ENGLISH AND PORTUGUESE ANAPHORIC PERSONAL PRONOUNS:

CONSIDERATIONS FROM BRAZILIAN STUDENTS’ DATA

Aléxia Maria Lopes de Souza, Aline Mara Agostini Richetti, Bárbara Souza La Porta
and Joana Battisti da Silva.

ABSTRACT
Anaphora is a form of reference in which a word, usually a pronoun, is used to refer to
an entity previously mentioned (DENBER, 1998). This reference, in Brazilian Portuguese
(BP), can be performed with an empty form (null subject), since BP is a partial null subject
language (Othero & Spinelli, 2019). Considering that the Brazilian Portuguese language
employs the anaphoric null subject while the English language does not, we aim to understand
if and how the anaphoric null subject in Portuguese turns into an explicit anaphoric pronoun
in English among students at UFRGS, focusing on third-person singular personal pronouns.
The purpose of this study is to comprehend how Brazilian Portuguese, as a mother tongue,
can impact the English learning process at different proficiency levels through a syntactic
scope. Our intention is to shed some light on the English language teaching and learning by
providing awareness to English teachers of students’ possible productions. To collect the data,
a survey was conducted with Brazilian English learners who are attending Inglês II and Inglês
VI at UFRGS. The survey consisted of an online form containing distractors and tasks related
to the issues addressed in this study, such as translating BP anaphoric sentences to English.
Keywords: English anaphora; Pronominal anaphora; Brazilian learners; English learners.

RESUMO
A anáfora é uma forma de referência na qual uma palavra, geralmente um pronome, é
usada para se referir a uma entidade previamente mencionada (DENBER, 1998). Essa
referência, em português brasileiro (PB), pode ser realizada de forma vazia (sujeito nulo),
visto que o PB é uma língua de sujeito nulo parcial (Othero & Spinelli, 2019). Considerando
que o PB emprega o sujeito anafórico nulo enquanto a língua inglesa não utiliza o mesmo
recurso, buscamos entender se e como o sujeito anafórico nulo em português se transforma
em um pronome anafórico explícito em inglês entre aprendizes brasileiros, com foco em
pronomes de terceira pessoa do singular. O objetivo deste estudo é compreender como o
português brasileiro, como língua materna, pode impactar o processo de aprendizagem do
inglês em diferentes níveis de proficiência por meio de um escopo sintático. Nossa intenção é
contribuir para o entendimento sobre o ensino e a aprendizagem da língua inglesa,
conscientizando professores de inglês sobre as possíveis produções dos alunos. Para coletar os
dados, foi realizada uma pesquisa com aprendizes brasileiros de inglês que cursam Inglês II e
Inglês VI na UFRGS. A pesquisa consistiu em um formulário online contendo distratores e
tarefas relacionadas aos temas abordados neste estudo, como a tradução de sentenças
anafóricas do PB para o inglês.
Palavras-chave: Anáfora no inglês; Anáfora pronominal; Aprendizes brasileiros; Aprendizes
do Inglês.

1 INTRODUCTION
When a Brazilian Portuguese speaker starts to study English, we can call it an
Additional Language. This term started to take place in the Linguistic scenario exactly
because of the addition that a second language brings to a student that already has a first
language in his repertoire (Schlatter and Garcez, 2009).
Considering the differences and similarities between Brazilian Portuguese (BP) and
English, we aim to analyze how Letras students at UFRGS who are attending Inglês II and
Inglês VI deal with null subject form in cases of pronominal anaphora through translation.
The focus in this paper is on the production of pronominal anaphora, since this phenomena
involves null subjects in both languages, but with different grammatical rules.
Writing among English learners who have Brazilian Portuguese as a mother tongue
can be a complex activity. According to LIMA (1999), for example, the omission of the term
“it”, in every proficiency level, is being observed by teachers, but the omission of the subject
is only seen in basic levels of proficiency. To understand how the null subject is produced by
speakers that have English as an additional language is important to comprehend how
Brazilian speakers utilize anaphoric null subject in Portuguese:
1) Lucy comeu meu bolo e ∅ foi para casa.
2) Lucy ate my cake and ∅ went home.
In the first sentence (1), Lucy is resumed as an empty form; it results in a null subject
in the English example (2). The subject Lucy appears in both phrases as the subject. In the
Portuguese example, there are two verbal sentences in the same phrase:
a) Lucy comeu o bolo
b) e foi para casa
In these examples above, (1) and (2), the empty form is correct in both languages. On
the other hand, a sentence like (4), in portuguese (3), would be considered grammatically
wrong:
 3) Assisti a um filme muito interessante! Era sobre escravidão no Brasil.
4) *I watched a very interesting movie! ∅ Was about slavery in Brazil.
The second phrase in (4) should start with the pronoun “it”, to resume the subject
“very interesting movie”. That is, the pronominal anaphora in English does not operate the
same way Portuguese does. Usually, English grammar does not tolerate null subjects, except
in some contexts – like in coordinate clauses with the same subject, exhibited in the example
(2). This way, the null subject becomes a phenomenon committed by the Brazilian English
speakers to be studied.
The study presented in this article focuses on anaphoric null subject phenomenon
committed by Brazilian Portuguese speakers that have English as additional language. It
investigates how the null subject is influenced by the mother tongue and proficiency in the
additional language.

2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In this section, we present and discuss the theories which based our study.

2.1 Null subject in Brazilian Portuguese and in English

Despite some controversy in the literature about this matter, we can state that Brazilian
Portuguese (BP) is a partial null subject language, i. e., it is not mandatory for every sentence
to have a subject. For example1:
(5) Naquela ocasião estava muito frio, nós estávamos subindo pra serra e fechamos o
carro todo e aí a Variant aquela tem [o motor] dentro, né? Ø Ficava atrás.
In this fragment, “o motor” is resumed as an empty form, resulting, in the next
sentence, in a null subject. This does not mean that speakers will always produce a null
subject, in this example, we also could say: “Ele ficava atrás”, where Ele refers to o motor.
English, unlike BP, is not a partial null subject language because the speakers usually need to
produce the subject form (even when the proposition does not have a referent in the world).
According to Gönen (2010), for certain approaches, the property of allowing subject pronouns
to be omitted is also called pro-drop parameter, and, therefore Brazilian Portuguese can be
described as a [+pro-drop] language, while English can be described as a [-pro-drop]
language. For example, in English2:
(6) I gave her a very interesting book. It is about women emancipation.

1
Example from Othero & Spinelli (2019)
2
Example of Bruscato (2020)
In the second phrase, the subject is it. Translating it to BP, we could have the second sentence
as “∅ É sobre emancipação feminina”, a sentence with a null subject. This example is a case
of pronominal anaphora. Still considering the first example, from Othero & Spinelli, the
translation to English of the second sentence would be “It was/stayed in the back”, that is, we
would have to put a personal pronoun form to produce anaphora.
However, there is an exception for the use of subjects in English. According to Bruscato
(2020), “The pronoun in subject position is usually mandatory in English, but it can be
omitted in coordinate clauses with the same subject.” For example:
(7) I am twenty years old and live in Porto Alegre.
In this case, the two clauses have the same subject (I), so we can omit the second
occurrence of the subject. A coordinate clause is the only instance that allows a null subject in
English, as well as Lima (1993, p. 106) observes: “Zero anaphora in subject position in
English is only permitted in the second clause (or subsequent clauses) of coordinate
constructions where the subject entities are co-referential and the structure of the two clauses
is parallel”.

2.2 Pronominal anaphora

Anaphora is known for being a figure of speech, when one repeats the same word to
emphasize a certain thought. However, the concept of anaphora that we are focusing on in this
paper is when anaphora is used precisely to not repeat the same noun. According to Denber
(1998, p. 6), “anaphora are forms of reference in written or spoken speech in which a word,
most commonly a pronoun, is used in place of a previously mentioned item (most often a
noun or noun phrase) where both refer to the same entity”. Moreover, according to Bruscato
& Baptista (2022, p. 2), anaphora can be defined as a discourse mechanism in which an
element in the text (anaphor) refers back to another element (antecedent). To produce
anaphora, we make use of syntactic, morphologic and semantic information, besides world
knowledge. Usually, the speakers can perform anaphora without even consciously knowing
about this concept and the linguistic processes behind it. Some examples of anaphoric
personal pronouns are: he, she, it, they, you. We can see them in sentences like:
(8) Helen stole my car and then she ran away.
(9) The chocolate cake was so good that it melted in my mouth.
(10) Steve and Josh are smart boys; they are going to figure it out.
In sentence (8) the pronoun she resumes the noun Helen. In sentence (9) the pronoun it
retakes the noun phrase (NP) The chocolate cake. And in sentence (10) the pronoun they
resumes the NP Steve and Josh. In these examples, the form that retakes the subject is
apparent. But, the sentence (9), for example, could be translated to BP as:
(11) O bolo de chocolate estava tão bom que ∅ derreteu na minha boca.
In (9), the form that retakes the NP, the subject in this sentence, is not expressed. So in
this case we still have anaphora with a personal pronoun, but it is not a marked form. This is
called a null subject, which is very common in certain contexts in BP – as we can see in
Othero & Spinelli (2019) –, but it is not very common in English.
Regarding the pronouns observed, other studies, such as Lima (1993), dealt with
personal and possessive pronouns. However, in order to narrow down our object, in this study,
we focused on personal pronouns, specifically third-person singular pronouns (he, she and it).

3 METHOD
The inductive method was chosen to guide our empirical research. It is possible to
identify three main phases in our methods: literature review, survey (questionnaire design and
implementation/data collection) and analysis of results.

3.1 Participants
The participants in the study were Brazilian Portuguese speakers who are attending
Inglês II and Inglês VI courses at Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. Specifically,
they are students enrolled in English Language and Literature courses, aiming to become
teachers or translators. We decided to test this public because the students are already grouped
by proficiency, considering Inglês II as a basic level (A1 - A2) and Inglês VI as an advanced
level (C1 - C2). Five students who answered the quiz were attending Inglês II and nine
students who answered the quiz were attending Inglês VI, totaling fourteen students who
answered the test.
As we are also taking the Inglês VI course, and had to present our project to our
classmates, we decided that it would not be pertinent to include them as participants in our
research. With them knowing what the research is about, the results would be disturbed since
the answers would be written with an extra caution about null subject.
Also, it is relevant to mention the difficulty we faced in order to gather a significant
number of participants. The low participation rate found at the data collection can be
motivated by a range of factors. Considering the ethical norms that regulate the researches
involving human beings in Brazil, we believe that the main reason for the lack of participants
attendance is due to the illegality of giving to participants any kind of monetary incentive.
Also, there was a high number of assignments and tests that students from these classes
needed to hand in during the period of data collection. Beyond that, it is important to highlight
another impact that this had: the low number of phrases asked to translate. Since we had to
add a distractor to each phrase that contained the subject of the research, 50% of the test was
compounded by fillers. By that, the test needed to be as short as it could, considering that we
did not want students to give up doing the research in the middle of it.
Considering the presented circumstances, some strategies used in order to overcome
the issue were: a) trying to engage students by highlighting the importance of researches done
during undergraduate courses; b) reaching out to students and our friends through ways other
than e-mail, such as class groups in informal communication apps and c) in-person
“advertising” during Inglês II and Inglês VI classes, with the endorsement of the professors
responsibles for the courses.

3.2 Instruments
The main instrument used to collect the data was a questionnaire. It consisted of an
online form containing distractors and tasks related to the issues addressed in this study, such
as translating BP anaphoric sentences to English. The questionnaire was shared with possible
participants using Google Forms, a software developed specifically for the creation of online
forms and data collection. What motivated this choice is its practicality, since it is a
considerably straightforward tool. Also, in addition to that, the data collected is organized in a
dynamic way, facilitating the analysis. The questionnaire can be found in Appendix A.

3.3 Design
To investigate how/if the anaphoric null subject in Brazilian Portuguese turns into an
explicit anaphoric personal pronoun in English, we created 07 real/experimental questions,
with null subject in BP, and 7 distractors/fillers. The proportion between experimental
sentences and fillers was based on the proportion used in Caplan et al. (2000) study: 50%
experimental and 50% fillers. This prevents participants from finding regularities in the test
and monitoring themselves regarding those aspects.
The same test was applied in both classes with the objective of understanding how
much the proficiency influenced the results3. The experimental/real questions and the

3
If this was a larger study using statistics to analyse the data, dependent and independent variables would
be pointed out.
distractors appeared in a stablished order in the questionnaire and followed the same
statement: “Translate (Portuguese to English) the following sentences”.
The stimuli were divided into three groups: sentences in which the null subject was
allowed, sentences in which an express pronoun was mandatory and sentences containing
both contexts. It is important to mention that each of the stimulus had a corresponding filler.
Chart 1 displays the sentences and possible translations/answers.
Chart 1. Grouped stimuli.

Null subject allowed Express pronoun mandatory Null subject allowed

and express pronoun
mandatory

Ana gosta muito de música
pop e ama filmes de ação.
Ana really likes pop music
and ∅ loves action movies.
- Você trouxe o livro? Lucas precisava comprar
- Sim, está na minha mochila! Eu terminei de comida. Foi ao
ler super rápido, ontem depois da janta! supermercado, comprou
- E você jantou com quem? frutas e pão, pagou em
- Com a minha mãe dinheiro e foi para casa.
-Você gostou do jantar?
-Sim, estava ótimo! Lucas needed to buy food.
HE went to the
- Did you bring the book? supermarket, ∅ bought
- Yes, IT is in my backpack. I finished reading fruits and bread, ∅ paid in
it yesterday after dinner! cash and ∅ went home.
- And whom did you have dinner with?
- With my mom
- Did you like the dinner?
- Yes, IT was great!

Meu cachorro está um pouco Patricia sonha com um gato cinza toda Recomendo muito esse
doente, mas está segunda-feira. Toda terça-feira, sonha com um carro. É confortável, tem
extremamente feliz de laranja. E, toda quarta-feira, acorda triste um design bonito e pode ser
qualquer forma. porque pode adotar apenas um. fácil de vender no futuro.

My dog is a little sick, but ∅ Patricia dreams with a gray cat every Monday. I strongly recommend this
is extremely happy anyways. Every Tuesday she dreams with an orange one. car. It is comfortable, ∅ has
And, every Wednesday, she wakes up sad a nice design, and ∅ can be
because she can only adopt one. easy to sell in the future.

O Oceano Atlântico tem a temperatura perfeita:

é gelado durante a noite e quente durante o dia.

The Atlantic Ocean has the perfect

temperature: It is cold during the night and ∅
hot during the day.

Source: the authors

Therefore, in the first sentence “Ana gosta muito de música pop e ama filmes de
ação”, there are two expected answers: 1) “Ana really likes pop music and she loves action
movies.” (expected if the anaphoric null subject turned into a pronoun) and 2) “Ana really
likes pop music and loves action movies.” (expected if the anaphoric null subject did not turn
into an explicit pronoun).
In the statement, we can clearly observe a null subject that would be filled with “she”
when translated. However, in this case, since this sentence is a coordinate clause, it is also
acceptable not to produce the expressed form of the pronoun. This is a phenomenon that we
expected to find in Inglês VI students’ productions due to their higher proficiency level, since
it’s a sign of linguistic economy.
In total, there were sixteen contexts observed, eight of them allowed the occurrence of
null subject and the other eight required an express pronoun. The third-person singular
personal pronouns (he, she, and it) were equally distributed among the contexts.

3.4 Data Collection

The questionnaire was sent to both classes – Inglês II and Inglês VI and the
participants answered the questions individually. The students were informed that the
questionnaire was an instrument to an Inglês VI study and the questionnaire had no scoring
since it is not part of the discipline.

4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

Our results from the questionnaire applied in the two classes are shown in the charts
below.
Chart 1. Anaphora production in clauses that null subject was allowed and encouraged.

pronoun and its number of null subject occurrences

number of express pronoun occurrences
clause*
Inglês II Inglês VI Inglês II Inglês VI
3 - it ( ∅ has a nice
40% 33,33% 60% 66,66%
design)
4 - it (, and ∅ can be
easy to sell in the 60% 33,33% 40% 66,66%
future.)
14 - it ( but ∅ is happy.) 20% 11,11% 80% 88,88%
16 - it (and ∅ hot during
100% 100% 0% 0%
the day)
1 - she (Ana likes music
100% 77,77% 0% 22,22%
and ∅ loves movies.)
9 - he (∅ bought fruits
80% 100% 20% 0%
and bread)
10 - he (∅ paid in cash) 80% 77,77% 20% 22,22%
11 - he (and ∅ went 100% 100% 0% 0%
 home)
total 72,50% 66,66% 27,50% 33,33%
Source: the authors
* the number of the clause is according to the order
they appeared on the test
Chart 2. Anaphora production in clauses in wich express pronoun was mandatory.

pronoun and its

number of null subject occurrences number of express pronoun occurrences
clause
Inglês II Inglês VI Inglês II Inglês VI
2 - it (I strongly
recommend this car. IT 0% 0% 100% 100%
is comfortable,)
12 - it (Yes, IT is in my
0% 0% 100% 100%
backpack.)
13 - it ( Yes, IT was
0% 0% 100%* 100%*¹
great)
15 - it (IT is cold during
0% 11,11% 100% 88,88%
the night)
5 - she (Every Tuesday
40% 0% 60% 100%
SHE dreams)
6 - she (every
Wednesday, SHE wakes 60% 0% 40% 100%
up)
7 - she (because SHE
0% 0% 100% 100%
wants) - can only
8 - he (HE went to the
0% 0% 100% 100%
supermarket)
total 12,82% 1,44% 87,17% 98,55%
Source: the authors
* one participant did not answered this clause, therefore in this case 100% is equivalent to 4 participants
** one participant answered retaking the noun phrase the dinner and two other participants did not answered this
clause, therefore in this case 100% is equivalent to 6 participants
As seen in charts 1 and 2, the results for the anaphoric personal pronouns production
revealed a majority of use of null subject in contexts in which it was allowed and encouraged,
and even a larger majority of use of express pronoun when its use was mandatory. For
sentences in which the null subject was encouraged, in Inglês II group 72,50% of the
productions were using the null subject and 27,50% were using express pronoun; in Inglês VI
group, 66,66% of the productions were using the null subject and 33,33% were using express
pronoun. About the sentences in which the use of an express pronoun was mandatory, in
Inglês II group 12,82% of the productions made use of null subject and 87,17% of the
productions made use of express pronoun; in Inglês VI group, 1,44% of the productions made
use of null subject and 98,55% of the productions made use of express pronoun. Therefore,
we did not observe many grammatical mistakes regarding the mandatory use of a pronoun.
Regarding empty forms allowed sentences, we observed the use of null subject, but still a
sizable number of express pronoun use.

4.1 Comparison of answers on the two classes

We observed that in linguistic contexts that required the use of an express pronoun in
English (even when in BP it was not mandatory) both groups of students, in its majority, did
not produce an empty form. Those two participants who produced null subjects were enrolled
in Inglês II. In the Inglês VI group, there was only one participant who produced null subject
in this context, but it was only in one clause. Those results can show us that this group of
Brazilian learners of English is aware – even unconsciously – that English is not a pro-drop
language. Given that, the majority of participants did not transfer this parameter from
Portuguese to English.
On the other hand, in clauses in which null subject was allowed and its use could
demonstrate a deeper knowledge of English grammar, Inglês VI students did not use as much
empty forms as they could have, considering that their mother tongue is BP: a language more
prone to pro drop. They produced more null subject in sentences that include a sequence of
activities (as in sentences 8, 9, 10 and 11) than in sentences that described the characteristics
of an object (as in sentences 2, 3 and 4) or in sentences that had the connective but (as in
sentence 14). Even though there is a difference of almost 10% in the sections “total” between
students of Inglês II and Inglês VI, it is important to take into consideration that the data was
collected out of only 14 students responses.
We cannot state that these semantic and syntactic factors interfered in null subject
production with the depth of this research, but it is a possibility. Since the objective of the
present article is not to dive deep into these specific questions, this hypothesis can be certified
in future works by designing a questionnaire with the required specificity.

5 FINAL REMARKS
The current study has some methodological limitations. The number of participants in
this study was low, and it could have affected the results if it were a bigger study, emphasizing
Brazilian students in general, for example. Another methodological limitation was the
answers control of the platform we used for sending our test. Two participants did not answer
completely one of the translations, and another one produced a noun phrase instead of a
pronoun; both cases might have affected the results.
 As for our hypothesis and the results of the test, we observed that proficiency did not
seem to play a very significant role in the production of pronominal anaphora as we expected.
However, as had already been said, our research had a small number of participants, and
focused on personal pronouns. A different research, with a greater number of participants and
with focus on different pronouns – possessives, reflexives, for example –, may have a
different result regarding the production of pronominal anaphora by brazilians that speaks
English as an additional language. Future studies may also need to better analyze the semantic
and syntactic factors implicated in the sentences, in order to observe if they affect the results
on a larger scale or not.
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 APPENDIX A
A. Translate the sentences to English:
Na tradução, procure não alterar o sentido da frase, na medida do possível. Não use o
Google Tradutor ou outra ferramenta de tradução. Se não souber como traduzir uma
palavra, use expressão equivalente.

1. Gabriela canta alegremente toda manhã durante o banho.

2. Ana gosta muito de música pop e ama filmes de ação.
3. Recomendo muito esse carro. É confortável, tem um design bonito e pode ser fácil de
vender no futuro.
4. O filme que nós vimos no cinema ontem era horrível! Eu não gostei nada dos
personagens e o Samuel achou o enredo extremamente desinteressante.
5. Patrícia sonha com um gato cinza toda segunda-feira. Toda terça-feira, sonha com um
laranja. E, toda quarta-feira, acorda triste porque pode adotar apenas um.
6. - Estou indo na farmácia. Você precisa de alguma coisa?
- Sim, alguns curativos, por favor!
- Tá bem! Você se machucou?
- Sim, mas só um pouco, eu estou bem agora!
7. Lucas precisava comprar comida. Foi ao supermercado, comprou frutas e pão, pagou
em dinheiro e foi para casa.
8. Vocês querem que eu desligue o ar condicionado? Agora o tempo já está bem
agradável!
9. - Você trouxe o livro?
- Sim, está na minha mochila! Eu terminei de ler super rápido, ontem depois da janta!
- E você jantou com quem?
- Com a minha mãe.
-Você gostou do jantar?
-Sim, estava ótimo!
10. Eu odeio ser a primeira a chegar em eventos sociais, simplesmente me sinto
desconfortável sozinha nesse tipo de ambiente!
11. Meu cachorro está um pouco doente, mas está extremamente feliz de qualquer forma.
12. Amanda plantou a flor roxa rapidamente. Sua mãe plantou, devagar, uma laranjeira.
13. O Oceano Atlântico tem a temperatura perfeita: é gelado durante a noite e quente
durante o dia.
14. Eu e minhas plantas ficamos extremamente felizes com a chuva de hoje.