico e psicológico, acarretando a otimização da 1
performance. O objetivo foi apresentar e discutir as características e monitoramento do tapering no Universidade Metodista
triathlon. A partir dos critérios de seleção estabelecidos, foram encontrados 7 artigos. As evidências de Piracicaba
apontam que no tapering para triatletas treinados deve ocorrer redução do volume de treinamento na
natação em torno de 41% a 60%, no ciclismo e corrida de 21% a 60%. Deve-se manter a intensidade
durante o tapering com a utilização do tipo exponencial de queda rápida, durando de 8 a 14 dias no
ciclismo e corrida, bem como, 21 dias na natação. O período pré tapering determina a magnitude dos
efeitos do tapering, com expectativa do aumento de performance de 3% na competição.

Palavras-chave: Educação física e treinamento; Resistência física; Tapering; Desempenho atlético;

Triathlon.

ABSTRACT: Tapering is the time of periodization when training load is reduced in order to lower the
physiological, biomechanical and psychological stress thus leading to an improved performance. This
paper aims to present and discuss the characteristics and monitoring of taper in triathlon. According to
the established search criteria, 7 papers were found. Current evidence show that volume training
should be lowered in 41% to 60% for swimming and 21% to 60% for cycling and running in the
tapering for trained triathletes. Training intensity must be maintained during rapid exponential fall
mode taper. It should last from 8 to 14 days for running and cycling and 21 days for swimming. The
pre tapering period determines the magnitude of tapering results, and a 3% performance increase is
expected in the competition.

Key Words: Physical education and training; Physical endurance; Tapering; Athletic performance;
Triathlon.

Contato: Kelmerson Henri Buck - buck@coreesportes.com.br Recebido: 13/12/2015

Aceito: 05/03/2017
Josiana Ayala Ledur - josiled@hotmail.com
151 Tapering no triathlon

Introdução
O termo tapering em ciências do esporte tem sido utilizado para descrever a fase do treinamento antecedente as
diversas competições realizadas pelos atletas, sendo o momento da periodização em que a carga de treino é reduzida
visando à minimização do estresse fisiológico, biomecânico e psicológico, acarretando a maximização da
performance1,2. É neste momento que treinadores buscam a recuperação completa e supercompensação do efeito
somativo das cargas geradas em microciclos anteriores promovendo picos de performance, sendo uma estratégia prática
utilizada para otimizar o desempenho antes de uma competição importante, sobretudo aplicado em esportes de
endurance, em que as competições alvo acontecem em períodos específicos do macrociclo de treinamento 2,3,4
De acordo com Mujika5, o tapering pode ser modulado por meio da manipulação das variáveis de carga de
treino (volume, intensidade e frequência), duração e tipo de tapering (exponencial de queda lenta e rápida, linear e
etapas). Esta manipulação pode implicar na redução dos efeitos negativos (fadiga acumulada) gerados pelo treinamento
diário, sem, no entanto perder os efeitos positivos (adaptações fisiológicas) 6,7. Após períodos intensos de treinamento a
redução da carga pode promover incremento de performance em atletas de alto rendimento, sendo o tapering, uma
prática comum na preparação olímpica e campeonatos mundiais, assim como, em competições com atletas
recreacionais3,8.
A literatura tem demonstrado melhora do rendimento durante competições em diversos esportes, como
natação, ciclismo, corrida, remo e triathlon6. Mujika et al.9 citam o aumento no consumo máximo de oxigênio (VO 2máx),
equilíbrio positivo entre a produção e destruição de eritrócitos e redução das concentrações sanguíneas de
creatinaquinase (CK) após a aplicação de 7 a 28 dias de tapering. Plews et al.10 encontraram redução da atividade
autonômica simpática pós tapering com incremento de variáveis parassimpáticas que caracterizam estado de
recuperação fisiológica em repouso de atletas de endurance em competições alvo. Ao mesmo tempo, podem ocorrer
alterações como redução da percepção subjetiva de esforço, de distúrbios de humor, da percepção de fadiga, aumento da
sensação de vigor, melhora na qualidade do sono, sugerindo melhor recuperação da rotina diária de treinamento 3.
As evidências científicas justificam a importância da utilização do tapering na prática do treinamento de
modalidades de endurance11. No entanto, com exceção do estudo de Mujika5, não foram encontradas até o presente
momento, pesquisas que discutiram especificamente o tapering para triatletas. Além disto, apesar da crescente evolução
da modalidade no Brasil, também não existem estudos nacionais discutindo tapering e triathlon, evidenciando a
relevância da presente pesquisa. Diante deste contexto, o presente trabalho buscou revisar na literatura estudos sobre as
características e monitoramento do tapering em diferentes provas do triathlon (Sprint, Olímpico, Ironman 70.3,
Ironman e Ultraman).

Materiais e método
O presente estudo trata-se de uma revisão sistemática da teoria do tapering para o triathlon. Foi adotada a
recomendação PRISMA com check list dos itens e fluxograma da informação com as 4 diferentes fases de uma revisão
sistemática (Identificação, Seleção, Elegibilidade e Inclusão). No processo de identificação a busca de artigos foi feita
por 3 pesquisadores independentes nas seguintes bases eletrônicas: EBSCO HOST, SCOPUS, SCIELO e PUBMED. Os
critérios de seleção de artigos foram: 1) constar as seguintes combinações de palavras chave em inglês: tapering and
triathlon “ou” functional overreaching and triathlon “ou” periodization and triathlon; 2) Serem publicados a partir do
ano 1998 (optou-se por este corte temporal devido aos estudos pioneiros desenvolvidos por Mujika (1998) e Banister,
Carter, Zarkadas (1999), que destacaram de forma relevante as variáveis de análise desta pesquisa) a 2015; 3) a amostra
dos artigos deveria ser composta por praticantes não recreacionais de triathlon e detalhar os procedimentos para
diminuição da carga do treinamento no Tapering e 4) artigos de revisão que discutiam estudos com os critérios 1 e 2

R. bras. Ci. e Mov 2017;25(3):150-158.

BUCK et al. 152

também foram considerados.

Resultados
Após o filtro das buscas com as palavras-chave foram encontrados 44 artigos. Desses, foram excluídos os
experimentos que não detalhavam o período de redução da carga de treinamento (7 artigos), momentos que não
representavam a fase pré-competitiva (4 artigos) e amostra de triatletas recreacionais (2 artigos). Assim, 31 estudos
fizeram parte das referências do presente estudo, dos quais, 9 são artigos de revisão e 22 originais. Os 31 artigos foram
lidos por 3 pesquisadores independentes, sendo que 24 artigos foram excluídos por não constarem o detalhamento da
amostra (n= 5,ex: Dupuy et al.23 = atletas de endurance), descreverem o efeito do tapering com outras modalidades (n=
10, ex: Mujika8 = nadadores de elite) ou serem artigos de revisão (n= 9, ex: Bosquet et al.6). O fluxograma do processo
de seleção dos artigos e resultados da inclusão no estudo podem ser visualizados na figura 1.

Figura 1. Fluxograma do processo de seleção dos artigos e resultados da inclusão no estudo.

No processo final de inclusão dos estudos envolvendo tapering e triathlon foi elaborado um quadro sinótico
(quadro 1) com os dados extraídos das pesquisas com artigos originais de tapering envolvendo o triathlon (n=7) com
autor, amostra estudada, prova disputada, duração do tapering, tipo de tapering e resultados principais dos estudos.

R. bras. Ci. e Mov 2017;25(3):150-158.

153 Tapering no triathlon
Quadro 1. Descrição dos artigos originais selecionados de tapering com triathlon.

Triathlon Duração do
Autor(es) Amostra Tapering Resultados
(Prova) Tapering

33 triatletas Olímpico Tapering 1

1 (M) (1.5 km natação– (1sem.) + ↓30% do volume e ↔ da VO2máx (↑2-4%)
Aubry et al.
(3 anos, 7x 40 km ciclismo– Tapering 2 intensidade
sem.) 10 km corrida) (4sem.)
Ironman
↓do volume em degrau, caída
(3.8 km natação /
Banister et 14 triatletas rápida, lenta e exponencial VO2máx (↑1-8%)
180 km ciclismo 2 sem.
al.7 (M) (22 a 65%) e ↔ da 5km (↓1–6%)
/ 42 km de
intensidade
corrida)
↓do volume de forma VO2máx (~↑2%)
Coutts, 16 triatletas
exponencial (↓ a cada 2 dias: 3km (↓7%)
Slattery e (M) (3 anos, 8x Não relatado 2 sem.
45%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10% e Hemoglobina (~↑1)
Wallace20 sem.)
5%) e ↔ da intensidade Testosterona:cortisol (~↑5)
27 triatletas
VO2máx (~↑3% a ↓1% )
Hausswirth et (M) ↓50% do volume e ↔ da
Não relatado 2 sem. TIM watts (~↑0,5 a 4%)
al.21 (3 anos, 7x intensidade
↑ Qualidade do sono
sem.)
21 triatletas Olímpico Tapering 1
Le Meur et (M) (1.5 km natação– (1sem.) + ↓50% do volume e ↔ da TIM (↑19%)
al.15 (2 anos, 6x 40 km ciclismo– Tapering 2 intensidade FC no Limiar Lactato (~↓10bpm)
sem.) 10 km corrida) (1sem.)
Olímpico ↓do volume na natação,
Tapering para Parâmetros de performance não
1 triatleta (F) (1.5 km natação– Olimpíada
ciclismo e corrida em 38%, relatados. Somente posição em
Mujika18
de elite 40 km ciclismo– Londres (2012)40% e 24% e ↔ da competições do ano (7º em Londres-
10 km corrida) 3 sem. intensidade 2012 e 8º do ranking mundial)
Atleta F no taper interrupção
2 triatletas de Olímpico
do treinamento devido ao Atleta F queda da imunidade (vírus
elite (1F/1M) (1.5 km natação–
Plews et al.10 3 sem. ONF/ Atleta M ↓ de 3 a 5% herpes zoster)/ Atleta M ↑ da atividade
(24 a 26h por 40 km ciclismo–
no volume e ↔ da vagal próximo a competição
sem.) 10 km corrida)
intensidade
Legenda:↑= aumento, ↔= manutenção, ↓= diminuição, sem.= semana, M = masculino, F= Feminino, ONF = Overreaching Não Funcional, FC =
Frequência Cardíaca, TIM = Teste incremental máximo.

Discussão
Determinação da carga, duração e tipos de tapering
A carga de treinamento no triathlon é determinada por meio da combinação das variáveis volume, intensidade
e frequência de treino7. O volume é a variável mais sensível a ser modulada no tapering, sendo que sua redução tem
sido determinante nos resultados dos estudos5. Na natação, ocorre redução de 41% a 60% na fase de tapering, já no
ciclismo e na corrida a redução é de 21% a 60%. Esta redução pode acontecer através da diminuição do volume de cada
sessão de treino ou por meio da diminuição da frequência de treino (número de sessões de treino) ou ainda pela
combinação de ambas (volume e frequência). A diminuição do volume de cada sessão de treino é a maneira de redução
da carga através da qual se encontraram os resultados mais eficientes em ganho de performance, quando comparados
com a diminuição da intensidade ou frequência de treino 2,3,6. A grande variabilidade encontrada nos artigos quanto à
redução do volume durante o tapering é função da carga de treino no período pré tapering, da individualidade biológica
e da modalidade.
A frequência de treinamentos semanais é dependente de variáveis como volume, intensidade, modelo de
tapering e sua duração, dificultando sua análise isoladamente. Adicionalmente, Bousquet et al.6 sugerem que a
manutenção da frequência em 80% dos valores pré-tapering devem ser mantidos para atletas altamente treinados. Essa
frequência de treinamentos poderia ser reduzida de 30 a 50% em indivíduos com nível de treinamento em esportes
menos dependentes da técnica como corrida e ciclismo 2.
Em relação à intensidade, têm sido sugerido a manutenção ou pequeno aumento da intensidade do treinamento
durante o tapering9. A manutenção ou aumento da intensidade durante o tapering induz alterações fisiológicas e de
desempenho, tais como o aumento do volume total de sangue, de células vermelhas, da enzima citratosintase, dos níveis
de glicogênio muscular, de testosterona circulante, da força muscular e do tempo de corrida até a exaustão, sugerindo
R. bras. Ci. e Mov 2017;25(3):150-158.
BUCK et al. 154

que triatletas devem buscar a manutenção ou pequeno incremento da intensidade dos treinamentos durante o
tapering3,12,13.
A metanálise realizada por Bousquet et al.6 demonstrou incrementos na performance de uma até quatro
semanas, sendo que o intervalo de 8 a 14 dias foi o período com os melhores resultados para o ciclismo e corrida, com
cerca de 21 dias para a natação13. Essa variação do número de dias de tapering para cada modalidade relaciona-se com a
carga de treino no pré tapering e com as respostas (fisiológicas e psicológicas) individuais do atleta em cada
modalidade.
Assim, de acordo com Mujika5, o tapering pode ser classificado em linear, exponencial de queda lenta,
exponencial de queda rápida e em etapas. A principal diferença é a maneira em que a carga de treinamento é reduzida
durante o período do tapering. No linear a carga de treinamento é reduzida de forma sistemática e linear, enquanto que,
no exponencial, a carga de treinamento é reduzida de forma exponencial, podendo ser na forma de queda lenta ou de
queda rápida. Já no tapering em etapas, a carga de treinamento é reduzida repentinamente em uma quantidade
constante.
Banister et al.7 compararam em triatletas, o tapering exponencial ao tapering em etapas, observando que no
exponencial ocorreram os maiores incrementos no tempo de corrida nos 5000 metros e VO 2máx. O tapering exponencial
de queda rápida mostrou-se mais eficaz que o de queda lenta7. Os achados de Aubry1, Hellard at al.12, Bousquet et al.6,
Mujika e Padilla2 também demonstraram evidências de que o tapering exponencial de queda rápida apresentou maiores
ganhos de performance na competição, quando comparado aos outros 3 tipos.
Além disto, o período de treinamento que antecede o tapering pode determinar a metodologia de redução da
carga de treino e o tipo de tapering a ser utilizado. O período de 2 a 4 semanas que antecedem o tapering pode ser
considerado como fase de overload de treino, ou sobrecarga, tanto no volume quanto na intensidade, esperando-se que
aconteça o processo de supercompensação na fase seguinte, o tapering14,6,11. Thomas e Busso11 demonstraram por meio
de modelo matemático que um aumento de 20% da carga de treino durante 28 dias que antecediam o tapering poderia
induzir maiores ganhos de desempenho em comparação a carga habitual de treino. Em adição, Le Meur et al.15,
verificaram em triatletas que 3 semanas de sobrecarga seguido de 1 semana de tapering promoveu redução de
performance na fase de sobrecarga (9%), comportamento este, esperado para caracterizar o overreaching funcional e
posterior supercompensação em períodos posteriores de recuperação, ocorrendo melhora de 7,9% pós taper quando
comparado ao momento inicial treinamento do estudo.
No entanto, autores como Aubry et al.1 e Coutts et al.16 demonstram, em triatletas, não haver ganho de
desempenho no pós tapering quando da aplicação de sobrecarga no pré tapering, levantando hipóteses que podem
influenciar no processo de supercompensação, tais como: tempo insuficiente de treino com sobrecarga no pré tapering;
quando da aplicação da sobrecarga no pré taper necessidade de mais de duas semanas de tapering; a sobrecarga no pré
taper causa queda de imunidade, aumentando o risco de infecções, com maior incidência no trato respiratório superior,
o que pode causar queda de desempenho dos atletas.

Variáveis de monitoramento e controle do tapering em triatletas

A caracterização do tapering em triatletas depende do controle e monitoramento de variáveis de desempenho,
tendo vista a visualização do comportamento do atleta durante o período da redução da carga de treinamento pré-
competição. De acordo com Meeusen et al.17 essas variáveis precisam apresentar as seguintes condições: objetividade
do teste, que ele não seja manipulável, que seja aplicável à prática diária, que não exija muito dos atletas; ser acessível
para a maioria dos atletas e que sua escolha seja baseada em um sólido quadro teórico. Nortear-se por estas condições
aumenta a probabilidade e sensibilidade das cargas de treinamento no tapering, bem como, possibilita melhor ajuste na

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155 Tapering no triathlon

prescrição das sessões de treinamento neste período 8,19.

Diversos indicadores podem ser utilizados para monitoramento do tapering em triatletas. No estudo de Mujika
9
et al. , são destacados grupos de variáveis que representam mudanças no tapering de parâmetros cardiorrespiratórios
(consumo Máximo de O2, economia de movimento, FC de repouso, FC máxima e submáxima, pressão arterial,
dimensões cardíacas, funções ventilatórias, equilíbrio entre hemólise e eritropoiese), metabólicos (gasto e substrato
energético, cinética de lactacidemia, amônia no sangue, glicogênio muscular e metabolismo mineral), bioquímicos
(creatina quinase e outros), hormonais (testosterona, cortisol e razão testosterona: cortisol, catecolaminas, hormônio do
crescimento, IFG-1), biomecânicos (força, potência, característica e tamanho das fibras musculares, tendões, ligamentos
e propriedades contráteis), imunológicos (células imune, imunoglobulinas e citocinas) e psicológicos (estado de humor,
percepção do esforço e qualidade do sono).
A alteração dessas variáveis com a redução do volume de treinamento durante o período do tapering em
triatletas (7 a 21 dias) apresenta resultados positivos quando comparado a grupos controle e experimentais sem
diminuição da carga dos microciclos. Em adição, Coutts et al.16 estudaram 16 atletas experientes de triathlon com
competições regulares há mais de 3 anos e 8 horas de treinamento por semana, dividindo em grupo com treinamento
normal (NT: n=8) e intensificado (IT: n=8, com carga de 290% maior); durante 6 semanas de treinamento e com
caracterização do tapering na 5ª e 6ª semanas, verificaram-se diferenças significativas para o lactato a 11,5 km/h-1,
frequência cardíaca a 14,5 km/h-1 e 16,0 km/h-1, bem como, correlações significativas do total da carga semanal (TL
semanal) com o tempo no teste de performance em 3 km (3km TT) (Δ3kmTT vs. ΔTL semanal, r= 0,45, p=0,001) e
teste de 5 saltos horizontais (5BT) para potência (Δ 5BT vs. ΔTL semanal, r= -0,51, p=0,001),observaram aumento da
eficiência cardiopulmonar do grupo IT e confirmaram que a carga aumentada e posterior diminuição na fase do tapering
influenciam o desempenho aeróbio e potência muscular em triatletas experientes.
Mujika et al.9 realizaram uma revisão sistemática sobre tapering por meio de 190 artigos analisando os efeitos
fisiológicos crônicos do tapering em atletas de endurance, apresentando os seguintes resultados no período competitivo:
o pico de lactato em testes de performance tende a aumentar (8 estudos); redução dos níveis de creatinaquinase pela
redução da carga de treino no tapering o que indica minimização de dano tecidual (8 estudos); elevação dos níveis de
testosterona (5 estudos), queda (2 estudos) ou manutenção dos níveis de cortisol (8 estudos) e manutenção da razão
testosterona/cortisol (8 estudos); o VO2máx tende a aumentar (6 estudos) ou estagnar (7 estudos) assim como a potência
e força muscular melhorarem (9 estudos); o estado de humor melhora (11 estudos) e a percepção do esforço tende a
diminuir (4 estudos) ou permanecer inalterada (12 estudos). Também ocorre um balanço positivo entre hemólise
(destruição de glóbulos vermelhos) e eritropoiese (produção de glóbulos vermelhos) e elevação de glicogênio muscular
contribuindo para o ganho de performance9.
Em adição, Hausswirth et al.21 demonstraram melhoria da qualidade de sono no pós taper em triatletas com
overreaching funcional, quando comparado a fase de sobrecarga (3 semanas), com retorno das condições normais já na
primeira semana de tapering, quando comparado ao grupo controle. Os triatletas que não recuperaram a qualidade do
sono na 1ª semana de tapering foram considerados o grupo de fadiga aguda e os parâmetros de performance analisados
no estudo não demonstraram melhoria em relação ao controle e overreaching funcional, o que evidencia a importância
da correta manipulação das cargas de treinamento no período pré e pós tapering.
De fato, variáveis como a qualidade do sono e manutenção dos estados basais em normalidade dependem da
interação de parâmetros fisiológicos com a atuação do sistema nervoso autônomo (SNA), que demonstra sensibilidade
para identificação dos efeitos da redução da carga de treinamento no tapering assim como o próprio controle de cargas
diárias de treinamento para triatletas12. O SNA está ligado à manutenção de processos fisiológicos essenciais à
manutenção da vida, tanto na interação dos nervos simpáticos como parassimpáticos, evidenciando correlação com
R. bras. Ci. e Mov 2017;25(3):150-158.
BUCK et al. 156

recuperação e estímulo de treinamento, constituindo um importante indicador de controle de performance durante a fase
de tapering para triatletas, sobretudo no microciclo que antecede a competição22.
Os triatletas com alta ativação do SNA simpático pré-competição tendem a apresentar performance deteriorada
durante a prova quando comparado aos atletas com maior ativação parassimpática em repouso, fato que também está
atrelado ao controle da carga diária de treinamento, sendo que 3 a 4 dias antes da competição os valores de SD2 (ms) e
SDNN (ms), [variáveis que representam a atuação parassimpática] devem estar reestabelecidos em comparação com o
período de maior sobrecarga19,23. Bucheit et al.24 relataram que o indicador SD1 relativo à atuação do SNA e
questionários que investigam o estado cognitivo referente a fase de tapering e de maior sobrecarga são mais sensíveis,
por exemplo, que a análise do cortisol basal para verificar alterações na carga diária de treinamento em triatletas.
De fato, tem sido investigada a relação do comportamento do SNA com a manipulação das cargas de
treinamento no tapering e sobrecarga pré tapering22. Em adição, apresentam relação com adaptações crônicas do
treinamento em periodizações em triatletas, assim como no comportamento do sono em diferentes tipos de análise e
períodos de vigília25,23. Parâmetros que representam o SNA são simples, úteis e rápidos para mensurarem as cargas de
endurance e podem ser utilizados pré, durante ou após as sessões de treinamento 19. Triatletas tem acesso a monitores de
FC que analisam os intervalos R entre batimentos (iR-R), o que facilita sua aplicação e evita mensurações invasivas
como retirada de sangue20.
Plews et al.19 indicam que em triatletas experientes, apenas 3 mensurações de iR-R (exercício e repouso)
randomizadas por microciclo já é suficiente para representarem o comportamento da carga semanal com 9 a 12 sessões
de treinamento, diferentemente de triatletas recreacionais que necessitam de 5 mensurações de iR-R. A menor
necessidade de mensurações no período pré e durante tapering também parece ser válida para outras formas de
monitoramento da carga semanal, tais como parâmetros de testes de endurance, potência e força muscular, já que
triatletas experientes são menos suscetíveis a grandeza da carga de treinamento, já que possuem menor reserva
adaptativa do que triatletas recreacionais20.
No tocante a questionários de acompanhamento da fase de sobrecarga pré tapering e durante o tapering em
triatletas, são mencionados diversos tipos de instrumentos, como por exemplo: o POMS (Profile of Mood States), com
uma escala de Likert 0 a 4 com 42 questões; a Escala de Hooper e Mackinnon (Escala de 1 a 7 variando de muito, muito
baixa ou bom [ponto 1] a muito, muito alta ou ruim [ponto 7] sobre qualidade do sono, fadiga, stress e dor muscular)
utilizada em Plews et al. (2013); o DALDA (Daily Analysis of Life Demands for Athletes), com uma escala de Likert 1
a 3 (a,b,c) “pior do que o normal”, “normal”, ou “melhor do que o normal”, analisa fontes e sintomas de estresse por
meio de 25 questões; o RESTQ SPORT®, com uma escala de Likert 0 a 6 com 76 perguntas sobre Estresse Geral,
Estresse Emocional, Estresse Social, Conflitos/Pressão, Fadiga, Falta de Energia, Queixas Somáticas, Sucesso,
Recuperação Social, Recuperação Física, Bem-Estar Geral, Qualidade de Sono, Perturbações nos Intervalos, Exaustão
Emocional, Lesões, Estar em Forma, Aceitação Pessoal, Auto-Eficácia e Auto-Regulação19.
Dupuy et al.23 utilizaram-se de uma amostra de 12 atletas de endurance em que 3 eram atletas experientes de
triathlon, para estudarem os escores do POMS em valores basais (B) e tapering (T) comparando com a fase de
sobrecarga (O), encontrando diferenças significativas para vigor (B=61±5, O=51±10 e T=61±7), fadiga (B=41±7, O=
51±8, T=39±7) e índice de energia (B=121±11, O=100±17, T=122±14) entre T e O. Utilizando-se o RESTQ SPORT®,
Hausswirth et al.21 observaram em triatletas experientes maior estresse geral, menor recuperação, maior estresse geral
do esporte e menor recuperação específica no esporte comparado a fase de sobrecarga com tapering e repouso. Os
resultados de Dupuy et al.26 com o RESTQ SPORT® corroboram com os achados anteriores, relatando ainda maior
incidência de lesões para triatletas no período de sobrecarga.
Neste sentido, cabe destacar que existem diferentes formas, metodologias e tipos de variáveis que ilustram o

R. bras. Ci. e Mov 2017;25(3):150-158.

157 Tapering no triathlon

comportamento da performance em triatletas durante o tapering e no próprio monitoramento da fase de sobrecarga de

treinamento. São encontrados indicadores invasivos e não invasivos para controle dos efeitos crônicos do treinamento
em triatletas e a correta manipulação das cargas diárias parece ser consequência do entendimento das respostas nas
sessões de treino no período de 7 a 21 dias27.

Conclusões
As evidências discutidas no presente estudo apontam alguns direcionamentos práticos para utilização e
prescrição do tapering em triatletas. Conforme os critérios estabelecidos na pesquisa, há poucos estudos (n=7) que
buscaram investigar o efeito do tapering em triatletas, assim como, no âmbito nacional, não são encontradas referências
que tratam do assunto. Assim, as evidências disponíveis não são suficientemente robustas para assegurar um
determinado tipo de taper e duração para triatletas. Entretanto, este pequeno número de estudos sugerem a manutenção
ou pequeno aumento da intensidade dos treinamentos no tapering, já que a redução da intensidade implica em queda de
performance. Além disto, sugere-se utilizar o tapering exponencial de queda rápida com duração de 8 a 14 dias para o
ciclismo e corrida, bem como, 21 dias para a natação, esperando aumento de performance na competição de
aproximadamente 3%.

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 ARTIGO ORIGINAL

EFEITO DO TREINAMENTO DE FORÇA NA PERFORMANCE MOTORA DE

ATLETAS DE TRIATHLON AO LONGO DA TEMPORADA ESPORTIVA

ISSN: 2178-7514
Effect of strength training on the motor performance of the triathlon
Vol. 7 | Nº. 2| Ano 2015
athletes during the season

Luiz Antonio Domingues Filho1; Charles Ricardo Lopes1,2,4 ;Alexandre Lopes Evangelista5;
Gustavo Ribeiro da Mota3; Willy Andrade Gomes1; Paulo Henrique Marchetti1; Ídico Luis Pelegrinotti1.

RESUMO

O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a influência de um programa de treinamento com pesos na performance
motora. Quatorze atletas, do sexo masculino, participantes de competições nacionais de triathlon. O
treinamento foi desenvolvido em 24 sessões de treinamento de força durante 12 semanas, sendo que a fase
de adaptação (FA) teve duração de 8 sessões, utilizando carga de 60% a 65% de uma repetição máxima
(1RM). A fase especifica, constou de 16 sessões e utilizou carga de 65% a 80% de 1RM. A intervenção se
deu subdividindo-se os sujeitos em grupo experimental e grupo controle, onde o grupo experimental realizou
treinamentos com pesos e o grupo controle não realizou treinamentos de força. Foram realizadas avaliações
de performance em três momentos distintos: 1. antes de iniciar o treinamento com pesos, 2. após quatro
semanas de treinamento e 3. após doze semanas de treinamento. Foi utilizada uma ANOVA (2x3) medidas
repetidas para o % de gordura, massa corporal magra, teste de natação de 400 metros, consumo máximo de
oxigênio, potência máxima, potência média, índice de fadiga e post hoc de Sidak, com significância 5%.
Conclui-se que o treinamento de força influenciou positivamente o tempo de nado de 400m, a potência
máxima e a potência média nos triatletas após um programa de treinamento periodizado de 12 semanas.
Palavras-chave: performance, exercício físico, esporte, metabolismo.

ABSTRACT

The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of a strength training program on physical
performance. Fourteen athletes, male, participants from national competitions of triathlon. The training
was developed in 24 sessions of resistance training for 12 weeks, and adaptation phase lasted 08 sessions,
using 60% to 65% of one repetition maximum. The specific phase consisted of 16 sessions using 65% to
80% of 1RM. Subjects were subdivided in the experimental group and control group, where experimental
group has conducted strength training and the control group did not. Performance evaluations were carried
out in three different moments: 1. before starting the strength training, 2. after four weeks of strength
training and 3. after 12 weeks of resistance training. We used a repeated measures ANOVA (2 x) to the
% Fat, lean body mass, swimming test of 400m, maximum oxygen consumption, maximum power, mean
power, index of fatigue with Sidak’s post hoc, and 5% of significance. We concluded that the strength
training influenced positively the time of 400 m of the swimming, the maximum power and the average of
the power in triathletes after a periodized training program for 12 weeks.
Keywords: performance, physical exercise, sport, metabolism.

Autor de correspondência:
Ídico Luis Pelegrinotti
Universidade Metodista de Piracicaba
Rodovia do Açúcar Km 156, Bloco 7, Sala 32, Taquaral
13400-911 - Piracicaba, SP – Brasil
1
Programa de Mestrado e Doutrado em Ciências do Movimento Humano/UNIMEP. 2Laboratório de
Instrumentação para Biomecânica (LIB), Faculdade de Educação Física. 3Departamento de Ciências
do Esporte, Universidade Federal do Triângulo Mineiro, UFTM, Uberaba, MG, Brasil. 4Faculdade
Adventista de Hortolândia (UNASP). Hortolândia. SP. Brasil. 5Universidade Nove de Julho, SP.

E-mail: ilpelleg@unimep.br
 Efeito do treinamento de força na performance motora de atletas de triathlon ao longo da temporada esportiva
INTRODUÇÃO
O triathlon é um esporte
compreende natação, ciclismo e corrida, sendo
uma atividade com predomínio aeróbio
treinamento de força pode auxiliar na melhora
da performance do triathlon pois influencia as
adaptações fisiológicas e mecânicas (2).
A melhora da capacidade de um
triatleta em tolerar a demanda física do
treinamento e dacompetição é adquirida
por meio de adaptações provenientes de
agentes estressores aplicados no programa de
treinamento físico. Portanto, dentro do processo
global de treinamento, torna-se necessário a
preocupação com o controle de três períodos
que regem a forma físico-desportiva de um
triatleta: o período preparatório (aquisição
da forma desportiva), período competitivo
(manutenção da forma desportiva) e o período
de transição (diminuição da forma desportiva).
A busca por melhores resultados
competições de triathlon passa por aspectos
ligados à preparação física e a elaboração
estratégica que de acordo com Hausswirth e
Brisswalter (3) é um fator importante associado
ao desempenho durante a competição.
A preparação física desta modalidade é
complexa pela sua natureza, devido as suas
diferenças metodológicas de preparação
quando comparado a outros esportes por suas
necessidade de sincronização da performance
em três provas distintas: natação, ciclismo e
corrida.
O desafio de melhorar o rendimento
Revista CPAQV – Centro de Pesquisas Avançadas em Qualidade de Vida | Vol. 7 | Nº. 2 | Ano 2015 | p. 2
e a organização metodológica exigida no
que triathlon, aumenta a demanda por técnicas
e estratégias capazes de elevar ao máximo a
(1)
.O performance. O treinamento de força (TF)
como forma de potencializar a força e potência
no esporte tem sido usado de forma positiva
nas modalidades como natação , em
(4, 5)
ciclistas (6, 7), e corredores (8, 9). Entretanto, este
tipo de treinamento específico em força para
triatletas ainda é controverso e envolvido em
discussões sobre sua utilidade. Em estudo de
revisão Lopes et al. (10)
analisaram os efeitos
do TF no desempenho de endurance em
sujeitos treinados. Foram analisados diferentes
fatores fisiológicos como o consumo máximo
de oxigênio (VO2máx), limiar anaeróbio
(LAn) e a economia de movimento (EM).
Os resultados mostram que tanto o VO2máx.
como o LAn são responsivos ao modelo
tradicional de treinamento de endurance, no
nas entanto, essas variáveis são pouco sensíveis ao
TF em pessoas treinadas. Porém, a EM parece
ser aperfeiçoada com o TF. Assim, concluiu-
se que o TF pode melhorar a performance na
endurance através da EM, corroborando como
os achados do estudo de revisão de Jung (11)
que analisou os efeitos do treinamento de força
na performance de corredores e os diferentes
protocolos de treinamento de força mostrando
que em indivíduos aerobiamente treinados, o
VO2máx e Lan tendem a não melhorar com o
treinamento de força, não apresentando efeitos
deletérios ao VO2máx ou a performance da
corrida e sem diminuir o LAn.
 Efeito do treinamento de força na performance motora de atletas de triathlon ao longo da temporada esportiva
Além disso, foi observado melhora na
economia de corrida, além do aumento da força
muscular e tempo para a ocorrência da fadiga
em indivíduos aerobiamente treinados. Quando
comparado os modelos de treinamento de força,
parece existir uma variedade de modelos que
contribuem para melhoria da performance de
corredores de longas distâncias. Contudo, os
efeitos de programas de treinamento de força
durante a preparação de triatletas ainda não
é bem estabelecido. Nesse sentido pesquisar
a inclusão do programa de treinamento com
pesos pode beneficiar a performance, bem como
entender a contribuição do treinamento de força
na periodização de triatletas. Assim, o presente
estudo investigou os efeitos do programa de
treinamento de força com duração de 12 semanas
na performance dos atletas por meio de testes
específicos da modalidade.
MATERIAL E MÉTODOS
Amostra
A amostra foi composta por catorze
(14) triatletas amadores do sexo masculino,
participantes de competições de nível estadual
e nacional de triathlon. Os sujeitos treinavam
seis vezes por semana, com dois períodos
de treinamento por dia, perfazendo um total
de 18 horas semanais, distribuídas entre
natação, ciclismo e corrida. Os sujeitos foram
aleatoriamente divididos em dois grupos:
experimental (GE, n=7, idade: 26±5 anos,
estatura: 175±3 cm), e controle (GC, n=7, idade:
29±5 anos, estatura: 177±7 cm). O GE realizou
o treinamento específico do triathlon com
Revista CPAQV – Centro de Pesquisas Avançadas em Qualidade de Vida | Vol. 7 | Nº. 2 | Ano 2015 | p. 3
sobrecarga e treinamento de força e o GC realizou
apenas o treinamento específico do triathlon.
Todos os sujeitos foram avaliados no início da
segunda temporada competitiva e estavam isentos
de qualquer doença aguda ou crônica, conforme
anamnese e breve exame clínico realizado por
um médico. Os sujeitos foram informados dos
procedimentos experimentais e assinaram o termo
de consentimento livre e esclarecido aprovado
pelo Comitê de Ética e Pesquisa da Universidade.
Procedimentos
Todas as análises foram realizadas antes
da segunda temporada de preparação física para
as competições organizadas pela Confederação
Brasileira de Triathlon (CBTri). Foram realizados
testes e coleta de dados em três momentos distintos
durante período preparatório como segue: (AV1)
antes de iniciar o treinamento com pesos; (AV2)
após quatro semanas de treinamento com pesos;
(AV3) após doze semanas de treinamento com
pesos.
Composição corporal (%G e MCM):
A composição corporal foi obtida pelo método
duplamente indireto, através da mensuração da
espessura de dobras cutâneas. Para o cálculo da
densidade corporal foram utilizadas as equações
de Pollock e Jackson (12, 13) e para estimativa do
percentual de gordura corporal a fórmula de Siri
(14)
. Todas as medidas de foram repetidas três
vezes em cada ponto em ordem rotacional, e
apenas no hemicorpo direito dos avaliados.
 Efeito do treinamento de força na performance motora de atletas de triathlon ao longo da temporada esportiva
Corrida de 2.400 metros (C2400): O teste consis-
tiu no deslocamento do triatleta em sua velocidade
máxima em um percurso de 2.400 metros procuran-
do completar a distância no menor tempo possível.
Com os resultados, foi calculado o VO2 max, de cada
sujeito pela fórmula proposta pelo American College
Sport Medicine (15).
Teste de Wingate: O teste de Wingate foi realizado
em uma bicicleta de frenagem mecânica, (marca Bio-
tec 2100®), conforme descrito por Bar-Or (1987), foi
utilizada uma carga de 0,75 g/Kg durante 30 segun-
dos e a potência de pico (PP) e potência média (PM)
foi determinada a cada 5 segundos. Todos os dados
foram registrados utilizando o softwer Ergometric
6.0 Cefise. Todos os voluntários foram encorajados
verbalmente a pedalar o mais rápido possível durante
todo o teste. Prévio ao teste, os mesmos realizaram
aquecimento no cicloergômetro durante 5 minutos,
com tiros de 3 segundos a cada minuto completado.
Após 5 minutos de pausa o teste foi realizado.
400 metros de natação (TN400): Este teste visou
medir o tempo total gasto no percurso de 400 metros
em uma piscina de 25 metros. O teste iniciou com a
saída do sujeito de dentro da piscina e se deslocando
na máxima velocidade possível no estilo crawl.
Protocolo Experimental
O GE realizou um planejamento de 12 semanas, com
frequência semanal de 2 vezes por semana submeti-
dos ao treinamento de força (24 sessões) e descanso
de 48 horas entre as sessões. O GC realizou apenas o
treinamento específico da modalidade durante a mes-
Revista CPAQV – Centro de Pesquisas Avançadas em Qualidade de Vida | Vol. 7 | Nº. 2 | Ano 2015 | p. 4
ma quantidade de semanas preconizadas para o GE.
O programa de treinamento para o GE foi dividido
em fase de adaptação (FA) com duração de 4 sema-
nas (08 sessões) e a fase especifica (FE) com du-
ração de 08 semanas (16 sessões). Foram utilizados
os seguintes exercícios durante a temporada: supino
com barra, agachamento com barra, desenvolvimento
de ombros frontal com barra, extensão dos joelhos no
aparelho e remada superior sentado com cabo. O teste
de uma repetição máxima (1RM) de Brow e Weir (16)
foi adotado para avaliar a força muscular máxima dos
indivíduos visando o ajuste das cargas de treinamento
ao longo da temporada esportiva.
Na FA o trabalho foi direcionado para resistência
muscular através da adaptação aos exercícios com
pesos. Para a FA, durante as duas primeiras semanas
foram realizadas 2 séries para membros inferiores
(mmii) e 3 séries para membros superiores (mmss)
de 10 repetições com sobrecargas de 60% de 1RM,
sendo que para a terceira e quarta semanas as sobre-
cargas foram ajustadas para 65% de 1RM.
Na FE o treinamento foi conduzido no sen-
tido de priorizar o trabalho de força geral para os
membros superiores e inferiores. Durante todas as se-
manas foram realizadas 3 séries para mmii e 4 séries
para mmss, entretanto as cargas foram alteradas como
segue: semana 1: 10 repetições com 65% de 1RM;
semana 2: 8 repetições com 70% de 1RM; semana
3: 8 repetições com 75% de 1RM; semanas 4 e 5:
8 repetições com 80% de 1RM. O intervalo de des-
canso entre séries e entre exercícios foi de 1 minuto e
30 segundos. Durante este período do treinamento de
força específica também foram aplicadas diferentes
 Efeito do treinamento de força na performance motora de atletas de triathlon ao longo da temporada esportiva

tipos de resistência ao treinamento, que de avaliação (AV1, AV2 e AV3), sendo a

consistiu em adicionar resistência à natação
através da utilização de nadadeiras, palmares e
camiseta; ao ciclismo com aclives usando uma
relação entre cadências (rpm) pesada e baixa e
na corrida, areia fofa, aclives e extensores.
última medidas repetidas. Post hoc de Sidak foi
utilizado. Uma significância de 5% foi utilizada
para todos os testes estatísticos.
RESULTADOS

Análise Estatística A tabela 1 apresenta os valores médios

e desvio padrão do peso corporal (PC),
A análise estatística descritiva envolveu percentual de gordura (%G), massa corporal
medidas de tendência central e variabilidade. magra (MCM) de ambos os grupos durante a
Todos os dados foram reportados através temporada esportiva.
da média e desvio padrão (DP) da média. A Ao compararmos os efeitos do
normalidade e homogeniedade das variâncias treinamento com sobrecarga em relação ao
foram verificadas utilizando o teste de Shapiro- peso corporal, durante todos os momentos
Wilk e de Levene, respectivamente. Uma da avaliação, percebeu-se que o GE não
ANOVA (2x3) foi utilizada para o %G, MCM, apresentou diferença quando comparado ao
TN400m, VO2max, PMax, PMed, IF, tendo GC nas variáveis PC, %G e MCM.
como fator grupo (GE E GC) e os momentos

Tabela 1. Média e desvio padrão do peso corporal (PC), porcentual de gordura (%G) e massa corporal
magra (MCM) de ambos os grupos durante a temporada.
Grupo Experimental Grupo Controle
Variáveis AV1 AV2 AV3 AV1 AV2 AV3
PC (Kg) 72,4 ±10,7 72,3 ±10,3 71,9±9,3 71,9±12,7 71,9±12,5 72,0±12,5
%G 9,58±3,2 9,41±2,8 8,26±2,3 8,75±2,6 8,48±2,7 8,25±2,6
MCM (Kg) 65,3±8,6 65,4±8,1 65,9±9,0 65,4±10 65,6±9,7 65,8±9,8

A tabela 2 apresenta valores médios do tempo de nado em 400 metros de crawl

e desvio padrão do tempo de nado em 400 (TN 400), consumo máximo de oxigênio
metros de crawl (TN400), consumo máximo (VO2max.), potência máxima (PMax),
de oxigênio (VO2max.), potência máxima potência média (PMed) e índice de fadiga (IF)
(PMax), potência média (PMed) e índice de de ambos os grupos (experimental e controle)
fadiga (IF). durante a temporada esportiva.
Tabela 2. Média e desvio padrão

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 Efeito do treinamento de força na performance motora de atletas de triathlon ao longo da temporada esportiva

Grupo Experimental Grupo Controle

Variáveis AV1 AV2 AV3 AV1 AV2 AV3

TN400 (min) 5,6±1,1* 5,6±0,9* 5,3±0,9* 6,4±0,8 6,4±0,7 6,3±0,8

VO2máx (ml.Kg.min-1) 58,1±7,8 56,0±5,3 60,8±5,3 55,4±6,2 55,5±4,7 57,0±4,6

P.Max (W.kg -1) 9,5±0,9 9,5±0,9 10,2±0,6* 9,4±1,0 9,2±1,0 9,4±0,9

P.Med (W.kg -1) 7,9±0,6 7,6±0,6 8,2±0,4* 7,2±0,6 7,2±0,6 7,3±0,7

IF (%) 0,4±0,07 0,4±0,05 0,4±0,03 0,4±0,08 0,4±0,05 0,4±0,03

* Diferenças significativas entre grupos, (P< 0,05); ± Diferenças significativas entre AV1 e AV2,
(P< 0,05); # Diferenças significativas entre AV1 e AV3, (P< 0,05); ± Diferenças significativas entre AV2 e
AV3, (P< 0,05).

Ao compararmos os valores obtidos na dos atletas por meio de testes específicos da

distância de 400m de natação do GE comparado
ao GC, após 12 semanas de treinamento de
força realizado com pesos, os resultados
mostraram diferenças significativas entre os
grupos (P< 0,05) para todos os momentos
(AV1, AV2 e AV3).
Com relação ao consumo máximo de
oxigênio não foram encontradas diferenças
significativas em nenhum dos momentos em
ambos os grupos.
Nas variáveis potência máxima e potência
média, foi observado diferença significativa
(P<0,05) na ultima avaliação (AV3), entre GE
e GC.
DISCUSSÃO
O presente estudo investigou os
efeitos do programa de treinamento de força
com duração de 12 semanas na performance
modalidade. Os principais achados demonstram
melhoras significativas em TN 400m, PMax e
PMed após o programa de treinamento com
pesos no GE. No entanto, não foram obervadas
alterações na composição corporal, VO2máx
e IF em ambos os grupos em nenhum dos
momentos avaliados.
A melhora significativa no TN 400m
pode estar associada à economia de energia
do atleta através de exercícios educativos e
específicos para a modalidade, combinado
com um treinamento de força com pesos de
forma progressiva, corroborando com o estudo
de Lopes et al. (10)
que verificou economia
de energia após atividade de endurance,
possivelmente esses fatores favoreceram para
a melhora no tempo total da natação em três
momentos distintos do período preparatório
(FA e FE), após 12 semanas.

Revista CPAQV – Centro de Pesquisas Avançadas em Qualidade de Vida | Vol. 7 | Nº. 2 | Ano 2015 | p. 6
 Efeito do treinamento de força na performance motora de atletas de triathlon ao longo da temporada esportiva
O desempenho físico do triatleta está
associado à capacidade do seu organismo em
absorver, transportar e utilizar o oxigênio assim
como a disponibilidade de substratos energéti-
cos, para gerar trabalho mecânico. Consequente-
mente, um VO2máx. relativamente alto se torna
necessário para o sucesso do triathlon. (17-28).
Para Ballesteros (29) um triatleta com um
consumo de oxigênio inferior a 50 ml/kg/min-1,
dificilmente poderá se destacar neste esporte. No
presente estudo observamos que na média du-
rante os três testes (VO2máx.: GE = 58,1±7,8;
56,0±5,3; 60,8±5,3 e GC= 55,4±6,2; 55,5±4,7;
57,0±4,6) os voluntários possuíam um valor
bem acima do citado por este autor. Ao obser-
varmos os resultados obtidos (VO2máx.: GE =
58,1±7,8; 56,0±5,3; 60,8±5,3 e GC = 55,4±6,2;
55,5±4,7; 57,0±4,6), e ao compararmos as três
avaliações, percebemos que estes dados não
apóiam diferenças estatisticamente significa-
tivas (P<0,05) entre grupos, para o consumo
máximo de oxigênio, corroborando com os estu-
dos de Jung (11) e Lopes, Sindorf et al. (10). Dena-
dai (22) cita que o consumo máximo de oxigênio
nem sempre se modifica com o treinamento em
sujeitos altamente treinados, mas pode haver
melhoras na performance. Esta melhora pode
estar associada entre outros, com a economia do
movimento . A capacidade anaeróbia é um
(10, 11)
componente essencial para algumas modalidades
esportivas. No caso do triathlon olímpico, em de-
terminados momentos da competição, (etapas de
ciclismo e corrida), há grande contribuição da via
glicolítica para obtenção de ATP (30). Para isso, a
Revista CPAQV – Centro de Pesquisas Avançadas em Qualidade de Vida | Vol. 7 | Nº. 2 | Ano 2015 | p. 7
ressíntese muscular de ATP deve ser realizada
rapidamente para prevenir a fadiga e manter a
contração muscular colaborando para o desem-
penho do triatleta (31).
Os resultados obtidos durante o es-
tudo (PMax (W.kg -1) GE = 9,5±0,9; 9,5±0,9;
10,2±0,6* e GC = 9,4±1,0; 9,2±1,0; 9,4±0,9 e
para PMed (W.kg-1) GE = 7,9±0,6; 7,6±0,6;
8,2±0,4* e GC = 7,2±0,6; 7,2±0,6; 7,3±0,7), e
depois comparados, apóiam diferenças P<0,05
apenas na terceira avaliação (AV3 para PMax
(W.kg-1) com P = 0,048 e PMed (W.kg-1) com
P = 0,041) entre os grupos GE e GC nestes
parâmetros avaliados. A potência máxima parece
ser influenciada apenas por um treinamento es-
pecífico e tanto o treinamento aeróbio como an-
aeróbio podem modificar a potência média. (32).
Com relação ao índice de fadiga não observa-
mos alterações significativas neste parâmetro.
Desta forma, o modelo de treinamento
de força proposto em nosso estudo contribuiu
significativamente na performance dos triatle-
tas no que tange às variáveis: tempo de nado
400 m, potência máxima e potência média.
Tal fato é extremamente importante, já que a
natação é a primeira parte do triathlon. Sendo
assim, a melhora nesta modalidade favorece a
obtenção de posições mais privilegiadas dentro
da água, contribuindo para a primeira transição
(natação/ciclismo). Isto em função de serem
capazes de sustentar a atividade por mecanis-
mos anaeróbios durante maior tempo, em de-
terminados momentos onde a prova exige um
esforço maior.
 Efeito do treinamento de força na performance motora de atletas de triathlon ao longo da temporada esportiva
Com isso, estes resultados se tornam
relevantes por se tratar de triatletas de nível
nacional, onde aumentar o condicionamento
físico do atleta pode definir a distância entre
o campeão e os demais colocados. Quanto às
outras variáveis, parece-nos que as duas sessões
por semana podem ter sido insuficientes para
modificar o desempenho aeróbio, ou os testes
aplicados podem não ter sido sensíveis para as
mudanças ocorridas nesse período.
Consideramos que o presente estudo
apresenta limitações quanto ao modelo de
treino, ao tempo de exposição ao treino e aos
tipos de análises realizadas (avaliações de
campo), entretanto na prática esportiva tais
testes possuem maior aplicabilidade auxiliando
e orientando tanto técnicos quanto preparadores
físicos desta modalidade.
CONCLUSÃO
Conclui-se que o treinamento de força
influenciou positivamente o tempo de nado de
400m, a potência máxima e a potência média
nos triatletas após um programa de treinamento
periodizado de 12 semanas.
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Revista CPAQV – Centro de Pesquisas Avançadas em Qualidade de Vida | Vol. 7 | Nº. 2 | Ano 2015 | p. 9
 HIGH RESISTANCE-TRAINING FREQUENCY ENHANCES
MUSCLE THICKNESS IN RESISTANCE-TRAINED MEN
RAFAEL S. ZARONI,1 FELIPE A. BRIGATTO,1 BRAD J. SCHOENFELD,2 TIAGO V. BRAZ,1,3
JÚLIO C. BENVENUTTI,1 MOISÉS D. GERMANO,1 PAULO H. MARCHETTI,4 MARCELO S. AOKI,5 AND
CHARLES R. LOPES1,6
1
Human Performance Research Laboratory, Methodist University of Piracicaba, Piracicaba, Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil; 2Department of
Downloaded from http://journals.lww.com/nsca-jscr by ShTKpzm19h8sGFaUzeMlnpt6UXifpGyMJ6xhjlfgi+jlOcAMOT4Z94bWn4uioahqNfmkDhbtdAGYYUV53fPEl7YN9QFj9H8FLYCdd405NSK7tW7L9yCfUQ== on 06/27/2019

Health Sciences, CUNY Lehman College, Bronx, New York; 3Faculty of Americana, Americana, Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil;
4
Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Northridge, California; 5School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities,
University of Sa˜o Paulo, Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil; and 6Adventist Faculty of Hortolaˆndia, Hortolaˆndia, Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION

Zaroni, RS, Brigatto, FA, Schoenfeld, BJ, Braz, TV, Benvenutti,
JC, Germano, MD, Marchetti, PH, Aoki, MS, and Lopes, CR.
High resistance-training frequency enhances muscle thickness
in resistance-trained men. J Strength Cond Res 33(7S):
S140–S151, 2019—The purpose of this study was to compare
the effect a split training routine with muscle groups trained
once per week (SPLIT) vs. whole-body split training routine
with muscle groups trained 5 days per week (TOTAL) on neu-
romuscular adaptations in well-trained men. Eighteen healthy
men (height = 177.8 6 6.6 cm; total body mass = 84.4 6 8.1
kg; age = 26.4 6 4.6 years) were recruited to participate in this
study. The experimental groups were matched according to
baseline strength and then randomly assigned to 1 of the 2
experimental groups: SPLIT (n = 9) or TOTAL (n = 9). Prestudy
and poststudy testing included 1RM for bench press, parallel
back-squat and machine close-grip seated row, as well as an
ultrasound analysis of the muscle thickness (MT) of the elbow
flexors, triceps brachii, and vastus lateralis. After 8 weeks of
training, no significant difference between groups was noted
for all 1RM tests (p . 0.05). TOTAL induced a significantly
greater increase in MT of the forearm flexors and vastus later-
alis (p , 0.05). In conclusion, muscle strength increment is
similar regardless of the experimental conditions studied; how-
ever, TOTAL may confer a potentially superior hypertrophic
effect.
KEY WORDS split-body routine, total-body routine, resistance-
training frequency, muscle hypertrophy
Address correspondence to Felipe A. Brigatto, filephi@gmail.com.
33(7S)/S140–S151
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Ó 2018 National Strength and Conditioning Association
the TM
P
rimary goals of individuals engaged in resistance-
training (RT) programs are to improve strength
and muscle hypertrophy. In this context, it is well
accepted that the proper manipulation of RT var-
iables is a key factor in maximizing these musculoskeletal
adaptations (12,23). The main RT variables are volume,
intensity, amount of resistance or load, frequency of training,
rest interval, choice and order of exercises, velocity of exe-
cution, muscular action, and range of motion (23).
Resistance-training frequency refers to the number of
sessions performed during a specific period, usually
described on a weekly basis. Frequency can be further
characterized by the number of training sessions per week
(sessions$wk21) in which the same muscle group is trained
(30). A majority of those involved in RT programs, with
muscle hypertrophy as a primary goal, train each muscle
group with low frequency (once a week) and perform high
volume of work per muscle group in a session. This is
accomplished using a split-body routine (SPLIT), where
multiple exercises and sets are performed for a specific mus-
cle group in a training session (30).
The American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM)
position stands on progression models in RT, which is
specific to maximizing the improvement in muscle strength
and hypertrophy, recommends 4 to 6 split-body training
sessions$wk21 for resistance-trained subjects, whereby mus-
cle groups are trained once or twice a week (23). A meta-
analysis conducted by Rhea et al. (24) concluded that trained
individuals demonstrated a maximum strength gain when
they performed 2 sessions$wk21 for each muscle group.
With respect to muscle hypertrophy, a recent meta-
analysis (27) concluded that at least 2 sessions$wk21 per
muscle group result in a superior hypertrophic adaptation
compared with 1 session$wk21 per muscle group.
The aforementioned findings are especially interesting
because bodybuilders (the sport in which maximizing
muscle hypertrophy is a crucial factor for success in
competition) usually train each muscle group only once

S140 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

Copyright © 2018 National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

TABLE 1. Baseline descriptive data of TOTAL and SPLIT (mean 6 SD).*
Groups Age (y) Height (cm)
TOTAL (n = 9) 25.6 6 3.7 179.1 6 6.7
SPLIT (n = 9) 26.4 6 4.7 177.8 6 6.6
*RT = resistance-training; TOTAL = total-body routine group; SPLIT = split-body routine group.
a week (11). Therefore, a discrepancy seems to exist between
the current literature and common practice in regard to opti-
mal RT frequency. It is important to note that, although the
scientific evidence indicates that higher frequencies result in
greater hypertrophic gains (27), to the authors’ knowledge,
only one previous study compared a high (3 sessions$wk21
per muscle group) vs. a low RT frequency (1 sessions$wk21
per muscle group) in resistance-trained subjects using validated
diagnostic imaging methods (e.g., ultrasound) to assess a change
in muscle size (30). This study showed a general trend toward
a greater muscle growth in the higher frequency condition.
Dankel et al. (7) speculated that, from a muscle building
standpoint, resistance-trained subjects might benefit by reduc-
ing the training volume (number of sets per muscle group per
session) and increasing weekly frequency. This assumption is
based on the hypothesis that trained subjects likely complete
an RT volume per session above that needed to maximize the
postexercise muscle protein synthetic (MPS) response and
thereby were “wasting” some of the per-session volume (7).
Based on this hypothesis, Dankel et al. (7) proposed that
resistance-trained individuals may see a greater benefit in
muscle hypertrophy by keeping the same number of sets per-
formed per week but simply dispersing them over a greater
number of RT sessions (e.g., 2 sessions per muscle group per
week, with 9 sets per session vs. 6 sessions per muscle group
per week, with 3 sets per session). However, this hypothesis
has yet to be investigated in a randomized trial, and to the
authors’ knowledge, no published study using validated diag-
nostic imaging methods has compared the volume equated
effects of 1 vs. more than 3 sessions per muscle group per
week on muscular adaptation in trained men.
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the
effects of a SPLIT routine (training a muscle group 1 day per
week) vs. a TOTAL routine (training a muscle group 5 days per
week) on musculoskeletal adaptations in resistance-trained men
with the number of sets per muscle group per week equated
between conditions. It was hypothesized that a TOTAL routine
would promote a greater strength gain compared with the
SPLIT routine as a result of more frequent neural stimulation
for the same muscle group. For muscle hypertrophy, based on
hypothesis developed by Dankel et al. (7), we hypothesized
that the TOTAL routine would promote a greater increase in
muscular hypertrophy compared with the SPLIT routine as
a result of more frequent elevation in MPS.
Copyright © 2018 National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the TM
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
Total Body Mass (Kg) RT Experience (y)
83.4 6 11.7 6.4 6 2.4
84.4 6 8.1 6.6 6 2.4
METHODS
Experimental Approach to the Problem
This study followed a randomized, longitudinal design (34).
Subjects were pair matched according to baseline strength
and then randomly assigned to 1 of 2 experimental groups:
SPLIT, where multiple exercises were performed for a spe-
cific muscle group in a session (n = 9) or the TOTAL, where
1 exercise was performed per muscle group in a session with
all muscle groups trained in each session (n = 9). All other
RT variables (e.g., exercise selection, exercise order, range of
repetitions, rest interval between sets and exercises, range of
motion, and velocity of execution) were held constant. The
experimental period lasted 11 weeks as follows: 1st week—
familiarization period; 2nd week—preintervention period
(baseline); 3rd–10th week—training intervention period;
11th week—postintervention period. The training interven-
tion period lasted 8 weeks and the total load lifted (TLL)
and internal training load (ITL) were calculated for every RT
session to compare the accumulated external training load
(assessed by TLL) and the ITL between experimental
groups across the intervention period.
Testing was performed in the preintervention and post-
intervention periods for maximal voluntary muscle strength
(1RM test for bench press, parallel back-squat, and machine
close-grip seated row exercises) and muscle thickness (MT)
of the elbow flexors (biceps brachii and brachialis), triceps
brachii, and vastus lateralis. In the 1st week, subjects
attended 2 familiarization sessions in the laboratory report-
ing to have refrained from performing any exercise other
than activities of daily living for at least 48 hours before the
first familiarization session. In the first session, subjects were
familiarized to 1RM test. The following day (24 hours after),
subjects were familiarized to standardized procedures adop-
ted in all RT exercises such as body position, cadence, range
of motion, rest period, etc. In addition, subjects were trained
and instructed as to how to record their dietary intake.
Subjects
Eighteen healthy men (26.4 6 SD 4.6 years [range 18 to 30
years]; 177.8 6 6.6 cm; total body mass = 84.4 6 8.1 kg; RT
experience = 6.4 6 2.4 years) volunteered to participate in
this study. The sample size was justified by a priori power
analysis based on a pilot study where the vastus lateralis MT
was assessed as the outcome measure with an effect size
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 Resistance-Training Frequency

TABLE 2. Training protocols for TOTAL and SPLIT.*

Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

TOTAL
(n = 9)
Incline dumbbell Incline bench Bench press 3 3 10– Incline bench press Bench press machine
press 3 3 10–12 press 3 3 10– 12 RM machine 3 3 10– 3 3 10–12 RM
RM 12 RM 12 RM
Biceps curl 3 3 10– Dumbbell incline Dumbbell preacher Barbell preacher curl Dumbbell hammer curl
12 RM curl 3 3 10–12 curl 3 3 10–12 RM 3 3 10–12 RM 3 3 10–12 RM
RM
Parallel back-squat Leg press 3 3 Barbell split squat 3 3 Hack squat 3 3 10– Deadlift 3 3 10–12
3 3 10–12 RM 10–12 RM 10–12 RM 12 RM RM
Lat pull-down 3 3 Machine lat pull- Neutral-grip lat pull- Machine close-grip Machine wide-grip
10–12 RM down 3 3 10– down 3 3 10–12 seated row 3 3 seated row 3 3 10–
12 RM RM 10–12 RM 12 RM
Cable triceps 3 3 Nosebreaker 3 3 Cable overhead Cable triceps press- Cable triceps
10–12 RM 10–12 RM triceps extension 3 down 3 3 10–12 kickback 3 3
3 10–12 RM RM 10–12 RM
SPLIT
(n = 9)
Incline dumbbell Biceps curl 3 3 Parallel back-squat 3 Lat pull-down 3 3 Cable triceps 3 3
press 3 3 10–12 10–12 RM 3 10–12 RM 10–12 RM 10–12 RM
RM
Incline bench press Dumbbell incline Leg press 3 3 10–12 Machine lat pull- Nosebreaker 3 3
3 3 10–12 RM curl 3 3 10–12 RM down 3 3 10–12 10–12 RM
RM RM
Bench press 3 3 Dumbbell Barbell split squat 3 3 Neutral-grip lat pull- Cable overhead
10–12 RM preacher curl 3 10–12 RM down 3 3 10–12 triceps extension 3
3 10–12 RM RM 3 10–12 RM
Incline bench press Barbell preacher Hack squat 3 3 10– Machine close-grip Cable triceps press-
machine 3 3 10– curl 3 3 10–12 12 RM seated row 3 3 down 3 3 10–12
12 RM RM 10–12 RM RM
Bench press Dumbbell Deadlift 3 3 10–12 Machine wide-grip Cable triceps
machine 3 3 10– hammer curl 3 RM seated row 3 3 kickback 3 3 10–
12 RM 3 10–12 RM 10–12 RM 12 RM

*TOTAL = total-body routine group; RM = repetition maximum; SPLIT = split-body routine group.

difference of 0.75, an alpha level of 0.05, and a power (12b)
of 0.80 (9). Subjects were well trained; all had been perform-
ing RT a minimum of 3 days to weeks for at least 1 year in
the University RT facility. The range of RT experience was
2–10 years. All subjects regularly performed (minimum fre-
quency of once a week) all exercises used in the training
intervention and in the strength tests for at least 1 year
before entering the study. Moreover, subjects were free from
any existing musculoskeletal disorders, history of injury
(with residual symptoms of pain, or “giving-away” sensa-
tions) in the trunk, upper, and lower limbs within the last
year, and stated they had not taken anabolic steroids or any
other illegal agents known to increase muscle size currently
and for the previous year. Thus, participation in the study
required that the subjects answered negatively to all ques-
tions on the Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (32)
and had a minimum 1RM parallel back squat of 31.25 total
body mass and a 1RM bench press of at least equal to total
the TM
body mass (35). All subjects read and signed an informed
consent document approved by the Methodist University of
Piracicaba research ethics committee (protocol #1.749.141).
Procedures
Resistance-Training Program. The RT protocol consisted of 25
exercises targeting each of the major muscle groups. Subjects
were instructed to refrain from performing any additional
RT for the duration of the study. Over the course of each
training week, all subjects performed the same exercises and
similar repetition volume throughout the duration of the
study. The external load was adjusted for each exercise as
needed on successive sets to ensure that subjects achieved
failure in the target repetition range. The specific protocols
for TOTAL and SPLIT are outlined in Table 2. The exercises
were chosen based on their common inclusion in bodybuild-
ing and strength-type RT programs (12). The RT protocol
for both groups consisted of 5 weekly sessions performed on

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consecutive days (Monday–Friday) for 8 weeks. Subjects

performed 3 sets per exercise for a total of 15 sets per

606.6 3,074.2 6 606.6 3,072.9 6 615.8

session. Each set involved 10–12 maximum repetitions

161.7 6 24.3
345.5 6 83.1
115.5 6 29.2
(RM) with 60 seconds of rest between sets and 120 sec-

Week 8
onds between exercises (8). All sets were performed to the
point of momentary concentric muscular failure and
defined as the inability to perform another concentric
repetition while maintaining proper technique. Cadence
of repetitions was performed in a controlled fashion, with
161.9 6 23.6
346.7 6 82.2
115.2 6 29.2
concentric and eccentric actions of approximately 1.5
Week 4

*TOTAL = total-body routine group; SPLIT = split-body routine group; Total (Kcal) = total kilocalories intake (3 recorded days’ average); g = grams.
seconds for total repetition duration of approximately 3
seconds. All subjects reported a rating of perception
exertion (RPE) based on the RPE/RIR scale (13) of 9.5–
10 for all sets and exercises across RT sessions.
All routines were directly supervised by research
23.6
82.2
29.2

assistants to ensure proper performance and technique

Week 1

6
6
6
6

of the respective routines. Before the training intervention

161.9
346.7
115.5
3,074.2

period, all subjects underwent 10RM testing (according to

guidelines established by the National Strength and
Conditioning Association [NSCA] (12)) to determine
SPLIT (n = 9)

individual initial training loads for each exercise. Attempts

were made to progressively increase the external loads
lifted each week while maintaining the target repetition
range. No injuries were reported and the adherence to the
program was 100% for both groups.
367.2 2,906.9 6 367.2 2,860.9 6 371.9
160.8 6 24.5
329.4 6 68.5
100.0 6 6.1
Week 8

Estimate of Food Intake. To avoid potential dietary con-

founding of results, subjects were advised to maintain
TABLE 3. Estimated dietary nutrient intake for TOTAL and SPLIT (mean 6 SD).*

their customary nutritional regimen and to avoid taking

any supplements during the study period. Dietary nutrient
intake was assessed by 24-hour food recalls on 2 non-
160.5 6 25.8
333.7 6 67.2

consecutive weekdays and 1 day of the weekend. The

103.3 6 5.6
Week 4

subjects were instructed to record in detail: time of

consumption, types, and quantity of food preparations
consumed during 24 hours. The quantity of food was
recorded in cooking units (spoons, cups, and glass) and
transformed in to grams. The estimation of energy intake
25.8
67.2

(macronutrients) was analyzed by NutWin software

5.6
Week 1

(UNIFESP, Sao Paulo, Brazil). The estimated food intake

6
6
6
6

was assessed during weeks 1, 4, and 8 of the training

160.5
333.7
103.3
2,906.9

intervention period.

Criterion Measurements: Muscle Strength. Upper-body and

TOTAL (n = 9)

lower-body maximum strength was assessed by 1RM

testing in the bench press (1RMBENCH), parallel back-
squat (1RMSQUAT), and machine close-grip seated row
(1RMROW) exercises. Subjects reported to the laboratory
having refrained from any exercise other than activities of
Carbohydrate (g)

daily living for at least 48 hours before baseline testing and

at least 48 hours before testing at the conclusion of the
Total (Kcal)
Protein (g)

Lipids (g)
Variables

study. Maximum strength testing was consistent with rec-

ognized guidelines as established by the NSCA (12).
Before testing, subjects performed a general warm-up
consisting of 5-minute cycling (Schwinne, AC Sport) at
60–70 rpm and 50 W; next, a specific warm-up set of the

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 Resistance-Training Frequency

TABLE 4. Preintervention vs. Postintervention Muscle Strength measures for TOTAL and SPLIT (mean 6 SD).*

d (690% CL) Qualitative Chances

Variables Pre Post D% p classification assessment (%)

TOTAL 1RMBENCH 104.2 6 17.6 113.5 6 19.3† 8.5 ,0.001 0.48 (60.11) small Possibly trivial 38/62/0
(n = 9) (kg)
1RMSQUAT 105.6 6 20.2 125.1 6 24.6† 18.5 ,0.001 0.87 (60.21) Most likely 100/0/0
(kg) moderate
1RMROW 107.0 6 14.8 114.7 6 14.4† 6.6 ,0.001 0.49 (60.19) small Possibly trivial 46/54/0
(kg)
1RMBENCH 93.2 6 13.5 100.9 6 12.9† 8.2 ,0.001 0.58 (60.25) small Possibly 71/29/0
(kg)
SPLIT 1RMSQUAT 111.9 6 18.8 121.8 6 18.7† 8.8 0.002 0.53 (60.25) small Possibly 58/42/0
(n = 9) (kg)
1RMROW 89.7 6 11.7 95.6 6 11.9† 6.6 0.001 0.50 (60.22) small Possibly 50/50/0
(kg)

*d = Effect Size; CLs = confidence limits; chances = rate of having better/similar/poorer chances; TOTAL = total-body routine
group; 1RMBENCH = 1 maximal repetition test in bench press exercise; kg = kilograms; 1RMSQUAT = 1 maximal repetition test in parallel
back-squat exercise; 1RMROW = 1 maximal repetition test in seated row machine exercise; SPLIT = split-body routine group.
†Significantly greater than the corresponding preintervention value (p , 0.05).

given exercise of 5 repetitions was performed at ;50% 1RM
followed by 1–2 sets of 2–3 repetitions at a load correspond-
ing to ;60–80% 1RM. Subjects then performed sets of 1
repetition of increasing weight for 1RM determination. The
external load was adjusted by ;5–10% in subsequent at-
tempts until the subject was unable to complete 1 maximal
concentric muscle action. The 1RM was considered the
highest external load lifted. A 3- to 5-minute rest was af-
forded between each successive attempt. All 1RM determi-
nations were made within 5 attempts.

Figure 1. Efficiency of the group that have trained in the total-body routine (TOTAL) in comparison with the group that have trained in the split-body routine
(SPLIT) to improve maximum strength in bench press (1RMBENCH), parallel back-squat (1RMSQUAT), and seated row machine (1RMROW) exercises; muscle
thickness of the triceps brachii (MTTB), elbow flexors (MTEF), and vastus lateralis (MTVL) muscles; accumulated total load lifted (ATLL) and internal training load
(ITLTOTAL) (bars indicate uncertainty in the true mean changes with 90% confidence intervals). Trivial areas were the smallest worthwhile change (SWC) (see
methods).

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TABLE 5. Preintervention vs. Postintervention Muscle Morphology measures for TOTAL and SPLIT (mean 6 SD).*

d (690% CL) Qualitative Chances

Variables Pre Post D% p classification assessment (%)

TOTAL MTEF 44.9 6 5.7 48.7 6 5.5†z 8.5 ,0.001 0.68 (60.13) moderate Very likely 99/1/0
(n = 9) (mm)
MTTB 44.4 6 4.2 49.4 6 4.2† 11.2 ,0.001 1.22 (60.25) large Almost certain 100/0/0
(mm)
MTVL 47.6 6 4.3 52.2 6 3.2†z 9.7 ,0.001 1.22 (60.45) large Almost certain 100/0/0
(mm)
MTEF 40.1 6 6.2 41.6 6 6.3† 3.8 0.003 0.24 (60.12) small Most likely trivial 0/100/0
(mm)
SPLIT MTTB 43.9 6 5.4 46.4 6 5.7† 5.8 0.001 0.46 (60.21) small Possibly trivial 37/63/0
(n = 9) (mm)
MTVL 45.5 6 3.3 47.9 6 2.8† 5.4 0.001 0.80 (60.35) moderate Likely 92/8/0
(mm)

*d = Effect Size; CLs = confidence limits; Chances = rate of having better/similar/poorer chances; TOTAL = total-body routine
group; MTEF = muscle thickness of the elbow flexors muscles; mm = millimeters; MTTB = muscle thickness of the triceps brachii
muscle; MTVL = muscle thickness of the vastus lateralis muscle; SPLIT = split-body routine group.
†Significantly greater than the corresponding preintervention value (p , 0.05).
zSignificantly greater than SPLIT (p , 0.05).

Successful 1RMBENCH was achieved if the subject dis-
played a 5-point body contact position (head, upper back,
and buttocks firmly on the bench with both feet flat on the
floor), lowered the bar to touch his chest, and executed full
elbow extension. The grip width was standardized at 200%
of biacromial width (22). In the 1RMSQUAT, subjects were
required to squat down, so that the top of the thigh was
parallel to the ground (;908 of knee joint flexion) for the
attempt to be considered successful as determined by
a research assistant who was positioned laterally to the sub-
ject. The barbell was positioned on the shoulders (high bar
position), and the subjects’ feet were positioned at hip width
(5). Successful 1RMROW was achieved if the subject dis-
played a 4-point body contact position (chest firmly on the
pad of the seated row machine, buttocks firmly on the
bench, and both feet flat on the floor), executed full elbow
extension (while grasping the handles), and pulled the han-
dles back until the elbows reached the trunk line (;08 of
shoulder flexion). Seat height was adjusted so that the pad
maintained its upper border at the height of the sternum
(manubrium). The distance of the pad was adjusted, so that
subjects reached full elbow extension at the finish of the
eccentric portion of the movement. The handles were given
to the subject by 2 research assistants, so that the subject
started the test by first performing the eccentric action of the
movement (shoulders flexion, elbows extension, and shoul-
der blades abduction). Subjects were instructed to keep their
elbows close to their sides and to avoid swinging the body
forward.
The sequence of maximum strength tests was 1RMBENCH,
1RMSQUAT, and 1RMROW with a 20-minute rest period sep-
arating tests. Recording of foot and hand placement were
made during familiarization strength testing and then used
for preintervention and postintervention performance tests
as well as at all training sessions. All testing sessions were
supervised by the research team to achieve a consensus for
success on each attempt. The test-retest intraclass correla-
tion coefficient (ICC) calculated through the data collected
during the familiarization period and the preintervention
period for 1RMBENCH, 1RMSQUAT, and 1RMROW is 0.989,
0.990, and 0.988, respectively. The coefficient of variation
(CV) from our laboratory for these measures is 0.8, 0.7,
and 0.9%, respectively. The SEM from our laboratory for
these measures is 2.05, 1.95, and 2.23 kg, respectively.
Muscle Thickness. Ultrasound imaging was used to obtain
measurements of MT. A trained technician performed all
testing using an A-mode ultrasound imaging unit (Body-
metrix Pro System; Intelametrix, Inc., Livermore, CA, USA).
After a generous application of a water-soluble transmission
gel (Mercur S.A.—Body Care, Santa Cruz do Sul, RS, Brazil)
to the measured site, a 2.5-MHz linear probe was placed
perpendicular to the tissue interface without depressing the
skin. Equipment settings were optimized for image quality
according to the manufacturer’s user manual and held con-
stant among testing sessions. When the quality of the image
was deemed to be satisfactory, the image was saved to the
hard drive, and MT dimensions were obtained by measuring
the distance from the subcutaneous adipose tissue–muscle
interface to the muscle-bone interface per methods used by
Abe et al. (1). Measurements were taken on the right side of
the body at 3 sites: elbow flexors (MTEF), triceps brachii

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 Resistance-Training Frequency
Figure 2. Mean and SD values for (A) weekly total load lifted and (B)
weekly internal training load for TOTAL and SPLIT. *Significantly greater
than week 1 of the respective group (p , 0.05). **Significantly greater
than week 4 of the respective group (p , 0.05).
(MTTB), and vastus lateralis (MTVL). The upper-arm mea-
surement was conducted while subjects were standing and
the measurement of thigh muscle involved subjects lying
supine on an examination table.
For the anterior and posterior upper-arm measurements
were taken 60% distal between the lateral epicondyle of
the humerus and the acromion process of the scapula; for
the thigh muscle, measurements were taken 50% of the
distance between the lateral condyle of the femur and
greater trochanter. For each measurement, the examined
limb was secured so as to minimize unwanted movement.
To maintain consistency between preintervention and
postintervention testing, each site was marked with henna
ink (reinforced every week). In an effort to help ensure
that swelling in the muscles from training did not obscure
results, images were obtained 48–72 hours before com-
mencement of the study and after the final training ses-
sion. This is consistent with research showing that an
acute increase in muscle thickness returns to baseline
within 48 hours after an RT session (21).
To further ensure accuracy of measurements, at least 3
images were obtained for each site. If measurements were
within 1 mm of one another, the figures were averaged to
obtain a final value. If measurements were more than 1 mm
the
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of one another, a fourth image was obtained and the closest
3 measurements were then averaged. The test-retest ICCs
from our laboratory for MTEF, MTTB, and MTVL are 0.996,
0.998, and 0.999, respectively. The CVs for these measures
are 0.4, 0.6, and 0.6%, respectively. The SEM values for these
measures are 0.29, 0.42, and 0.41 mm, respectively.
Total Load Lifted. Total Load Lifted: sets 3 repetitions 3
external load (kgf ) (31) was calculated from training logs
filled out by research assistants for every RT session. The
weekly TLL (TLLWEEK) was calculated as the values corre-
sponding to the sum of the loads calculated for the 5 RT
sessions in each week. The accumulated TLL (ATLL) was
the sum of all RT weeks. Only repetitions performed through
a full range of motion were included for analysis. The data
were expressed in kilogram-force units (kgf ).
Internal Training Load. Subjects reported their session-RPE
(sRPE), according to the OMNI-Resistance Exercise Scale
(OMNI-RES), validated to measure RPE in RT (25). Sub-
jects were shown the scale 10 minutes after each session
(3,4) and asked “How intense was your session?” and were
instructed to make certain that their RPE referred to the
intensity of the whole session rather than to the most recent
exercise intensity. The ITL for each session was calculated
by multiplying the total time under tension spent in the
session in minutes by the sRPE (10). The weekly ITL (ITL-
WEEK) was calculated as the values corresponding to the sum
of the ITLs calculated for the 5 RT sessions in each week.
Total ITL (ITLTOTAL) was the sum of all RT weeks. The data
were expressed in arbitrary units (a.u.).
Statistical Analyses
The normality and homogeneity of the variances were
verified using the Shapiro-Wilk and Levene tests, respec-
tively. The mean, SD, and 90% confidence intervals (CIs)
were used after the data normality was assumed. To com-
pare mean values of the descriptive variables, ATLL and
ITLTOTAL between groups (TOTAL vs. SPLIT), a paired t-
test was used. A 2 3 2 repeated-measures analysis of vari-
ance (ANOVA) (interaction groups [TOTAL and SPLIT] 3
time [preintervention vs. postintervention]) was used to
compare the dependent variables (1RMBENCH, 1RMSQUAT,
1RMROW, MTEF, MTTB, and MTVL). A 2 3 3 repeated-
measures ANOVA (interaction groups [TOTAL and SPLIT]
3 time [weeks 1, 4 and 8]) was used to compare the food
intake variables, TLLWEEK and ITLWEEK. Post hoc compar-
isons were performed with the Bonferroni test (with correc-
tion). Assumptions of sphericity were evaluated using
Mauchly’s test. In cases which sphericity was violated (p ,
0.05), the Greenhouse-Geisser correction factor was applied.
In addition, effect sizes were evaluated using a partial eta
squared (h2p ), with ,0.06, 0.06–0.14, and .0.14 indicating
a small, medium, and large effect, respectively (34). All anal-
yses were conducted in SPSS-22.0 software (IBM Corp.,
TM

Figure 3. Mean and SD values for (A) total load lifted (sun of the 8
weeks) and (B) internal Training load (sun of the 8 weeks) for TOTAL and
SPLIT. *Significantly greater than SPLIT (p , 0.05).
Armonk, NY, USA). The adopted significance was 5%. Fur-
thermore, the magnitudes of the difference were examined
using the standardized difference based on Cohen’s d units
by means of effect sizes (d) (14). The d results were qualita-
tively interpreted using the following thresholds: ,0.2, triv-
ial; 0.2–0.6, small; 0.6–1.2, moderate; 1.2–2.0, large; 2.0–4.0,
very large; and .4.0, nearly perfect. The quantitative chan-
ces for higher or lower differences were qualitatively as-
sessed as follows: ,1%, almost certainly not; 1–5%, very
unlikely; 5–25%, unlikely; 25–75%, possibly; 75–95%, likely;
95–99%, very likely; and .99%, almost certain. If the chan-
ces for having higher or lower values than the smallest
worthwhile difference were .5%, the true difference was
considered unclear. Data analysis was performed using
a modified statistical Excel spreadsheet (14).
RESULTS
No significant difference was noted between groups in any
baseline measurements (all p . 0.05 [Table 1]). There was no
significant difference in any dietary intake variable either
within or between groups over the course of the study (all
p . 0.05 [Table 3]).
Maximal Strength
A significant main effect of time (F1,16 = 100.230, p , 0.001,
h2p = 0.862), but not group 3 time interaction (F1,16 = 0.546,
p = 0.471, h2p = 0.033), was observed for 1RMBENCH. Both
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groups showed a significant increase from baseline to post-
intervention by 9.3 6 3.9 kgf (D% = 8.5, p , 0.001, d = 0.48)
and 7.7 6 3.1 kgf (D% = 8.2, p , 0.001, d = 0.58) for TOTAL
and SPLIT, respectively (Table 4). In addition, no substantial
difference between groups was observed for 1RM BENCH {D%
= 20.8, d = 0.35 (90% confidence level [CL] = 6 0.39), 0/
75/25% [possibly trivial] with changes for greater/similar/
lower values, respectively} (Figure 1).
There was a significant main effect of time (F1,16 = 60.073,
p , 0.001, h2p = 0.790) and group 3 time interaction (F1,16 =
6.475, p = 0.022, h2p = 0.288) for 1RMSQUAT. Both groups
showed a significant increase from baseline to postinterven-
tion by 19.5 6 9.3 kgf (D% = 18.5, p , 0.001, d = 0.87) and
9.9 6 6.6 kgf (D% = 8.8, p = 0.002, d = 0.53) for TOTAL and
SPLIT, respectively (Table 4). Post hoc analysis showed no
significant difference between groups at the baseline (p =
0.501) and postintervention (p = 0.750). Moreover, no sub-
stantial difference between groups was observed for
1RMSQUAT (D% = 96.9, d = 1.20 [90% CL = 6 6.20], 33/
10/57% [unclear]) (Figure 1).
A significant main effect of time (F1,16 = 39.280, p , 0.001,
h2p = 0.711), but not group 3 time interaction (F1,16 = 0.347,
p = 0.564, h2p = 0.021), was observed for 1RMROW. Both
groups showed an increase from baseline to postintervention
by 7.7 6 4.8 kgf (D% = 6.6, p , 0.001, d = 0.49) and 5.9 6 4.0
kgf (D% = 6.6, p = 0.001, d = 0.50) for TOTAL and SPLI-
T, respectively (Table 4). In addition, no substantial
difference between groups was observed for 1RMROW (D%
= 30.5, d = 0.28 [90% CL = 6 0.16], 0/99/1% [very likely
trivial]) (Figure 1).
Muscle Thickness
There was a significant main effect of time (F1,16 = 76.883, p
, 0.001, h2p = 0.828) and group 3 time interaction (F1,16 =
14.516, p = 0.002, h2p = 0.476) for MTEF. A significant
increase was noted for both TOTAL 3.8 6 0.9 mm (D% =
8.5, p , 0.001, d = 0.68) and SPLIT 1.5 6 1.6 mm (D% = 3.8,
p = 0.003, d = 0.24) from baseline to postintervention (Table
5). Post hoc analyzes showed no significant difference
between groups at the baseline (p = 0.108), but at the post-
intervention period, a significant difference between groups
was observed (p = 0.021). In addition, a substantial difference
between groups was observed for MTEF (D% = 153.3, d =
1.79 [90% CL = 6 1.20], 0/4/96% [very likely]) (Figure 1).
A significant main effect of time (F1,16 = 79.032, p , 0.001,
h2p = 0.832) and group 3 time interaction (F1,16 = 8.422, p =
0.010, h2p = 0.345) was observed for MTTB. A significant
increase was noted for both TOTAL 5.0 6 1.5 mm (D% =
11.2, p , 0.001, d = 1.22) and SPLIT 2.5 6 2.1 mm (D% =
5.8, p = 0.001, d = 0.46) from baseline to postintervention
(Table 5). Post hoc analysis showed no significant difference
between groups at the baseline (p = 0.839) and postinterven-
tion (p = 0.227). Moreover, no substantial difference between
groups was observed for MTTB (D% = 100.0, d = 1.37 [90%
CL = 6 1.90], 5/17/78% [unclear]) (Figure 1).
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 Resistance-Training Frequency
A significant main effect of time (F1,16 = 67.433, p , 0.001,
h2p = 0.808) and group 3 time interaction (F1,16 = 6.146, p =
0.025, h2p = 0.278) was observed for MTVL. A significant
increase was noted for both TOTAL 4.6 6 2.1 mm (D% =
9.7, p , 0.001, d = 1.22) and SPLIT 2.4 6 1.5 mm (D% = 5.4,
p = 0.001, d = 0.80) from baseline to postintervention (Table
5). Post hoc analyzes showed no significant difference
between groups at the baseline (p = 0.245), but at the post-
intervention period, a significant difference between groups
was observed (p = 0.009). In addition, a substantial difference
between groups was observed for MTVL (D% = 91.7, d = 1.17
[90% CL = 6 0.69], 0/5/95% [likely]) (Figure 1).
Total Load Lifted
Figure 2 shows the TLLWEEK measured during the interven-
tion period. A significant main effect of time (F1.429,22.865 =
35.332, p , 0.001, h2p = 0.688), but not group 3 time inter-
action (F1.429,22.865 = 0.027, p = 0.935, h2p = 0.002), was
observed for TLLWEEK. For TOTAL, there was a significant
difference between weeks 1 vs. 4 (p = 0.047), 1 vs. 8 (p =
0.010), and 4 vs. 8 (p , 0.001). For SPLIT, a significant
difference was observed between weeks 1 vs. 4 (p = 0.029),
1 vs. 8, (p = 0.001) and 4 vs. 8 (p = 0.010).
A significant difference between groups was noted such
that TOTAL produced superior TLL compared with SPLIT
(D% = 22.3, p = 0.029, d = 1.13 [90% CL = 6 0.82], 0/10/
90% [likely]) (Figures 1 and 3).
Internal Training Load
No significant main effect of time (F1.261,20.176 = 2.940, p =
0.094. h2p = 0.155) and no significant group 3 time interac-
tion (F1.261,20.176 = 0.203, p = 0.713, h2p = 0.013) was observed
for ITLWEEK (Figure 2). Moreover, no significant between
groups difference was observed for ITLTOTAL (D% = 5.33, p
= 0.406, d = 0.40 [90% CL = 6 0.82], 3/55/42% [possibly
trivial]) (Figures 1 and 3).
DISCUSSION
The current study aimed to compare the effect of a split
training routine with muscle groups trained once per week
vs. whole-body training routine with muscle groups trained
5 days per week on neuromuscular adaptations in resistance-
trained men. The main findings were that (a) muscle
strength increases were similar regardless of the experimen-
tal conditions studied and (b) a whole-body training routine
with all muscle groups trained 5 days may confer a poten-
tially superior hypertrophic effect compared with a split
routine where muscles are worked just once per week.
To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first study that
compared musculoskeletal performance and morphological
adaptations between RT protocols using different routines
schemes (TOTAL vs. SPLIT) based on different RT weekly
frequencies of 1 vs. 5 days per muscle group in resistance-
trained individuals. The findings of this study demonstrated
that training a muscle group only once a week is as efficient
as training 5 times per week to maximize strength gains.
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S148 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
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Alternatively, from a muscle building perspective, the find-
ings of this study suggest a potential hypertrophic benefit to
a higher frequency of training when training volume (num-
ber of sets per muscle group) is equated between conditions.
This would suggest that the increased muscle mass achieved
in TOTAL did not translate into greater strength gains.
The increase in maximal strength from baseline to post-
intervention between conditions showed a percentage
increase in 1RMBENCH for TOTAL compared with SPLIT
(D% = 20.8, d = 0.35), 1RMSQUAT (D% = 96.9, d = 1.20), and
1RMROW (D% = 30.5, d = 0.28). However, these results were
not significantly different between conditions. These findings
refute the initial hypothesis that the TOTAL approach
would elicit a superior strength gain.
This study used a high RT volume because of evidence of
a dose-response relationship between RT volume and
muscle hypertrophy, with a greater volume (10 or more
weekly sets per muscle group) resulting in additional
improvement in muscle mass (28) and also because this
RT volume is typically associated with bodybuilding-style
training (9). Thus, according to the current findings, it seems
that weekly RT volume is more important than RT fre-
quency for promoting strength gains in well-trained men.
In other words, when a weekly RT volume used is highly
enough, there seems to be a diminished neural advantage of
the higher training frequency observed in other studies with
trained subjects (15,20).
In regard to muscular hypertrophy, significantly greater
increase in MTEF and MTVL was observed in TOTAL when
compared with SPLIT. In addition, in TOTAL, the increase
in MTEF from baseline to postintervention was 153.3%
greater than SPLIT, with a large effect size (ES) between
groups (d = 1.79). To the MTVL, the percentage difference
between groups was 91.7%, with moderate ES (d = 1.17).
Moreover, the magnitude-based inference (MBI) analysis
(14) showed that clinical differences between groups were
very likely and likely for MTEF MTVL, respectively.
Although MTTB was not statistically different between
groups, the percentage difference was 100.0%, with a large
ES (d = 1.37) that favored TOTAL. Nevertheless, MBI
showed that clinical difference between groups for MTTB
was unclear. In combination, these data provide evidence
that resistance-trained individuals benefit from including pe-
riods of training muscle groups more frequently than 1
sessions$wk21 when the goal is to maximize muscle
hypertrophy.
Schoenfeld et al. (30) observed a significantly greater
increase in elbow flexors MT for a higher frequency (3
sessions$wk21) vs. a lower frequency protocol (1
session$wk21). Moreover, although triceps brachii MT was
not statistically different between groups as in this study, the
ES reported by Schoenfeld et al. (30) for a higher frequency
protocol was 96% greater than that of a lower frequency
protocol (0.90 vs. 0.46, respectively). Although, vastus later-
alis MT was not statistically different between groups,

Schoenfeld et al. (30) also reported a markedly greater ES for
vastus lateralis thickness increase on a higher frequency pro-
tocol compared with a lower frequency protocol (0.70 vs.
0.18, respectively).
This study agrees with the results observed by Schoenfeld
et al. (30) (i.e., in comparison with lower frequencies, higher
frequencies elicited a similar strength gain, and significantly
greater increase in hypertrophy of upper-body muscles) and
expands on previous findings by providing direct evidence of
a greater MT increase in lower-body muscles with a higher
RT frequency (5 sessions$wk21) in trained subjects. These
results confirm the initial hypothesis and seem to support
the hypothesis of Dankel et al. (7), who proposed that the
magnitude and duration of the elevated MPS in response to
RT bout in well-trained RT individuals favored working
muscles more frequently (6). Research by Burd et al. dem-
onstrated that a relatively low number of sets (i.e., 4 sets to
volitional failure) may be sufficient to elicit a large increase in
MPS for up to 24 hours afterexercise (2). It therefore can be
speculated that performing fewer sets per muscle group per
session may be more effective at reducing prolonged neuro-
muscular fatigue and allowing the same muscle group to be
trained more frequently. In this way, the more repetitive
stimuli would hypothetically result in a greater time spent
in a net-positive protein balance. Hence, Dankel et al. (7)
hypothesized that resistance-trained individuals may see
a greater benefit in muscle hypertrophy by simply dispersing
the same RT volume (number of sets per muscle group) over
a greater weekly frequency (i.e., greater number of training
sessions). The present findings seem to experimentally con-
firm the proposed hypothesis (7).
In relation to TLL, the TOTAL produced a 22.3% greater
accumulated external training load with a moderate-associ-
ated ES (d = 1.13). Because of the fact that the magnitude of
the ITL is determined largely by the external training load
(although the individual characteristics also are very rele-
vant) (16), it was hypothesized that the significantly greater
ATLL observed in TOTAL compared with SPLIT would
result in significantly greater ITLTOTAL. Conversely,
although TOTAL produced 2059 a.u. more ITLTOTAL than
SPLIT, this difference was not statistically significant.
The ITL for each session was calculated multiplying
a measure of volume (total time under tension spent in the
session in minutes) by the measure of intensity of the session
(sRPE) (10). Although sRPE is indicative of the relative
intensity of effort (10,31), it is possible that the relative inten-
sity of the sessions was the same for both groups because all
sets were performed until concentric muscle failure. Indeed,
if sets are designed to achieve muscular failure, the exertion
of subjects should be similar within any intensity level (33).
Confirming these assumptions, the sRPE reported by all
subjects in all training sessions ranged among 8–9. The other
part of the ITL equation considers the time under tension of
the session, given that the velocity execution was controlled
(3 seconds) and the number of sets and range of repetitions
Copyright © 2018 National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
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Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
(10–12RM) was the same for both groups, it is plausible to
state that both groups were exposed to similar volume and
relative intensity of training, consequently the ITL (product
of both variables) accumulation was similar.
On the other hand, if the weekly volume (sets and
repetitions) was similar for both groups, there remains the
question as to how TLL was superior in the TOTAL group.
The answer seems to lie in the different RT routine schemes
used among experimental groups. Although SPLIT per-
formed 5 exercises for the same muscle group in a session
with 2-minute rest intervals between each exercise, TOTAL
had a rest of 24 hours between each exercise for the same
muscle group. Hence, TOTAL avoided issues with neuro-
muscular fatigue from the previous exercise (for the same
muscle group), thereby promoting a higher TLL. Indeed,
evidence shows that longer rest intervals between sets for the
same muscle group result in a higher TLL and hypertrophic
increases in resistance-trained men (29). Therefore, it seems
that a higher weekly frequency per muscle group is able to
increase TLL without changing the magnitude of ITL com-
pared with condensing the weekly volume in a single
session.
Results observed for TLL expands on previous findings by
providing direct evidence of the greater TLL increase with
a higher weekly RT frequency (5 vs. 1 weekly session per
muscle group) in well-trained men. This is very relevant
because the increment in muscle strength and muscle mass is
strongly dependent on TLL of RT. A clear dose-response
relationship has been reported between TLL and both
muscle strength (18) and hypertrophy (19,28). Moreover,
a higher load induces a greater mechanical tension, which
is purported to be a primary driving force in respect to
hypertrophy development (26). Therefore, it is plausible to
speculate that the greater ATLL in TOTAL compared with
SPLIT played a meaningful role in the superior hypertrophy
gains observed in TOTAL.
This study has some limitations that should be considered
when interpreting the current results. First, the small sample
size affected statistical power. As is the cases in most
longitudinal RT studies, a high degree of interindividual
variability was noted among subjects, which limited the
ability to detect a significant difference in several outcome
measures. Despite this limitation, analysis of effect sizes
provides a good basis for drawing inferential conclusions
from the results. Second, the findings of this study are
specific to young resistance-trained men and therefore
cannot necessarily be generalized to other populations
including adolescents, women, and elderly. It is possible that
the higher RT volumes and frequencies may not be as well
tolerated in these individuals and perhaps could hasten the
onset of overtraining when combined with a high intensity
of effort. Future research is required to determine the
frequency-related responses to RT across different popula-
tions. Finally, results may have been influenced by the
novelty of changing RT programs. Prestudy interviews
VOLUME 33 | NUMBER 7 | SUPPLEMENT TO JULY 2019 | S149
 Resistance-Training Frequency
revealed that all subjects regularly trained with a frequency
between 1 and 2 sessions per muscle group per week.
Therefore, the subjects who were randomized to the
TOTAL group were exposed to a new stimulus in relation
to the weekly frequency (5 times per muscle group per
week), whereas the SPLIT group trained with their usual
frequency (1 time per muscle group per week). Given
evidence that the muscular response is heightened when
RT program variables altered outside of traditional recom-
mendations (17), it is feasible that subjects in TOTAL unduly
benefited from the unfamiliar stimulus of training with
a higher RT frequency. It is also possible that periodizing
training frequencies might provide a mean to maintain news
of the stimulus and thus promote a continued gain over time.
This hypothesis demands additional investigation.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
This study provides evidence that frequencies of greater than
1 session per muscle group per week are beneficial to
enhancing muscle hypertrophy. Contrarily, this relationship
does not seem to persist with strength gains. The study
demonstrated that dividing the muscle group RT volume
into 5 sessions$wk21 provides a practical mean to perform
a higher TLL per muscle group. It is conceivable that, for
those who have as primary goal maximize gains in muscle
strength and hypertrophy, periodizing training frequency
over the course of a long-term training cycle may be an
optimal approach. Such a strategy would maintain the nov-
elty of the training stimulus, thus facilitating a continuous
improvement in neuromuscular performance and muscular
hypertrophy.
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OPEN ACCESS
Citation: Pantoja PD, Carvalho AR, Ribas LR,
Peyré-Tartaruga LA (2018) Effect of weighted sled
towing on sprinting effectiveness, power and force-
velocity relationship. PLoS ONE 13(10): e0204473.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204473
Editor: Tiago M. Barbosa, Nanyang Technological
University, SINGAPORE
Received: July 11, 2018
Accepted: September 7, 2018
Published: October 5, 2018
Copyright: © 2018 Pantoja et al. This is an open
access article distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original
author and source are credited.
Data Availability Statement: All relevant data are
within the paper and its Supporting Information
files.
Funding: This study was supported by CAPES/
Brazil, CNPq-Brazil (483510/2013 and 203182/
2014-6), and Lapex/Ufrgs (028/2015).
Competing interests: The authors have declared
that no competing interests exist.
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204473 October 5, 2018
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Effect of weighted sled towing on sprinting
effectiveness, power and force-velocity
relationship
Patrı́cia Dias Pantoja1, Alberito Rodrigo Carvalho1,2, Leonardo Rossato Ribas3, Leonardo
Alexandre Peyré-Tartaruga ID1*
1 Exercise Research Laboratory, School of Physical Education, Physical Therapy and Dance, Federal
University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil, 2 State University of Western Parana, Cascavel,
Parana, Brazil, 3 Gymnastics Society of Porto Alegre (SOGIPA), Porto Alegre, Brazil
* leonardo.tartaruga@ufrgs.br
Abstract
This study aimed to compare the components of force-velocity (F-V) and power-velocity (P-
V) profiles and the mechanical effectiveness of force application (or force ratio–RF) among
various sled-towing loads during the entire acceleration phase of a weighted sled sprint.
Eighteen sprinters performed four 50-m sprints in various conditions: unloaded; with a load
corresponding to 20% of the athlete’s body mass (BM); with a load of 30% BM; and with a
load of 40% BM. Data were collected with five video cameras, and the images were digitised
to obtain velocity from the derivation of the centre-of-mass position. F-V and P-V compo-
nents and RF were estimated from sprinting velocity-time data for each load using a vali-
dated method that is based on an inverse dynamic approach applied to the sprinter’s centre-
of-mass (it models the horizontal antero-posterior and vertical ground reaction force compo-
nents) and requires only measurement of anthropometric and spatiotemporal variables
(body mass, stature and instantaneous position or velocity during the acceleration phase).
The theoretical maximal velocity decreased with load compared with the unloaded condition
(for 20% BM: -6%, effect size (ES) = 0,38; for 30% BM: -15%, ES = 1.02; for 40% BM: -18%,
ES = 1.10). The theoretical maximal horizontal force (F0) and maximal power were not dif-
ferent among conditions. However, power at the end of the acceleration phase increased
with load (40% BM vs 0%: 72%; ES = 2.73) as well as the maximal mechanical effectiveness
(12%; ES = 0.85). The linear decrease in RF was different between 30 or 40% BM and the
unloaded condition (-23%; ES = 0.74 and 0.66). Better effectiveness may be developed with
40% BM load at the beginning of the acceleration and with the various load-induced
changes in the components of the F-V and P-V relationships, allowing a more accurate
determination of optimal loading conditions for maximizing power.
Introduction
Acceleration is a determinant factor for success in sprinting events. Better sprint acceleration
performance is associated with the athlete being able to exert a greater force in the horizontal
1 / 12
 Weighted sled towing and sprinting mechanics

direction, rather than applying a greater resultant force [1–3]. The orientation of the force
applied by the athlete on the ground is evaluated with the effectiveness or ‘force ratio’, which is
defined as the ratio of the horizontal force to the resultant force averaged over the stance phase
[1]. A higher force ratio during acceleration is more desirable to achieve greater sprint perfor-
mances. Studies have shown that an attenuated decrease in the force ratio during the sprint is
highly correlated with a better performance [1, 2]. Therefore, a sprinter needs to direct the
resultant force onto the ground horizontally and to limit the decrease in the force ratio along
the acceleration phase of the sprint race.
Resistance training exercises, including sport-specific movements, are often used to
improve sprint acceleration [4]. Training methods that add resistance to a sprint include wear-
ing a weighted belt, towing a parachute, and towing a weighted sled [4–7]. Sled towing exerts a
horizontal force on the athlete and is very effective in improving acceleration performance [4,
5, 8, 9]. In a sled-towing exercise, the athlete is attached to the sled through a chest or waist
harness, and a series of sprints are performed with a specific weight added to the sled [4, 10].
The training stimulus depends mainly on the weight of the sled and the coefficient of sliding
friction. The coefficient of friction must be considered because it influences the magnitude of
horizontal frictional force between the sled and the running surface [11]. Studies of sled towing
with different loads suggest that the athlete’s running speed should not be reduced by more
than 10% because greater loads can induce detrimental changes in sprinting technique [5, 12].
However, heavy sled loads might be necessary to provide a sufficient training stimulus to
increase force production and speed development during the acceleration phase of a sprint
[10, 13–16].
Recent studies have examined the force-velocity relationship and power-velocity relation-
ship during the acceleration phase of sprinting [17, 18]. The three main variables of these rela-
tionships are the theoretical maximal force (F0), the theoretical maximal velocity (V0) and
maximal power (Pmax), which correspond to the maximal mechanical capabilities of lower
limbs to produce external force, power and velocity. The athlete’s theoretical maximal velocity
is obtained by extrapolation to zero force, and the theoretical maximal force is obtained by
extrapolation to zero velocity. These parameters are influenced by the mechanical properties
of muscles, neural activity, and joint configuration [2, 3, 19, 20]. Furthermore, the theoretical
maximal force corresponds to the initial push of the athlete against the ground at the begin-
ning of the acceleration phase. It is useful for sprinters and coaches to monitor this variable,
since it reflects the athlete’s ability to transfer the overall strength at each lower-limb extension
to the specific forward sprint motion at the first steps (if this transfer is good, then we would
expect a good maximal force ratio) or at steps at high velocities (we would expect an increased
ability to limit the decrease in force ratio) [18]. The theoretical maximal velocity reflects the
sprint maximal velocity the athlete would be able to attain should mechanical resistances
against movement be null [18]. It is associated with the capability to produce horizontal force
at very high running velocities. The maximal mechanical power reflects the maximal capability
of the athlete to produce the greatest F0 and V0 during sprint acceleration. Coaches should
focus on increasing an athlete’s Pmax by improving its components (F0 and V0), analyzing the
horizontal profile of each athlete (horizontal force-velocity-power profile) which provide
information about which underlying physical or technical feature is mainly limiting the perfor-
mance. This allows for more individualized monitoring and training of physical and technical
capabilities, respecting the characteristics of each athlete [18].
Therefore, these relationships are important because they inform about the athlete’s physi-
cal capabilities and if there is any imbalance in the capacity to produce force or velocity. For
instance, two athletes with similar Pmax could present different force-velocity profiles because
of a different force/velocity combination. Maybe one athlete should focus more in training his

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 Weighted sled towing and sprinting mechanics

or her force capability and another one should focus on training more his or her velocity capa-
bility. An optimal force-velocity profile will elicit a greater Pmax and monitoring these relation-
ships in sled towing training may be an effective method for coaches to stimulate an increase
in the capacity for power production of an athlete, with an optimal load and an optimal force-
velocity profile [2, 18]. A greater understanding of the effect of sled load on the force ratio dur-
ing the acceleration phase of a sled-towing exercise might also be beneficial to athletes and
coaches. For instance, if athletes are not directing their force in the optimum direction, or if
the horizontal force decreases considerably during the acceleration phase, they might be able
to use a sled-towing exercise to improve the orientation of their force application.
A study of ground reaction forces in the acceleration phase of a sled-towing exercise could
use a 30–60 m long sequence of force plates [21]. However, such a system is very expensive.
Recently, Samozino et al. [17] presented a simple method of determining the force-velocity
relationship, power-velocity relationship, and force ratio in sprinting. The method showed
excellent agreement with force plate measurements and is easy to use. It requires only mea-
surement of anthropometric and spatiotemporal variables (i.e., body mass, stature, and instan-
taneous position or velocity during the acceleration phase of the sprint run). Furthermore,
since the increasing load affects the entire trajectory of the sprint, it is necessary to understand
these effects not just in the first seconds but also at the end of the acceleration phase. To the
best of our knowledge, however, there are no studies analysing the mechanical power in this
phase.
The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of sled load on the force ratio, the
force-velocity relationship, and the power-velocity relationship during the acceleration phase
of a sled-towing exercise. The primary hypothesis was that the force ratio would increase with
increasing sled load due to the increasing horizontal force required to overcome the horizontal
frictional force produced by the sled [22]. We also expected the power at the end of the acceler-
ation phase to be greater in a sled-towing exercise than in unloaded sprinting.

Materials and methods

Participants and experimental protocol
Eighteen participants volunteered to be included in this study [12 men and 6 women; age:
18.4 ± 3.84 years (minimum: 13 years; maximum: 27 years); BM: 65.8 ± 11.3 kg (minimum:
47.3 kg; maximum: 83.1 kg); height: 1.70 ± 0.11 m (minimum: 1.51 m; maximum: 1.88 m);
body fat: 12.2 ± 2.52% (minimum: 8.8%; maximum: 18.2%)]. The sample size was calculated in
accordance with a previous study by Maulder et al. [14] investigating changes in sprint perfor-
mance with resisted sled loading, with a statistical power of 80%. The participants were
informed about the experimental procedures and gave their written informed consent. The
study was in accordance with the ethical standards and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975,
as revised in 2008, and was approved by the local Ethics Committee of the Universidade Fed-
eral do Rio Grande do Sul. All participants were trained sprinters who were competing in 100
m or 400 m events (100 m: n = 13; 400 m: n = 5) and they were in the competition period of
training. Their personal best times in the season was on average 11,8 ± 0,7 s on 100 m and
49,9 ± 6,5 s on 400 m (see reference [23] for IAAF points). Five athletes were of international
level, five were of national level, and eight were of regional level. All participants were familiar
with weighted sled towing. As inclusion criteria, athletes should be men or women training
and competing in sprinting events for at least one year, they should be in their competition
period (competing in regional, national or international events) and familiarized with sled
towing. As exclusion criteria, athletes could not initiate during the study new physical activities
that were not part of their normal routine; they should be free from any lower extremity injury

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 Weighted sled towing and sprinting mechanics

that would prevent them from performing the tests; and they should not ingest drugs that
could influence performance.
This study used a randomised crossover design and the experimental protocol comprised
four 50-m sprints performed in four conditions: without a load, and towing a sled with 20, 30,
and 40% body mass (BM). The mass of the sled was 5.2 kg and additional weights were placed
on the sled to obtain the required load. The order of the trials was randomised and 15 minutes
of passive rest were allowed between conditions. The participants were asked not to participate
in physical exercise before the test. Before the test, the participants performed a 30-minute
warm up consisting of dynamic stretching, jogging, technical drills, and submaximal sprints.
All participants performed the test at the same time of day on an outdoor synthetic track con-
sisting of polyurethane binders and rubber (Retorkan, Tartan™). Air temperature and wind
speed did not differ substantially among the trials (<5%). Air temperature was measured with
a thermometer positioned near the track, and wind speed was measured with a digital ane-
mometer (ProSport, Santo Tirso, Portugal). The sled was attached to a waist harness by a 2.7
m cord (angle of tow cord = 19 ± 2˚). A reliability test prior to the study showed that the sled
towing protocol was reliable (ICC = 0.87–0.94). Pilot testing showed that a 50-m sprint dis-
tance was sufficient for all participants to reach their maximal velocity.
The sprint trials were recorded using five high-speed (120 Hz) video cameras (CASIO EXI-
LIM FH25, Tokyo, Japan) that were placed perpendicular to the sagittal plane of motion. The
cameras had overlapping fields of view and each camera recorded about 10 m of the sprint.
The distance between the cameras and the midline of the running lane was 10.54 m, and the
average distance between cameras was 11 m. The five cameras were synchronised with LEDs
that were positioned over the top of each camera lens and triggered at the same time. A device
that produced sound and light when triggered was used to mark the start of the sprint trial.
This study used automatic tracking of reflective markers. Nine reflective markers were placed
on the participant over the following anatomical references: fifth metatarsal of the foot; heel;
lateral malleolus; lateral condyle of the femur; greater trochanter; styloid process of the ulna;
lateral epicondyle of the humerus; acromion of the scapula; and temporal bone. Two 2-m cali-
bration rods with two reflective markers were recorded for each camera. The rods were placed
so that one could be viewed in the next-nearest camera. Image reconstruction of the sprint tri-
als was performed using the 2-D Direct Linear Transformation (DLT) method in SkillSpector
software (1.3.2, Odense, Denmark). Position data were filtered using a fourth order Butter-
worth filter with a cut-off frequency of 3–8 Hz. The limbs on the side of the body opposite to
camera did not have reflective markers. The locations of these limbs were estimated by apply-
ing a delay of 180 degrees to the camera-side limbs [24]. The location of the participant’s cen-
tre of mass was calculated from the anthropometric data for the following six segments: head-
neck-trunk; forearm-hand; upper arm; thigh; shank; and foot [25]. The velocity of the partici-
pant’s centre of mass was obtained from the derivative of the centre of mass position. For each
sprint trial, the velocity-time data were fitted with an exponential function where the fitted
parameters were the maximal horizontal velocity and the time constant [17, 26, 27]. This func-
tion was used to decrease the noise and produce a smooth velocity-time curve (Fig 1). The
acceleration-time curve of the participant’s centre of mass was obtained by taking the deriva-
tive of the equation for the velocity-time curve (Fig 1). The horizontal force on the participant
was obtained by multiplying the acceleration-time curve by body mass plus the mass of the
sled.
The force produced by the athlete was calculated as the sum of the resultant horizontal
force on the participant, the aerodynamic drag force acting on the participant, and the hori-
zontal force due to the sled [17]. The instantaneous aerodynamic force and friction force both
depend on velocity. The aerodynamic force was estimated using the equation reported by

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 Weighted sled towing and sprinting mechanics

Fig 1. Horizontal velocity and acceleration as a function of time during a sprint acceleration phase, for each condition (percent of body
mass). These data are from one representative individual.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204473.g001

Arsac and Locatelli [28], and the friction force was estimated using the equation reported by
Cross et al. [11]. In the calculation of the friction force, the coefficient of sliding friction at
slow speed was measured to be about 0.56, and the angle of the tow cord (θ) was obtained
from video analysis using Kinovea software (v.0.8.15, Montceau-les-Mines, France).
The instantaneous power in the horizontal direction was calculated as the product of the
participant’s force and velocity. Force-velocity and power-velocity plots for the participant were
fitted with least-square linear and second-order polynomial regressions, respectively [29]. From
the extrapolation of the force-velocity relationship to zero velocity and zero force, the values for
F0 and V0 were obtained. The force ratio (RF) was computed as the ratio of horizontal ground
reaction force to the corresponding resultant ground reaction force, i.e., technical ability of the
athlete to orient the total ground reaction force vector forward [1]. The force ratio was plotted
against time, and the slope of the linear decrease in force ratio (DRF) over the entire acceleration
phase was calculated. The data before t = 0.3 s were not included in the calculations of RF and
DRF [1, 3, 17]. The maximal value of RF (RFmax) was also obtained from t > 0.3 s.
Maximal power was calculated as Pmax = (F0V0)/4 [19]. We also calculated power at the end
of the acceleration phase, calculating the average value of the last second of the 50-m sprint. At
that point, the participants were at their maximal velocity or near their maximal velocity (from
95% to 100%).

Statistical analysis
Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD) across all participants. Normality (Sha-
piro-Wilk test) was tested and an ANOVA for repeated measures was used to compare the
four different loading conditions. If the distribution was not normal, a Friedman test was
applied to compare the sprint conditions. A Bonferroni test was used to analyse the possible
differences between loads. The 95% Confidence Interval was also obtained for each variable
and the statistical procedures were performed using SPSS 24.0 (p<0.05). The effect size (ES)
Cohen’s d coefficient was also calculated to assess the magnitude of differences. The criterion
for interpreting ES was: trivial (< 0.2), small (0.2–0.6), moderate (0.6–1.2), or large (> 1.2)
[14, 30, 31]. We also obtained the standardized effect sizes of the ANOVA tests.

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 Weighted sled towing and sprinting mechanics

Table 1. Sprint running mechanics during the entire sprint acceleration. Data are presented as mean (SD) and 95%
confidence intervals are reported for each load (0%; 20%; 30%; 40%).
Mean (SD) 95% CI
-1
Theoretical maximal velocity V0 (m.s )
0% 7.35 (1.08) 6.74–7.94
20% 6.93 (1.10) 6.28–7.32
30% 6.26 (1.06) † 5.70–6.86
40% 6.04 (1.28) † 5.37–6.76
Theoretical maximal horizontal force F0 (N.kg-1)
0% 8.29 (2.29) 6.94–9.41
20% 8.62 (1.87) 7.67–9.71
30% 9.49 (2.43) 8.05–10.64
40% 9.52 (2.82) 7.67–10.53
Computed maximal power output Pmax (W.kg-1)
0% 15.0 (3.93) 12.5–16.9
20% 14.7 (2.85) 13.0–16.0
30% 14.5 (3.22) 12.6–16.1
40% 13.9 (3.70) 11.5–15.2
Computed power output at the end of the acceleration phase Pea (W.kg-1)
0% 2.68 (1.72) 1.83–3.54
20% 7.43 (2.49) 5.94–8.27
30% 8.69 (1.97) 7.62–9.79
40% 9.46 (3.06) † ^ 7.94–10.98
Computed percentages of RFmax (%)
0% 49.8 (8.3) 44.7–53.9
20% 53.9 (6.04) 50.5–57.2
30% 56.3 (6.48) † 52.5–59.4
40% 56.7 (8.02) † 51.4–59.7
Computed decrease in the ratio of force DRF
0% - 0.106 (0.034) -0.123 –-0.086
20% - 0.112 (0.036) -0.133 –-0.096
30% - 0.137 (0.049) † -0.162 –-0.108
40% - 0.137 (0.057) -0.161 –-0.102
Time 50 m (s)
0% 6.78 (0.65) 6.43–7.11

20% 8.06 (0.89) 7.61–8.52
30% 8.94 (1.13) † 8.32–9.52
40% 9.91 (1.33) † ^ 9.17–10.57

significantly different from 0% load.
† significantly different from 20% load.
^ significant difference between 30% and 40%.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204473.t001

Results
Mechanical variables for each load are shown in Table 1 (figures corresponding to these data
are added as supplementary material–S1 Fig). Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed a signifi-
cant load effect for maximal velocity (V0; ES = 0.51; p < 0.001), maximal force ratio (RFmax;
ES = 0.37; p = 0.002), decrease in force ratio (DRF; ES = 0.25; p = 0.013) and sprint time
(ES = 0.93; p < 0.001). However, there was no clear effect of sled load on the maximal force

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 Weighted sled towing and sprinting mechanics

Fig 2. The key mechanical parameters of sprint as a function of speed. Conditions: 0%- unload, 20%, 30%, 40% of
body mass. (A) Force-velocity relationship. (B) Ratio of force (RF) as a function of speed. The DRF index is the slope of
the decrease in RF with speed (in this figure: 0% = -0.085; 20% = -0.085; 30% = -0.091; 40% = -0.084). (C) Power-
velocity relationship. These data are from one representative individual.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204473.g002

(F0; ES = 0.15; p = 0.059; Fig 2A) or maximal power (Pmax; ES = 0.11; p = 0.164; Fig 2C). The
maximal velocity decreased with increasing sled load (ES = 1.02 and 1.10 for 30% and 40%
BM, moderate effect). The maximal force ratio increased with increasing sled load (ES = 0.57–
0.87, small to moderate effect), and the decrease in the force ratio during the acceleration
phase was greater with increasing sled load (ES = 0.74 and 0.66 for 30% and 40% load, moder-
ate effect). The 50-m sprint time showed a substantial increase with the increasing sled load
(ES = 1.64–2.99, large effect).
Repeated-measures ANOVA also revealed a significant load effect for power at the end of
the acceleration phase (Pea; ES = 0.89; p < 0.001). It increased substantially with increasing
load (ES = 2.22–3.25, large effect, compared to unloaded sprint). P-V, F-V and RF-V relation-
ships are shown in Fig 2.

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 Weighted sled towing and sprinting mechanics

Discussion
The main findings of this study are as follows: (1) maximal mechanical effectiveness of force
application increased with load, and the ability to limit the drop in effectiveness during the
sprinting acceleration phase (i.e., to maintain RF as much as possible) decreased when towing
a sled with 30% or 40% BM compared with the unloaded condition; and (2) power computed
at the end of the acceleration phase was greater with increasing load. It is worth noting that
this study included sled-towing loads (30 and 40% BM) that were heavier than the recom-
mended load of less than 20% BM [5].
We accept our first hypothesis, as expected, that the effectiveness or technical ability of
force application is enhanced with the increasing load. This raises the question of whether a
training protocol using sled towing may change the force direction positively in the sprint.
The ES between the control condition and 40% BM (0.85) for RFmax was higher than between
the unloaded condition and 20% BM (0.57). This is in accordance with studies addressing
the use of heavier loads because lighter loads would not provide sufficient stimulus to
develop sprint performance [10, 15, 32]. Furthermore, the RF-V relationship for the entire
acceleration phase presented in Fig 2B shows that the effectiveness is greater for heavier
loads at the beginning of the acceleration phase until a point where the difference between
the conditions appears to be reduced. Therefore, using weighted sled towing (up to 40% BM)
may be a useful and practical method for sprinters to develop their speed by improving their
technique of orienting the force application in a more horizontal direction, especially at the
beginning of the acceleration phase. Indeed, the F-V relationship presented in this study (Fig
2A) shows that the horizontal force was higher at the beginning of the acceleration phase,
with less difference between loading conditions at the beginning than at the end of the accel-
eration phase where the horizontal force was lower for the loaded conditions. Therefore, the
horizontal force may contribute more to the greater effectiveness (force ratio) of heavier
loads at the beginning of the acceleration phase. However, if the athlete’s goal is to develop
power resistance, then is probably interesting to use the sled loads during the entire accelera-
tion phase.
The sprinters reduced the effectiveness of applying force to the ground in a horizontal
direction (DRF) during sprinting while towing a sled with heavier loads. To our knowledge,
this computation has not been performed previously for various sled-towing conditions in
sprint running. Morin et al. [2] investigated the mechanical determinants of 100-m sprinting
and found a significant correlation between the DRF index and sprint performance. Possibly,
with heavier loads than the ones used in this study, the DRF index may be even steeper. This
index may be a good representative of the technical ability of a sprinter during the entire accel-
eration phase, and therefore, it may be an interesting parameter for the evaluation of the effect
of training with resisted sled sprinting. We suggested that after training with a determined sled
load, the sprinter will be better able to limit the decrease in RF and improve the performance
by orienting better the application of force in a forward direction during a greater proportion
of the acceleration phase. Additional studies are needed to validate these observational findings
and to further define optimal loads for sled training for sprinters.
Our results also showed that towing a weighted sled with various loads had no significant
effect on horizontal F0. Kawamori et al. [16] investigated the GRF of the second ground con-
tact after the start of a 5-m sprint towing a weighted sled with loads from 10 to 30% BM. The
authors found a higher force ratio and net horizontal impulse for the load corresponding to
30% BM compared with the unloaded condition. It was suggested that the greater net horizon-
tal impulse was probably due to a longer contact time rather than greater force production
(similar horizontal GRF between the 30% condition and the unloaded condition). These

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 Weighted sled towing and sprinting mechanics

findings agree with those of the present study, since F0 was not different among sled-towing
conditions, suggesting that a greater magnitude of horizontal force application may not be the
main determinant for the greater force ratio observed with higher loads. At the start of sprint-
ing, there is a great need to increase the kinetic energy from zero to maximal speed. Therefore,
a high F0 is necessary at the beginning of the sprint for the unloaded and loaded conditions, to
accelerate the body forward, with little difference between them. In addition, it is possible that
a longer contact time with higher loads plays a more important role, as claimed by Kawamori
et al. [16]. The optimal combination of contact time and horizontal force production may be
important for improvements in the force ratio and sprinting performance.
Our second hypothesis was also confirmed: mechanical power increases more critically at
the end of the acceleration phase (the last second of the 50-m sprint) than at the initial phase,
when towing a weighted sled. Some important details deserve comment. First, the greater
mechanical power at the end of acceleration with the sled, (as opposed to the unloaded condi-
tion) may be due to increased resistance of the device to propel the body forward in this phase.
This finding is presumably due to basic differences in the mechanical work produced during
the entire acceleration. At the start, there was a great need to increase the kinetic energy from
zero to maximal speed, whereas the work done to reaccelerate the body forward was extremely
reduced at the final acceleration [26, 33]. Therefore, the constant level of horizontal external
force transmitted to the sprinter’s waist played a more important role in mechanical power
generation during the second half of the acceleration. Also, force friction was increased with
heavier loads, and the coefficient of friction was negatively related to sprinting velocity, reach-
ing a peak until around 5 m.s-1 [11]. Hence, it is possible that our athletes experienced greater
resistance as they approached their maximal velocity sprinting with heavier sled-towing loads
and were thus performing more work, which resulted in the observed higher power output at
the end of the acceleration phase. This parameter may be useful in determining an optimal
load for resisted sled sprinting, i.e., the load that will elicit the highest power [34]. Interestingly,
the average theoretical and experimental maximal velocity found out in our study (7.35 ± 1.08
m.s-1) was lower than the results from another study (9.55 m.s-1) [34]. It is important to point
out that factors such as competition period of training and fear of injury may have influenced
these findings.
The study has some limitations that must be addressed. The athlete group used here was
heterogeneous since men and women were recruited and participants had different sprint spe-
cialties (five were competing in 400-m events). However, all had similar training and were
used to training at all sprinting distances. We included all individual responses in the supple-
mentary material (S1 Table). Moreover, we acknowledge the fact that prescribing a sled load
based on % BM does not consider any possible variation in individual strength or power
among the participants. However, the main mechanical responses from different loads could
be observed. During the period in which this study was conducted, there were no more appro-
priate validated methods for prescribing individual sled loads. It should also be noted that the
model used in our study [17] has limitations such as estimating the horizontal aerodynamic
drag force from only stature, body mass and a fixed drag coefficient [28], as well as having the
assumption of a quasi-null centre-of-mass vertical acceleration during the sprint (variables are
step-averaged, i.e., it includes contact plus aerial times). Nevertheless, Samozino et al. [17]
found in their study force-modeled values that were very close to values measured by force
plates. For instance, vertical force values were very close to body weight when averaged over 40
m of sprinting acceleration. Furthermore, we believe that the behaviour of the F-V and P-V
relationships when comparing various sled loads in this study was not affected by the methods
used, since it was in agreement with other studies evaluating these parameters.

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 Weighted sled towing and sprinting mechanics

Conclusions
The study demonstrated that the orientation of force application in the horizontal direction
(force ratio) increases with load, indicating that heavier loads permit the sprinter to apply the
resultant force more horizontally. Therefore, training with sled loads may improve the ability
of the sprinter to apply the resultant force in a horizontal direction, during the acceleration
phase. This result is crucial for coaches planning to use the sled-towing method to train their
athletes. Force ratio should be a useful marker to analyse the effect of training (to detect if the
sprinter is increasing the ability to orient his or her force application more horizontally) and to
determine when a new load should be applied. Another finding in this study was that Pea
increased with load. Heavier loads may be also used to enhance the generation of power at the
end of the acceleration phase for sprinters.

Supporting information
S1 Fig. Mean and standard deviation of mechanical parameters at different sled-towing
loads (0%; 20%; 30%; 40% of body mass). Theoretical maximal velocity (V0, A), theoretical
maximal force (F0, B), computed maximal power (Pmax, C), computed power output at the end
of the acceleration phase (Pea, D), computed ratio of force (RFpeak, E), computed decrease in
the ratio of force (DRF, F), and time of 50-m sprint (time 50-m, G)  significantly different from
0% load. † significantly different from 20% load. ^ significant difference between 30% and 40%.
(TIFF)
S1 Table. General dataset.
(XLSX)

Acknowledgments
We thank the reviewers for their helpful suggestions and comments. We would like to thank
all the participants who volunteered to be included in this study as well as their coaches for
their cooperation and support. Special thanks also go to Professor Jean-Benoit Morin (from
University of Nice Sophia Antipolis) for his valuable suggestions during this study. We are
grateful to the Locomotion Group of the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul for discus-
sions and comments. L.A. Peyré-Tartaruga is an established investigator of the Brazilian
Research Council (CNPq), Brası́lia, Brazil.

Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Patrı́cia Dias Pantoja, Leonardo Rossato Ribas, Leonardo Alexandre
Peyré-Tartaruga.
Data curation: Patrı́cia Dias Pantoja, Alberito Rodrigo Carvalho, Leonardo Alexandre Peyré-
Tartaruga.
Formal analysis: Patrı́cia Dias Pantoja, Alberito Rodrigo Carvalho, Leonardo Rossato Ribas,
Leonardo Alexandre Peyré-Tartaruga.
Funding acquisition: Leonardo Alexandre Peyré-Tartaruga.
Investigation: Patrı́cia Dias Pantoja, Alberito Rodrigo Carvalho, Leonardo Alexandre Peyré-
Tartaruga.
Methodology: Patrı́cia Dias Pantoja, Alberito Rodrigo Carvalho, Leonardo Rossato Ribas,
Leonardo Alexandre Peyré-Tartaruga.

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 Weighted sled towing and sprinting mechanics

Project administration: Leonardo Alexandre Peyré-Tartaruga.

Resources: Patrı́cia Dias Pantoja, Leonardo Alexandre Peyré-Tartaruga.
Software: Leonardo Alexandre Peyré-Tartaruga.
Supervision: Leonardo Alexandre Peyré-Tartaruga.
Writing – original draft: Patrı́cia Dias Pantoja.
Writing – review & editing: Alberito Rodrigo Carvalho, Leonardo Rossato Ribas, Leonardo
Alexandre Peyré-Tartaruga.

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