TPS História Mundial

A Revolução Gloriosa marcou o início de uma nova

etapa da relação entre os monarcas ingleses e o
Parlamento, cimentada pelo Bill of Rights (Declaração
de Direitos), em 1689, na qual se estabeleceu que os
reis, a partir daquele momento, necessitariam do aval
dos representantes políticos para implementar medidas
que afetassem áreas importantes da vida no reino.
 Nem o Commonwealth nem o Protetorado de Cromwell (1649-
1658) tiveram o apoio da maioria do povo. Os realistas
consideravam os independentes (puritanos) usurpadores. Os
republicanos detestavam a monarquia disfarçada de Cromwell.
Católicos e anglicanos ressentiam-se de se verem taxados de
criminosos. Alguns suspeitavam de que a guerra com a Espanha
trouxera mais prejuízos do que vantagens por ter comprometido
o comércio com as Índias Ocidentais.
Então, em 1660, um parlamento recém-eleito convidou o
príncipe Carlos a ocupar o trono. Carlos II comprometeu-se a não
reinar como déspota, mas a respeitar o parlamento e a observar a
Magna Carta e a Petição de Direito.

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 A Inglaterra entrou no período chamado Restauração, que
compreendeu os reinados de Carlos II (1660-85) e de seu irmão
Jaime II (1685-88). A despeito do início auspicioso, muitos
problemas não foram resolvidos, mas apenas dissimulados pela
crença de que a nação havia reassumido estabilidade.
Em fins do século XVII a Inglaterra passou por uma segunda
transformação política, a Revolução Gloriosa. Algumas das
causas advieram da política de Carlos II. Sua atitude
acentuadamente favorável aos católicos despertou nos patriotas
ingleses o temor de que a nação pudesse ser levada mais uma vez
à condição de subserviência a Roma.

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 A despeito dos seus compromissos prévios, mostrou disposição
para desafiar a autoridade do parlamento. Em 1672 suspendeu as
leis contra os católicos e outros dissidentes; e nove anos depois
dispensou completamente o poder legislativo.
A política de Carlos II foi continuada por seu irmão em 1685.
Jaime II era católico declarado e parecia decidido a fazer dessa fé
a religião oficial da Inglaterra. Violou abertamente uma
resolução parlamentar que exigia que todos os detentores de
cargos oficiais aderissem à igreja anglicana e procurou preencher
importantes postos do exército e do funcionalismo civil com
adeptos católicos.

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 Seus adversários, esperando que uma de suas duas filhas
protestantes o sucedesse, o toleraram, temendo lançar novamente
o país na guerra civil. Mas quando o rei teve um filho de sua
segunda mulher, que era católica, receou-se que o príncipe fosse
inoculado com as doutrinas do pai e que a Inglaterra se visse
presa a um governo despótico e papista.
Afigurou-se necessário, então, depor o rei. Políticos das classes
alta e média convidaram o príncipe Guilherme de Orange e sua
mulher Maria, filha mais velha de Jaime II, a ocuparem o trono.
Guilherme partiu da Holanda com um exército e ocupou
Londres. O rei Jaime refugiou-se na França, o trono foi declarado
vago pelo parlamento e a coroa foi oferecida aos novos
soberanos.
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 A seguir, em 1689, o parlamento aprovou numerosas leis
destinadas a salvaguardar os direitos dos ingleses e a proteger o
seu próprio poder contra as intromissões da coroa:
• As verbas do tesouro fixadas para o espaço de um ano;
• Toleration Act: liberdade religiosa a todos os cidadãos, menos os
católicos e os unitários;
• Bill of Rights:
o julgamento por júri;
o direito de recurso ao governo para reparação de injustiça;
o condenação de fiança excessiva, punições cruéis e multas
exorbitantes;
o proibição do rei suspender a execução de leis ou lançar impostos
sem a permissão do parlamento.
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Originária da Escócia, a dinastia Stuart a Inglaterra após
a morte de Elizabete I, em 1603. Jaime I, o primeiro
monarca da dinastia, anglicano, desconfiava de qualquer
religião que não se harmonizasse com as suas ideias
sobre as relações entre a igreja e o estado. Para Jaime,
os puritanos, por recusarem a submissão aos bispos
nomeados pelo rei, eram desleais com o próprio
soberano.
 James I reign was controversial, in part because of political
decisions found vexing: he spent lavishly, summoned Parliament
only once between 1612 and 1622, levied an unpopular tax on
imports and exports without Parliament’s consent, and tried to
forge an alliance with Spain.
James publicly professed his support for Puritanism, but
English Catholics hoped that he would also act tolerantly toward
them, given his mother’s religious beliefs. Instead, James
continued the Elizabethan program of Catholic suppression after
a group of Catholics orchestrated the Gunpowder Plot to seize
control of the government in 1605.

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 James also attempted to weed out nonconformity among the
Puritans by calling the Hampton Court Conference and
prosecuted Protestants who refused to adhere to the revised
canons. In short, James I was more apt to pursue his own
absolutist policies than to side with any particular faith, and he
suppressed all who tried to undermine his total authority.

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No contexto da Revolução Gloriosa (1688-89), o
parlamento inglês era dividido em dois grupos, whigs e
tories. Os whigs desejavam impedir a ascensão de
Jaime, duque de York, (futuro Jaime II) ao trono. Os
tories, por sua vez, apoiavam o direito hereditário de
Jaime, a despeito de sua fé católica.
 In January 1679 Charles II dissolved the Cavalier Parliament,
which he had first summoned in May 1661, and summoned
another one for May 1679. For the last years of the Cavalier
Parliament a loose grouping of Members, the Country party, had
opposed the Court's influence in Parliament, particularly its
attempts to secure votes through bribes and patronage.

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 From 1679, in the wake of the Popish Plot allegations, a section
of this opposition took on a more obviously religious dimension.
Those who fought most vigorously against the Court's corruption
and its foreign policy also strongly opposed the Church's
persecution of Protestant Nonconformists and the possibility of
the Catholic Duke of York's succession to the throne.
This group became known as the Whigs, who overwhelmingly
won the elections for the three 'Exclusion Parliaments' of 1679-
81. In reaction, a 'Tory' ideology had developed by 1681 which
equally loudly supported the monarchy and the Church.

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 Each of the three Exclusion Parliaments saw the progress in the
Commons of a Bill which aimed to prohibit the Duke of York
from succeeding to the throne. In November 1680 the Bill was
rejected by the Lords, and the following Parliament was
dissolved.
Charles never called another Parliament and in the following
years he carried out a campaign against the leading Whigs. Two
were executed, many went into exile, and even more were
removed from town and local government. The success of this
'Tory reaction' was able to ensure James II a smooth succession
when Charles II died in 1685.

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A Revolução Gloriosa (1688-89), êxito conjunto de tories
e whigs, modificou a divisão em princípio entre os dois
partidos. Após a Revolução, a maioria dos tories aceitava
parte das doutrinas dos whigs de monarquia
constitucional limitada em oposição ao absolutismo de
direito divino. Os whig, em geral, apoiavam a aristocracia
rural, os interesses financeiros das altas classes médias, a
privação de direitos e privilégios dos católicos e a
tolerância de protestantes não-conformistas (tais como os
presbiterianos). Os tories, geralmente, se identificavam
com o anglicanismo e apoiavam a nobreza rural.
 The Whigs and the Tories first appeared in the 1680s, and came
to dominate British politics after the Glorious Revolution.
The Whig Party was a relatively liberal political party with
much of their support coming from the middle classes. The Whig
Party supported personal freedoms, believed that the king served
at the will of the people and that it was really the people that
ruled England, and they were opposed to the established church.
The Whigs advocated for change, and were supporters of the
Glorious Revolution that put William III on the throne.

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 The Tories were a fairly conservative political party. They had
much of their support from the upper and rural social classes.
The Tories supported the divine right of the king, the aristocracy,
landownership being a requirement to engage in politics in
parliament, and the established Church of England. Due to their
beliefs on the divine right to rule of the king and of the church,
they were against the Glorious Revolution.

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Para contornar os problemas políticos criados pelo
reinado de Jaime II, a solução sucessória, encontrada na
Holanda, foi o genro do monarca inglês, Guilherme de
Orange, que invadiu a Inglaterra a pedido da oposição e
subiu ao trono como Guilherme III, envolvendo os
ingleses em seus projetos de vencer militarmente a
França de Luís XIV.
 In 1672, Louis XIV of France and Charles II of England
declared war on United Provinces of the Netherlands. French
troops crossed the Rhine River and overran three provinces. The
Dutch navy held the English in check, but the army had been
neglected and was ill-trained and ill-equipped.
Panic broke out and it was demanded the elevation to the
stadholderate of William, captain general. As the stadholder, one
of his first acts was to refuse the ruinous peace terms offered by
the two kings.
The country settled down and for a year held out almost alone.
In 1672 William had enlisted the aid of the Holy Roman emperor
Leopold I and the elector of Brandenburg, and in 1673 Spain
joined the alliance.
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 William, meanwhile, was rebuilding his army. He moved joined
his forces to those of the emperor, and captured Bonn. The
French, threatened with encirclement, evacuated the United
Provinces. Charles II and Louis’s minor allies were forced to
make peace in 1674.
Louis’s policy had turned half of Europe against him, but he
still held places in Germany and the Spanish Netherlands, so the
war continued and spread into the continent. The efforts to build
up a new coalition against Louis were repeatedly frustrated,
largely by the activities of a small but powerful pro-French party
in Holland and by the equivocal attitude of England.

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 Eventually, James II, a Roman Catholic, had so antagonized his
subjects by his despotic and Romanizing policies that many
Englishmen were urging William to intervene. In 1688 the birth
of a son to James, which opened the possibility of a Roman
Catholic succession, finally brought matters to a head.
William proceeded to London, James fled and the ‘Convention
Parliament’ declared the throne vacant and offered it to William
and Mary. with an accompanying Declaration of Right.
There was armed resistance to the revolution in Scotland and
Ireland. The resistance collapsed in Scotland in 1689 and, later,
William later ensured Ireland’s reconquest.

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 In 1688, Louis XIV invaded the Palatinate, which brought the
Dutch and Leopold I to declare war. William’s diplomacy
brought into the alliance Brandenburg, Hanover, Saxony,
Bavaria, Savoy, Spain, and England, but by 1696 both sides were
anxious for peace, and the Treaties of Rijswijk were signed in
1697.
The question, vital for a European balance of power, of who
was to succeed the childless king Charles II of Spain remained
unsettled, however, and William feared that the peace would be
just a truce. The English Parliament, on the contrary, was
convinced that it would be lasting, insisted on cutting down the
size of the army, and turned its back on foreign affairs.

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 William, in the hope of averting a new war, entered into two
Spanish Partition treaties (1698-99) with Louis, involving him in
frictions with Parliament. But when the Spanish king died in
1700, Louis, ignoring his agreements, accepted the crown of
Spain for his grandson.
William set himself to rebuilding the Grand Alliance and to
preparing his two countries for the conflict. In 1701 the exiled
James II died, and Louis proclaimed his son king of England,
contrary to the agreement and roused the English to war.
In 1702, William died, but his plans for a European settlement
were largely carried out by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). His
ideal, pursued for 30 years, was of an international order in
which no single power was able to tyrannize the rest.
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 William’s reign was of great importance in the constitutional
history of England.
• He preserved the crown, ensuring stability and continuity;
• His influence brought to party strife;
• He sponsored the reform of the currency and promoted the Irish
linen trade;
• The Toleration Act (1689) fell short of his wishes, but he
promoted religious toleration;
• In 1689, of his own free will, he granted independence to the
judiciary, a grant later given statutory permanence by the Act of
Settlement (1700–01).

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No Chile, cuja Ata de Independência data de 1818, os
enfrentamentos entre os partidários da Coroa espanhola
e os libertários e, em seguida, o choque entre os que
defendiam a visão centralista e os federalistas
convulsionaram o jovem país, que suportou longo
período de guerras, até que, em 1830, a facção
conservadora centralista venceu a disputa.