materials
Article
Deformation Behavior and Microstructure of 6061 Aluminum
Alloy Processed by Severe Plastic Deformation Using Biaxial
Alternate Forging
Seong-Ho Ha and Young-Chul Shin *
Citation: Ha, S.-H.; Shin, Y.-C.
Deformation Behavior and
Microstructure of 6061 Aluminum
Alloy Processed by Severe Plastic
Deformation Using Biaxial Alternate
Forging. Materials 2024, 17, 968.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17050968
Academic Editors: Jairo Alberto
Muñoz, Jose Maria Cabrera, Raúl
Eduardo Bolmaro and Liliana
Romero Reséndiz
Received: 30 December 2023
Revised: 16 February 2024
Accepted: 17 February 2024
Published: 20 February 2024
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Materials 2024, 17, 968. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17050968
Korea Institute of Industrial Technology, Incheon 21999, Republic of Korea; shha@kitech.re.kr
* Correspondence: ycshin@kitech.re.kr
Abstract: The deformation behavior and microstructure of 6061 aluminum alloy processed by severe
plastic deformation (SPD) using biaxial alternate forging that can evaluate the forming limit and
mechanical properties of alloys, simultaneously, were investigated in this study. A finite element (FE)
analysis on the biaxial alternating forging process, considering the strain-hardening coefficient and
forging pass of the material, was conducted. When the strain-hardening coefficient is 0, an average
effective strain of 440% was found within a diameter of 4 mm in the core of the workpiece after eight
passes, while it was 300% at the same pass number when the strain-hardening coefficient was 0.2.
The average effective strain estimated from the FE analysis was about 264% after eight passes of
forging, which is considered to be a level of SPD that significantly exceeds the elongation of the raw
material. As a result of the tensile test according to the forging pass, after two passes, the strength
of the material could be gradually improved without significant degradation of elongation. Even
though a large strain of 264% was found after eight passes were applied, deformed grains and twins
with no recrystallized structure in optical microstructures with different forging passes were found.
Keywords: biaxial alternate forging; severe plastic deformation; FEM; AA6061; mechanical property
1. Introduction
Severe plastic deformation (SPD) involves significantly large strains with a complex
stress state or high shear, resulting in a high dislocation density [1]. The main purpose of the
SPD process is to produce high-strength and lightweight components with environmental
harmony [1]. In the typical metalworking processes such as rolling, forging, and extrusion,
the plastic strain imposed is generally less than approximately 2.0. When multipass rolling,
drawing, and extrusion are conducted up to a strain greater than 2.0, the thickness of parts
becomes very thin and is not suitable to be used for structural parts [1]. In order to impose a
significantly large strain on the bulk metals while keeping the shape, various SPD processes
on Al alloys have been examined.
Zhang et al. [2] investigated the effect of SPD on Al alloy sheets with enhanced precip-
itation. In their report, a high-frequency shot peening was adopted to apply the SPD on
the surface of sheets. They made an SPD layer of 40–70 µm in thickness from the surface.
Rogachev et al. [3] studied the as-cast Al–Ca–Mn–Fe alloy processed by the high-pressure
torsion (HPT) technique. As a result, an improvement in the strength–ductility balance
of the Al–Ca–Mn–Fe alloy was achieved. Manjunath et al. [4] investigated equal channel
angular extrusion/pressing to raise the mechanical and physical properties and resistance
to wear of the materials. They reported that the hardness and wear resistance of the test ma-
terials were improved due to grain refinement. Parimi et al. [5] examined the characteristics
of single-phase and two-phase alloys deformed by the multiple channel-die compression
method. Extensive grain refinement was obtained, resulting in the formation of nano-sized
grains after SPD with a simultaneous increase in flow stress and hardness. Zha et al. [6]
investigated Al–7Mg alloy processed by room-temperature equal-channel angular pressing
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials
Materials 2024, 17, 968 2 of 16

(ECAP) combined with interpass annealing, indicating that an impressive combination

of high ductility and high strength was achieved. Zhu et al. [7] studied the microstruc-
tural evolution and mechanical properties of Al–Li 2198-T8 alloy processed by friction
stir processing (FSP) and HPT. Fine equiaxed grains with different sizes were observed
in FSP- and HPT-processed specimens. Rogachev et al. [8] investigated the hardening,
structure transformations, and thermal stability of two Al-based eutectic alloys processed
by HPT. The HPT led to the formation of a predominantly nanograin structure and the
decomposition of eutectic phases. As a result, a significant increase in both the strength and
elongation of the alloy was achieved. Naumova et al. [9] examined the phase composition,
structure, and properties of an Al–18%Ca alloy containing the Al4 Ca intermetallic deformed
by HPT. They showed the fine structure of the Al4 Ca intermetallic compound after five
turns of HPT. Zhao et al. [10] dealt with the dynamic strain aging of ultrafine-grained
Al–Mg alloys with different Mg content deformed by confined channel die pressing at room
temperature. The microstructure characterization showed a significant grain refinement
and retarded dynamic recovery with an increase in Mg content and SPD. Mohammadi
et al. [11] investigated an ultra-SPD realized by HPT to generate a supersaturated solid
solution of Al–Zr alloy. The ultra-SPD resulted in the formation of a supersaturated solid
solution of approximately 2.9 mass%Zr in Al base metal at room temperature. The increase
in Zr concentration in the Al matrix led to the formation of a nanocrystalline structure
with a grain size of 73 nm. Moradpour et al. [12] examined finite element modeling and
experimental validation of constrained groove pressing for SPD of AA5052 Al–Mg alloy.
The newly modified SPD resulted in a more homogenous microstructure and significantly
improved the mechanical properties of the alloy. Liu et al. [13] investigated deformation
defects in nanostructured an Al–Mg alloy processed by high-pressure torsion. They ob-
served deformation defects such as full and partial dislocations, dipoles, microtwins, and
stacking faults using transmission electron microscopy.
As mentioned above, SPD research on lightweight alloys conducted recently focuses
mainly on grain refining to improve the properties of materials and HPT as a method. In
our study, a new SPD method using biaxial alternate forging has been examined [14,15].
The biaxial alternate forging method in this study was employed in order to increase strain
amounts as desired in cold working. The die system of an octagonal cross-section was
designed to maintain the cross-sectional shape of the workpiece regardless of the number
of forging passes [14,15]. It enables one to easily insert and take out the workpiece so that a
flexible process for the repeated SPD experiment can be carried out. Similar SPD methods
by multiple forging have been previously reported [16,17]. Valiev et al. [16] introduced a
multiple forging method to form nanostructures in bulk billets. This can be explained by
multiple repeats of free forging by varying the axis of the applied strain load. Markushev
et al. [17] investigated a multistep isothermal forging of Mg–5.8Zn–0.65Zr alloy, indicating
that a homogeneous, recrystallized microstructure with a grain size of 1–2 µm was obtained.
From the perspective of multiple forging, the two techniques mentioned above seem to be
similar to that in this study. However, the impression-die forging method was applied with
the direction limited to two axes in the biaxial alternate forging of this study.
The material to be covered in this study is 6061 aluminum alloy. The 6061 aluminum
alloy is one of the very common aluminum wrought alloys produced in various forms to be
used for numerous applications because of its excellent mechanical properties, low density,
corrosion resistance, and recyclability [18]. Even though it has a high strength-to-weight
ratio, the use of aluminum alloys is limited due to their relatively low formability and
large spring back at room temperature compared with traditional steel sheets. This paper
proposes a feasibility study based on biaxial alternate forging to induce large deformation
and upsetting dies with octagonal cross-sections designed to maintain the consistent shape
of the workpiece after repetitive operations. The purpose of this study is to examine the
deformation behavior and microstructure of the 6061 aluminum alloy processed by SPD
using biaxial alternate forging.
 consistent shape of the workpiece after repetitive operations. The purpose of this study is
to examine the deformation behavior and microstructure of the 6061 aluminum alloy pro-
Materials 2024, 17, 968 3 of 16
cessed by SPD using biaxial alternate forging.

2. Fundamentals of Biaxial Alternate Forging

2. Fundamentals of Biaxial Alternate Forging
Biaxial alternate forging is a method of accumulating continuous deformation in ma-
Biaxial alternate forging is a method of accumulating continuous deformation in
terials through multiforging, and it is designed to facilitate the insertion and extraction of
materials through multiforging, and it is designed to facilitate the insertion and extraction
workpieces to speed up the test. Figure 1 shows a schematic of the forging dies and work-
of workpieces to speed up the test. Figure 1 shows a schematic of the forging dies and
pieces for biaxial alternate forging. In biaxial alternate forging, as shown in Figure 1a, the
workpieces for biaxial alternate forging. In biaxial alternate forging, as shown in Figure 1a,
rod-shaped workpiece (Φ19 × 108 mm, round 6 mm) is forged into a vertical die with an
the rod-shaped workpiece (Φ19 × 108 mm, round 6 mm) is forged into a vertical die with
octagonal cross-sectional cavity shape. Figure 1b provides a three-dimensional view of the
an octagonal cross-sectional cavity shape. Figure 1b provides a three-dimensional view
die cavity shape, and Figure 2 presents the major dimensions of the die cavity. To accu-
of the die cavity shape, and Figure 2 presents the major dimensions of the die cavity. To
mulate deformation on the material, the workpiece is repeatedly forged by rotating it 90
accumulate deformation on the material, the workpiece is repeatedly forged by rotating
degrees around the longitudinal direction, as shown in Figure 3. Even after several forg-
it 90 degrees around the longitudinal direction, as shown in Figure 3. Even after several
ings, the longitudinal cross-section of the workpiece is maintained similarly to that after
forgings, the longitudinal cross-section of the workpiece is maintained similarly to that
the forging of one pass. The desired level of strain is controlled through the number of
after the forging of one pass. The desired level of strain is controlled through the number of
forging passes. The
forging passes. The amount
amountofofeffective
effectivestrain
strainaccumulated
accumulated in in
thethe
corecore of the
of the workpiece
workpiece per
per forging pass can be differentiated by adjusting the
forging pass can be differentiated by adjusting the ratio of vertical and horizontal ratio of vertical and horizontal
lengths
lengths
expressed expressed
in D1 (18 inmm)D1 (18 andmm)D2 and D2 (21
(21 mm), mm), respectively.
respectively. By increasing
By increasing the ratiotheof ratio
D2/D1, of
D2/D1,
the effectivethe effective
strain thatstrain
canthat
be can be imposed
imposed per forgingper forging
pass can passbecan be increased.
increased. However, However,
if the
if the ratio of D2/D1 becomes too large, it is difficult to resettle the
ratio of D2/D1 becomes too large, it is difficult to resettle the 90-degree-rotated workpiece 90-degree-rotated work- to
piece
the lower to the lower
die, so itdie,
shouldso itbeshould
designedbe designed at an appropriate
at an appropriate ratio. Theratio.
shapes Theof shapes
the die of the
cavity
die
andcavity
both ends and ofboth
the ends
workpieceof thewere
workpiece
designed were designedthe
to constrain to longitudinal
constrain the longitudinal
deformation of
deformation of the workpiece during forging so that the
the workpiece during forging so that the workpiece can undergo plane–strain deformationworkpiece can undergo plane–
strain
in the deformation
longitudinal in the longitudinal
direction. This is todirection.
increase the Thisreliability
is to increase the reliability
of subsequent of sub-
tensile tests
sequent
by uniformly tensilemaintaining
tests by uniformly maintaining
the effective strain inthe theeffective strain direction
longitudinal in the longitudinal
of the coredi- of
rection of the core of the workpiece during the repetitive
the workpiece during the repetitive forging process. The crevice shape of the dies forms aforging process. The crevice
shape
guide of theon
flash dies
theforms a guide
workpiece flash on
during thethe workpiece
forging process, during
making theitforging
easier forprocess, making
the 90-degree-
itrotated
easier workpiece
for the 90-degree-rotated workpiece to be settled back in the
to be settled back in the appropriate position of the lower die, and it appropriate position
of the lower
is also used to die, andout
take it isthe
also usedworkpiece.
forged to take out the forged in
As shown workpiece.
Figure 2, As theshown
octagonal in Figure
angle
2,
ofthetheoctagonal
longitudinal angle of the longitudinal
cross-section cross-section
of the crevice was setof tothe
70 crevice
degrees,was andsetthetoangle
70 degrees,
of the
and the angle
horizontal of the
guide horizontal
crevice and the guide crevice
vertical guideandcrevice
the vertical
were guide
also set crevice were alsoThe
to 14 degrees. set
to
width14 degrees.
W2 of theThevertical
width W2 of theshould
crevice verticalbe crevice
slightlyshould
larger bethan
slightly
the larger
widththanW1 (3 themm)
width of
W1
the (3 mm) of the
horizontal horizontal
crevice so thatcrevice so that the
the workpiece thatworkpiece
is rotatedthat is rotatedcan
90 degrees 90 bedegrees can
smoothly
be smoothly
inserted intoinserted
the lower into theMechanical
die. lower die. Mechanical
property can property
be evaluatedcan beby evaluated
extracting byaextract-
tensile
testaspecimen
ing tensile testwith a diameter
specimen with aof 6 mm or
diameter of less
6 mm according to the ASTM:
or less according B557M-10
to the ASTM: [19]
B557M-
standard’s
10 Small-Size
[19] standard’s Specifics
Small-Size Professional
Specifics to Standard.
Professional The biaxial
to Standard. alternate
The biaxial forgingforg-
alternate dies
anddies
ing experimental set-up are
and experimental shown
set-up areinshown
Figurein4.Figure 4.

Figure 1. Schematic 3D views of (a) the tools and the workpiece for biaxial alternate forging and
(b) the die cavity shape.
Materials2024,
Materials 2024,17,
17,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 44 of
of 16
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Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

Materials 2024, 17, 968 4 of 16

Figure 1.Schematic
Figure Schematic 3Dviews
views of(a)
(a) thetools
tools andthe
the workpiecefor
for biaxialalternate
alternate forgingand
and (b)
Figure 1.
1. Schematic 3D
3D views of
of (a) the
the tools and
and the workpiece
workpiece for biaxial
biaxial alternate forging
forging and (b)
(b)
the
the die cavity shape.
the die
die cavity
cavity shape.
shape.

Figure 2.Dimensions
Figure Dimensionsofof thedie
die cavity.
Figure 2. Dimensions
2. Dimensions of the
the die cavity.
cavity.

Figure 3.Schematic
Figure Schematic viewsof
of biaxialalternate
alternate forgingprocess
processusing
usingoctagonal
octagonalrod-shaped
rod-shapeddies.
dies.
Figure 3.
Figure Schematic views
3. Schematic
3. views of biaxial
views of biaxial alternate forging
biaxial alternate forging process
forging process using
using octagonal
octagonal rod-shaped
rod-shaped dies.
dies.

Figure4.4.Biaxial
Figure Biaxialalternate
alternateforging
forgingdies
diesand
andexperimental
experimentalset-up.
set-up.
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Biaxial
Biaxial alternate
alternate forging
forging dies
dies and
and experimental set-up.
experimental set-up.
3. Resultsand
3. and Discussion
3. Results and Discussion
Results and
Results Discussion
Byconducting
By conductingfinite
finiteelement
elementanalysis,
analysis,the
thechanges
changesin inthe
thedeformation
deformationbehavior
behaviorof of the
conductingfinite
By conducting finiteelement
elementanalysis,
analysis,the
the changes
changes in in
thethe deformation
deformation of the
behavior
behavior of
the
workpiecein
workpiece inthe
thebiaxial
biaxialalternate
alternateforging
forgingwere
wereexamined,
examined,and andthe
theamount
amountofofstrain
strainaccu-
accu-
the workpiece
workpiece in thein biaxial
the biaxial alternate
alternate forging
forging werewere examined,
examined, andamount
and the the amount of strain
of strain accu-
mulatedin
mulated in theworkpiece
workpiecewas was analyzedaccording
accordingto to thematerial
materialproperties.
properties.
mulated in the
accumulated theinworkpiece was analyzed
the workpiece was analyzed
analyzed to the
according
according tomaterial
the the material properties.
properties.
3.1. Finite
3.1. Finite Element
Element Analysis
Analysis Conditions
Conditions
3.1. Finite
Finite Element
Element Analysis
Analysis Conditions
Conditions
The commercialimplicit
The implicit finiteelement
element analysissoftware
software DEFORMv12.0.1
v12.0.1 wasused
used
The commercial
commercial implicit finite
finite element analysis
analysis software DEFORM
DEFORM v12.0.1 was
was used
to
to simulate the biaxial alternating forging process. To reduce the computational time and
to simulate
simulate thethe biaxial
biaxial alternating
alternating forging
forging process.
process. To
To reduce
To reduce the
the computational
computational time
time and
and
increase the accuracy of analysis, the workpiece was modeled as only 1/8 considering
the geometrical symmetry, as shown in Figure 5. However, to consider the rotation of the
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

Materials 2024, 17, 968 5 of 16

increase the accuracy of analysis, the workpiece was modeled as only 1/8 considering the
geometrical symmetry, as shown in Figure 5. However, to consider the rotation of the
workpiece
workpieceforforeach
eachforging
forgingpass,
pass,aahalf
halfmodel
modelwas wasusedusedfor
forthe
thedie,
die,and
andthethelower
lowerdiediewas
was
omitted
omittedbecause
becausethe
theshape
shapeof ofthe
theupper
upperandandlower
lowerdiediewas
wasthethesame.
same.ForForeach
eachforging
forgingpass,
pass,
the
theworkpiece
workpiece was fixed, and the the analysis
analysiswaswasperformed
performedby byrotating
rotatingonly
only the
the upper
upper diedie
by
by
+90+90
and −90
and −90degrees
degreesbased
basedononthethecentral
centralaxis
axisofofthe
theworkpiece’s
workpiece’slongitudinal
longitudinaldirection.
direction.A
Afour-node
four-node tetrahedral
tetrahedral element
element waswas
usedused for flexible
for flexible automatic
automatic remeshing
remeshing in thein thewhere
area area
mesh deformation
where was excessive.
mesh deformation The number
was excessive. of initial
The number finite finite
of initial elements was set
elements wasto set
aboutto
180,000,
about and the
180,000, andsize
theratio
size of theofelements
ratio was set
the elements was toset
1 to
toprevent internal
1 to prevent elements
internal from
elements
becoming
from coarse
becoming whilewhile
coarse reflecting the small
reflecting round
the small part part
round of theofcrevice areaarea
the crevice of theof die
thewell
die
during
well the deformation
during the deformationof theof workpiece. The forging
the workpiece. workpiece
The forging materialmaterial
workpiece was assumed
was as- to
be a rigid–plastic
sumed material,material,
to be a rigid–plastic and the dieandwas
the assumed to be a rigid
die was assumed to beelement. FrictionFric-
a rigid element. was
assumed
tion to be shear
was assumed friction,
to be shear and 0.4 was
friction, andapplied
0.4 was as the m as
applied value.
the m value.

Figure
Figure5.5.Finite
Finiteelement
elementmodeling
modelingfor
forsimulation
simulationof
ofbiaxial
biaxialalternate
alternateforging.
forging.

3.2.Flow
3.2. FlowStress
Stressfor
forMaterial
Material
Theaccumulation
The accumulationof ofeffective
effectivestrain
strainwithin
withinthe
theworkpiece
workpieceduring
duringbiaxial
biaxialalternating
alternating
forging is contingent upon the flow stress of the material. At room temperature,
forging is contingent upon the flow stress of the material. At room temperature, the theflow
flow
stress of the material is mainly affected by the strain-hardening characteristics,
stress of the material is mainly affected by the strain-hardening characteristics, but at high but at high
temperatures, recovery
temperatures, recovery andandrecrystallization
recrystallizationoccur at the
occur same
at the timetime
same during the deformation
during the defor-
mation process, and the effect of strain rate becomes more dominant than strain
process, and the effect of strain rate becomes more dominant than that of that ofharden-
strain
ing [20]. Since this study deals only with biaxial alternating forging at room
hardening [20]. Since this study deals only with biaxial alternating forging at room tem- temperature,
we analyzed
perature, the effectthe
we analyzed of the strain
effect hardening
of the characteristics
strain hardening on the deformation
characteristics behavior
on the deformation
of the material through finite element analysis.
behavior of the material through finite element analysis.
There are various hardening equations that represent the strain-hardening characteris-
There are various hardening equations that represent the strain-hardening character-
tics of materials [21]. In this study, Hollomon’s power-law equation, the simplest and most
istics of materials [21]. In this study, Hollomonʹs power-law equation, the simplest and
representative equation that approximates the strain-hardening behavior of flow stress in
most representative equation that approximates the strain-hardening behavior of flow
the form of an exponential function, was used. The power-law of the true stress–strain
stress in the form of an exponential function, was used. The power-law of the true stress–
equation is described as follows [22]:
strain equation is described as follows [22]:
n
σ𝜎 = Kε
𝐾𝜀

Figure 6 shows the changes in stress and strain curves depending on the strain-
hardening exponent n. Depending on the value of the strain-hardening exponent, n = 0
and n = 1 represent the rigid–perfectly plastic and the elastic behaviors, respectively. To
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

Figure 6 shows the changes in stress and strain curves depending on the strain-hard-
Materials 2024, 17, 968
ening exponent n. Depending on the value of the strain-hardening exponent,6 of n 16
= 0 and n
= 1 represent the rigid–perfectly plastic and the elastic behaviors, respectively. To analyze
the effect of the strain-hardening characteristics on the deformation of the biaxial alternate
analyze the effect of the strain-hardening characteristics on the deformation of the biaxial
forged
alternateworkpiece, the K value
forged workpiece, the Kwas fixed
value was to an to
fixed arbitrary value
an arbitrary (594(594
value MPa),
MPa),and a finite
and a ele-
ment analysis was performed according to the change in the n value.
finite element analysis was performed according to the change in the n value. Since it isSince it is judged
that
judgedthethat
n value
the n does
valuenot exceed
does 0.6, the
not exceed 0.6,nthevalues considered
n values in in
considered thethe
finite
finiteelement
elementanalysis
were 0, 0.2,
analysis were0.4, and0.4,
0, 0.2, 0.6.
and 0.6.

Figure 6.True
Figure 6. Truestress–strain
stress–strain curves
curves fitted
fitted to power-law
to power-law depending
depending on n value.
on n value.

3.3. Finite Element Analysis Results

3.3. Finite Element Analysis Results
3.3.1. Results of Deformation Analysis Depending on Strain-Hardening Exponent
3.3.1. Results of Deformation Analysis Depending on Strain-Hardening Exponent
Figure 7 shows the shapes of the deformed workpiece with an increasing number of
forgingFigure
passes7 of
shows the shapes
a material with anof the deformed
n value workpiece
of 0.2 predicted through with
finiteanelement
increasing number of
analysis.
forging passes
As the forging of increases,
pass a material thewith
shape anofnthe value
guideofflash
0.2 predicted
of the forging through
workpiecefinite element anal-
becomes
clear, As
ysis. andthetheforging
cross-sectional shape of the
pass increases, the center
shape of the
of theworkpiece
guide flashremains almost
of the constant,
forging workpiece
as intended.
becomes clear,Figure
and the8 shows the deformed
cross-sectional shapes
shape depending
of the center ofon thethe n values after
workpiece the almost
remains
four forging
constant, aspasses.
intended.In theFigure
case of8the rigid–perfectly
shows the deformed plasticshapes with an n value
materialdepending on theof 0,n values
it is confirmed that the development of the guide flash is the least, while that of the end
after the four forging passes. In the case of the rigid–perfectly plastic material with an n
protrusion is the most remarkable. It can be seen that as the n value increases, the guide
value of 0, it isuniformly,
flash develops confirmed andthat the development
the shape of the protrusion of the guidegentle.
becomes flash isFigure
the least,
9 showswhile that
of
the protruding lengths of the workpiece end for each forging pass. When the n value isincreases,
the end protrusion is the most remarkable. It can be seen that as the n value 0,
the guide flashamount
the protruding develops uniformly,
is almost linearlyand the shape
proportional to of
thethe protrusion
forging passes, andbecomes
abovegentle.
0.2, Fig-
ure 9 shows
it becomes the in
larger protruding
the beginning lengths of the workpiece
but decreases as the n value endincreases.
for each This
forging pass. When the
is attributed
ntovalue
the dispersion of deformation
is 0, the protruding amountcaused is by the strain
almost linearly hardening.
proportionalFigureto10the shows the passes,
forging
distributions of the effective strain in the central section of the
and above 0.2, it becomes larger in the beginning but decreases as the n value increases.workpiece after four passes,
and itiscan
This be seen that
attributed to the
theeffective
dispersion strainofconcentrated
deformation in the core when
caused by the the n value
strain is 0 tends Figure
hardening.
to disperse around as the n value increases. This trend can be found in Figure 11a, showing
10 shows the distributions of the effective strain in the central section of the workpiece
the distributions of the effective strain in the cross-section of the center of the workpiece
after four passes, and it can be seen that the effective strain concentrated in the core when
depending on the n values. In particular, in Figure 11b describing the distribution of the
the
metaln value is 0 tends
flow lines, to disperse
the metal flow lines around as the ndistributed
are gradually value increases.
as the nThisvalue trend can be found
increases,
in
indicating that the deformation is spreading well to the surroundings. These results suggest of the
Figure 11a, showing the distributions of the effective strain in the cross-section
center
that theof the workpiece
closer the n value is depending
to 0, the more on the n values.the
concentrated In particular,
deformationin ofFigure 11b describing
the material in
an X-shape,
the so it isofdifficult
distribution the metal to propagate
flow lines, the deformation,
the metal flow but lines
rather,arein the center, the
gradually SPD
distributed as
such as ECAP can be obtained with just a few passes. In the
the n value increases, indicating that the deformation is spreading well to the surround-graphs of Figure 10b–d, the
positions
ings. Thesecorresponding
results suggestto the diameters
that the closerof the reduced
the n value sectionis of
to the tensile
0, the moretestconcentrated
specimen the
deformation of the material in an X-shape, so it is difficult to propagate the deformation,
but rather, in the center, the SPD such as ECAP can be obtained with just a few passes. In
Materials
Materials2024,
2024,17,
17,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 77 of
of 16
1

Materials 2024, 17, 968 7 of 16

the
thegraphs
graphsof ofFigure
Figure10b–d,10b–d,thethepositions
positionscorresponding
correspondingto tothe
thediameters
diametersof ofthe
thereduced
reduced
section of the tensile test specimen of 4 mm and 6 mm are marked.
section of the tensile test specimen of 4 mm and 6 mm are marked. A tensile test specimen A tensile test specimen
with
with
of aadiameter
4 mm and 6 mmof
diameter of 44mm
are mmincludes
includes
marked. aadeformed
A tensiledeformed area under
areawith
test specimen under most
mostnnvalue
a diameter value
of 4 mmconditions,
includes so
conditions, soititisi
considered
aconsidered to
deformed area exhibit
to exhibit relatively
under mostrelatively reliable
reliable
n value mechanical
mechanical
conditions, characteristic
characteristic
so it is considered values.
values.
to exhibit In
In particular,ifi
particular,
relatively
the
thennvalue
reliable isis0,0,ititischaracteristic
mechanical
value isrecommended
recommended totouse
values. In
use aatensile
tensileifspecimen
particular, with
the n value
specimen is 0,aaitdiameter
with of
ofthe
is recommended
diameter thereduced
reduced
section
to use a of 4 mm.
tensile
section of 4 mm. specimen with a diameter of the reduced section of 4 mm.

Figure
Figure7.7.7.Shape
Figure Shapeofof
Shape ofthe
thethedeformed
deformed workpiece
workpiece
deformed withwith
workpiece increasing
increasing
with number
number
increasing of
offorging
of forging
number forgingpasses.
passes. passes.

Figure
Figure8.8.8.Comparison
Comparison
Comparison of
ofdeformed
deformed shapes
shapesdepending
depending on
onstrain-hardening
strain-hardeningexponent
exponent after
afterthe
thefour
fou
Figure of deformed shapes depending on strain-hardening exponent after the four
forging
forgingpasses.
passes.
forging passes.
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16
Materials 2024, 17, 968 8 of 16
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16

Figure
Figure9.
Figure 9.9.Variation
Variation
Variationininin
amount
amountofofprotrusion
amount protrusion
of depending
depending
protrusion ononthe
depending number
the
on numberofof
forging
the number passes
forging and
passes
of forging thethe
and
passes nand the n
values.
nvalues.
values.

Figure 10.
Figure Effective strain
10. Effective strain profiles
profiles along
along the
the (a)
(a) horizontal,
horizontal, (b)
(b) diagonal,
diagonal, and
and (c)
(c) vertical
vertical directions,
directions,
depending
depending on on the
the n values. (d)
(d) Difference
Difference in
in effective
effective strains
strains depending
depending on
on the
the directions
directions in
in the
the
cross-section
cross-section after the four forging passes.
Figure 10. Effective strain profiles along the (a) horizontal, (b) diagonal, and (c) vertical directions
depending on the n values. (d) Difference in effective strains depending on the directions in the
cross-section after the four forging passes.
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16
Materials 2024, 17, 968 9 of 16

Figure
Figure11.
11.(a)
(a)Effective
Effectivestrain
straindistributions
distributionsand
and(b)
(b)metal
metalflow
flowlines
lines(green
(greenlines)
lines)in
inthe
thecross-section
cross-section
of workpieces after the five forging passes depending on the n values.
of workpieces after the five forging passes depending on the n values.

3.3.2.
3.3.2.Estimations
Estimationsof
ofAverage
AverageEffective
EffectiveStrain
StrainDepending
Dependingon
onForged
Forged Passes
Passes
Figure
Figure 12 12 shows
shows the thechanges
changesin inthe
themaximum
maximum effectiveeffectivestrain
strainprofiles
profiles of ofthe
thecenter
centerof of
the
the workpiece
workpiece generated by biaxial biaxial alternating
alternatingforging
forgingdepending
dependingon onthethenumber
number ofof forg-
forging
passes
ing andand
passes thethen values.
n values.However,
However, as can
as canbe be
seenseenin in
Figures
Figures 1010andand11,11,
the distributions
the distributions of
thethe
of effective
effective strain of of
strain thethe
cross-section
cross-section of the workpiece
of the workpiece varyvary
from location
from to location,
location so it
to location,
is not
so it isappropriate
not appropriateto represent the strain
to represent thegenerated in the workpiece
strain generated through the
in the workpiece maximum
through the
effective strain
maximum value.
effective Therefore,
strain value. only the area
Therefore, corresponding
only to the reduced
the area corresponding to section
the reducedof the
tensile test
section specimen
of the wasspecimen
tensile test extracted wasfromextracted
the analyzed frommodel, and themodel,
the analyzed averageand values of the
the aver-
effective strain depending on the n value and forging passes were
age values of the effective strain depending on the n value and forging passes were calcu- calculated as shown in
Figure
lated as13. The average
shown in Figure effective
13. Thestrain
average in the regionstrain
effective with the reduced
in the regionsection
with the diameter
reduced of
4 mm isdiameter
section higher thanof 4 that
mm of 6 mm because
is higher than thatthe of inside of 4mm contains
6 mm because the insidefewerof 4mm areas with a
contains
lowerareas
fewer effective
withstrain
a lowerthaneffective
that of 6mm.
strain Figure
than that 13aofshows
6mm.that when
Figure 13athe n value
shows thatiswhen
0, the
average effective strain of 440% occurs within 4 mm in the
the n value is 0, the average effective strain of 440% occurs within 4 mm in the diameterdiameter of the center of the
workpiece after eight passes, and when the n value is 0.2, the
of the center of the workpiece after eight passes, and when the n value is 0.2, the averageaverage effective strain of
300% occurs in the same pass. This indicates that biaxial alternate
effective strain of 300% occurs in the same pass. This indicates that biaxial alternate forg- forging can be used as
a method
ing of imparting
can be used as a method SPDofinside the material.
imparting SPD inside In Figure 14, theInaverage
the material. Figure 14,effective strain
the average
in the workpiece
effective strain in the is presented
workpieceinisthe form ofin
presented maps depending
the form of mapsondepending
the number on oftheforging
num-
passes and the n values. Based on those maps, if the n value of
ber of forging passes and the n values. Based on those maps, if the n value of the materialthe material is determined,
isit determined,
is possible toitestimate
is possibletheto average
estimate effective strainseffective
the average depending strainson depending
the forging on passes
the
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16
Materials 2024,17,
Materials2024, 17,968
x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16
10 of 16

Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16

forging passes without conducting finite element analysis. To find more accurate values,
without
forging conducting
passes without finite elementfinite
conducting analysis. To find
element moreTo
analysis. accurate
find values,
more the values,
accurate curves and
the curves
polynomials andinpolynomials
Figure 15 canin be
Figure
used. 15Figure
can be15used. Figure
shows the 15 shows
relation the relation
between the between
average
the curves
the averageand polynomials
effective strain inand
Figure
the 15
n can be used.
value. The Figure 15strain
effective showsvalues
the relation between
depending on the
forging passes
effective strain without
and the conducting
n value. The finite element
effective analysis.
strain valuesTodepending
find more accurate
on the n values,
value for
the
n average
value for effective
each passstrain
were and theto
fitted n value.
a The effective
third-order strain values
polynomial, and depending
the values on thewere
fitted
the curves
each and polynomials in Figure 15polynomial,
can be used. Figure 15 shows the relation between
n value for each pass were fitted to a third-order polynomial, and the values fitted were in
pass were fitted to a third-order and the values fitted were shown
shown in Table
the average
Table 1. By substituting
effective strain
the n and thethe nmaterial
value
n value. Theofinto
material
effective into the
x strain x parameter
valuesofdepending of on
thethe
poly-
shown1.inBy substituting
Table 1. By substituting value
the ofn value theinto
of material parameter
the x parameter the polynomial,
of the poly- the
nomial, the average
n valueeffective
average effective
for each strain
pass were strain
fittedpass
for each for
to a can each pass
third-order
be can be immediately
polynomial,
immediately calculated.
and the values fitted were
calculated.
nomial, the average effective strain for each pass can be immediately calculated.
shown in Table 1. By substituting the n value of material into the x parameter of the poly-
nomial, the average effective strain for each pass can be immediately calculated.

Figure Maximumeffective
12.Maximum
Figure 12. effective strain
strain profiles
profiles depending
depending onnumber
on the the number of forging
of forging passespasses
and theand
n the
Figure 12. Maximum effective strain profiles depending on the number of forging passes and the n
n values.
values.
values.
Figure 12. Maximum effective strain profiles depending on the number of forging passes and the n
values.

Figure 13. Average effective strain profiles of measuring areas for tensile tests using (a) D4 specimen
and (b) 13.
Figure D6 Average
specimeneffective
Average depending
effective on the
strain number
profiles of forging passes
of measuring and
areas for the n values.
tensile tests using (a) D4 specimen
Figure 13. Average effective strain profiles of measuring areas for tensile tests using (a) D4 specimen
and (b) D6 specimen depending on the number of forging passes and the the nn values.
values.
and (b) D6 specimen depending on the number of forging passes and the n values.

Figure 14. Average effective strain map of measuring areas for tensile tests using (a) D4 specimen
and (b) D6 specimen.
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16

Materials 2024, 17, 968 11 of 16

Figure 14. Average effective strain map of measuring areas for tensile tests using (a) D4 specimen
and (b) D6 specimen.

Figure 15. Estimation of effective strain values in measuring areas for tensile tests using (a) D4 spec-
Figure 15. Estimation of effective strain values in measuring areas for tensile tests using (a) D4
imen and (b) D6 specimen.
specimen and (b) D6 specimen.
Table 1. The polynomial fitted values of effective strain values in measuring areas for tensile tests.
Table 1. The polynomial fitted values of effective strain values in measuring areas for tensile tests.
𝑨𝒙𝟑 𝑩𝒙𝟐 𝑪𝒙 𝑫
Forging Ax3 + Bx2 + Cx + D
D4 Specimen D6 Specimen
Passes
Forging
Passes A BD4 Specimen
C D A B Specimen
D6 C D
1 4.4994A −4.1337 B 0.6468
C 0.2887
D −0.1035
A 0.2315
B −0.1900
C 0.1977
D
21 −0.1765
4.4994 0.8638 −1.0399
−4.1337 0.6468 0.8733
0.2887 −0.1513
−0.1035 0.3860
0.2315 −0.4381
−0.1900 0.6375
0.1977
3 −2.2025 3.7803 −2.6383 1.5559 −0.5462 0.9872 −0.9052 1.1059
2 −0.1765 0.8638 −1.0399 0.8733 −0.1513 0.3860 −0.4381 0.6375
4 −2.3728 4.4439 −3.3914 2.1069 −0.2585 0.8547 −1.1574 1.5202
3 −2.2025 3.7803 −2.6383 1.5559 −0.5462 0.9872 −0.9052 1.1059
5 −4.0397 7.0479 −4.9670 2.7320 −0.5020 1.4089 −1.7096 1.9485
4 −2.3728 4.4439 −3.3914 2.1069 −0.2585 0.8547 −1.1574 1.5202
6 −5.5281 9.3960 −6.3917 3.3037 −0.8550 2.1942 −2.3873 2.3689
75 −4.0397 11.422
−6.7134 −4.9670
7.0479 −7.7897 2.7320
3.8821 −0.5020
−0.9281 1.4089
2.6342 −1.7096
−2.9525 1.9485
2.7644
86 −5.5281 14.736
−8.9278 −6.3917
9.3960 −9.6048 3.3037
4.4453 −0.8550
−1.7251 2.1942
4.0135 −2.3873
−3.8606 2.3689
3.1622
7 −6.7134 11.422 −7.7897 3.8821 −0.9281 2.6342 −2.9525 2.7644
4. Biaxial
8 Alternating
−8.9278 Forging
14.736 of−6061
9.6048Al Alloy
4.4453 −1.7251 4.0135 −3.8606 3.1622
From the experiments on the 6061 aluminum alloy using biaxial alternating forging
dies,
4. we attempted
Biaxial Alternating toForging
assess the practicality
of 6061 Al Alloyof biaxial alternating forging as an SPD
method. The 6061 aluminum alloy used in the experiment was manufactured in the form
From the experiments on the 6061 aluminum alloy using biaxial alternating forging
of a billet with a diameter of Ø127 mm through continuous casting and was homogenized
dies, we attempted to assess the practicality of biaxial alternating forging as an SPD
at 530 °C for 8 h to dissolve segregations. To produce the workpiece, a rod-shaped part
method. The 6061 aluminum alloy used in the experiment was manufactured in the form of
with a diameter of Ø19 and length of 109 mm was extracted from the billet through ma-
a billet with a diameter of Ø127 mm through continuous casting and was homogenized at
chining,
530 and
◦ C for 8 hboth ends were
to dissolve rounded toTo6 produce
segregations. mm. In order to induce plane
the workpiece, strain deformation
a rod-shaped part with a
in the axial direction of the workpiece, it is necessary to suppress axial
diameter of Ø19 and length of 109 mm was extracted from the billet through machining, elongation as much
and
as possible. Therefore, in this experiment, the forging was performed
both ends were rounded to 6 mm. In order to induce plane strain deformation in the under dry friction
axial
conditions
direction ofwithout applying
the workpiece, a lubricant.
it is necessary Figure
to suppress16 shows
axialthe shape ofas
elongation the material
much forged
as possible.
up to 8 passes through the biaxial alternating forging. As the number
Therefore, in this experiment, the forging was performed under dry friction conditions of forging passes
increases,applying
without both ends of the workpieces
a lubricant. Figure 16gradually
shows the protrude,
shape and
of thecracking
materialoccurs from
forged upthe
to
7 passes. On the other hand, no cracks were found inside the workpiece
8 passes through the biaxial alternating forging. As the number of forging passes increases,where hydrostatic
pressure
both endswas applied
of the during deformation.
workpieces The results
gradually protrude, andof the tensile
cracking test using
occurs tensile
from the spec-
7 passes.
imens with a reduced cross-section diameter of 6 mm taken from a
On the other hand, no cracks were found inside the workpiece where hydrostatic pressure workpiece according
to ASTM
was standards
applied are shown in The
during deformation. Figure 17. As
results thetensile
of the forging pass
test increases,
using the tensile
tensile specimens
strength
with gradually
a reduced increases.diameter
cross-section The elongation
of 6 mmdecreases
taken fromrapidly in the according
a workpiece beginning,tobutASTMthe
decrease becomes
standards are shown more gradual17.as As
in Figure thethe forging
forging is pass
repeated. To calculate
increases, the strength
the tensile average
gradually increases. The elongation decreases rapidly in the beginning, but the decrease
becomes more gradual as the forging is repeated. To calculate the average effective strain
Materials
Materials2024,
2024,17,
17,xxFOR
FORPEER
PEERREVIEW
REVIEW 12
12 of
of 16
16
Materials 2024, 17, 968 12 of 16

effective
effective strain inside
inside the
the workpiece,
workpiece, the polynomial expression in
in Table 1 was
was used. To
inside thestrain
workpiece, the polynomial the polynomial
expression expression
in Table 1 was used. TableTo 1determine used.the To
determine
determine the
the work
work hardening
hardening index
index of
of the
the 6061
6061 aluminum
aluminum alloy,
alloy, the
the flow
flow stress
stress was
was de-
de-
work hardening index of the 6061 aluminum alloy, the flow stress was derived through
rived through
through aatest.compression test. At
At this
this time,time, thethe compression specimen was machined
arived
compression compression
At this time, test.the compression compression
specimen wasspecimen
machined was to machined
Ø12 mm
to
to Ø12
Ø12 mm
mm and
and 15
15 mm
mm in
in height,
height, and
and the
the compression
compression test
test was
was conducted
conducted using
using aa SHI-
SHI-
and 15 mm in height, and the compression test was conducted using a SHIMADZU
MADZU
MADZU Hydraulic
Hydraulic Universal
Universal Testing
Testing Machine
Machine UH-1000
UH-1000
Hydraulic Universal Testing Machine UH-1000 kNI (SHIMADZU Corp., Kyoto, Japan).
kNI
kNI (SHIMADZU
(SHIMADZU Corp.,
Corp., Kyoto,
Kyoto,
Japan).
The trueThe
Japan). The true
true stress–true
stress–true stress–true strain
strain obtained
strain obtained throughthrough
obtained through the
the compression
the compression test andtest
compression theand
test and
curvethe curve
thefitting
curve
fitting
fitting using
using Hollomon’s
Hollomon’s power-law
power-law equation
equation are
are shown
shown
using Hollomon’s power-law equation are shown in Figure 18. The K value and the strain in
in Figure
Figure 18.
18. The
The KK value
value and
and the
the
strain
strain hardening
hardening exponent
exponent nn were
were found
found to
to be
be 221.975
221.975
hardening exponent n were found to be 221.975 and 0.157789, respectively. This strain- and
and 0.157789,
0.157789, respectively.
respectively. This
This
strain-hardening
strain-hardening
hardening exponent exponent
value value
exponent was
was substituted
valuesubstituted
was substituted for the for
for the
the polynomial
polynomial
polynomial expression
expression
expression in
in Tablein Table
Table
1 to
11 to
to calculate
calculate the
the average
average effective
effective strain
strain at
at the
the center
center of
of the
the
calculate the average effective strain at the center of the workpiece according to the forging workpiece
workpiece according
according to
to the
the
forging
forging
pass pass as shown
pass asinshown
as shown in
Table in Table
2. Table 2. It is confirmed
2. It is confirmed
It is confirmed that an average
that an average
that an average effective
effectiveeffective strain
strain ofstrain
264%of ofcan264%
264%
be
can
can bebe obtained
obtained after 8 after
obtained after 88 passes,
passes, passes,
and also and
and it also
alsobe
can itit can
seenbe
can seen
bethat
seenanthat
that
SPD an
anatSPD
SPD at
at aathat
a level level that
that signifi-
levelsignificantly
signifi-
cantly
cantly exceeds
exceeds exceeds the
the elongation
the elongation elongation
of the raw of the
the raw
ofmaterial material
rawoccurred
materialinsideoccurred
occurred inside
inside the
the workpiece. the workpiece.
workpiece. Figure
Figure 19 displaysFigure
19
19 displays
displays the
the changes
changes in
in tensile
tensile properties
properties depending
depending
the changes in tensile properties depending on the average effective strain mentioned above.on
on the
the average
average effective
effective strain
strain
mentioned
mentioned
The above.
SPD behaviorabove.was The SPD
Theobserved behavior
SPD behavior was
that allows observed
was observed that allows
that allows
for a continuous for
increase a continuous
for aincontinuous increase
strength withoutincrease a
in
in strength
significant without
strengthdecrease
withoutin aa significant
significant decrease
elongation decrease
except forin a elongation
in elongation
rapid except
reductionexcept in for
for aa rapid reduction
rapidafter
elongation reduction
forging in
in
elongation
1 pass.after
elongation
with after forging
forging with
with 11 pass.
pass.

Figure 16.Appearance
Figure16.
16. Appearanceof
ofworkpieces
workpiecesdepending
dependingon
onthe
on thenumber
the numberof
number offorging
of forgingpasses.
forging passes.
passes.

Figure 17.
17. Change
Figure 17.
Figure Change in
Change tensile
in tensile
in curves
tensile curves of
curves of 6061
of 6061 aluminum
6061 aluminum workpieces
aluminum workpieces depending
workpieces depending on
depending on the
on the number
the number of
number of
of
forging passes.
forgingpasses.
forging passes.
Materials
Materials 2024,
2024, 17,
17, xx FOR
FOR PEER
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 13
13 of
of 16
16
Materials 2024, 17, 968 13 of 16

Figure18.
Figure
Figure 18. True
18.True
True stress–strain
stress–strain
stress–strain curve
curve
curve of of 6061
of 6061
6061 aluminum
aluminum
aluminum obtained
obtained
obtained fromfrom
from compression
compression
compression test attest
test at at room
room
room tem-
tem-
perature
perature and
temperature curve
and and
curve fitting
curve result
fitting
fitting using
result
result using power-law
using equation.
power-law
power-law equation.
equation.

Figure19.
Figure
Figure 19. Changein
19.Change
Change intensile
in tensileproperties
tensile propertiesof
properties of6061
of 6061aluminum
6061 aluminumworkpieces
aluminum workpiecesdepending
workpieces dependingon
depending onthe
on thenumber
the numberof
number of
of
forging
forgingpasses.
forging passes.
passes.

Table
Table 2.
Table 2. The
The estimated average effective
average effective
estimated average strain
effective strain of
strainof 6061
of6061 aluminum
6061aluminum alloy
aluminumalloy depending
dependingonon
alloydepending on the
the
the number
number
number of
of
of forging
forging passes
passes calculated
calculated from
from the
the polynomial
polynomial equations
equations of
of Table
Table 1
1 (D6
(D6 specimen).
specimen).
forging passes calculated from the polynomial equations of Table 1 (D6 specimen).
Pass
Pass 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88
Pass 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Avg.
Avg. effective
effective strain
strain (%)
(%) 17.3
17.3 57.7
57.7 98.6
98.6 135.8
135.8 171.2
171.2 204.3
204.3 236.0
236.0 264.6
264.6
Avg. effective strain (%) 17.3 57.7 98.6 135.8 171.2 204.3 236.0 264.6

Figure
Figure 20 20 shows
shows the the optical
optical micrographs
micrographs of of the
the forged
forged workpieces.
workpieces. While While the the micro-
micro-
Figure
structures
structures of 20
of the shows
the UU region the
region with optical
with aa lowmicrographs
low strain
strain exhibitedof the
exhibited no forged workpieces.
no significant
significant difference While
difference from fromthethat
mi-
that
crostructures
before
before the
the forgingof the
forging (0Upass),
(0 region
pass), thewith
the a low of
presence
presence strain
of twins
twins exhibited
in
in grains
grains nowas
wassignificant
observed
observed difference
in
in the from that
the high-strain
high-strain
before the
regions,
regions, C forging
C and
and D. (0 pass),
D. Even
Even the presence
though
though aa large of twins
large strain
strain of in
of 264%
264%grains
after
afterwas observed
88 passes
passes wasinapplied,
was the high-strain
applied, no
no re-
re-
regions,
crystallizedC and D.
structure Even was though
observed a large
in strain
the of
tissue 264%
photo, after
while
crystallized structure was observed in the tissue photo, while the deformed grains and 8 passes
the was
deformed applied,
grains no
andre-
crystallized
twins were structure
found. It iswas observed
considered in
that, the
in tissue
biaxial photo, while
alternating
twins were found. It is considered that, in biaxial alternating forging performed at room the
forging deformed
performed grains
at and
room
twins were found.
temperature,
temperature, grain It is considered
grain refinement,
refinement, which
which that,
is in biaxial
is one
one of thealternating
of the typical forging performed
typical characteristics
characteristics in
in the
the SPD
SPDat room
pro-
pro-
temperature,
cess,
cess, is
is not grain
not observed, refinement,
observed, even even when which
when large is one
large strains of
strains are the typical
are applied.
applied. Itcharacteristics
It appears
appears that in
that the the strain process,
SPD
the strain caused
caused
is not
by
by observed,
biaxial
biaxial even forging
alternating
alternating when large
forging is strains are
is absorbed
absorbed applied.
through
through It appears
grain
grain deformation
deformation that thedue
due strain
to caused by
to dislocation
dislocation
biaxial alternating
growth
growth and
and slip, asforging
slip, as well
well as asistwin
absorbed
twin through
formation.
formation. It grainreported
It was
was deformation
reported that due
that the to dislocation
the grain
grain refinement
refinement growth
ob-
ob-
and slip,
served in as well
the SPD as twin formation.
process mainly It was
occurs at reported thatabove
temperatures the grain
0.5Tm, refinement
and it is observed
attributed
served in the SPD process mainly occurs at temperatures above 0.5Tm, and it is attributed
in the SPD process
to mainly occurs atby temperatures above 0.5Tm, and it is attributed to
to dynamic
dynamic recrystallization
recrystallization caused caused by strain strain energy
energy accumulation
accumulation inside inside the the material
material
dynamic recrystallization caused by strain energy accumulation inside the material [23,24].
Materials 2024, 17, 968
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of1416
of 16

Therefore, it is thought that the forging temperature in this study was insufficiently high
[23,24]. Therefore, it is thought that the forging temperature in this study was insuffi-
enough to induce recrystallization.
ciently high enough to induce recrystallization.

Figure 20. OM micrographs of forged 6061 aluminum workpiece depending on the number of forg-
Figure 20. OM
ing passes andmicrographs of forged
position on the 6061 aluminum workpiece depending on the number of forging
cross-section.
passes and position on the cross-section.
5. Conclusions
5. Conclusions
This study was conducted to investigate the practicability of biaxial alternate forging
This study was conducted to investigate the practicability of biaxial alternate forging
as a method to impose SPD to a 6061 aluminum alloy in cold working. Based on finite
as a method to impose SPD to a 6061 aluminum alloy in cold working. Based on finite
element analysis and experiments, some important conclusions are summarized as fol-
element analysis and experiments, some important conclusions are summarized as follows:
lows:
1. As a result of the finite element analysis on biaxial alternate forging, it was confirmed
that the strain distribution and amount of the effective strain accumulated inside
the workpiece per forging pass varied depending on the strain hardening exponent,
which changes the deformation behavior of the workpiece.
Materials 2024, 17, 968 15 of 16

2. The calculation of the strain distribution in the area within the diameter 4 mm of the
reduced cross-section in the tensile specimen showed that the average effective strains
after eight passes were approximately 440% and 300% when the strain-hardening
exponent is 0 and 0.2, respectively, indicating that the biaxial alternate forging is
suitable for an SPD process.
3. The average effective strain of the 6061 aluminum alloy within the diameter of 6 mm
from the core of the workpiece after eight passes of forging was found to be approxi-
mately 264%. This indicates that it can impose a large strain that significantly exceeds
the elongation of the raw material.
4. As a result of the tensile test on the forged 6061 aluminum alloy workpieces, the
strength gradually increased without a significant reduction in elongation after two
passes. The optical microstructures in the center of the forged workpieces showed the
distribution of deformed grains and twins with no recrystallization throughout all the
forging passes.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.-C.S. and S.-H.H.; methodology, Y.-C.S.; data curation,
S.-H.H.; formal analysis, S.-H.H.; original draft preparation, Y.-C.S. and S.-H.H.; writing—review and
editing, Y.-C.S. and S.-H.H.; supervision, Y.-C.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This study has been conducted with the support of the Ministry of Trade, Industry, and
Energy as “Materials & Components Technology Development Program (20011420)”.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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