C A P I TA L:

A C RITIC AL ANALY SIS OF C A PITALI ST

PROD UC TION

BY KARL MARX

E
TEANSLA T D F R 0M TH E TH IR D GE R MA N E D I TI ON, B Y

SA MUEL MOOR E A ND ED WA RD A VELING

AND E D I TE D BY

F R ED E R I C K E NG E L S

V OL I . .

L O ND O N
S W A N S O NN E NS C H E I N, L O W R E Y, c o,
.

PA T ER NO S T E R S Q UA RE .

1 8 87 .
 C ONTENTS .

P AG E

ED ITO R S PR E A C E
’
F ,

AUTH O R PRE AC E S—I

’
s F . To th e Fi r s t Ed i ti on ,
II . To th e e o S c nd
Ed i ti on ,

PA RT I .

C OMMO D I TI E S AND MON EY .

C H APTER I — C mm diti s
C m
o o e ,

m dity U V l u d Vlu (th

.

S cti n 1 —Th t w F t
e o . e o ac or s of a o o : se a e an a e e

S bst nc f V l d th M gnitud f V lu )
S cti n 2 — Th Tw f ld Ch r ct r f th L b ur mb di d i n C m
u a e o a ue an e a e o a e ,

e o . e m diti s
o o a a e o e a o e o e o o e ,

S cti n 3 —Th F rm f V l
e o . Exch ng V l u
e o o a u e, or a e a e,

A El m nt ry
. Accid nt l F rm f V l
e e a or e a o o a u e,

1 Th tw P l s f th Exp r ssi n f V l u
. e R l tiv F rm d
o o e o e e o o a e : e a e o an

Equiv l nt F rm a e o ,

2 Th R l tiv F rm f V l
. e e a e o o a u e,

( Th N t r d I m p t f this F rm
a . e a u e an or o o ,

( 6 Q u ntit tiv D t rmin ti n f R l tiv V l u

. a a e e e a o o e a e a e,

3 Th Equiv l nt F rm f V l
. e a e o o a u e,

4 Th El m nt ry F rm f V l
. e c nsid r d Wh l
e e a o o a ue o e e as a o e,

B T t l
. Exp nd d F rm f V l
o a or a e o o a u e,

1 Th Exp nd d R l tiv F rm f V l u
. e a e e a e o o a e,

2 Th P rtic l r Eq iv l nt F rm
. e a u a u a e o ,

3 D f cts f th T t l
. Exp nd d F rm f V l
e e o e o a or a e o o a u e,

Th G n r l F r m f V l
e e e a o o a u e,

1 Th lt r d Ch r ct r f th F rm f V l
. e a e e a a e o e o o a u e,

2 Th int rd p nd nt D v l p m nt f th R l tiv F rm f V l u
. e e e e e e e o e o e e a e o o a e,

d f th Eq ui v l nt F rm
an o e a e o ,

3 T nsiti n fr m th G n r l F rm t th M n y F rm
. ra o o e e e a o o e o e o ,

D Th M n y F rm e o e o ,

S cti n 4 — Th F tishism f C mm diti s d th S cr t th r f

.

e o . e e o o o e an e e e e eo ,

C H APTER II — Exch ng . a e,

C H APTER III — M y th Ci c l ti n f C mm diti s

. on e ,
or e r u a o o o o e

S cti n 1 —Th M s r f V lu
e o . e ea u e o a e,

S cti n 2 — Th M di m f Circ l ti n
e o e e u o u a o ,

Th M t m rp h sis f C mm di ti s
.

(1 . e e a o o o o o e ,

b Th C rr ncy f M n y . e u e o o e ,

C in d symb ls f V lu6 . o , an o o a e,

S cti n 3 —M n y
e o . o e ,

H rding a . oa ,

6 M ns f P ym nt . ea o a e ,

0 Univ rs l M n y . e a o e ,

PART II .

MON EY I NT O CAPI TA L
THE TR AN S O R MATI ON
F OF .

C H A PT ER I V —Th G n r l F rm l f C p it l e e e a o u a or a a

C HAPTER V —C ntr dicti ns i n th G n r l F rm l f Cpit l

.
,

. o a o e e e a o u a o a a

C H APT ER VI —Th B ying d S lling f L b r P w r

. e u an e o a ou -
o e ,
vi Com en ls ‘
.

PAR T II I .

THE PROD U CTI ON OF ABS O LUTE S URPL US AL UE -

V .

P AG E

C HAPTER VII .
-
Th e L b r Pr c ss
a ou o e an d the Pr c ss o e of p r d ci
o u ng S urplu s
Vl a u e,

Se cti n 1 —Th L b r Pr c ss th Pr d cti n f U V lu

o . e a ou o e or e o u o o s e- a e,

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e o . e o u o o u u -
a u e,

C HA PTER VIII — C t t C pit l d V ri bl C p it l . on s a n a a an a a e a a ,

C H APTER I X —Th R t f S rpl s V l . e a e o u u a ue,

S cti n 1 — Th D gr
e o . f Expl it ti n f L b ur P w r
e e ee o o a o o a o o e ,

S cti n 2 — Th R pr s nt ti n f th C mp n nts f th V l f th P
e o . e e e e a o o e o o e o e a ue o e ro

d ct b y c rr sp ndi ng pr p rti n l P rts f th Pr d ct its l f

u o e o o o o a a o e o u e ,

S cti n 3 — S ni r s L st H u
e o . e o
’
a o r,
”

S ti n 4 — S rpl s Pr d c
ec o . u u -
o u e,

C HAPTER X — Th W rking D y . e o -
a ,

S cti n 1 Th Limits f th W rking D y

e o .
-
e o e o -
a ,

S cti n 2 —Th G r d f S rpl s L b r M n f ct r r d B y rd

e o . e ee or u u -
a ou . a u a u e an o a ,

S cti n 3 — Br nch s f English Ind stry wit h t L g l Li mits t Expl it

e o . a e o u ou e a o o a

ti n o ,

S cti n 4 —D y d Night W rk Th R l y Syst m

e o . a an o . e e a e ,

S cti n 5
e o Th Str ggl f -
N rm l W ki ng D y C mp ls ry L ws f
e u e or a o a a -
a . o u o a or

th Ext nsi e f th W rking D y fr m th Middl

e f th 1 4 th t th
on o e o a o e e o e o e

End f th 1 7 th C nt ry o e e u ,

S cti n 6 — Th Str ggl f

e o . N rm l W rking D y C mp ls ry Limit
e u e or a o a o -
a . o u o a

ti n by L w f th W rking Tim Th English F c t ry Act 1 833 t

o a o e o -
e
. e a o s, o

1 864 ,
S cti n 7 Th Str ggl f
e o . N rm l W rking D
-
e u e or a o a o ay . Re -
a cti n o of th e
Engli h F ct ry Acts Ot h r C ntri s
s a o on e ou e ,

C HAPTER XI — R te d M ss f S rpl s V l. a an a o u u -
a u e,

V PART I .

PR OD U CTI ON RE LATI E S URP LU S AL UE OF V -

V .

C HAPTER XII —Th . e C nc pt f R l tiv S rpl s V l

o e o e a e u u -
a ue ,
C HAPTER XIII —0 Op r ti n . 0 e a o ,

C H APTER X IV Divisi n f L b r d M n f ct r -
o o a ou an a u a u e,
S cti n 1 —
.

e o Tw f ld Origin f M n f ct r
.
f
o o o a u a u e,

S cti n 2 Th D t il L b r r d his Impl m nts

e o .
-
e e a a ou e an e e ,

S cti n
e o Th t w F nd m nt l F rms f M n uf ct ur
3 .
-
e Htrgn s o u a e a o o a a e: e e o e eou

M n f ctur S ri l M n f ct r
a u a e, e a a u a u e,

S cti n
e o 4 —Divisi n of L b r in M n f ctur
.
d Divi i n f Lb ur in
o a ou a u a e, an s o o a o
S ci ty o e ,

e o —
S cti n Th C p it li stic Ch r c t r f M n uf ctur
5 . e a a a a e o a a e,

V OL II . .

C HA TE XV —M chin ry d M d rn Ind try

P R . a e an o e us
S cti n 1 — Th D v l p m nt f M chin ry
,
e o . e e e o e o a e
—
,

S cti n Th V l t n f rr d by M chin ry t
e o 2 . e a ue ra s e e a e o th e Pr duct
o ,
 CM i m i s
'
. V ll

S cti n 3 — Th Pr xim t E ff cts f M chin ry th W rkm n

e o . e o a e e o a e on e o a ,

Appr pri ti n f S ppl m nt ry L b r P w r by C pit l

a . o a o o u e e a a ou -
o e a a .

Th Empl ym nt f W m n d Childr n
e o e o o e an e .

6 Pr o l ng ti n f th W rking D y
. o a o o e o -
a ,

c I t i fi ti f L b ur
. n en s ca on o a o ,

S cti 4 —Th F ct ry
e on . e a o ,

S cti n 5 Th Stri f b tw n W rkm n d M chin ry

e o .
-
e e e ee o a an a e ,

S cti n 6 —Th Th ry f C m p ns ti n r g rds th W rkp pl dis

e o . e eo o o e a o as e a e o eo e

p l c d by M chin ry
a e a e

S cti n 7 — R p lsi n d A ttr cti n f W rkp pl by th F ct ry Syst m

,

e o . e u o an a o o o eo e e a o e .

Cris s f th C tt n Tr d
e o e o o a e,

S cti n 8 — R l ti n ff ct d M nuf ctur H ndicr fts d D m stic

e o . ev o u o e e e In a a e, a a , an o e

Industry by M d rn Ind stry o e u ,

Ov rth w f C Op r ti n b s d H n dicr ft d Divi

a. e ro o o e a o a e on a a an on

si n f L b r o o a ou

cti n f th F ct ry Syst m M nuf ct r d D m s

,

6 R . e a o o e a o e on a a u e an o e

tic Ind stri s u e ,

M d rn M n f ct r
0 . o e a u a u e,

d M d rn D m stic Ind stry

P ss g f M d rn M n f ctur d D m
. o e o e u ,

e, a a stic Ind stry int

e o o e a u a e an o e u o

M d rn M ch nic l Ind stry Th H st ning f this R

o e e a a u . e a e o e

v l ti n by th A pplic ti n f th F ct ry A cts t th s In
o u o e a o o e a o o o e

d us tri es ,
S cti n 9
e o . Th e Fa ct ory
Acts S nit ry d Ed
— . a a an uc ti on al Cl s s au e of th e s ma e.

Th ir g n r l Ext nsi n in Engl nd

e e e a e o a ,

S cti n 1 0 —M d rn Industry d Agric lt r

e o . o e an u u e,

PA RT . V .

THE PRO D U CT I ON O ABS O L UTE AND o RELATIVE S URP LUS VA L UE F r .

C H APTER XV I — Abs l t d R l tiv S rpl s V l

. o u e an e a e u u -
a ue,

C HAPTER XVII —Ch ng s f M gnit d in th Pric f L b ur P w r d in

. a e o a u e e eo a o -
o e an

S rpl s V l u u -
a u e,

I L ngth f th W rking D y d Int nsity f L b ur c nst nt P

. e o e o a an e o a o o a . ro

d ti fL bucr v ri bl v en es s o a ou a a e,

II W rking D y c nst nt Pr d cti n ss f L b r c nst nt I

. o a o a . o u ve e o a ou o a . n

t nsity f L b r v ri bl
e o a ou a a e,

III —Pr d ctiv n ss d Int nsity f L b r c nst n t L ngth f th

. o u e e an e o a ou o a . e o e

W rking D y v ri bl o a a a e,

I V Sim lt n s V ri ti ns in th D r ti n Pr d ctiv n ss d In
. u a eou a a o e u a o , o u e e , an

t nsity f L b r
si m
e o a ou ,

( 1 Di mini hing Pr d ctiv n ss f L b r wi th

. s lt s o u e e o a ou a u an eou

L ngth ning f th W rking D ye e o e o a ,

Incr sing I t nsity d Pr d ctiv n ss f L b ur W th sim l

ea n e an o u e e o a o i u

t Sh rt ning f th W rking D y
a n eous o e o e o a
—
,

C H A T ER X III
P V V ri us F rm l f th R t f S rpl s V lu
. a o o u ae or e a e o u u a e,

PART VI .

WA GE S .

CH A T ER XIX —Th Tr nsf rm ti n f th eV l

P . e a o a o o a ue (an d r sp ctiv ly th Pri c
e e e e e )
f L b r P w r int W g s
o a ou -
o e o a e ,

C H APTER XX —Tim W g s . e- a e

C H APTER XXL —Pi c W g s

,

e e- a e

C H APTER XXII —N ti n l D iff r nc s f W g s

,

. a o a e e e o a e ,
 Con tents

PART V II .

THE A CC UMU LATI ON O CAPITA L F .

C H APTER XXIII — Simpl R pr d cti n e e o u o

C H APTER XXI V —C nv rsi n f S r pl s V l int C pit l

.
,

. o e o o u u -
a ue o a a ,

S cti n 1 —C pit list Pr d cti n

e o . a p r gr ssiv ly ncr sing Sc l
a Tr nsi
o u o on a o e e I ea a e. a

ti on f th o L ws f Pr p rty th t ch r ct ris Pr d ct i n f C m
e a o o e a a a e e o u o o o

m di ti
o int L ws f C pit list Appr pri ti n
es o a o a a o a o ,

S cti n 2 — Err n
e o . s C nc pti n by P litic l Ec n my f R pr d cti n
o eou o e o , o a o o , o e o u o

p r gr ssiv ly ncr si g Sc l
on a o e e I ea n a e,

S cti n 3 — S p r ti n f S rpl s V l int C pit l d R v n

e o . e a a o Tho u u -
a ue o a a an e e ue . e

Abstin nc Th ry e e eo ,

S cti n 4 — Circ mst nc s th t ind p nd ntly f th pr p rti n l Divisi n

e o . u a e a , e e e o e o o o a o

f S rpl s V l
o int C pit l d R v n d t rmin th
u u -
a ue o a a an e e ue , e e e e

Am nt f Acc m l ti n D gr f Expl it ti n f L b r
ou o u u a o . e ee o o a o o a ou

P w r Pr d ctivity f L b r Gr wi ng Diff r nc in A m nt
o e . o u o a ou . o e e e ou

b tw n C p it l mpl y d d C pit l c ns m d M gnit d

e ee a a e o e an a a o u e . a u e

f C pit l dv nc d
o a a a a e ,

S cti n 5 — Th
e o . c ll d L b r F nd
e so -
a e a ou u ,

C H APTER XXV — Th G n r l L w f C pit list Acc m l ti n

. e e e a a o a a u u a o ,

S cti n 1 Th i cr s d D m nd f L b r P w r th t cc mp ni s
e o . e n ea e e a or a ou o e a a o a e

A cc m l ti n th C mp siti n f C pit l r m ining th s m

u u a o ,
e o o o o a a e a e a e,

S ti n 2 — R l tiv Dimin ti n f th V ri bl P rt f C pit l sim l

ec o . e a e u o o e a a e a o a a u ~

t o ly with th Pr gr ss f Acc m l ti n
an e us d f th C e o e o u u a o an o e on c en

t ti th t cc m p ni s it
ra on a a o a e ,

S cti n 3 — Pr gr siv Pr d cti n f R l tiv S rpl P p l ti

e o . o es e o u o o a e a e u us -
o u a on , or

Ind stri l R s rv A my u a e e e r ,

S cti n 4 — Diff r nt F rms f th R l tiv S rpl s P p l ti n Th G n r l

e o . e e o o e e a e u u o u a o . e e e a

L w f C p it listic A cc m l ti n
a o a a u u a o ,

S cti n 5 —Ill str ti ns f th G n r l L w f C pit list Acc m la

e o . u a o ti n o e e e a a o a a u u o ,

Engl nd fr m 1 846 t 1 866

a . a o o ,

b Th b dly p id Str t
. f th British Ind stri l Cl ss
e a a a a o e u a a

Th N m d P p l ti n
6 . e o a o u a o ,

d E ff ct f Cris s
. th b st p id P rt f th W rking Cl ss
e o e on e e a a o e o a ,

Th British Agric lt r l Pr l t ri t
6 . e u u a o e a a ,

f Ir l nd . e a ,

PART V I I I .

THE s o CA ED PRI M ITI E A CC U M U LATI ON -

LL V .

C H APTER XXV I — Th S cr t f Primitiv Acc m l ti n

. e e e o e u u a o ,

C HAPTER XXV II Expr p ri ti n f th Agric lt r l P p l ti n fr m th

— . o a o o e u u a o u a o o e
L nd a ,

C H APTER XXVIII Bl dy L gisl ti n g inst th Expr pri t d fr m th

. oo e a o a a e o a e o e

End f th 1 5th C nt ry F rcing d wn f W g s by Acts f

o e e u . o o o a e o

P rli m nt a a e ,

C H APTER XXIX —G n sis f th C pit list F rm r . e e o e a a a e ,

—
C H APTER XXX R cti n f th Agric lt r l R v l ti n Ind stry Cr
. ea o o e u u a e o u o on u . ea

ti n f th H m M rk t f Ind stri l C pit l

o o e o e a e or u a a a ,

C H APTER XXX I —G n sis f th Ind stri l C pit list

. e e o e u a a a ,
—
C H APTER XXXII Hist ric l T nd ncy f C pit listic A cc mul ti n
. o a e e o a a u a o ,

C HAPTER XXXIII Th M d rn Th ry f C l niz ti n .

-
e o e eo o o o a o ,

W rks d Auth rs q t d in C pit l

o an o uo e a a .
”
 EDITORS PREFACE ’
.

HE pu b li c a ti on of an E ngli sh v er s i on of Da s
K api tal ee d s n o apology On the c on tr ar y, an
'

n .

e x plan a ti on m i gh t b e e x pe c te d w hy th i s E n gli sh v er s i on
h as b ee n d e la ye d un til n ow , s eei n g th a t for s om e y ea r s pa s t
th e th eor i e s a d v oc ate d i n thi s b ook h a v e b ee n c on s ta n tly
r efe r r e d to a tta c k e d an d d efen d e d , i n te r pr e te d an d m i s
,

i n ter pr e te d i n th e per i od i c al pr e s s a n d th e c ur r e n t
,

li te r a tur e of b oth E n gla n d a n d A m er i c a .

Wh en s oon after th e au th or s d ea th i n 1 8 8 3 i t b e
,
’

c a m e e v i d e nt th a t a n E n gli s h e d i ti on of th e w or k w a s

r e ally r e qui r ed , M r S a m u el Moor e for m a ny yea r s a

.
,

fr i en d of Mar x an d of the pr e s e n t w r i te r a nd th an ,

w h om pe r h ap s n o on e i s m or e con v e r s an t w i th th e
, ,

b ook i ts elf c on s e nte d to u n d e r tak e th e tr an s lati on w hi c h

,

th e li te r a r y e x e c u tor s of M a r x w er e an xi ous to lay b e

for e the pub li c It w a s un d e r s tood tha t I s h ould c om
.

ar e th e M S w i th th e o r i g i n a l w or k a n d s ugg e s t s u ch
p .
,

alte r a ti on s a s I m i gh t d e e m a d vi s able Wh en b y a nd .
,

b y i t w a s foun d th a t Mr Mo or e s pr ofe s s i on al o c c upa

’

,
.

ti on s pr e v e n te d hi m fr om fi n i s hin g th e tr a n sla ti on as
q ui c kly a s w e all d e s i r e d w e gla d ly a c c e pte d Dr Av eli n g s
, .
’

offer to un d e r ta k e a p or ti on of th e w or k ; a t th e s am e

tim e M r s Av eli n M ’
.
g a rx s
y, o u n g e s t d a u g h te r offe r ed to ,

ch e ck th e quota ti on s a nd to r e s tor e th e or i g i n a l tex t of

 E a {to7 P r ef a ce
’ ’

X s .

th e num e r ous pa s s ages tak en fr o m E n gli sh au th or s an d

B lueb ook s an d tr an slate d b y Mar x i n to Ger m an Thi s
,
.

h as b e en d on e th r ough ou t, w i th b u t a few u n a v oi d ab le
e x c epti o n s .

Th e follow in g por ti on s of th e b ook h a v e b een tr an s

late d b y Dr Av eli n g : ( 1 ) Ch ap r s X ( Th e W or ki n g
.
e
.

Da y) a n d XI ( Rate an d Ma s s of Su r plu s V alu e) ; ( 2)

,
.
-

Par t V I ( Wa g es com pr i s i ng Ch ap te r s X I X to XX I I ) ;
.
,
.

fr om C h apte r XX I V S e c ti on 4 ( Ci r c um s tan c e s th a t
( )
3 ,

e en d of th e b o ok com pr i s i n gth e la t ter p a r t

&c .
) to t h ,

of Chap ter XX I V , C hapter XXV , . . a n d t h e w h ole of

Par t V I I I ( Ch apter s X X V I to XXX I I I )

.
( )
4 th e tw o . .

A u th or s pr efa c e s All the r e s t of th e b ook h a s b een

’
.

d on e b y Mr Moor e Whi le , th us , eac h of th e t r an s

. .

la tor s i s e sp on s i b le for h i s Sh a r e of the w or k on ly I

r ,

b ea r a j oi n t r e s pon s i b i li ty for the w h ole .

Th e th i r d G er m an e d i ti on , w h i ch h a s b ee n m ad e
th e b a s i s of our w or k th r o ug h o ut w a s p r e par ed b y ,

m e i n 1 8 8 3 w i th th e a s s i s tan c e o f n o te s left b y th e
. ,

a uth or , i n d i c a ti n g th e pa s s ag es of th e s e c on d e d i ti on
t o b e r epla c ed b y d es i gn a te d pa s s a g es fr om th e ,

F r en ch te xt pub li sh e d i n 1 8 7 Th e alte r ati on s th u s

e ffe c te d i n th e text of th e s ec on d e d i ti on g en er ally c oi n
c i d e d w i th c h an g e s pr e s c r i b e d b
y Ma r x i n a s et o f M S .

i n s tr u c ti on s for an En gli sh t r a n s la ti on th a t w a s plan n ed ,

ab ou t ten ye a r s ago i n ,
Am er i c a , b ut ab an d on ed ch i e y for fl
w an t of a fit an d pr ope r tr a n s lator . Thi s MS . w a s pla c e d
a t ou rd i s pos al b y o ur old fr i e n d M
A Sor ge of
r . F . .

H ob ok en N J It d e s i g na te s s o m e
. fur th er i n te r polati on s
fr om th e Fr en ch e di ti on ; b u t, b ei n g s o m an y yea r s old er
’

I
Le Cap i talMarx T ad ucti on d e M J R y en ti e e
,
”
p ar K ar l . r . . o ,
r

m en t r e i ee p l ut ur P i La ch t e T h i s tr an la ti n e p e i lly In
’
v s ar a e . ar s . a r . s o ,
s c a

th l tt er p r t of th e b o k c n
e a a t a i n con id er ab le alter ati ons m an d ad d i tion s
o ,
o s s

to th e text of th e s econ d Ger m an ed i ti on .

 E d z tor
’
P r ef a ce
’

s . xi

tha n th e fin al i n s tr u c ti on s for th e thi r d e d i ti on I di d n ot ,

c on s id er m ys elf a t li b e r t to m a k e u s e of i t oth e r w i s e
y
th an s p a r i n gly a n d chi efl y i n c a s e s w h e r e i t h elp ed u s
,

ov e r d iffi c ulti e s In th e s am e w ay th e F r e n c h te x t h as
.
,

b een r efer r e d to i n m os t of th e d i ffi cult pa s s a g e s a s an ,

i n d ic a tor of w h a t th e a uth or h i m s elf w as pr e par e d to

s a c r i fi c e Wh e r e v e r s om et hi n g o f th e full i m or t of th e
.

p
or i g in al h a d to b e s a c r i fi c e d i n th e r e n d e r i n g .

Th er e i s h ow e v e r , on e d i ffi culty w e c ould n ot s p ar e

,

th e r ea d e r : th e u s e of c e r tai n te r m s i n a s e n s e d i ffer e n t
fr om w h at th e y h a v e n ot only i n c om m on li fe b ut i n
, ,

O r d i n ar y poli ti c al e c on om y But th i s w a s u n a v o i d a ble

. .

E v e r y new a s pe c t of a s c i e n c e i n v olv e s a r e v olu ti o n i n

th e te c h n i c al te r m s of th a t s c i e n c e Thi s i s b e s t s h o w n b y
.

c h em i s tr y w h er e th e w h ole of th e t e r m i n ology i s r a d i c a lly

,

ch an g ed a b out on c e i n tw e n ty yea r s a n d w h e r e you w i ll ,

h a r dly fin d a s i n gle or g a n i c c o m poun d th at h a s n ot g on e

th r o ugh a w h ole s e r i e s of d i ffe r e n t n am e s Poli ti c al .

E c on om y h a s g e n e r ally b een co n ten t to tak e j us t a s th e y ,

w e r e th e te r m s o f c o m m e r c i al a n d i n d u s tr i al li fe an d to
, ,

O pe r ate w i th th e m , e nti r e ly faili n g to s ee th a t b y s o d oi n g ,

i t c on fin e d i ts elf w i thi n th e n ar r ow c i r c le of i d ea s
e x pr e s s e d b y th os e ter m s Thu s , th ough p er fe ctly a w a r e
.

th a t b oth pr ofi ts a n d r ent ar e b u t s ub di v i s i o n s fr a g -

m e n ts of th a t un pa i d par t of th e pr od uct w hi ch th e
la b our er h a s to s upply to h i s e m ploye r ( i ts fi r s t a ppr o
r i ator th ugh n ot i ts ulti m a t e e x clus i v e o w n e r ) , et
p , o y
e v en cla s s i c a l Poli ti c al E c on om y n e v e r w e nt b eyon d
th e r e c e i v e d n oti on s of pr ofi ts an d r en ts n e v e r e x a m i n e d ,

th i s un pa i d par t of th e pr od uc t ( c alle d b y M a r x s ur plus

r o d u c t i n i ts i n te g r i t
p ) y a s a w h o le an d th e r ef o
,
r e n e v e r

ar r i v e d at a clear c om pr e h en s i on e i th er of i ts or i g i n an d
,

n a tu r e , or of th e law s th a t r e g ula te th e s ub s e que n t d i s tr i

b uti on of i ts v alue S i m ilar ly all i n d us tr y, n o t ag r i c ultur al

.
 E a ztor
’
P r ef a ce
’
’
x ii s .

or h a n d i c r aft, i s i n d i s c r im i n ately e d i n th e ter m of c om pr i s

m an ufa c tur e a n d th e r eb y th e d i s ti n c ti on i s ob li ter a te d b e

,

t w een tw o gr e a t an d e s s en ti a lly d iffer e n t pe r i o d s of e c on

o m i c h i s tor : th e er i od of m an ufa c tur e pr ope r b a s e d o n
y p ,

th e d i v i s i on of m an u al lab our a n d th e pe r i od of m o d e r n ,

i n d u s tr y b a s e d on m ac h i ner y It i s h ow e v er s elf ev i .
, ,
-

d en t th at a th e or y w h i ch v i e w s m o d er n c a pi tali s t pr o
d u c ti on a s a m e r e p as s i n g s ta g e i n th e e c on om i c h is tor y
of m an k i n d , m u s t m ak e u s e of t e r m s d i ffe r en t fr o m th o s e

h ab i tu al to w r iter s w h o look upon th a t for m of pr od uc

ti on as i m per i s h ab le an d fin al .

A e s p e c ti n g th e au th or s m e th od of quoti n g
’
w or d r

m ay n ot be ou t o f place I n th e m aj or i t
.
y of c a s e s , th e

q uo ta ti on s s er v e ,
i n th e u s u al w a y, a s d o c um e n t a r y ev i
d en c e i n su
pp o e r ti on s m a d e in th e te xt B u t i n m an y
r t of a s s .

i n s ta n c e s pa s s ag es fr o m e c on om i c w r i te r s ar e quote d i n
,

o r d e r to i n d i c a te w h e n w h e r e a n d b y w h o m a c e r ta i n
, ,

r o os i ti on w a s fo r th e fi r s t t i m e c le a r l e n u n c i a te d
p p y .

Th i s i s d on e i n c a s e s w h er e th e p r o pos i ti on q uoted i s of i m
o r ta n c e as b ei n a m or e or le s s a d e q u ate e x r e s s i on of th e
p g p
c on d i ti on s of s oc i al pr od uc ti on a n d e xch a n g e r e v a le n t
p
a t th e ti m e an d qui te i r r e s e c ti v e of M
’
ar x s r e c og n i ti on
, p ,

or oth er w i s e of i ts g e n er al v a lid i t
, y T h e s e qu ota ti o n s .
,

th e r efor e s up ple m e n t th e te xt b y a r un n i n g c o m m e n tar y

,

ta k e n fr om th e h i s to r y of th e s c i e n c e .

Our tr an s la ti o n c o m pr i s e s the fi r s t b oo k of th e w or k
only . Bu t th i s fi r s t b ook i s i n a gr ea t m ea s ur e a w h ole
i n i ts elf an d h as for tw e n t y year s r an k e d a s a n i n d e
,

p e n d e n t w or k T h e s e c on d
. b oo k e d i te d i n Ge r m a n ,

b y m e i n 1 8 8 3 i s d e c i d e d ly i n c om plete w i th ou t th e th i r d
, , ,

w hi ch c a n n o t b e pub li s h e d b efor e the en d of 1 8 8 7 .

W h en B ook I I I h as b ee n b r ough t out i n th e or i g in al

.

Ge r m an i t w ill th en b e s oon e n ough to th i nk ab out

,

r e a r i ng an E n gli s h e di ti on of b oth
p p .
 Ea ztor
'
’
’
s P r ef a ce . xi ii
Das K api tal is
alle d , on th e Contin e n t
o fte n c
,
”
th e B i b le of th e w or k i n g cla s s Th a t th e c on clu s i on s .

ar r i v e d a t i n thi s w or k ar e d aily m or e an d m or e b ec om i n g
th e fun d am en tal pr i n ci ple s of th e g r ea t w or k i n g cla s s
m ov e m e nt n ot on ly i n Ge r m a n y a n d S w i tz e r la n d b ut i n
, ,

Fr an c e i n H olla n d an d B elg ium , i n A m e r i c a a n d e v en

, ,

i n I taly a n d Sp ai n ; th at e v e r yw h e r e th e w or k i n g c la s s
m or e an d m or e r e c og ni s e s , i n th e s e c on clus i on s th e m os t ,

a d e qu ate e xpr e s s i on of i ts c on d i ti on a n d of i ts as pi r ati on s ,

n ob o d
y a c qu a i n ted w i th t h a t m ov e m e n t w i ll d en
y .

An d i n E n glan d too, the th e or i e s of Mar x e v en at thi s

, ,

m om e nt e x e r c i s e a pow e r ful i n fl ue n c e upon th e s oci ali s t

,

”
m ov e m en t w h i c h i s s pr e ad i n g i n th e r an k s of cultur e d
p e ople n o le s s th a n i n th os e of th e w or k i n g cla s s B ut .

th a t i s n o t all Th e ti m e i s r apid ly appr o a chi n g w he n

.

’
a th or ou gh e x a m i n ati on of E n glan d s e con o m i c p os i ti on
w i ll i m pos e i ts e lf a s an i r r e s i s tib le n a ti on al n e c e s s i ty Th e .

w or k i n g of th e i n d us tr i al s ys te m of th i s c oun tr y, i mpos
s i b le w i th o ut a c o n s tan t an d r api d e x t e n s i on of pr o

d uc ti on a n d th er efor e of m a r k e ts i s c o m i n g to a d ea d
, ,

s to
p . F r ee tr a d e h a s e xh au s te d i ts r e s ou r c e s e v e n

Man ch e s ter d oub ts th i s i ts quon d a m e c onom i c g ospel 1

.

F or e i g n i n d us tr y, r api d ly d e v elopi n g s ta r e s E n gli s h pr o ,

d u c ti on i n th e fac e e v e r yw h e r e n ot only i n pr ote c te d , b ut ,

als o i n n eutr al m ar k e ts a n d e v e n on th i s s i d e of th e ,

Ch an nel While the pr od u c ti v e p ow er i n cr ea s e s i n a

.

g e om e tr i c , th e e xten s i on of m ar ke ts pr oc ee d s at b e s t i n
a n a r i thm e ti c r a ti o Th e d e c e nn i al c ycle of s ta gn a ti on ,
.

1 At th e q ua r ter ly m eeti n g of th e M n ch es ter Ch am b er of Comm er ce a ,

h eld th i s a ft e r n n a w ar m d i c u s i n t k pla e n th e s ub j ect of F r ee

oo , s s o oo c o

Tr d e
a .A r e ol ut i on w s m ov ed to th e effec t th t h av i n g w i t d i n v a i n
s a a a e

40 y ea r s for ot h e n ati on s to fol lo w th e F r ee T r ad e exam ple of En glan d

r ,

th i s C h a m b er t h i n k s th e t i m e h as n w a r i v ed t r econ s i d r th t pos i ti n
”
o r o e a o .

Th e r e olut i n w s r ej e t ed b y a m j r i t y of on e on ly th e figur es b ei ng
s o a c a o ,

2 1 fo r , an d 22 a gai n s t —Ev eni n g Sta nd a r d Nov , . 1 , 1 886 .

 E a ci er fa ce
’
s Pr e
’
'

xi v .

e rit o v er d uc ti on a nd cr isis,e u ev e r
r r en t
p r os
p y p ro c r
-
,

fr om 1 8 2 5 to 1 8 6 7 , s ee m s i nd ee d to h av e r un i ts c our s e
b ut only to lan d us i n th e s lo ugh of d e s pon d of a p er
m an e n t an d ch r oni c d epr es si on Th e s i gh e d for p er i od
.
-

of pr o s e r i ty w i ll n ot c om e as often a s w e s ee m to
p er
p
c ei v e i ts h e r aldi n g s ym pto m s s o often d o th e y a g ain
,

v ani sh i n to air Me an w h ile , e a ch s ucc ee di n g w in ter b r i n gs

.

“
u
p a fr es h th e g r e at qu e s ti on w h a t ,
t o d o w i th th e

un em ploye d b u t w hile th e num b e r of th e u n e mploye d

k e eps s w ellin g fr om year to ye ar th e r e i s n ob od y to ,

a n s w e r th a t qu e s ti on ; an d w e c an alm os t c alc ula te th e

m om e nt w h en th e u n e mploye d los i n g pati e n c e w i ll ,

tak e th e i r ow n fa te i n to th e i r o wn h a n d s S u r ely at s uch

.
,

a m om e nt, th e v oi c e ough t to b e h e ar d of a m an w h os e
w h ole th e or y i s th e r e s ult of a li fe lo ng s tu d y of th e -

ec Onom i c h i s to r y a n d c on d i ti on of E n gla n d a n d w h om ,

th a t s tud y led to th e c onclus i on th a t a t le a s t i n E ur ope

‘

, ,

E nglan d i s th e on ly c oun tr y w h e r e th e in ev i tab le s oc i al

r e v o lu ti on m i gh t b e effe c te d e n ti r e l b ea c eful an d
y y p
le g al m ean s . H e c e r tain ly n ev er for g ot to a d d th at h e
h ar d ly e x pe c te d th e E n gli sh r uli n g cla s s e s to s ub m i t ,
”
w i th ou t a p r o sla v e r
-

y r e b elli on , t o th i s
p e a c eful an d

leg al r e v oluti on .

F RE DE RI C K E N G E LS .

November 5 1 88 6 .
 AUTHORS PREFACES
’
.

I .
- J
I O
‘
T HE F I R S T ED I T I ON .

HE w o r k , th e fir s t v olu m e of w hi ch I n ow s ub m i t
to th e p ub li c , fo r m s th e c on ti nu a ti on of m y Z ur
Kr i ti k d er Poli ti s c h e n Oek on om i e ( A c ontr i b uti on to
th e cr i ti c i sm of Poli ti c al E c on om y) pub li s h e d i n 1 8 5 9 .

The lon g pa us e b e tw ee n th e fi r s t par t a n d th e c on ti nu

’
a ti on i s d ue to an i lln e s s of m an y ye ar s d u r a ti on th at
a g ai n an d a gai n i n ter r u pte d m y w or k .

Th e s ub s tan c e of that e a r li e r w or k i s s u mm ar i s e d i n
'

th e fir s t th r ee c ha pter s of th i s v olu m e Thi s i s d on e

.

n ot m e r e l for th e s ak e o f c on n e c ti on a n d c om le te n e s s
y p .

The pr e s e n ta ti on of th e s ubj e c t m atte r i s i m pr ov e d

-
As . .

far as c i r c um s tan c e s i n an y w ay pe r mi t, m an y poi n ts

o nl h i n te d a t i n th e ea r li e r b ook a r e h e r e w or k e d ou t
y
m or e fully w h i ls t c on v er s ely, poi n ts w or k e d out fully
, ,
.

th e r e ar e only touc h e d u pon i n thi s v olum e Th e .

s e c ti on s on th e h is tor o f th e th e or i e s of v a lu e an d of
y
m one y a r e n ow , of c ou r s e left ou t altoge the r
,
The .

r e a d e r of th e ear li e r w or k w ill fi nd h ow e v e r ,,
i n t h e

n ote s to th e fi r s t c h a te r a d d i ti o n al s our c es of r efe r e n c e

p
r e lati v e to th e h i s tor f th s e th e or i e s
y o o .

E v e r y b e g i nn i ng i s d i ffi c ult h old s i n all s ci en c e s

,
To .

un d e r s ta n d th e fir s t c h a te r e s e c i all th e s ec ti on th a t
p p , y
c on ta i n s th e a n al s i s of c om m o d i ti e s w i ll th e r efor e
y , p r e, ,

s e n t th e g r ea te st d i ffi c ult
y T h
. a t w hi c h c on c e r n s m or e
 ’

xv i A a laor s P r ef a ces .

e c i ally th e an alys i s of th e s ub s ta n c e of v alue a n d th e

es
p
m a gn i tud e of v alue I h a v e a s m u ch as i t w a s p os s i ble , ,

Op ular i s ed
1
T he v alue fo r m w h os e fully d e v elope d -

p ,

s h ape i s th e m on e y for m i s v e r y ele m e ntar y a n d s i m ple ,

.

N e v e r th ele s s t he h u m a n m i n d h as for m or e th a n 2 000

,

y e ar s s oug h t i n v a in to get t o th e b ottom o f i t w hils t o n ,

the oth e r h a n d to th e s ucc e s s ful a n alys i s of m u c h m or e

,

c om os i te a n d c om ple x for m s th e r e h a s b ee n a t le as t an
p ,

a
pp r oxi m a ti on W hy ? B e c a us e t he b o d
y as a n or g an i c
.
,

w h ole , i s m or e e a s y of s tu d y th a n ar e th e c e lls o f th at
b od y In th e a n alys i s of e con o m ic for ms , m or e ov e r
.
,

n e i th e r m ic r os c ope s n o r ch e mi c al r e ag e n ts a r e o f u s e .

The for c e of ab s tr a c ti o n m us t r e p la c e b oth But i n .

b our g e oi s s oci e ty th e c omm od ity for m of the pr o d uc t of -

lab o ur — or the v alue for m of th e c om m o d i ty — i s th e -

e c on om i c c ell for m To th e s uper fic i al ob s e r v e r th e

-
.
,

a n alys i s of th es e for m s s ee m s to tur n upon m i nu ti ae It .

d oe s i n fa c t d ea l w i th m in uti ae b u t th ey a r e o f th e s a m e ,

o r d e r as th os e d e alt w i th i n mi c r o s c opi c an a to m y .

Wi th the e xce pti on of th e s ec ti on o n v alue for m -

th e r efor e th i s v olum e c a n n ot s ta n d a c c us e d on the s c or e

,

of d i ffi c ulty I p r e s uppos e of c o ur s e a r e ad e r w ho i s
.
-

, ,

w illi n g to lea r n s om e thi n g n ew an d th e r e for e to th i nk

for h i m s elf .

Th e phys i c is t e i th e r ob s e r v e s ph ys i c al ph e n om e n a

1
Th is r e n ec ss ary as ev en th e s ecti n f F er d i n an d L s s ll s
i s th e m o e ,
o o a a e
’

w o r k ga i n s t S h ul e D eli t ch i n w h i c h h e p r f ss es t g i v e
a c z -
zs th e i n tel
,
o e o

lec t ual q u i n t ss e n c e f m y exp l n ti n s n th s e s ub j e t c o n ta i n s i m

e o a a o o e c s,

p o r ta n t m i t ak es s If F e r d i n an d La ss l le h s b
. ow d a l m t li t r all y a a or r e os e

f m m y w ri ti ngs
ro n d w i th ut ny
, k n w l d gm en t ll th ge n er l
a o a ac o e ,
a e a

t h eor t i cal p r op os iti on s i n h i s e n m i c w r k s

e g th s e n th h ist ri ca l
co o o ,
e . .
, o o e o

ch ar ac te of c p i tal
r n th e
a n n c t i n b etw e n th
,
o c n d i t i ns
co f p r d uc
e o e e o o o o

ti n n d th e m d e f p r d u t i n &
o a o &co n t th e te r m in l gy r t d
o c o ,
c .
, . ev e o o o c ea e

by m th i m y p r h ps b e d u t p u rp os es of p r p g nd
e, s a e a I m h r
e o o a a a . a e e,

of c u r e n t s p e k i n g
o s ,
o f h i s d t il d w r k i n g ut n d pp li c ti on f t h e s e
a o e a e o o a a a o

p pr o ositi o n w it h w h
s,i ch I h a v n thi n g to d o e o .
 A a i aor Pr e
’
xv m s fa ces .

We
’

i al a n a c hr on i s m s
oli t c s uff r e only fr om th e
'

n ot
p .

liv i n g , b ut fr om th e d ea d Le m or t s a is i t le v if /
.

The s oc i al s tati s ti c s of G er m any a nd th e r e s t of Co n

tin en tal W e s te r n E u r o pe a r e i n c o mp ar i s o n w i th th os e ,

o f E n gla n d , w r e tc h e d ly c o m pile d But th ey r ai s e the .

v eil j us t e n ough to let us c atch a gli mps e of th e Me d us a

h e a d b eh i n d i t We s h ould b e a ppalle d at th e s ta te of
.

th i ng s a t h om e if a s i n E ngla n d our g ov e r n m e nts an d

, , ,

p a r li am en ts a
pp o i n te d
p e r i od i c all
y c o m m i s s i on s of en

q uir y i n to e c on omi c c on d iti on s ; if th e s e c om m i s s i ons w e r e

ar me d w i th th e s a m e le n ar w e t t t t h t u th
p y p o r s o ge a e r ;
i f i t w as pos s i b le to fin d for th i s pur pos e m en a s c om pe te n t,
a s fr ee fr o m ar ti s an shi n d e s e c t of e r s on s a s a r e
p p a r
p p
th e E ngli sh fa c tor y i n s p e c tor s , h er m e d i c al r e or te r s
p
-

on pub li c h e alth , h er c o mm i s s io ne r s of e n q ui r i nto th e

y
e xploi ta ti on o f w om en an d ch i ld r e n i n to h ous i ng an d ,

food . Pe r s e us w or e a m ag ic c ap th a t th e m on s te r s
h e h u n te d d own m i gh t n ot s ee h i m W e d r a w th e .

m agi c c ap d ow n o v e r eye s an d ea r s as a m a k e b e li e v e -

th at th e r e ar e n o m on s te r s .

Let u s n ot d e c e i v e o ur s e lv e s on thi s As i n the 1 8 th .

c en t ur y th e A m er i ca n w a r of i n d e e nd e n c e s ou n d ed the
, p
toc s i n for th e E ur op ean m i d d le cla s s , s o i n the 1 9 th c e ntu r y -

th e Am er 1 can c i v il w ar s oun d e d i t for th e E ur opea n

w or k in g clas s -
In En glan d th e pr og r e s s of s oc i al di s
.

i n te gr a ti on i s palpab le Wh e n i t h a s r ea ch e d a c e r ta in
.

p oi n t i t m us t r e a c t on th e c on ti n e nt
,
-
T h e r e i t w ill t ak e .

a for m m or e b r utal or m or e h um a ne a c c or d i n g to th e ,

d eg r ee of d e v elop me nt of th e w o r ki n g cla s s i ts elf Apar t -

.

fr om h i gh er m otiv e th e refor e th ei r ow n m os t i m por

s
, ,

ta n t i nter e s ts d i c tate to th e c las s es th a t a r e for th e

n on c e th e r uli n g on es th e r em ov al of all le g all r em ov
, y
a b le hi nd r an c e s to th e fr ee d e v elopm en t of th e w or k i ng
clas s . For th i s r ea s on a s w ell as oth e r s , I h a v e g i v e n
,
 A et c/car P r efa ces xi x
’
s .

so la r ge paa c e i n t hi s v olu m e to th e h i s tor , th e d e

s
y
ta ils an d th e r e s ults of E n gli s h fa ctor y le g i s la ti on
,
One .

n a ti on c a n an d s h ould le ar n fr om oth e r s An d ev e n .

w h e n a s oci e ty h as got u pon th e r i gh t tr a c k for th e d i s

c ov er of th e n a tu r al la w s of i ts m ov e m e n t — an d i t i s th e
y
ulti m a te a i m of th i s w or k to lay b ur e th e e c on om i c law
,

o m oti on of m o d e r n s oc e ty
f i — i t c a n n e i th er clea r b y
b old leaps n or r e m ov e b y le gal e n ac tm e nts th e ob s ta cle s
, ,

offe r ed b y th e s u cc e s s i v e ph as e s of i ts n or m al d e v e lop

m en t . But i t c an sh or te n an d le s s en th e b i r th pa n gs -
.

To pr e v en t pos s i b le m i s un d er s ta n di n g a w or d I , .

ai nt th e c a i tali s t a n d th e la n d lor d i n n o s e ns e couleur

p p
'

de r os e But h e r e i n d i v i d u als ar e d ealt w i th o nly i n s o far

.

a s th e a r e th e e r s on i fi c a ti on s of e c on o mi c c a te g or i e s
y p ,

em b odi m e nts of p ar ti c ular cla s s r ela ti on s an d cla ss -

i nte r e s ts . My s tan d poi nt fr om w h i c h th e e v olution of

-

th e e c on om i c for m ati on of s oc i e ty i s v i ew e d a s a pr oc e s s
of n a tur al h i s tor y c an le s s th a n an y oth e r m a k e th e
,

i n d i v i d ual r e sp on s ible for r ela ti on s w h os e c r ea tur e h e

s oc i ally r e m a i n s , h o w e v e r m uc h h e m ay s ubj e c ti v ely

r a i s e h i m s elf ab o v e th e m .

In th e d om ai n of Poli ti c al E con om y, fr ee s ci en tifi c

e n quir y m ee ts n ot m er ely th e s a m e e nem i e s a s i n all
oth e r d om ai n s The pe culi ar n a tur e of th e m a te r i al i t
.

d eals w i th s um mon s a s foe s i n to th e fi eld of b a ttle th e

,

m os t v i ole n t m e an an d m ali g n a n t p a s s i on s of th e h um a n
,

b r ea s t, th e Fur i e s of pr i v a te i nter e s t The E ngli s h E s tab .

li s h ed Ch ur ch e g , w ill m or e r ea d ily p a r d on an a tta c k

,
. .

on 3 8 of i ts 3 9 a r ti cle s th a n o n 3 o f i ts i n c om e N ow
1
3 .

a d ays a th e i s m i ts elf i s culp a lev is a s c om pa r e d w i th ,

c r i ti c i s m o f e x is ti n g
p pr o er t
y r e la ti on s N e v e r th ele s s .
,

th e r e i s a n unm i s ta k a b le a d v a n c e I r efe r , e g , to th e
. . .

blueb ook publis he d w i th i n th e la s t few w eek s Cor r e

s on d en c e w i th Her M aj e s t s M r o a d , r e g ar d
’

p y i ss i on s A b
 A a té er
’
xx s P r efa ces .

Tr a d e s Th e
’
i ng In d us tr i al Q e u s ti on s an d U n i on s .

r epr e s en tati v e s of th e E n gli sh Cr ow n i n for ei gn c oun tr i e s

the r e d e clar e i n s o m a n y w or d s th a t i n Ge r m an y 1 n ,

F r an c e to b e b r i ef i n all th e c i v i li s e d s tate s of th e
, ,

E ur ope an c onti ne nt a r a d i c al c h a ng e i n th e e xi s ti n g
,

r ela ti on s b e tw ee n c a i tal a n d a our i s a s e vi d e nt a n d

p l b
i n e vi tab le a s i n E n glan d At th e s a m e ti m e on th e
.
,

oth e r s i d e of th e A tla n ti c O c ea n M r Wa d e vi c e pr e si ,
.
,
-

d e nt of th e U ni ted S ta te s d e cla r e d i n pub li c m ee tin gs

,

th a t a fter th e a b oli ti on of sla v e r y a r a d i c al ch a ng e o f

, ,

th e r elati on s of c api tal a n d of pr ope r ty i n la nd i s n e x t

“

u on th e or d e r of th e d a
p y T h e s e ar e s i g n s of th e
.

tim e s n ot to b e h i d d e n b y pur ple m an tle s o r black

,

c a s s ock s Th ey d o n ot s ig ni fy th a t to m or r ow a m i r a cle
.
-

w i ll h a ppe n They s h ow th a t w i thi n th e r uli ng cla s s e s

.
,
-

th e m s elv e s a for e b odi n g i s d aw n i n g th a t th e pr e s e nt

, ,

s oc i e t i s n o s oli d c r s tal, b u t an o r g an i s m c a a b le of
y y p
c h an g e , a n d i s c o ns ta n tl c h a n gi ng
y .

Th e s e con d v olum e of th i s w or k w i ll tr ea t of the pr o

c e s s of th e c i r c ula ti on of c a ital B ook a n d of th e
(
1
p
v ar i e d for m s a s s um e d b y c api tal i n the c our s e of i ts
d e v elopm en t ( B ook th e thi r d an d la s t v olum e

( B o ok th e h i s tor
y o f th e th e o r
y .

E v e ry opi ni on b a s e d on s c i e n ti fi c c r i ti c i s m I w elc om e .

As to th e p r ej ud i ce s of s o c alle d pub li c O pi n i on to w h i ch
-

I h av e n e v er m a d e c on c e s s i o n s , n ow as afor e ti m e th e
m a xim of th e g r e a t F lor en tin e i s m i n e

S e g ui i l tuo c or s o, e ,
la s c i a d ir le g enti .

K ARL MA RX .

LO N D ON J uly 2 5 , 1 8 6 7
, .

1
On p 5 7 6 th e
. au t h or exp a n s l i w hat he c om p ri s es un d er th i s h ea d .
 A a taor
’
s P r ef a ces .

IL — TO THE SEC ON D ED I T I ON .

TO th e pr e s e nt m om e nt Poli ti c al E con om y, i n Ger

m a ny, i s a for ei g n s c i e n c e Gu s ta v v on Guli ch i n h i s
.

“
H i s tor i c al d e s c r i pti on of C omm e r c e , I n d us tr y, & c , 1
.

e s pe ci ally in th e tw o fi r s t v olu m e s pub li sh e d i n 1 8 3 0 ,

h a s e x am i n e d at len gth th e h i s tor ic al c i r c um s ta n c e s th at

r e v e n te d , i n Ge r m a n y, th e d e v elo m e n t of th e c a i tali s t
p p p
m od e of pr o d uc ti on , a nd c on s e que n tly the d e v elopm en t,
i n th a t c oun tr y, of m od e r n b our g e oi s s oc i e ty Th us the .

s oi l w h e n c e Poli ti c al E c on om s r i n g s w as w a n ti g
y p n .

“ ”
Th is s ci e n c e h ad to b e i mpor te d fr o m E n glan d a n d
Fr a n c e a s a r ea d y m ad e a r ti cle ; i ts Ge r m a n pr ofe s s or s
-

r e m a in e d s ch oolb o s
y . T h e th e or e ti c al e x r e s s i on of a
p
for e i gn r eali ty w a s tur ne d , i n th e ir h an d s , i nto a c ol
le c ti on of d og m a s i n te r pr e te d b y th e m i n te r ms o f th e
,

p ye tt tr a d i n g w or ld a r ou n d th e m
,
a n d t h e r efor e m i s

i n te r pr e te d
. Th e feeli ng of s c i e n ti fi c i m pote n c e , a
feelin g n ot w h olly to b e r epr e s s e d , an d th e u n ea s y c on
s ci ous n es s of h a v i n g to tou ch a s ub j e c t i n r eali ty for e i g n

to th e m , w a s b ut i mpe r fe c tly c on c eale d e i th e r u n d e r a

,

a r a d e of li te r a r a n d hi s tor i c al e r ud iti o n, or b an
p y y
a d mi x tur e of e xtr an e ous m ater i al, b or r ow e d fr om th e s o
”
c alle d K am er al s ci en c e s a m e d ley of s m a tter i n g s
, ,

th r ough w h os e pur g a tor y th e h op e le s s c a n d i d ate for th e

Ge r m a n b ur ea u cr a cy h a s to p as s .

S i n c e 1 8 4 8 c api tali s t pr oduc ti on h as d e v elope d r a pi d ly

i n Ge r m an y, a n d at th e pr e s e n t ti m e i t i s i n th e full
bloom of spe culati on a n d s w i n d lin g Bu t fate i s s till .

u n pr opi ti ou s to our pr ofe s s ion al e c on om i s ts At th e .

ti m e w h en th e y w e r e a b le to d eal w i th Poli ti c al E c on omy

i n a s tr ai gh tfor w a r d fa s h ion , m od e r n e c on om i c c on d i ti o n s

1
Ges ch i ch tli ch e Dar s tell un g d es Han d els , d er Gew e r b e un d d es A c ker
b aus , & c , v on Gus tav v on Gii li ch
. . 5 v ols J en a , 1 8 30 4 5
.
-
.
 ’
x xn A a f/cor s P r ef aces .

d id n ot a c tually e xi s t in Ge r m an y An d as s oon as th e s e .

c on d i ti on s d i d c om e i n to e xi s te n c e th e y d i d s o un d er c i r
'

c um s tan c es th at n o lon g e r allow e d of th e i r b e i n g r e ally

a n d i m ar ti ally i n v e s ti g a te d w i th i n th e b ound s of th e
p
b ou rg e oi s h or iz on In s o far a s Poli ti c al E c o nom y
.

r e m ai n s w i thi n th a t h or i z on , i n s o far i e a s th e c api ta ,

. .
,

li s t r égfl e i s look e d up on as th e a b s olu tely fi n al for m of

s oc i al r o d uc ti on i n s te a d of a s a as s i n g h i s tor i c al h a s e
p , p p
of i ts e v oluti on , Poli ti c al E c on om y c a n r e m a i n a s c i e nc e

only s o lon g as th e c la s s s tr uggle i s la te n t or m a n i fes ts

—

i ts elf o nly i n i s ola te d a n d s por a d i c phe n om e n a .

Let us tak e E n glan d Its poli ti c al e c on om y b elon g s

.

t o th e pe ri od i n w h i ch th e cla s s s tr uggle w as a s yet u n -

d e v elope d . Its la s t g r e at r epr e s e n t a ti v e Ri c ar d o i n , ,

th e en d c on s c i ou s ly m ak e s th e a n ta g o n i s m of c la s s
,

i n te r e s ts of w a g e s an d p r ofi ts of p r ofi ts an d r e n t, the
, ,

s ta r ti n g oi n t of h i s i n v e s ti g a ti o ns n ai v el tak in g thi s
p y
-
,

a n ta g on i s m for a s oc i al law of n a tur e But b y thi s .

s t a r t th e s ci e n c e o f b our g e oi s e c on om h a d r e a ch e d th e
y
li m i ts b eyon d w hi ch i t c ould n ot p as s Alr e a d y i n th e .

li fetim e of Ri c a r d o, an d i n oppos i ti on to h i m , i t w a s m et
b y c r i ti c i sm i n th e pe r s on of Si s m on d i
,
1
.

Th e s uc cee di n g pe r i od , fr om 1 8 2 0 to 1 8 3 0 w as ,

n ot ab le i n E n glan d for s c i e n ti fi c a c ti vi t i n th e d om a i n
y
of Poli ti c al E c on om I t w a s th e tim e as w ell O f th
y . e

v ulg ar i sin g an d e xte n di ng of Ri c a r d o s th eor y a s of th e ’ '

c on te s t of th a t th e or w i th t h e old s c h o ol S l n d i d
y p e .

tour n a m e n ts w e r e h e ld W h a t w a s d on e the n , i s li ttle

.

kn o w n to the Con tin en t g en er ally, b e c aus e th e pole mi c

i s for th e m os t par t s c a tter e d th r ough a r ti cle s i n r e v i ew s
o c c a s i on al li te r a tu r e an d a m h le t T h u n r ej u d i c ed
p p s e
p .

ch a r a c te r of thi s pole m i c alth ough th e th e or y Of

’

1 See m y w or k Z ur Kr itik , &c .

, p 39. .
 A a tfior
’
s P r ef a ces . xxi ii
Ri c a r d o a lr ea d y s e r v e s i n e x c epti on al c a s e s , a s a w eapon
,

of a tta c k upon b ou r g e oi s e c on om y — i s e xp la i n e d b y th e
c i r cu m s t n c
a e s of th e ti m e . On th e on e h an d , m od er n
i nd us tr y i ts elf w a s only j us t em e r g in g fr om th e a g e of
c h i ld h ood , as i s s h ow n b th e fa c t th a t w i th th e c r i s i s
y
of 1 8 2 5 i t for th e fi r s t ti m e ope ns th e p e r i o d i c c ycle of

i ts m od e r n li fe . On th e o th e r h an d th e c la s s s tr u ggle
,
-

b e tw een c api tal an d lab our i s for ce d i nto th e b a ckg r oun d ,

p o li ti c al ly yb th e d i s c or d b e tw ee n th e g o v e r nm e n ts a n d

th e fe ud al a r i s toc r a cy g a th e r e d a r o un d th e H oly Alli a n c e

o n th e on e h an d an d th e po ula r m a s s e s ; led b th e b our
, p y
eoi s ie on th e oth e r ; e c on om i c a ll b t h q u ar r e l b e tw ee n
g y y e

i nd us tr i al c api ta l an d a r i s tocr a ti c la nd e d pr o pe r ty— a

qu ar r el th at i n F r an c e w a s c on ce ale d b y th e o pp os i tion
b e tw een s m all a nd lar g e lan d e d pr oper ty, a n d t ha t
i n E n glan d b r ok e ou t O pe nly afte r th e Cor n Law s Th e .

li te r a tur e of Poli ti c al E c on om y i n E nglan d at th is tim e

c alls to m in d th e s tor m y for w ar d m ov e m e n t i n F r a n c e

afte r Dr Q ues n ay s d ea th, b ut only a s a Sa i n t Mar ti n s

’ ’
.

s um m e r r e m i n d s u s of s r i n g
p W
. i t h th e yea r 1 83 0
c a m e th e d ec i si v e c r i s i s .

In F r an c e an d i n E n gla n d th e b ou r g e oi s i e h ad c on
q ue r e d poli ti c al powe r Th e n c efor th , th e cla s s s tr uggle
.
-

r a c ti c a lly a s w e ll a s th e or e ti c ally to ok on m or e a n d
p ,

m or e outs pok e n an d th r eate nin g for m s It s o und e d th e

.

k n ell of s c i e nti fi c b our g e oi s e c on om y It w as th e nc efor th

.

n o lon g e r a q ue s ti on , w h e th e r th i s th e or e m or th at w a s

t r u e , b ut w h e th e r i t w as us eful to c a pi tal or h a r m ful,

e x pe d i e n t or i ne x pe d i e n t, poli ti c ally d a n g er ous or n o t .

In pla c e of d i s in te r e s te d e n q ui r e r s th e r e w e r e h i i e d pr i z e
,

figh te r s ; i n pla c e of g e nuin e s ci e n tifi c r e s e ar ch th e b a d ,

c on s c i e n c e a n d th e e v i l i n te n t o f a polog e t ic Sti ll e v e n
.
,

th e ob tr us i v e p a m phle ts w i th w hi c h the A n ti Cor n La w -

L g ,
e a u e led b y t h e m a nu fa c tur e r s C o b d e n a n d B r i g h t
,
d elug e d th e w or ld , h a v e a hi s tor i c in te r e s t, if n o s c i e nti fi c
o n e, o n a c c ou nt of th e i r pole m i c a g a i n s t th e la n d e d ar i s
'

tocr acy . But s i nc e th e n Fr ee Tr a d e le g is lati on

th e ,

i n a ug ur a te d b y Si r Rob e r t Peel, h as d epr i v e d vulga r

e con om y of thi s i ts la s t s ti ng .

The C e
on ti n n tal r e v oluti on of 1 8 4 8 9 als o h ad i ts r e
-

a c ti on i n E n gla n d . Mn e w h o s ti ll clai m e d s o m e s c i en
ti fic s ta n d i ng an d a s pi r e d to b e s om e thi ng m or e than
m e r e s o ph i s ts an d s yc oph a n ts of th e r ulin g c la s s e s tr i e d -

to h ar m on i s e the Poli ti c al E c on om y o f c api tal w i th th e

clai m s ,
n o lon ge r to b e i gn or e d of th e pr ole ta r i a t , .

H en c e a s h allo w s yn c r e ti s m , of w h i c h J oh n S tu a r t Mill
i s the b e s t r e pr e s e n tati v e It i s a d e clar a ti on of b an k
.

r u tc y b b our g e oi s e con om an e v e n t on whi c h t he

p y y ,

g r e at Rus si an s ch olar an d c r i ti c N Ts ch er nys c h ew s ky,

,
.

h a s th r ow n th e ligh t of a m a s te r m i nd i n hi s O utlin e s
of Poli ti c al E c on omy a c cor di n g to M
”
ill .

In Ge r m a ny, th e r efor e , th e c api tali s t m od e of pr od uc

ti on c am e to a h ea d , a fte r i ts a n tag on i s ti c c h a r a c te r h ad
alr ea d y, i n Fr a n c e a n d E n glan d s h ow n i ts elf in a fi e r c e
,

s tr ife of clas s e s . An d m ea n wh ile m or e ov e r , th e G er m an

,

r ole ta r i a t h a d a tt a i n e d a m uch m or e clea r cla s s c on

p
-

s c i ou s n es s th a n th e Ge r m an b ou r g e oi s i e Th us , a t th e .

v e r y m om e nt wh e n a b our ge oi s s ci en ce of poli ti c al
e con om y s ee m e d a t las t pos s i b le i n Ge r m any i t h ad i n ,

r eali t a g a i n b e c om e i m os s i ble
y p .

U n d e r th e s e c i r c um s tan c e s i ts pr ofe s s or s fell i n to tw o

gr oup s . The on e s et pr u d e n t pr a cti c al b us i n e s s folk
, , ,

fl oc k e d to the b ann er of Bas ti at the m os t s up er fi ci al ,

a n d th e r efor e th e m os t a d e q u a te r e r e s e n t a ti v e of th e
p
apolog e ti c of v ulg a r e c on om y ; th e other pr oud of th e ,

r ofe s s or i al d i g ni ty of th e i s ci enc e follow e d J oh n

p r ,

S tua r t Mill i n h i s attem pt to r e c on cile i r r e c on c ilab le s .

J us t a s i n the clas si c al ti m e of b our g e ois e con om y, s o

 ’
A a ckor s P r ef a ces .

p ear ed i n th e spr i n g Th
of e e d i ti on of 3 000
1 87 2 .

C opi e s i s alr ea d y n e ar ly e xh a u s te d As ear ly as 1 8 7 1 .

,

A S i eb e r , Pr ofe s s or of Poli ti cal E c on omy i n th e U n i v e r

.
~

“
D a v i d Ri c ar d o s Th e or f
’
s it
y o f K i e v ,
i n h i s w o rk
y o
”
V alue an d of Capi tal, r efe r r e d to m y th e or y of v alue , of
m on e y a n d of c api tal, a s i n i ts fun d am e n tals a n e c e s s ar y
s e qu el to th e t e a ch i n g of S m i th a n d Ri c a r d o Th a t .

w hi ch a s toni s h e s th e We s te r n E ur opean in th e r ea d i n g
’
of thi s e x c e lle n t w or k , i s th e a u th or s c on s i s te n t a n d fir m

gr a s p ofth e pur ely th e o r e ti c al p os i ti on .

Th a t th e m eth od e m ploye d i n Das K api tal h as

b een little e
i s sh ow n b y th e v a r i ous c on cep
un d r s tood ,

ti on s , c on tr a d i c tor y on e to a n oth e r , th a t h a v e b ee n
for m e d of i t .

Thus the Pa r i s Revue Pos iv is te r epr oa c h e s m e i n th at,

on th e on e h an d , I tr ea t e c on o mi c s m e t aph ys i c all , a nd
y
on th e oth e r h an d — —
i m a g i n e l c o nfin e m s elf to th e y
m er e cr i ti c al a n al s i s o
y f a c tu al fa c ts , i ns tea d of w r i ti n g
r e c e i pts ( Com ti s t on e s ? ) for th e c oo k -
sh o s of
p th e futur e .

In an s w er to th e r e pr oa c h i n re m e ta ph ys ic s , Pr ofe s s or
“
S i eb e r h as i t In so far as i t d eals w i th a c tual th e or y,
the m e th od of M x
ar i s th e d e d uc ti v e m e th od of th e
w h ole E n gli s h s ch ool, a s ch ool w h os e failin g s an d vi r tue s
ar e c om m on b e s t th e or e ti c e con om i s ts
to th e M B lock .
”
.

“
Les th éor i ci e n s d u s oc i a li s me en Alle m ag n e E xtr a it ,

d u J our n al d es Ec on om i s tes J uille t e t A out 1 8 7 2 ,

m a k e s th e d i s c ov e r y th at m y m e th od i s a n aly ti c a nd
s ays Pa r c et ouv r a g e M Ma r x s e cla s s e p ar mi les .

e s pr i ts an alyti qu e s les plus ém i n e nts Ger m an r e v i e w s .

,
”
of c our s e s h r i e k o u t at
,
H e g eli an s ophi s ti c s Th e .

Eur op ea n Mess enger of St Pe te r s b ur g i n an ar ti cle d eal

.
,

i n g e x clus i v ely w i th th e m e th o d of Das K a pi tal

M
( y a n u mb e r 1 8 7,
2 pp 4 2
, 7 fi n d s m y m e th o d o f
m
.

en quir y se v ere ly r ea li s ti c b u t y m eth od o f r e s e n ta ti on

p
, ,
 A zcz aor
’
Pre /
‘
s y a ces . xxv n

un for tu n ately ,
Ge r m an d i ale c tic al It s ays : At fi r s t
-
.
“

s i g h t i f t he j u d g m e n t i s b a s e d o n th e e xte r n al for m of
,

th e pr e s e n ta ti on o f th e s ubj e c t M ar x i s the m o s t i d eal

,

o f i d e al ph ilos oph e r s ,
alw ays i n th e G er m a n i e , th e ,
. .

b a d s e ns e of th e w or d But i n p oi nt of fa ct h e i s
.

i n fin i tely m or e r eali s ti c th an all h i s for e r unn er s i n th e -

w or k of e con om i c c r i ti c is m H e c an i n n o s e ns e h e
.

”
c alle d a n i d eali s t . I c a nnot a n s w e r th e w r i te r b e tter
th a n b y a i d of a fe w e x tr a c ts fr om hi s o w n c r i ti c i s m ,

w hi ch m ay i n te r e s t s o m e of m y r ea d e r s to wh om th e
Ru s s i an or i g in al i s i n a c c e s s i ble .

A fte r a q uotati on fr o m th e pr efa c e to m y Cr i ti c i s m

of Poli ti c al Ec on om y
”
,
Ber li n 1 8 5 9 p p 4 7 w h er e I d i s
, ,
.
-

cu s s th e m a te r i ali s ti c b a s i s of m m e th d th w i t e e s
y o ,
e r r g o

on : The o n e th i n g w h i c h i s of m o m e nt to Mar x i s to ,

fin d th e law of th e ph e n om e n a w i th w h os e i n v e s ti g a tion h e
i s c on c e r n e d ; an d n ot o nly i s th a t la w of m om e n t to hi m ,

w h i ch g ov e r n s th e s e ph e n om e n a , i n s o far as th ey h a v e
a d e fi ni te for m a n d m utu al c onn e cti on w i th in a gi v e n
h i s tor i c al pe r i od . O f s ti ll g r ea ter m om en t to hi m i s
th e law of th ei r v a r i ati on , of th e i r d e v elopm en t, of

th e i r tr a n s i ti on fr om on e for m i nto a n oth e r , fr om on e

s e r i e s of c on n e c ti on s i nto a diffe r e n t on e Thi s law on c e .

di s cov e r e d , h e i nv e s ti g a te s i n d e tai l th e effe c ts i n w h i ch

i t m a n i fe s ts i ts elf i n s oci al life Con s e qu en tly, Ma r x
.

onl tr oub le s h im s elf a b out o ne th i ng ; t o sh ow b

y y ,

r i g i d s c i e nti fi c i n v e s ti g a ti on , th e n e c e s s i ty of s uc c e s s iv e

d e ter m i n a te or d e r s of s oci al c on d i ti on s an d to e s tab li sh , ,

as i m ar ti all as o s s i ble , th e fa c ts th a t s e r v e h i m for

p y p
fu n d am e ntal s ta r ti ng poi nts For th is i t i s qui te e n ough
.
,

i f h e pr ov e s , a t the s a m e ti m e , b oth the n e c e s s i ty of

th e pr e s en t or d e r of thi n gs , an d the n e c e s s ity of an oth e r
or d e r i nto w hi ch th e fi r s t m us t i n e v i ta b ly pa s s o v e r ;

an d thi s all th e s a m e w h e th e r m en b e li e v e or d o n ot
,
 ’
xxv i i i A a ckor s P r ef a ces .

b eli e v e i t, w h e th e r th ey ar e c on s c i ous or u ncon s ci ou s of

it . Mar x tr e ats th e al m ov em en t a s a pr oc e ss
s oci

of n a tur a l h i s tor y g o v e r n e d b y la w s n ot only i n d epen

,

d e n t of h um an w ill c o ns ci ous n e s s an d i n telli g e n c e b ut

, ,

r a th e r , on th e c on tr a r y, d e te r m in in g th at wi ll c on s ci ous ,

n e s s an d i ntelli g e n c e If i n th e h i s tor y of c i v ili s a

.

ti on th e c on s ci ou s elem e nt plays a p ar t s o s ub or d i n ate ,

th e n i t i s s e lf e v i d e nt th a t a c r i ti c al i n q ui r y w h os e s ub
-

m atte r i s c i v ili s ati on c a n, le s s th an a ny th i n g e ls e ,

j ec t -

h a v e for i ts b a s i s a ny for m of, or a ny r e s ult of c o ns c i o us ,

n ess . That i s to s ay, th a t n ot th e i d ea b ut the ,

m ate r i al ph en om e n on alon e c an s e r v e a s i ts s tar ti n g

i nt S u c h a n i n q ui r w i ll c on fi n e i ts e lf to th e c on
p o .
y
fr on tati on a nd th e c om pa r i s on of a fa c t n ot w i th i d ea s
.

, ,

b ut w i th a n oth e r fa c t F or thi s i n qui r y th e on e th i n g

.
,

of m om e n t i s th a t b oth fa c ts b e i nv e s ti g a te d a s ac c ur
,

a tely a s pos s ib le a n d th a t th e y a c tu ally for m ea ch w i th

, ,

r e s e c t to th e oth e r d i ffe r e n t m om e n ta of a n e v olu ti on ;

p ,

b u t m os t i m por ta nt of all i s th e r i g i d an alys i s of the

s e r i e s of s u c c es s i on s , of th e s e q ue n c e s an d c on c a te n a ti on s

In w hi c h th e d i ffe r e n t s ta g e s of s u ch a n e v olu ti on re
p
s e n t th e m s elv e s . But i t w ill b e s a i d th e g e n e r al law s ,

of e c on om i c li fe ar e on e a n d th e s a m e , n o m a tte r
w h e th e r th e y a r e a ppli e d to th e pr e s e n t or th e p a s t .

Thi s Ma r x d i r e c tly d en i e s A c c or d i n g to h i m s uch

.
,

ab s tr a c t law s d o n ot e xi s t On th e c o ntr ar y in hi s
.
,

O pin i on e v er y h i s tor i c al pe r i od h as la w s of i ts ow n .

As s oon a s s oc i e ty h a s outli v e d a g i v e n pe r i od of d e v elop

m ent an d i s pa s s i n g ov er fr om on e gi v e n s ta g e to an oth e r ,
,

i t b egi n s to b e s ubj e c t a ls o to oth er law s In a w or d , .

e co nom i c li fe offer s u s a ph e n om e n on an alog ous to th e

h i s tor y of e v oluti on i n oth e r b r an ch e s of b i olog y Th e .

old e c on om i s ts m i s un d e r s tood th e n a tur e of e c on om i c

la w s w h e n th ey li k en e d th e m to th e law s of ph ys i cs an d
 ’
A a caor s P r ef a ces .

ch em i s tr y A m or e th or ough an alys i s of ph en om e n a
.

s how s th a t s oci al or g an i s ms d iffe r a m on g th e m s elv e s a s

fun d am en tally as plan ts or an i m als Nay on e an d th e .

,

s am e
ph e n om e n on falls un d e r q ui te d i ffe r e nt la w s i n

c on s e q ue n c e of th e d i ffe r e n t s tr u ctur e of th os e or g an i s m s

a s a w h ole of th e v ar i a ti on s of th e i r i n di v id ual or g an s
, ,

of th e d i ffe r e n t c on d i ti on s i n w h i ch th os e or g a n s fun c ti on ,

85 0 . Mar x e g d eni e s th a t th e law of popula ti on i s th e

,
. .
,

s a m e at all ti m e s a n d i n all pla c e s H e a s s er ts on th e .

,

c ontr a r y, th a t e v e r y s ta g e of d e v elopm e n t h a s i ts ow n

law of popula ti on Wi th th e v ar yi ng d e gr ee of
.

d e velop m en t of pr od ucti v e pow e r , s oc i al c on d i ti on s a n d

Wh ils t Mar x s e ts
i

th e la w s g ov e r n i n g th em v a r y too .

h i m s elf th e ta sk of follow i n g an d e x pla i ni n g fr om th i s

oi n t of v i e w th e e c on om i c s s te m e s tab li s h e d b th e
p y y
sw a of c api tal, h e i s on ly fo r m ula tin g , i n a s tr i c tly
y
s c i en ti fi c m a n n e r , th e a i m th a t e v e r y a cc ur a te i n v e s ti g a

ti on i n to e con om i c li fe m u s t h a v e Th e s c i en ti fi c v alu e of
.

s u ch a n i n q ui r y li e s i n th e d i s clos i n g of th e s e c i al la w s
p
th a t r e g ula te th e or i g i n , e x i s ten c e , d e v elopm en t d ea th ,

of a g i v en s oci al or gan i s m an d i ts r epla c e m en t b y

a n oth e r an d hi gh e r on e An d i t i s thi s v alue th at, i n
.

n t of fa ct M
’
o i a r x s b ook h a s
p , .

Whils t th e w r iter pi c tur e s w h at h e tak e s to b e

a c tually m y m e th od i n th i s s tr i k i n g a n d [a s fa r a s c on
,

c e r n s m y ow n a ppli c ati on of i t] g e n e r ou s w ay, w h a t

els e i s h e pi c tur i ng b ut th e d i ale c ti c m e th od

O f c our s e th e m e th od of pr es en tati on m us t d iffe r i n for m
fr om th a t of i n qui r y Th e latte r h a s to appr opr i a te
.

th e m ate r i al i n d e tail to a n alys e i ts d iffe r e n t for m s of

,

d e v e lopm e nt to tr ac e out th ei r i nn e r c on n e c ti on
,
Only .

a fte r th i s w or k i s d on e , c an th e a c tual m ov em e n t b e

a d e quately d e s cr i b e d I f th i s i s d on e s u c c e s s fu lly, i f
.

th e li fe of th e s ubj e c t m a tte r i s i d eally r e fl e cte d a s i n a

-
xx P ref aces
’
x A a f/z or s .

m ir r or , th en i t m ay a ppear as if we h ad b efor e us a
m er e a pI IOI l c on s tr uc ti on
‘ '
.

My d i ale cti c m e th od i s n ot only d i ffe r e n t fr o m th e

Hegeli am , b ut i s i ts d i r e ct oppos i te To H e g el th e .
,

li fe pr oc e s s
-
of the h um an b r a in , i . e .
,
th e pr oc e s s of
“ ”
k g
th i n i n ,
w h i ch , u n d e r th e a m e of th e n I d ea he ,

e v e n tr a n s for ms i n to a n i n d e pe n d e n t s ubj e c t i s th e ,

d em i ur g os of th e r eal wor ld an d th e r eal w or ld i s on ly ,

th e e x te r n al ph e n o m e n al for m of
,
“
th e I d ea Wi th .

m e, on the c o ntr ar y th e i d e al i s n o thi n g e ls e th a n th e

,

m a te r i al w or ld r e fl e c te d b y the h um an mi n d , and tr a n s
.

la te d in to fo r m s of th ough t .

Th e m ys ti fyi n g s i d e of H e g eli an d i ale c ti c I c r i t ic is ed

n ea r l th i rt
yy e a r s a o, a t a ti m e w h e n i t w a s s till th e
g
y
fashi on . But j us t a s I w as w or k in g a t th e fi r s t v olum e
of D as K api tal, i t w a s th e g o od ple a s ur e of th e
p ee v i s h , a r r og an t m e d i,
o c r e E fy m wh o n ow talk la r g e
n
' '
ov

i n c ultur e d Ge r m an y, to tr e at H e g el i n s a m e w ay a s
th e b r a v e M os e s M e nd els s oh n i n Le s s i ng s tim e tr e a te d
’

“ ”
S pi n oz a t e a s a d ea d d og
,
. .
,
I th e r efor e o pe nly .

a v o w e d m ys elf the pupi l o f th a t m igh ty th i nk e r a n d ,

e v e n h e r e a n d th e r e , i n th e ch apter on the th e or y of v a lue

c oq ue tte d w i th th e m o d e s of e x r es s i on e c uli a r to h i m
p p .

The mys tific ati on w hi ch d i ale cti c s uffe r s i n H eg el s h a n d s ,

’

b y n o m e a ns pr e v e n ts h im fr om b ein g the fi r s t to pr e s e n t
i ts g e ne r al for m of w or k in g i n a c o m pr e he n s i v e a n d c o n
s c i ou s m a n n e r Wi th hi m i t i s s tan d i ng on i ts h ea d It
. .

m u s t b e tur n e d r ig h t s i d e u p a g a i n i f you w ould d i s ,

c ov e r th e r a ti on al k e r n el w i thi n th e m s ti c al s h ell
y .

In i ts m ys ti fi e d for m , d i ale c ti c b e c a m e th e fas h i on i n

Ge r m a ny, b e c aus e i t s ee m e d to tr an s figur e a nd to glor i fy
the e x i s ti n g s ta te of th i n g s In i ts r a ti on al for m i t i s a
.

s c a n d al an d a b om i n a ti on t o b our eoi s d om an d i ts d oc
g
tr i n a i r e pr ofe s s or s , b e c au s e i t i n clud e s i n i ts c omp r eh en
 A a taor
’
s P r ef a ces .

i
s on an d affir m a ti v e e c ogn i ti on o f the e x is tin g s ta te of
r

thi ng s at th e s am e tim e a ls o th e r e c og n i ti on of th e
, ,

n e g a ti on of th a t s ta te , of i ts i n e vi ta ble b r ea k i n g u
p;
b e c aus e i t r eg ar d s e v er y h i s tor i c ally d e v elope d s oci al for m
a s i n fl ui d m ov e m e nt, an d th e r efor e tak e s i n to a c c oun t

i ts tr a n s i e nt n a tur e n ot le s s than i ts m om en ta r y e x i s t
e nc e ; b e c aus e i t lets n oth in g i mpos e upon i t, an d i s in
i ts e s s en c e c r i ti c al an d r e v olu ti on ar y .

The c on tr a d i c ti on s i n h er en t i n the m ov em e n t of
c a i ta li s t s o c i e ty i m pr e s s th e m s elv e s u pon th e a ti a l
p p r c c

b our g e oi s m os t s tr ik in gly i n th e ch a n g e s of th e p er i od i c
c cle , thr ou g h w h i ch m od e r n i n d us tr r un s , a n d w h os e
y y
cr ow n i n g poi n t i s th e un i v e r s al c r i s i s .Th at c r i s i s i s o n c e
ag a i n a r o a ch i n g , alth o ugh as et b u t In i ts e li m i a
pp y p r n r
y
s ta g e ; an d b t h e un i v e r s ali ty of i ts th ea tr e a n d th e
y
i n te n si ty of i ts a c tion i t w ill dr um d i ale c ti c s e v e n i n to
th e h ea d s of th e m u sh r oom ups ta r ts of th e n ew , h O
-
ly
Pr u ss o Ge r m an em pi r e
-
.

K A RL MA RX .

LON D ON , J a nuar y 24 , 1 8 7 3 .
 Cap z z a li s t P r od ucti on
'
’
2 .

en cefi
l
N ei th er ar e w e h ere con c er n ed to kn ow h ow th e o bj ect
s ati s fies th es e w a n ts , w h eth er d i r ectly as m ean s of s u b si s ten ce ,

or i n d i r ectly as m ean s of
p r od u c ti on .

E v er y u s eful thi n g , i r on , pa per , 8 m m ay b e look ed at

as ,

fr om th e tw o poi n ts of v i ew of q u ali ty a n d q uan ti t It i

y s .

a n a s s em b la g e of m an y r o er ti es an d m a t h r efor e b e Of
p p y e ,

u s e i n v a r i ous w ay s To d i s cov er th e v a r i ous u s es of th i n gs i s .

th e w or k of h i s tor y .
2
SO als o i s th e es ta bli s h m en t of s oc i a lly

r eco g n i s ed s tan d ar d s of m eas ur e for of th esie th e qua n ti ti es

u s efu l O bj ects Th e d i v er s i ty of th es e m ea s ur es h as i ts or i gi n
.

p a r tl
y i n th e d i v e r s e n atur e of th e obj ec ts to b e m eas ur ed ,

p a r tl
y i n co n v en t i on .

Th e u ti li ty of a th i n g m ak es i t a u s e v alu e But thi s -

.
3

uti li ty i s n ot a th i n g of a i r B ei ng li m i ted b y th e phy s i ca l .

pr op er ti es of th e comm od i t
y i t h as n o e x i s ten c e a
pa r t fr om ,

th at comm od i ty . A c om m od i ty , s u ch as i r on ,
cor n , or a

d i a m on d , i s th er efor e, s o fa r as i t i s a m a ter i al th i n g, a u s e
valu e, s om ethi n g u s eful T hi s pr oper ty of a com m odi ty i s .

i n d epen d en t of th e a m oun t Of lab our r eq ui r ed to a p pr opr i a te

i ts u s efu l quali ti es . W h en g of us e va lu e w e alw ay s
tr eati n -
,

as s um e to b e d eali n g w i th d efi n i te qu an ti ti es s uch as d ozen s ,

of w atch es , y a r d s of li n en , or ton s Of i r on Th e u s e v alu es Of .

-

c om m od i ti es fur ni s h th e m ater i al for a s

p ec i a l s tu d y , th a t
of th e c om m er ci al k n ow led g e of comm od i ti es .
4
Us e -
values
b ecom e a r eali ty on ly by u s e or c on s u m
pt i on : th ey als o c on

D si r impli s w nt it is th pp tit f th m i nd d n t r l h ung r t

1 e e e a e a e e O e ,
an as a u a as e o

th b dy e o Th gr t st n mb r ( f things ) h v th ir v l
. fr m s pplying
e ea e u e o a e e a ue o u

th w nts f th mind Nic l s B rb n A Disc urs c ining th w m n y ”

e a o e . o a a o o e on o e ne o e

light r in nsw r t Mr L ck s C nsid r ti ns & L nd n 1 6 96 p 2 3

e , a e o . o e
’
o e a o ,
”
0. o o , . .
, .

Things h v i t i i k v rt ( this is B rb n s s p ci l t rm f v l in
.

’
2 a e an n r ns c ) e ue a o e a e or a ue us e

which in ll pl c s h v th s m v rt ; th l dst n t ttr ct ir n

a a e a e e a e e ue as e oa o e o a a o

p . T h p r p rty which th m g et p ss oss s

e f ttr cting ir n b c m f u e a ne o e e o a a o , e a e O se

o nly ft r by m ns f th t pr p rty th p l rity f th m gn t h d b n disc v r d

a e ea o a o e e o a O e a e a ee o e e .

Th n t r l w rth f nything c nsists in its fitn ss t s pply t h n c ssiti s

3 e a u a o o a o e o u e e e e ,

or s rv th c nv ni nci s f h um n li f
e e e o ( J hn L ck
e S m c nsid r ti ns
e e o a e .
”
o o e,
“
o e o e a o on

th c ns q nc s f th l w ring f int r st
e o e ue e in W rks Edit L nd 1 77 7
o e o e o e e ,
o . o .
, ,

V l II p In English writ rs f th 1 7 th c nt ry w fr q ntly find w rth ”

o e o e e u e e ue o
. .
, .

in th s ns f v l in u
e e d vl e o in th s ns f xch ng v l
a ue This is
s e, a n
“
a ue e e e O e a e a ue .

q i t in cc rd nc w ith th s p irit f l ng g th t li k s t
u e a o a e T t nic w rd e o a a ua e a e o us e a eu o o

for th ct l thing d R m nc w rd f its flxi

e a ua , an a o a e o or re e on .

In b rg is s ci ti s th c n mic l fi ti j ris p r v ils th t v ry

4 ou eo o e e e e o o a c o u e a a e e on e , as a

buy r p ss ss s
e , y l p di kn wl dg
o e e f c mm diti s
an en c c O ae c o e e o o o e .
 3

s ti tu te th e su b s tan c e of all w ealth ,

w h ate v er m ay b e th es oc i al
for m of th at w ealth . In th e for m Of s oc i ety we ar e a b ou t to
con s i d er , th ey a r e, in a dd i ti on , th e m a ter i al d ep os i tor i es of

ex ch an g e v alu e .

Ex ch an g e v alue ,
at fi r s t s i gh t p ,
r es en ts i ts elf as a quan ti tati v e
r ela ti on , a s th e pr opor ti on i n w h i ch values in u s e of on e s or t

ex ch an g ed for th os e of a n oth er r ela ti on c on s ta n tl

1
ar e s or t, a
y
ch an gi n g w i th ti m e an d p lace . H en ce ex ch a n g e v a lu e a pp ear s
to b e s om eth i n g a c ci d en tal an d p u r ely v e an d c ous e
r elat i ,

quen tly an i n tr i n s i c valu e ,

an ex ch a n g e v alue th a t i s

i n s epar ab ly c on n ec ted w i th, i n h er en t i n comm od i ti es , s eem s a

c on tr a d i c ti on i n ter m s .
2
Let us c on s i d er th e m a tter a li ttle
m or e clos ely .

A gi v en c om m od i ty , eg . .
,
a q uar ter of w h eat i s e x ch an ged
for x blacki n g , y s ilk ,
or z gold , &c .
-
in s h or t, for oth er c om

m od i ti es i n th e m os t d i ffer en t pr opor ti on s ,
In s tead of on e .

ex ch an g e v a lu e th e w h eat h as , th er efor e, a g r ea t m a n Bu t
, y .

since x blacki n g y s i lk or z g old 8 m ea ch r epr es en t th e

, , , ,

ex ch an g e v alue of on e q uar ter of w h ea t x b lac k i n g i l k

y s , , ,

z gold 8 m m us t a s ex ch an ge v alu es b e r epla c eab le b y ea c h

, , , ,

oth er or eq ual to ea ch oth er

,
T h er efor e fi r s t : th e v a li d .
,

ex ch an g e v a lu es of a g i v en c om m od i ty ex pr es s s om eth i n g

eq ual ; s ec on dl e x c h a n g e v alu e g en er all i s o nl th e m d

y , y y o e , ,

of ex r es s i on th h m l f m f m th i g t i d
p e p e n o e n a ,
o r o s o e n c on a n e ,

i n i t y et d i s ti n g ui s h ab le fr om i t
, .

Let u s ta k e t w o c om m od i ti es e g cor n an d i r on Th e pr o ,
. .
, .

p or ti on s i n w h i ch th e
y a r e e x ch a n g ea b le w h a te v e r th os e
p r o ,

p o r ti on s m a
y b e c a n a lw a y s b e r ep r es
,
en te d b y a n eq u a ti on i n

w hi ch a gi v en qua n ti ty of c or n i s equ ated to s om e qu an ti ty of

i r on : e g 1 qu ar ter c or n =x c wt i r on
. .
,
W h at d oes th i s equa . .

ti on tell u s ? It tells u s th at i n tw o d i ffer en t thi n g s — i n 1

quar ter of c or n an d x c w t of i r on th er e ex i s ts i n equal quan .
,

ti ti es s om eth i n g com m on to b oth Th e tw o th i n g s m us t th er e .

1 “
v l ur c nsist d ns l r pp rt d é h g q i tr v ntr t ll ch s t
La a e o e a e a o
’
c an e u se ou e e e e e o e e

t ll utr ntr t ll m s r d n pr d cti n t t ll m s r d n tr

e e a e, e e e e (L e u e
’
u e o u o , e e e e u e
’
u e au e .
”
e

T D 1 I té ét S ci l
r os n e e Physi cr t s Ed D ir P ris 1 845 P
’
n r o a . o a e , . a e . a , . .

N thing n h v
2 “ o i t i i k v l ca ( N B rb n l
a p B tl r
e an n r ns c a ue . . a o , . c. , . or a s u e

s ys
a
Th v l f th i g e a ue o a n

I s j st m ch i t wi ll b ri g u as u as n .
 Cap z ca li s z P r od u cti on
'

‘ ‘
4 .

for e b e equal to a th i r d w h i ch i n i ts elf i s n ei th er th e on e n or

,

th e oth er E a ch of th em s o far a s i t i s ex ch ange v a lue m us t

.
, ,

th er efor e b e r ed u c i b le to t hi s th i r d .

A Si m ple g eom etr i cal i llu s tr a ti on w i ll m ak e th i s clear In .

or d er to c alcula te a n d com par e th e ar eas of r ec ti li n ea r figu r es ,

w e d ecom pos e th em i n to tr i a n gles But t h e a r ea of th e tr i .

an gle i ts elf i s ex pr es s ed b y s om eth i n g to ta lly di ffer en t fr om i ts

vi s i ble figur e n am ely b y h alf th e pr od uct of th e b as e i n to

, ,

th e alti tu d e In th e s a m e w ay th e ex ch an g e values of com

.

m od i ti es m u s t b e ca pa ble of b ei n g ex pr es s ed i n ter m s of s om e
th i n g com m on to th em a ll of w h i ch th i n g th ey r epr es en t a ,

gr eater or les s quan ti ty .

T h i s c om m on s om eth i n g can n ot b e ei th er a g eom etr i c al

“
,

a c h em i cal, or an y oth er n atu r al r ty of c om m odi ti es

p ro
pe .

S u ch p ro
p er ti es clai m our a tten ti on on ly in so far as th ey
a ffec t t h e u ti li ty Of th os e c om m od i ti es , m ak e th em us e -
v a lues .

But th e e xch an ge of c om m odi ti es v i d en tly a n a ct c har a cter is e

i s ed b y a total a b s tr ac ti on fr om u s e v a lu e T h en on e u s e -
.

va lue i s j us t a s good as a n oth er pr ov i d ed on ly i t b e pr esen t i n ,

s u ffi c i en t q u a n ti t O a s old B a r b on s a s on e s or t o f
y r .
y , ,

w a r es ar e as g ood as an oth e i f th e v a lu es b e eq ual T h er e i s

r, .

n o d i ffer en ce or d i s ti n cti on In th i n gs of eq u al v a lu e

An b un d l ed poun d s w or th of lea d or i r on i s Of as g r eat v alu e

’

u n d s w or th of s ilv er or g old A s u s e v alues

’ ”1
a s on e h u n d r ed
p o -
.
,

c om m od i ti es a r e a b ov e all of d i ffere n t q u ali ti es

,
b ut as ex
, ,
'

c h an g e v alu es th e a r e m er el d i ffer en t qu an ti ti es a nd cou s e

y y ,

quen tly d o n ot con tai n an atom of us e v a lue -

.

If th en w e leav e out of c on s i d e a ti on th e u s e valu e of c om r -

m od i ti es th ey h a v e on ly on e comm on pr ope ty left th a t of

,
r ,

b ei n g pr od ucts of lab our Bu t ev en the p od uct of lab our . r

i ts elf h as u n d er g on e a ch an g e i n ou h an d s If w e m ak e r .

a b s t a c ti on fr om
r i ts u s e v a lu e w e m ak e ab s tr ac ti on at th e
-
,

s am e ti m e fr om th e m ater i a l elem en ts a n d s h a pes th a t m a k e

th e pr od u c t a u s e valu e w e s ee i n i t n o lon g er a tab le a h ou s e

-
, ,

a r n or a n th r u s eful th i n g Its exi s ten c e a s a m a ter i al

y , y o e .

t hi n g i s put ou t Of s i gh t N ei th er c an i t a n y lon g er b e r e
g ar d ed as t he pr od uct of th e lab our of th e j oi n er th e mas on
.

, ,

N B rb n l c p 53 d 7
1 . a o , . . . an .
 Comm od i ti es .
5
th e s
p i n n er, or of a ny oth er d efi n i te kin d of p r od u c ti ve
lab our . Alon g w i th th e u s efu l quali ti es ofth e pr od u cts th em
s elv es , w e pu t gh t b oth th e ou t of si u s eful ch ar a c ter of th e

var i ous k i n d s of lab our em b od i ed i n th em an d the con cr ete ,

for m s of th at lab our ; th er e i s n oth i n g left b u t w h at i s com m on

to th em a ll ; all a r e r ed u ce d to on e an d th e s am e s or t of

lab our , h u m a n la b ou r i n th e a b s tr a ct .

Let u s n ow con s i d er th e r es i d u e of ea ch
th es e pr od u c ts of

i t c on s i s ts of th e s a m e urlsubi l m ali ty i n ea ch , a m er e m fi fl

c on elati on of h om og en eou s h um an lab our , of la b our p ow er ex

g
-

n d d w i th
‘

u t g "
r d to th e m od e of i ts ex en d i tu r e A ll
p e e o r e a p .

th at th es e th i n g s n ow tell u s i s , th a t h u m a n lab our p ow er h a s -

b een expen d ed i n th ei r pr od ucti on th at h um an lab our i s em ,

b od i ed i n th em W h en look ed a t a s c r y s tals of th i s s oci a l

.

s ub s tan ce com m on to th em all th ey a r e

,
— Va lu es ,
.

W e h av e s een that w h en com m odi ti es ar e ex ch an g ed th ei r ,

ex ch a n g e v alue m an i fes ts i ts elf a s s om eth i n g totally i n d epen d

en t of th ei r u s e v alu e But i f w e ab s tr ac t fr om th ei r u s e v a lu e
-
.
-
,

th er e r em ai n s th ei r Valu e a s d efi n ed ab ov e T h er efor e th e .
,

c om m on s ub s tan ce th a t m a n i fes ts i ts elf i n th e ex ch an g e v a lu e

of c om m od i ti es w h en ev er th ey a r e ex ch a n g ed i s t h ei
,
v a lu e ,
r .

Th e pr ogr es s of our i n v es ti ga ti on w i ll s h ow th at ex ch an g e
v a lue i s th e on ly for m i n w hi ch th e v alue of com m od i ti es c an
m an i fes t i ts elf or b e ex pr es s ed F or th e pr es en t h ow ev er w e .
, ,

h a v e to cons i d er th e n a tur e of v alu e i n d ep en d en tly of thi s i ts ,

for m .

A us e valu e or u s eful ar ti cle th er efor e h a s value on ly b ecau s e

-
, , ,

h u m an lab our i n th e ab s tr act h as b een em b od i ed or m ater i al

i s ed i n i t How th en i s th e m agn i tu d e of thi s v alu e to b e
.
, ,

m ea s u r ed Plai n ly b y th e q uan ti ty of th e v a lue cr ea ti n g

,
-

s ub s ta n c e th e lab our con ta i n ed i n th e a r ti cle

, ,
Th e quan ti ty .

of la b ou r h ow ev er i s m ea s u r ed b i ts d u r a ti on a n d lab ou r
, y , ,

ti m e i n i ts t ur n fi n d s i ts s ta n d a r d i n w eek s d a y s a n d h our s , , .

S m e p eople m i g ht thi n k t hat i f th e v alue of a c om m od i ty

o

i s d eter m i n ed b y th e qu an ti ty of lab our s pen t on i t th e m or e ,

i d le a n d un s k i lful th e lab our er th e m or e v alua ble w ou ld h i s ,

c om m odi t
y b e b ec a u s e m o e
, t i m e w o u ld b e r erq u i e d i n i ts r

p r od u c ti on T h e la b o u.r
(
h ow ev er th a t fo r m s,
t h e s u b s ta n c e ,
o f
 Cap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

valu e i s h om o en eou s h um an lab our ex pen d i tu e of on e u n ifor m

, ,
r

la b our p ow er Th e total la b ou r pow er of s oci ety w h i ch i s

-
.
-

em b od i ed i n th e s u m total of th e v alu es of a ll c omm od i ti es o

p r

d uc ed b y th a t s oci ety c ou n ts h e e as on e h om og en eou s m as s of ,

r

h u man lab ou pow er c om pos ed th ough i t b e of i nn um e ab le

r- ,
r

i n d i vi d ual u n i ts E a ch of th es e u n i ts i s th e s am e as an y oth e
. r,

s o fa r as i t h as th e c h a r acter of th e a v er a g e la b ou r ow er of
p
-

s oci et
y a n d t a k e s e ffe
, c t a s s u ch ; th a t i s s o fa r a s i t r equ i r es for ,

r od u ci n g a com m odi t m ti m th i d d n
p y n o or e e a n s n ee e on a ,

a v e a g e n o m or e th a n i s s oci a ll n ece s s ar T h l b ou r ti m e
r
y y e a -
.
,

s oci a ll n ec es s a r i s th at r eq u i r ed to r od u c e an a ti cle u n d er
y y p r

th e n or m al con d i ti on s of pr od u c ti on an d w i th th e a v er a ge ,

d eg r ee of s k i ll a n d i n ten s i ty pr eva len t a t th e ti m e Th e i n tr o .

d uc ti on of p ow e loom s i n to E n glan d pr ob a bly r ed u ced b y on e

r

h alf th e lab our eq ui ed t o w eav e a g i v en qu a n ti ty of y a r n i n to

r r

c loth Th e h an d loom w eav er s a s a m a tte of fa c t c on ti n u ed

.
-
,
r ,

t o r equi r e t h e s a m e ti m e a s b efor e b ut for a ll th at th e pr o ,

d u c t of on e h our of th ei r la b our r e pr es en ted a fter th e ch an g e

on l h a lf a n h our s s oc i a l la b our an d c on s eq u en tl f ll
’

y y e to one ,

h alf i ts for m er v a lu e .

We s ee th en th a t t h at w hi ch d eter m i n es the m a gn i tud e of

th e v a lu e of a n y ar ti cle i s th e a m ou n t of la b ou r s oci a lly n eces
h e la b ou i m e s oci ally n ec es s a r y for i ts r od uc ti on
1
sa
y o r t ,
r t pr -
.

E a c h i n d i vi d ual c om m od i ty i n thi s con n exi on i s to b e c on , ,

s i d er ed a s a n a v er a g e s a m ple of i ts cla s s C om m od i ti es th er e .
2
,

for e i n w h i c h equ al qu a n ti ti es of la b our ar e em b od i ed or

, ,

w h i ch c an b e p r od u c ed i n th e s a m e ti m e h a v e th e s a m e v alue
'

.
,

Th e v alu e of on e com m od i ty i s t o t h e v alu e of a n y oth e as th e .

r,

la b ou ti m e n eces s a y for th e p od u c ti on Of th e on e i s to th a t
r- r r

n ec es s a y for th e pr od u cti on of t h e oth er

r As values all com .
,

m od i ti es a e on ly d efi n i t e m a s s es of con g ealed lab ou r ti m e

”3
r -
.

1 v l f th m (th n c ss ri s f li f ) wh n th y
“
Th e a ue o xch ng d th
e f e e e a e o e ,
e e ar e e a e e on e or

an th r is r g l t d by th q ntity f l b r n c ss rily r q ir d d c mm nly

o e , e u a e e ua o a ou e e a e u e , an o o

t k n in pr d cing th m ( S m Th ghts th Int r st f M n y in g n r l d

a e o u e . o e ou on e e e o o e e e a , an

p rtic l rly in th P blick F nds &

a u a L nd p This r m rk bl n nym us
e u u , c . o .
, . e a a e a o o

w rk writt n in th l st c nt ry b rs d t It is cl r h w v r fr m int rn l
o ,
e e a e u ,
ea no a e .
“

ea ,
o e e , o e a

evid nc th t it pp r d in th r ign f G rg II b t 1 7 3 9 1 740

e e, a a ea e e e o eo e . a ou or .

T t s l p r d cti ns d m em g nr m f m t p r pr m nt q
2
ou e es o u m ss o
’
un e e e e er en o e e u nh e
’
a e,

d nt l prix d et m i
o e g é n ér l t s ns ég rd x circ nst nc s p ti li e
se er n e en a e a a au o a e ar cu r es .

(L T e l c p 893
r os n e, . . K M rx l c p 6
. .
3
. a ,
. . . .
 Couu u od i ti es .
7
Th e value of a com m od i ty w ould th er efor e r em ai n con s tan t ,

i f th e lab our ti m e r eq ui r ed for i ts pr od u cti on als o r em ai n ed

-

c on s tan t Bu t th e latter ch an g es w i th ev er y v ar i ati on i n th e

.

r od u c ti ven es s of lab our T h i r od u c ti v en es s i s d eter m i n ed

p s p .

b y v ar i ou s ci r cu m s tan ces a m on g s t oth er s b y th e a v er age

, ,

a m oun t of s k i ll of th e w or k m en th e s tate of s ci en c e an d th e , ,

d egr ee of i ts pr a c ti cal a ppli ca ti on th e s oci al or gan i s a ti on of ,

r od ucti on th e ex ten t a n d ca a b ili ti es of th e m ean s of

p , p p r o

d u c ti on an d b y ph y s i cal c on d i ti on s
,
F or ex am ple th e .
,

s am e a m oun t of la b our i n fa v ou a ble s ea s on s i s em b od i ed r

i n 8 b u s h els of c or n an d i n un fa v ou r a ble on ly i n four

, ,
.

Th e s am e lab our ex tr acts fr om r i ch m i n es m or e m etal th an

fr om poor m i n es D i a m on d s ar e Of v er y r ar e occu r r en ce on
.

th e ear th s s ur face a n d h en ce th ei r d i s cov er y c os ts on an a v er

’

, ,

a e a gr eat d eal of la b our ti m e

g , C on s equ en tl
y
-
m u ch lab ou r
.

i s r epr es en ted i n a s m all com pas s Ja c ob d oub ts w h eth er g old .

h a s ev er b een pai d for a t i ts full v alue T h i s a ppli es s till .

m or e to d i am on d s A c cor d i n g to E s ch w eg e th e total pr od uc e
.
,

of th e B r a z i li an di am on d m i n es for th e ei gh ty y ear s en d i n g ,
’
i n 1 8 23, h ad n ot r eali s ed th e pr i ce of on e a n d a h alf y ear s
‘

- - -

a ver age p ro d u ce of th e su gar an d coffee p la n ta ti on s of t h e

s am e c ou n tr y , alth ou gh th e d i a m on d s c os t m u ch m or e lab our ,

an d th er efor e
p re r es en ted m or e value . W i th r i ch er m i n es th e ,

s am e q u a n ti ty of la b our w ou ld em b ody i ts elf i n m or e d i a m on d s ,

a n d th ei r v alue w ould fall If w e could s u cc eed at s m all

“

. a

e xpen di tur e of lab our i n con ver ti n g car b on i n to d i am on d s

, ,

th ei r valu e m i gh t fall b elow th a t of b r i ck s In g en er a l th e .

,

gr eater th e pr od ucti v en es s of la b our th e les s i s th e lab our ti m e ,

-

r equ i r ed for th e r od u c ti on of an a r ti cle th e les s i s th e a m ou n t

p ,

of la b our c r y s talli s ed i n th a t a r ti cle a n d th e les s i s i ts v alu e ; ,

a n d v i ce uer s d th e les s th e pr od u cti v en es s of la b our th e g r eater

, ,

i s th e la b our ti m e r equ i r ed for t h e pr od ucti on of an a r ti cle

-
,

d th e gr ea ter i s i ts v alu e Th e v alu e of a c om m od i ty th er e

.
,

for e v a r i es di r ectly a s th e quan ti ty a n d i n v er s ely a s th e

, ,

r od u c ti v en es s of th e la b ou r i n c or or a ted i n i t
p , p .

A th i n g can b e a u s e v alu e w i th out h a v i n g v alu e T h i s i s

-
,
.

th e c as e w h en ev er i ts u ti li ty to m a n i s n ot d ue to la b our .

S uch ar e ai r v i r gi n s oi l n atur al m ea d ow s &c A th i n g can

, , , .
 8 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

be u s eful, an d th e pr od u ct of h um an lab ou r , w i th out b ein g a

c om m od i t
y . W h oever d i r ectly s ati s fi es h i s w an ts wi th th e
pr od uce of hi s ow n la b our c ea tes i n d eed us e values b ut
,
r , ,
-
,
n ot

c om m od i ti es . In or d er to pr od u c e th e latter , h e m u s t n ot only

pr od u c e u s e values -

,
v
b u t u s e alues for oth er s , s oci al u s e a lues
- -v .

L as tly ,
n oth i n g ca n h a v e v a lu e ,
w i th out b ein g an Obj ect of

uti li t
y . If th e th i n g i s u s eles s , s o i s th e la b our c on tai ne d in
i t ; th e lab our d oes n ot c oun t as lab ou r , an d th er efor e cr eates

n o v a lue .

SE C TI ON 2 .
- THE TW OFO LD CHAR ACTE R OF THE LAB OUR E MBOD IE D IN

COMMOD ITIE S .

At fir s t s i ght a c om mod i ty pr es en ted i ts elf to u s as a c om plex

Of t w o thi n g s — u s e v alue a n d ex ch an g e va lue -
L a ter on w e -
.
,

s a w als o th a t lab ou r too os s es s es th e s a m e t w o fold n a tu r e ;

p
-

, ,

for s o far a s i t fin d s expr es s i on i n v a lu e i t d oes n ot pos s es s the

, ,

s am e c h a r a cter i s ti c s th a t b elon g to i t as a c r eat or of u s e va lu es -

.

I w a s th e fir s t to poi n t out an d to exam i n e cr i ti cally thi s tw o

fold n a tur e Of th e lab our c on ta i n ed i n c omm od i ti es As thi s .

p oi n t i s th e
p i v ot on w hi c h a clea r c om r eh en s i on of
p poli ti ca l

econ om y tur n s , w e m u s t go m or e i n to d eta il .

Let us ta k e t w o c om m od i ti es s u ch as a c oat an d 1 0 y ar d s of

li n en , an d let th e for m er b e d oub le th e v alu e of th e latter , so

th at, i f 1 0 y a r d s of li n en : W ,
th e coat : 2W .

Th e c oa t is a us e -
v alue th at s ati s fi es a par ti c ula r w an t . Its
exi s ten c e i s th e r es u lt of a s
p ec i al s or t of p v e ac ti vi ty
r od uc ti ,

th e n atu r e of w h i ch i s d eter m i n ed b y i ts ai m , m od e of O per a

ti on , su bj ect ,
m ea n s ,
an d r es u lt . Th e lab our , w h os e u ti li ty is
th us p
re r es en tedv a lu e i n b y th e or w h i ch u s e of i ts pr od uc t ,

m an i fes ts i ts elf b y m a k i n g i ts p od uc t a u s e v alu e w e call r -

,

u s eful lab our In thi s conn ex i on w e c ons i d er only i ts u s eful

.

effec t .

As th e c oat a n d qu ali tati v ely d iffer en t us e

th e li n en ar e tw o
v alu es s o als o ar e th e tw o for m s of lab our th at pr od u ce th em
, ,

t ai lor i n g an d w ea v i n g W er e th es e tw o obj ec ts n ot q uali

.

ta ti v ely d i ffer en t n ot pr od u c ed r es pecti v ely b y la b our of

,

di ffer en t quali ty th ey c ould n ot s tan d to each oth er i n th e

,
IO Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

s peci al d u cti ve a c ti vi ty exer ci s ed w i th d efin i te a i m, a n

'

ro a
p ,

a c ti vi ty th at ap
p ro
p r i a tes
p ar ti c ular n atu r e -
gi ven m a ter i als to
p ar ti c ular h um an w a n ts . SO far th er efor e as la b our i s a

cr ea tor of us e -
value ,
is u s efu l la b our it is a ,
n eces s ar y c on

d i ti on , i n d epen d en t of all for m s of s oci ety , for th e exi s ten ce of .

th e h um a n r ace ; i t i s an eter n al n atu r e i m p os ed n ec es s i ty , -

w i th ou t w h i c h th er e ca n be no m a ter i al e x ch an ges b etw een

m an an d N a tu r e ,
an d th er efor e no life .

Th e values c oat li n en &c i e th e b odi es of c om m odi

u s e- , , ,
.
,
. .
,

ti es a e o b at o
r c m i n i n s of l m
tw o e e en ts — m atter a n d lab ou r .
,

If w e tak e a w ay th e u s eful lab ou r expen d ed u pon th em a ,

m ater i al s ub s tr a tum i s a lw ay s left w h i ch i s f ur n i s h ed b y ,

Natur e w i th ou t th e h elp of m an Th e la tter ca n w or k on ly .

as N a tur e d oes th a t i s b y c h an gi n g th e for m of m a tter

,
Nay .
1

m or e i n th i s w or k of ch an gi n g th e for m h e i s con s tan tly h elped

,

b y n atu r al for ces We s ee th en th at lab our i s n ot th e only

.
, ,

s ou c e Of m a ter i al w ea lth
r of us e v alu es pr od u c ed b y lab our ,
-
.

As Wi lli am P etty puts i t lab our i s i ts fath er an d th e ear th i ts ,

m oth er .

Let u s n ow
p as s fr om th e c om m od i ty con s i d er ed as a us e

value to th e v alue of comm odi ti es .

By our a s s u m
pti on , th e c oat i s w or th tw i c e as m uch as th e
li n en . quan ti tati v e d iffer en ce w h i ch for th e
Bu t t h i s i s a m er e ,

p r es en t d oes n ot c on cer n u s W e b ea r i n m i n d h ow ev er th at .
, ,

i f th e v a lu e of th e c oa t i s d oub le th a t of 1 0 y d s of li n en 20 .
,

d s of li n en m u s t h a v e th e s a m e v alu e as on e c oat S O fa r
y . .

a s th ey ar e v alu es th e c oa t an d t h e li n en ar e thi n g s of a li k e
,

s u b s ta n c e obj ecti v e ex pr es s i on s of es s en ti ally i d en ti c a l la b ou r

, .

But tai lor i n g a n d w eav i n g a r e qu ali ta ti v ely di ffer en t k i n d s of , ,

T tti i f m i d ll u niv rs si n ssi pr d tti d ll m n d ll u m vv r

1
u e no en e
’
e o, e o e o o e a a o e
’
o o, o e o

d ll niv rs li l ggi d ll fi i
e e u e a ci d nn id di ttu l cr zi n m nic
e e a s c a , n on a o ea a a e ea o e, a u a

m nt di
e e m difi iunad ll m t ri Acc st r s p r r s n gli unici l
o ca z on e e a a e a. o a e e e a a e o o e e

m nti h l i g g m n ritr v n liz nd l i d d ll ripr du i n

e c e
’
n e no u t nt e ri
a o o a a a za o
’
ea e a o z o e : e a o

p r d zi n di v l r ( v l
o u o e in u lth gh V rri in this p ss g f his c ntr v rsy
a o e a ue s e, a ou e a a e o o o e

wi th t h Physi cr ts is
e t hims lf q it c rt in f th k i nd f v l
o a h is sp king
no e u e e a o e o a ue e ea

f ) di ricch zz l t rr l ri c mp i i tr sm tin in gr n c m ’
l q
’ ’
o e e e se a e a a ae ae ua n e a S a u o a o, o e se

c ll m n d ll m il gl tin di ins tt si tr sm ti in v ll t vv r lc ni p
o a a o e
’
uo o u e nu e o a u e u o o e o a u ez

tti di m t ll si rg nizzin f rm r rip tizi n — Pi tr V rri M dit ”

ze e a o o a o a o a e una e o e. e o e . e a

zi ni s ll Ec n mi P litic [first print d in 1 773] in C t di diti n f th

o u a o o a o a e us o
’
s e o o e
It li n Ec n mists P rt M d rn t xv p 22
a a o o , a e o e a, . . . .
 Com m od i ti es . II
la b our . T h er e a r e, h ow ev er , s ta tes of s oc i ety i n w h i ch on e a n d

th e s am e m an d oes tailor i n g and w ea i n v g a lter n a tel

y i n w h i c h ,

ca s e th es e tw o for m s of lab ou r ar e m er e m od i fi c ati on s of th e

lab ou r Of th e s am e i n di v i d u al, a n d n ot s p eci al a n d fix ed fun c
ti on s of d i ffer en t p er s on s ; j us t as th e c oa t w h i ch our tai lor
m ak es on e d ay a n d th e tr ous er s w h i ch h e m a k es an oth er d ay ,
,

i m ply on ly a v ar i ati on i n th e la b ou r of on e a n d th e s am e i n d i

v i d u al . Mo r eo v er , we s ee a t glan ce th a t i n our ca pi tali s t

a ,

s oci ety , a gi v en p or ti on of h um a n lab our i s i n a ccor d a n c e w i th ,

th e v ar y i n g d em a n d a t ,
on e ti m e s u p pli ed i n th e for m of tai lor
i ng ,
at a n oth er i n th e for m Of w ea i n v g . T hi s ch a n ge m ay
p os s i bly
tak e pla ce w i th ou t fr i cti on, b ut ta k e pla c e i t m u s t
n ot .

v v
Pr od u cti e a c ti i ty , i f w e lea e out of s i gh t i ts s peci al for m , v
v iz .
,
th e u s eful ch ar a cter of
,
b u t th e ex th e la b our is n oth i n g
p en d i tu r e of h u m a n la b ou r
p ow er T a ilo r i n g a n d w ea v i n g ,
-
.

th ou gh qu ali tati v ely d i ffer en t pr od u cti v e a cti v i ti es , ar e ea ch a

r od u cti v e ex en d i tu r e of h u m a n b r ai n s , n er v es , a n d m u s cles ,
p p
an d i n th i s s en s e ar e h um an lab our . T h ey ar e b ut t w o
d i ffer en t m od es of e x pen d i n g h u m an lab our p ow er Of c ou r s e,
-
.

thi s la b our pow er , w h i c h r em ai n s -

th e s am e u n d er a ll i ts m od i
fi ca ti on s , m u s t h a v e attai n ed a c er ta i n pi tch of d ev elopm en t
b efor e i t can b e expen d ed i n a m ulti pli ci ty of m od es But th e .

valu e of a c om m odi ty r epr es en ts h um an lab our i n th e ab s tr act ,

th e ex pen d i tur e of h u m a n lab ou r i n g en er al An d j u s t as i n .

s oci ety a g en er a l or a b an k er l a g r eat p ar t b u t m er e

j p y
a s ,

m an on th e oth er h an d a v er y s h abby par t s o h er e w i th

, , ,
1

m er e h u m an la b our It i s th e ex pen di tur e Of s i m ple la b ou r

.

p ow er i e O f, th e la b ou.r
p.ow e
,r w h i c h on an a v er a g e a p ar t -
, ,

fr om an y s peci al d ev elopm ent ex i s ts i n th e or g an i s m of ev er y ,

or di n ar y i n d i vi d ual S i m ple av er age lab our i t i s tr ue v ar i es

.
, ,

in ch ar a c ter i n d i ffer en t c oun tr i es an d d i ffer en t ti m es b ut

at ,

in a p a r ti c u la r s oc i et
y it is gi v en . S ki lled lab our coun ts only
as s i m ple lab ou r i n ten s i fi ed , or r a th er , as m ulti pli ed sim
p le

lab our , a gi v en quan ti ty

k i lled b ei ng con s i d er ed equ al to a of s

gr ea ter quan ti ty of s im ple lab our Ex per i en ce s h ow s th a t thi s .

r ed u c ti on i s c on s ta n tl
y b ei n g m ad e A c om m od i t
y m ay b e t h e .

r od u ct of th e m os t s killed la b our b u t i ts v alu e b q u ti g

p y e a n , ,

C mp H g l Ph il phi d R chts B rlin 1 840 P 250 1 90

1 o . e e , OSO e es e . e , . . .
 I2 Cap i ta ti s t P r od ucti on .

i t to th e pr od uc t of s i m ple un s k i lled lab our , r epr es en ts a

d efi n i te q uan ti ty of th e latter la b our a lon e 1
Th e d i ffer en t .

p ro
por ti on s i n w hi ch differ en t s or ts Of lab our ar e r ed u ced to
un s k i lled lab ou r as th ei r s ta n d a r d , a r e es ta bli s h ed by a s oci a l

p r oces s th a t b eh i n d th e b a c k s of th e pr od u cer s a n d
goes on , ,

on s eq uen tly a pp ear to b e fix ed b y c u s tom F or s i m pli ci ty s

’
c ,
.

s a k e w e s h a ll h en c efor th a c c ou nt ev er y k i n d of la b our to b e

u n s k i lled s i m le lab our ; b th i s w e d o n o m or e t h a n s av e

p , y
ou s elv es th e tr ou b le of m ak i n g th e r ed u c ti on
r .

Jus t a s th er efor e i n v i ew i n g the coat an d li n en as values

, , ,

w e a b s tr a ct fr om th ei r d i fl er en t u s e v alu es s o i t i s w i th th e -
,

lab ou r r epr es en ted b y th os e v alu es w e d i s r ega r d th e d i ffe en c e r

b etw een i ts u s eful for m s w eav i n g an d tai lori ng As th e u s e ,

.

valu es coat a n d li n en a r e com bi n ati on s of s peci al pr od uc ti v e

, ,

a cti v i ti es w i th cloth a n d a r n w h ile th e v alu es coa t a n d li n en

y , , ,

ar e ,
on th e oth er h an d m er e h om ogen eou s c on g ela ti on s of ,

u n d i ffer en ti ated la b our s o th e la b our em b odi ed i n th es e latter

,

values d oes n ot coun t b y vi r tue of i ts pr od ucti v e r elati on to

cloth an d y a r n b ut on ly a s b ei n g ex p en d i tur e of h u m an
,

lab our p ow er -
T ai lo i n g an d w eav i n g ar e n ec es s ar y fa c tor s i n
. r

th e c r eati on of th e u s e v alu es c oa t a n d li n en pr eci s ely b eca use

-
, ,

th es e tw o k i n d s Of la b ou r ar e of d i fi er en t qu ali ti es ; b u t on ly
in s o far as a b s tr a c ti on i s m a d e fr om th ei r s peci al quali ti es ,

on ly i n s o fa r a s b oth s es s th e s am e q ua li ty Of b ei n g h u m a n
p os

la b our d o ta i lor i n g a n d w ea v i n g for m th e s ub s ta n ce of th e

,

v alues of th e s am e ar ti cles .

C oa ts a n d li n en h ow ever a r e n ot m er ely v alu es b ut v alues

, , ,

of d efi n i te m agn i tu d e a n d a c c or d i n g to our a s s um pti on th e

, ,

coa t i s w or th tw i c e a s m u ch as th e ten
y a r ds of li n en W h en ce .

th i s di ffer en c e i n th ei r v alu es ? It i s ow i n g t o th e fa c t th at
th e li n en c on ta i n s on ly h alf as m u ch la b ou r a s th e c oat ,

a n d c on s equ en tl t h a t i n th e r od u c ti on of th e latter la b ou r
y p ,

ow er m u s t h a ve b n x n d d d u r i n g t w i c e th e t i m
p ee e p e e e

n ec es s a r
y for th e p r od u c ti on of th e for m er .

W h i le, th er efor e w i th r efer en ce to us e v alue, th e lab our

,
-
con
1
r d r m st n t th t w
Th e ea e . t s p king h r
u f th w g s
o e v l th t
a e ar e n o ea e e o e a e or a ue a

th l b
e r r g ts f giv n l b r tim b t f th v l f th c mm dity in which
a ou e e or a e a ou e, u o e a ue O e o o

th t l b ur tim is m t ri lis d W g s is c t g ry th t y t h
a a o e a e a xi st nc
e . a e a a e o a , as e , as no e e e

at th p r s nt st g
e e e f u inv stig ti na e o o r e a o .
 C omm od i ti es .

t ai n ed i n a c om m od i ty c oun ts quali tati v ely w i th r efer

on ly ,

en c e to value i t c oun ts on l
y quan ti tati v ely an d m us t fi r s t b e
,

r ed u c ed t o h um an la b ou r p u p
rele In th e for m er
an d sim .

cas e, it is qu es ti on
a of How a n d Wh at, i n th e latter of How

m u ch How lon g a ti m e ? S i n c e th e m ag n i tud e of th e valu e of

a c omm od i t r e r es en ts onl t h q u a n ti t of la b ou r em b od i ed
y p y e y
i n i t i t follow s th at all c om m od i ti es w h en tak en i n cer tai n
, ,

r o or ti on s m u s t b e equ al i n v alu e
p p , .

If th e pr od u cti ve p ow er of a ll th e di ffe en t s or ts of u s eful r

lab our r eq ui r ed for th e pr od u cti on of a c oat r em ai n s u n ch an g ed ,

th e s um of th e v alu es of th e coats pr od uc ed i n c r ea s es w i th
th ei r n u m b er If on e c oat r epr es en ts x d ay s lab our tw o
’
.
,

coats r e r es en t 2 x d a s la b our a n d s o on B
’

p y , u t as s u m e t h a.t
th e d ur a ti on of th e lab our n eces s ar y for th e pr od u cti on of a
c oat b ecom es d oub led or h alv ed In th e fi r s t ca s e on e c oa t i s
.
,

w or th a s m u ch a s tw o c oa ts w er e b efor e i n th e s econ d c as e ,

tw o c oats a r e on ly w or th a s m u ch a s on e w a s b efor e a lth ou gh ,

i n b oth c as es on e coat r en d er s th e s am e s er v i ce a s b efor e a n d ,

t h e u s eful la b our em b od i ed i n i t r em ai n s of th e s am e qu ali ty .

Bu t th e quan ti ty of la b our s pen t on i ts pr od uc ti on h a s alter ed .

An i n cr eas e i n th e qu an ti ty of u s e valu es i s an i n c r eas e of -

m a ter i al w ealth Wi th tw o coats tw o m en can b e cloth ed

.
,

w i th on e c oat on ly on e man N ever th eles s an i n cr eas ed

.
,

quan ti ty of m ater i al w ealth m ay c or r es pon d to a s i m ultan eous

fall i n th e m agn i tud e of i ts v alu e Th i s a n tag on i s ti c m ov e
.

m en t h as i ts or i gi n i n th e t w o fold ch ar ac ter of lab our -

.

Pr od ucti ve pow er h as r efer en ce of cour s e on ly to lab our of , ,

s om e u s eful con cr ete for m ; th e effi ca cy of a n y s p eci al p r od uc

ti v e a cti vi ty d ur i n g a gi v en ti m e b ei n g d epen d en t on i ts
r od uc ti v en es s U s efu l lab ou r b ecom es t h er efor e a m or e or
p .
, ,

les s a b un d an t s our ce of pr od u c ts i n pr opor ti on t o th e r i s e or

,

fall of i ts pr od u cti v en es s On th e oth er h an d no ch an g e i n thi s

.
,

r od u cti v en es s a ffects th e lab our r e r es en ted b v a lu e S i n ce

p p y .

r od u cti v e w e i s a n a ttr i b u te of th e c on cr ete u s eful for m s

p p o r

of lab our of c our s e i t c an n o lon g er h a v e a n y b ear i n g on th at

,

lab our s o s oon a s w e m ak e a b s tr a c ti on fr om th os e con cr ete

,

u s eful for m s H ow ev er th en pr od u cti v e pow er m ay v ar y th e

.
,

s am e lab our ex er ci s ed d ur i n g equ al per i od s of ti m e a lw a y s

, ,
I4 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on

y i eld s q
e u al a m ou n ts of value But i t w i ll y i eld .
,
d ur i n g -

q
e u al

p eri od s of ti m e, d i ffer en t qu an ti ti es of v alu es i n us e; m o r e, if

th e pr od ucti e p ow er r i s e, few er , i f i t fall v

Th e . s am e c h a n g e

v
i n pr od ucti e pow er , w h i ch i n c r eas es th e fr u i tfuln es s of la b our ,
an d , in c on s e u en ce, q th e quan ti ty Of u s e- values p r od u c ed by
th a t la b our ,
w i ll d i m i ni s h th e total value of thi s i n c r ea s ed

q uan ti ty of us e values pr ov i d ed s uch th e total

-
,
c h a n ge s h or ten

lab our ti m e n ec es s ar y for th ei r pr od u cti on a n d v i ce v er s d

-
.

On th e on e h an d all lab o ur i s s pea ki n g phy s i olog i cally an , ,

ex pen d i tur e of h u m an lab our pow er an d i n i ts c h a r a c ter of -

,

i d en ti cal ab s tr ac t h um an la b our i t cr eates a n d for m s th e v alu e ,

of c om m od i ti es On th e oth er h an d all lab our i s th e expen di

.
,

tur e of h um an lab our pow er i n a s peci al for m a n d w i th a -

d efi ni te ai m an d i n th i s i ts ch a r a cter Of c on cr ete u s eful lab our

, , ,

i t pr od uces u s e va lu es -
.
1

S E C TI ON 3 .
— TH E FORM OF VAL UE OR E X CHAN G E VALUE .

C om m od i ti es com e i n to th e w or ld i n th e s ha pe of u s e values -
,

ar ti cles or g ood s s u ch a s i r on li n en c or n 85 0
,
T h i s i s th ei r
, , , ,
.

In rd r t p r v th t l b r l n is th t ll ffi i t d r l m s r by
1 o e o o e a a ou a o e a a -
su c en an ea ea u e ,

which t ll tim s th v l
a f ll c mm diti s
a b stim t d d c m p r d
e e a ue o a o o e ca n e e a e an o a e ,

Ad m Smith s ys Eq l q ntiti s f l b r m st t ll tim s d in ll pl c

a a , ua ua e o a ou u a a e an a a es

h v th s m v l f th l b r In his n rm l st t f h lth str ngth d

a e e a e a ue or e a our e . o a a e O ea , e , an

activity d with th v r g d gr f skill th t h m y p ss ss h m st lw ys

,
an e a e a e e ee o a e a o e , e u a a

giv p th s m p rti n f hi r st his fr d m d hi h ppin ss ( W lth f

e u e a e o o o s e , ee o , an s a e . ea O

N ti ns b I ch v ) On th
a o , h nd Ad m Smith h r ( b t t v rywh r )
. . . . e on e a , a e e u no e e e e c on

f s s th d t rmin ti n i v l
u e e by m ns f th q ntity f l b r xp nd d in th
e e a o o a ue ea o e ua o a ou e e e e

p r do cti n f c
u mm diti s with
o t h d t ormin ti n f
o th v l s f c mm diti s by
o e , e e e a o o e a ue o o o e

m ns f th v l f l b r d s ks in c ns q nc t pr v th t q l q ntiti s
ea o e a ue o a ou ,
an ee o e ue e o o e a e ua ua e

ofl b r h v lw ys th s m v l
a ou On th th r h nd h h
a e a a p r s ntim nt e a e a ue . e o e a , e as a e e e ,

th t l b r f
a a it m nif sts its lf in th v l f c mm diti s c nts nly
ou , so ar a s a e e e a ue o o o e , ou o as

exp ndit r f l b r p w r b t h tr ts this xp ndit r th m r s crific f

e u e o a ou o e ,
u e ea e e u e as e e e a e O

r st fr d m d h ppin ss t
e , ee o t th s m tim th n rm l ctivity f living
, an a e , no as
"

a e a e e e o a a O

b ings B t th h h th m d rn w g l b r r in his y M ch m r p tly

e . u en , e as e o e a e- a ou e e e . u o e a ,

th n nym s p r d c ss r f Ad m Smith q t d b v in N t p 6 s ys
ea o ou e e e m o O a ,
uo e a o e o e 1, .
, a
“
on e an

h m pl y d hims lf w k in pr viding this n c ss ry f lif

as e o e e d h th t
a ee o e e a o e an e a

giv s him s m th r in xch ng c nn t m k b tt r stim t f wh t is p

e o e o e e a e, a o a e a e e e a e o a a ro

p erq iv l nt th n by c m p ting wh t c st him j st

e u a e , m ch l b r d tim ;
a o u a o u as u a ou an e

which in ff ct is m r th n xch nginge e m n s l b r in thing f

no timo e a e a on e a
’
a ou on e or a e

c rt in f n th r m n s l b r in n th r th ing f th s m tim
e a ,
or a o e (1 c p a
’
a ou a o e or e a e e .
”
. . .

[Th English l ng g h th
e dv nt g f p ss ssing diff r nt w rds f th tw
a ua e as e a a a e o o e e e o or e o

a sp cts f l b r h r c nsid r d Th l b r which cr t s U V l

e o a ou e e d c nts o e e . e a ou ea e s e- a u e, a n ou

q lit tiv ly is W k disting ish d fr m L b r th t which cr t s V l

ua a e , or , d
as u e o a ou a ea e a ue a n

c nt q ntit tiv ly is L b
ou s ua disting ish d fr m W rk — ED ]
a e , a ou r a s u e o o . .
 C omm od i ti es . I5

p la i n , h om el ,
y b odi ly for m . T h ey a r e, h ow ev er , co m m od i ti es ,

on ly b ecaus e th ey ar e s om eth i n g tw ofold b oth obj ects of uti li ty , ,

a n d a t th e s a m e ti m e d e os i tor i es of v alu e
,
~

p T h e
,y m an i fes t .

th em s elv es th er efor e a s com m od i ti es Or h a v e th e for m of c om ,

m od i ti es on ly i n s o far a s th ey h av e tw o for m s a ph y s i cal

, ,

or n a tur al for m a n d a v alu e for m ,

.

Th e r eali ty of th e v alu e of com m od i ti es d i ffer s i n th i s r es pect

fr om D a m e Q ui ckly th a t w e d on t k n ow w h er e to h a v e i t
’ ”
.
,

Th e v alu e of c om m od i ti es i s th e v er y O ppos i te of th e c oar s e m ate

r i ali t o f th ei r s u b s tan c e n ot an atom of m atter en ter s i n to i ts
y ,

c om p os i ti on T ur n a n d exam i n e a s i ngle c om m od i ty b y i ts elf

.
, ,

as w e w ill y et i n s o far a s i t r em a i n s an O bj ec t Of v a lu e i t
, ,

s eem s i m p os s i b le to gr a s i t If h ow ev er w e b ear i n m i n d th at
p .
, ,

th e v alu e of c om m od i ti es h a s a pur ely s oc i a l r eali ty a n d th at ,

th ey ac qui r e thi s r eali ty on ly i n s o far a s th ey a r e ex pr es s i on s

or em b od i m en ts of on e i d en ti cal s oc i al s ub s ta n ce v i z h um an ,
.
,

lab our i t follow s a s a m atter of c our s e th at valu e can on ly

, ,
”

m ani fes t i ts elf i n th e s oci al r ela ti on of c om m od i ty to c om

m od i ty . In fa ct w e s tar ted fr om e x ch a ng e v alue ,

or th e
e x ch an g e r elati on of com m od i ti es i n or d er to get a t th e value ,

t ha t li es h i d d en b eh i n d i t W e m us t n ow r e tur n to thi s for m.

un d er w h i ch v a lue fir s t a ppea r ed to u s .

E v er y on e kn ow s i f h e k n ow s n oth i n g els e th at com m odi ti es

, ,

h av e a v alue for m com m on to th em all a n d pr es en ti n g a ,

m ar k ed c on tr as t w i th th e v ar i ed b od ily for m s of th ei r u s e
values I m ean th ei r m on ey for m H er e h ow ev er a tas k i s s et
. .
, ,

u s th e per for m an c e of w h i ch h a s n ev er y et ev en b een a ttem pted

,

b y b ou r geoi s econ om y th e ta s k of tr a ci n g th e g en es i s of th i s
,

m on ey for m of d ev elopi n g th e ex pr es s i on of v alu e i m pli ed i n

,

th e v a lue r elati on of com m od i ti es fr om i ts s i m ples t a lm os t , ,

i m per cepti ble ou tli n e to th e d a zzli n g m on ey for m,

By d oi n g .

th i s w e s h all at th e s am e ti m e s olv e th e r i d d le pr es en ted b y

, ,

m on ey .

Th e p les t v a lusim
e r ela ti on i s ev i d en tl
y th at of on e c om

m od i ty to s om e on e oth er c om m od i ty of a d i ffer en t k i n d .

Hen c e th e r elati on b et w een th e v alu es of tw o c om m od i ti es s up

p li es u s w i th th e s i m ples t e xpr es s i on of th e v alue Of a si n gle
c om m od i ty .
1 6 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

A Elem en ta ry
. or A cci d en ta l F or m of Va lue .

x com m odi ty A y c om m od i ty B ,
or

x c om m od i ty A i s w or th y c omm odi ty B .

2 0 y ar d s of li n en 1 c oat, or
2 0 y ar d s of li n en ar e w or th 1 coat .

1 . The tw o p oles o
f the exp r es s i on o f v a lue : R ela ti v e f or m a n d

Eq u i v a len t for m .

Th e w h ole m y s ter y of th e for m of value li es hi d d en i n

th i s elem en ta r y for m . Its a n al
y s i s, th er efor e, i s our r ea l
di ffi culty .

H er e ki n d s of comm od i ti es ( i n our ex am ple

tw o d i ffer ent
th e li n en a n d th e c oat) ev i d en tly pla y tw o d iffer en t par ts
,
.

Th e li n en expr es s es i ts v alu e i n th e c oat ; th e c oat s er v es a s th e

m a ter i al i n w h i ch th a t v a lu e i s ex pr es s ed Th e for m er play s .

a n a c ti v e th e la tt er a i rt T h v alue of th e li n en i s
, p as s ve
p a e ,
.

r epr es en ted a s r ela ti v e v a lu e or a ppea r s i n r elati v e for m,

.

Th e coat offici a tes as equi v alen t or a ppear s in eq ui va len t ,

for m .

Th e r elati ve form and q valen t for m ar e tw o i n ti m ately

th e e ui

c on n ec ted , m u tually d epen d en t an d i n s epar a b le elem en ts of the

expr es s i on va lue ; b u t a t th e s a m e ti m e a r e m utually
of , ,

ex clu s i v e an ta g on i s ti c
, ex tr em es — vi a p o les of t h e s am e ,

ex r es s i on
p T h ey ar e a llotted r es pec ti v ely to th e tw o d iffer en t
.

com m odi ti es b r ough t i n to r elati on b t h a t ex r es s i on I t i

y p s .

n ot pos s i b le t o ex p es s th e v alue of li n en i n li n en
r 2 0 y ar d s .

Of li n en 2 0 y a d s of li n en i s n o expr es s i on of v a lu e
r On th e .

c on tr ar
y s u c h a n
, e q u a t i on m e e ly s a
y s t h a t 2 0 y a rrd s of li n e n

a r e n othi n g els e th a n 2 0 a r d s of li n en a d efi n i te q u an ti t f
y y o ,

th e u s e v alue li n en
-
Th e v alu e of th e li n en c an th er efor e b e
.

ex
p es ed on l
r s
y r ela ti v el y
— ti e i n s o m e o th e r c omm,
o d i ty T h e .

r ela ti v e for m of th e v a lue of th e li n en r e su o s th er efor e

p pp s e -

, ,

th e pr es en ce of s om e oth er c om m od i ty -
h er e th e c oa t — un d er
th e for m of an e u i alen t q v On th e oth er h an d th e c om m odi ty
.
,

th a tfigur es a s th e equ i v alen t ca n n ot a t th e s a m e ti m e a s s u m e

th e r ela ti v e for m T h at . s econ d com m od i ty is not th e on e

w h os e valu e i s expr es s ed . Its fun cti on i s m er ely to s er ve as

 I8 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

c oa ts — th at i s , w h eth er a gi v en quan ti ty of li n en i s w or th few

or m any coats , e ve r
y s u ch s ta tem en t i m pli es th at th e li n en an d

c oa ts , a s m ag n i tu d es of value ,
ar e e x pr es s i on s of th e s a m e u n i t,

th i n gs of th e s am e ki n d . L i n en coa t i s th e b as i s of th e
e qu a ti on .

But th e tw o c om m odi ti es w h os e i d en ti ty of qu ali ty i s th u s

as s u m ed, d o n ot play th e s am e
p a r t It i s on ly t h e v a lu e of .

th e li n en t ha t i s ex pr es s ed An d h ow ? By i ts r efer en c e t o .

th e coa t a s i ts e uiq va len t ,

a s s om ethi n g th at c an be e x c h a n g ed
for i t . In th i s r elati on th e coa t i s th e m od e of e xi s ten c e of

v alue ,
is v alue emb odi ed ,
for on ly as s uch i s i t th e s am e a s th e
li n en . On th e oth er h a n d , th e li n en
’
s ow n v alue com es to th e
fr on t, r ec ei v es i n d e pen d en t x pr es s i on
e for i t i s on l
y b ei n gas

v alue th at i t i s c om pa r a ble w i th th e coat as a th i n g of eq ua l

value or ex ch an geable w i th th e c oat To b or r ow a n i llus tr a
,
.

ti on fr om c h em i s t r y b uty r i c a c i d i s a d i ffer en t s ub s tan ce fr om

,

p py
ro l fo r m a te Y et b ot h a.r e m ad e u
p o f th e s a m e c h e m i ca l
s ub s ta n c es c a r b on ( C
, ) y h d r og en H
( ) a n d ox g en
, y a n d ,

th a t too i n li k e p r opor ti on s — n a m el C H 0 I f n w w
, , y o e , 4 8 2 .

equ a te b uty r i c a c i d to l f r m a te th en i n th e fi r s t l
p py
ro o
p ac e , , ,

p py
ro l for m a te w ould b e, i n thi s r ela ti on , m er el
y a for m of

ex i s ten ce of 041 1 8 02 ; a n d i n th e s ec on d l s h ould

3
p a ce w e , be
s ta ti n g th a t b uty r i c a cid a ls o con s i s ts of C H 0 T h er efor e 4 8 2 .
,

b y th us equ ati n g th e tw o s ub s tan ces ex pr es s i on w ou ld b e g i v en ,

to th ei r c h em i c al c om
p os i ti on , w h i le th ei r d i ffer en t ph y s i ca l
for m s w ou ld b e ne glected .

If w e s ay th at, a s v alu es ,
c omm od i ti es a r e m er e c on g elati on s
of h u m an la b our , w e th em b y ou r a n aly s i s , i t i s tr ue, to
r ed u c e

th e a b s tr a cti on v ,
a lu e ; b u t w e a s c r i e to th i s a lu e n o for m b v
a par t fr om th ei r b od ily for m It i s oth er w i s e i n t h e a lue
. v
r ela ti on of on e c om m odi ty to a n oth er . H er e ,
th e on e s ta n d s

for th i n i ts c h a r a cter of v alue b y r eas on of i ts r ela ti on to th e

o th er .

By m ak i n g th e c oa t th e e qui valen t of th e li n en , w e q
e u a te

t h e la our b em b od i ed i n th e for m er to th at i n th e la tter . N ow ,

i t i s tr ue th a t th e ta i lor i n g w h i ch m a k es th e ,
coa t, is c on cr e te

lab our of a d i ffer en t s or t fr om th e w ea v i n g w h i ch m ak es t h e

l i n en . But th e a ct of e quati n g i t to th e w eavi n g , r ed u ces th e
 Com m oa zl z es ’
’

. I 9

tai lor i n g to th a t w h i ch i s r eally e qu al i n th e tw o ki nds of

la b ou r , t o th ei r c om m on c h a r a c ter of h u m an lab our . In t h i s

r oun d a b ou t w ay x pr es s ed th at w eav i n g als o
,
th en , th e fact i s e , ,

i n s o far as i t w eav es v alu e h a s n othi n g to d i s ti n g ui s h i t fr om ,

tailor i n g a n d c on s equ en tly i s a b s tr a ct h u m a n la b ou r It i s

’

.
, , ,

th e expr es s i on of equi v a len ce b et w een d i ffer en t s or ts of c om

m od i ti es th at a lon e b r i n g s i n to r eli ef th e s p ec i fi c ch ar a c ter o f
value cr eati n g lab ou r a n d th i s i t d oes b y a ctually r ed u ci n g
-
,

th e d iffer en t v a r i eti es of la b ou r em b od i ed i n th e d i ffer en t

ki n d s of c omm od i ti es to th ei r com m on qu ali ty of h u m an la b ou r
i n th e a b s tr ac t
ll
.

T h er e i s h ow ev er s om eth i n g els e r equ i r ed b ey on d th e

, ,

ex pr es s i on of th e s p ec i fi c ch ar a c ter of th e la b ou r of w h i ch th e

v alue of th e li n en c on s i s ts Hu m an lab our pow er i n m oti on .

-
,

or h u m an lab our c r ea tes v alu e b u t i s n ot i ts elf v a lue

,
It ,
.

b ecom es v alu e only i n i ts c ong ealed s ta te w h en em b od i ed i n ,

th e for m of s om e obj ec t In or d er to ex pr es s th e v a lu e of th e .

li n en a s a c on g ela ti on of h u m a n la b our th a t v alue m u s t b e ,

ex pr es s ed a s h a v i n g obj ecti v e ex i s ten c e a s b ei n g a s om eth i n g ,

m a ter i ally d i ffer en t fr om th e li n en i ts elf an d y et a s om ethi n g ,

c om m on to th e li n en a n d a ll oth er c om m od i ti es Th e pr ob lem .

i s a lr ea d y s olv ed .

W h en occ upy i n g th e pos i ti on of equ i valen t i n th e equ a ti on

of v a lu e th e c oat r a n k s qu ali tati v ely a s th e eq ual of th e li n en
, ,

a s s om eth i n g of th e s a m e k i n d b ec a u s e i t i s v a lu e In thi s p os i , .

ti on i t i s a th i n g i n w h i ch w e s ee n oth i n g b u t v alu e or w h os e ,

al a b le b odi l f r m r e r es en ts v a lue Y t t h t i t lf th
p p y o p e e c oa s e e .
,

b od y of th e c om m od i ty c oat i s a m er e u s e value A coa t a s , ,

-
.

s u ch n o m or e tells u s i t i s v a lu e th a n d oes th e fi r s t i ece of

p ,

li n en w e tak e h old of T hi s s h ow s th a t w h en pla c ed i n v alu e .

1 c l br t d Fr nklin
Th e e e f th fi st c n mists
a e ft r Wm P tty w h
a w , on e o e r e o o , a e . e ,
o sa

th gh th n t r f v l s ys
r ou e Tr d in g n r l b ing n thing ls b ut th
a u e o a u e, a
“
a e e e a e o e e e

e xch ng f l b r f l b ur th v lu f ll things is
a e o a ou m st j stly
or a o , e a e o a o u

m s r d by l b ur (Th w rks f B Fr nklin & dit d by Sp rks B st n

ea u e a o . e o o . a , c .
, e e a . o o ,

1 83 6 V l II p
. o . Fr nklin is unc nsci s th t by stim ting th v lu f
.
, . a o ou a e a e a e o
e v rything in l b ur h m k s bstr cti n fr m y diff r nc in th s rts f l b
e a o , e a e a a o o an e e e e o o a ou r
e xch ng d d thus r d c s th m ll t q l hum n l b ur But lth gh
a e , an e u e e a o e ua a a o . a ou

ign r nt f this y t h s ys it H sp ks first f th

o a o , e l b ur th n f th
e a . e ea o e on e a o ,
”
e o e

o th r l b r
e a d fin lly f l b r with t furth r q u lific ti n
ou , an th s bst nc
a o
“
a ou ou e a a o , as e u a e

o f th v l e f v rything
a ue o e e .
 20 P r od ucl z w z .

r ela ti on to th e li n en , th e coa t s i g n i fi es m or e th a n w h en o ut of

th a t r ela ti on , j us t a s m an y a m an s tr u tti n g a b o ut i n a g or g eous

u n i for m c ou n ts for m or e th an w h en i n m ufti .

In th e p r od u c ti on of th e c oat, h u m an la b our pow er , i n th e -

s h a e of tai lor i n g m u s t h a v e b een a c tu all

p , y ex p e n d ed H u m a n .

la b our i s th er efor e a cc um ula ted in it . In th i s as p ec t th e c oat is

a d ep os i tor y of value
b u t th ough wor n to a th r ea d , i t d oes n ot
,

let th i s fa c t s h ow th r ou gh An d as eq u i va len t of th e li n en i n
.

th e v a lue equ a ti on , i t ex i s ts u n d er t h i s a s pect alon e c oun ts ,

th er efor e a s em b od i ed v a lu e as a b od y th a t i s v a lue A , for ,

.

m aj es ty
”
i n s tan c e to B, u n les s th e s am e
“
,
c an n ot be y ou r at

ti m e m a j es ty in B s th e b odi ly for m of A an d ,
’
ey es a s s u m es ,

w h at i s m or e, w i th e ver y n ew fa th er of th e p eople, ch an g es i ts
fea tu r es h ai r , ,
an d m a ny ot h e r th i n gs b es i d es .

Hen c e i n th e ,
value equati on ,
i n w h i c h th e i s th e eq ui v a
c oat

len t of th e li n en , th e c oa t offic i a tes a s th e for m of va lue Th e .

va lu e of th e c om m od i ty x pr es s ed b y th e b od i ly f or m of
li n en i s e

th e c om m od i ty coa t th e v a lue of on e b v th e us e v alue of th e -

oth er As a u s e v alu e th e li n en i s s om eth i n g pa lp ably d if

.
-
,

fer en t fr om th e c oa t a s v a lue i t i s th e s a m e as t h e c oat a n d , ,

n ow h as th e a
pp ea r a n c e of a c oa t T h us t h e li n en.a c q u i r es .

a v a lu e for m d i ffe en t fr om i ts ph y s i c a l for m

r Th e fa c t th a t i t .

i s v alue i s m a d e m a n i fes t b y i ts equ a li ty w i th th e c oa t j us t as

, ,

th e s h eep s n a tur e of a C h r i s ti an i s s h ow n i n h i s r es em b lan c e

’

to th e L a m b of God .

W e s ee t h en a ll th a t our a n aly s i s of th e v alue of c om m o

, ,

d i ti es h a s a lr ea d
y t old us , i s told us b y th e li n en i ts elf, s o s oon

as it c om es i n to c om m un i c a ti on w i th a n oth er c omm od i ty , th e
c oa t . O n ly i t b etr ay s i ts t h ou gh ts in th a t la n g uag e w i th
w h i ch a lon e i t i s fa m i li ar th e la n g uag e ,
of c om m od i ti es . In
or d er to tell us v alue i s c ea ted b y lab our i n i ts
th a t i ts ow n r

a b s tr a c t c h ar ac ter of h u m a n lab ou i t s ay s th a t th e c oa t i n s o r, ,

far a s i t i s w or th a s m u ch a s th e li n en a n d th er efor e i s v a lue , ,

c on s i s ts of th e a m e la b ou r as th e li n en
s In or d e t o i n for m . r

u s th a t i ts s ub li m e r ea li ty a s v a lue i s n ot th e s a m e a s i ts b u c k

r am b od y i t s ay s th a t v alu e h as t h e a ea a n ce of a coa t a n d
, pp r ,

c on s equ en tly th a t s o fa r as t h e li n en i s v a lu e i t a n d th e c oa t ,

ar e a s li k e a s tw o p eas W e m a y h e e r em ar k that th e lan

. r ,
 C 2 I

g uag e of c om m od i ti es h as , b es i d es H eb r ew , m an y oth er m or e or

les s c or r ec t d i a lec ts . Th e G er m an “
w er th s ei n , to b e w or th ,
for xpr es s es i n a les s s tr i ki n g m an n er than th e
i n s ta n c e, e

R om an ce v er b s valer e valer v a loi r th at th e eq uati n g of ,

”
,
”
,
”

c om m od i ty B to com m od i ty A i s c om m odi ty A s ow n m od e of
’

, ,

ex r es s i n g i ts v alu e P a r i s v a u t b i en u n e m es s e
p . .

By m ean s th er efor e of th e v alu e r elati on ex pr es s ed i n ou r

, ,

e qu a ti on th e b od i ly for m of c om m od i ty B b ec om es th e v a lu e
,

for m of com m od i ty A or th e b od y of c om m od i ty B a cts a s a ,

m i r r or to th e v alu e of com m od i ty A By pu tti n g i ts elf i n r e }

lati on w i th com m od i ty B a s v alue i n p r op r i a p er s on a a s th e , ,

m atter of w h i ch h u m a n la b our i s m a d e u p th e c om m od i ty A ,

c on v er ts th e v a lu e i n u s e B i n to th e s u b s ta n c e i n w h i c h to , ,

e x r es s i ts A s o w n v a lue T e v alue of A th u s ex pr es s ed i n
’

p ,
h ,
.
,

t h e u s e v alu e of B h a s tak en th e for m of r ela ti v e v a lu e

-
,
.

( b .
) Q u a n ti ta ti v e d eter m i n a ti on f
o R ela ti v e v a lu e .

E v er y c omm od i ty w h os e v alue i t i s i n ten d ed to ex pr es s i s a

, ,

u s eful obj ect of g i v en qu an ti ty a s 1 5 b u s h els of c or n or 1 00 , ,

lb s of c offee
. An d a g i v en qu an ti ty of a n y com m od i ty c on
.

tai n s a d efi n i te qu a n ti ty of h u m an la b our Th e v a lue for m .

-

m us t th er efor e n ot on ly ex pr es s v a lu e g en er a lly b u t a ls o v a lue ,

i n d efin i te quan ti ty T h er efor e i n th e v alue r elati on of c om

.
,

m od i ty A to c omm od i ty B of th e li n en to th e coat n ot on ly i s , ,

th e la tter a s v a lue i n g en er al m a d e th e equ al i n q u a li ty of th e

, ,

li n en b ut a d efi n i te qu an ti ty of c oat ( 1 c oat) i s m a d e t h e
,

e q ui va len t of a d efi n i te q u an ti ty ( 2 0 y a r d s ) of li n en .

Th e equ ati on 2 0 y ar d s of li n en 1 coa t or 2 0 y ar d s of li n en

, ,

a r e w or th on e c oa t i m li es th at th e s a m e qu a n ti t o f lu
p y , v a e

s ub s ta n c e ( con g ea led la b our ) i s em b od i ed i n b oth tha t th e

t w o c om m od i ti es h a v e e ac h c os t th e s a m e a m ou n t of la b ou r or

th e s a m e q uan ti ty of la b our ti m e But th e lab our ti m e .

n ec es s ar f th r od u c ti on of 2 0 y ar d s of li n en 1 c oa t
y or e
p or

In s rt f w y it is With m wi th c mm diti s Sinc h c m s int th

-

1 a o o a an as o o e e e o e o e
, .

w rld n ith r with

o l king gl ss in his h nd
e e Fi h ti
a p hil s p h r t wh m
oo a a ,
n or a s a c an o o e ,
o o

I m I is s ffici nt m first s s d r c gnis s hims l f in th r m P t r nly

a
”
u e , an ee an e o e e o e en . e e o

est blish s his w id ntity

a e m by fi st c mp ri g hims lf with P l b ing
o n e as a an r o a n e au as e

of li k kind And th r by P l j st h st nds in his P ulin p rs n lity b

e . e e au ,
u as e a a e e o a , e

c m s t P t r th ty p f th g nus h m
o e o e e e e o e e o o.
 Cafi z i a /z s t P r od ucti on
’ ’

2 2 .

va r esi w i th e v er y ch a n ge i n th e pr od u c ti en es s of w ea i n g or v v
tai lor i n g . We h av e n ow to con s i d er th e i n fl u en ce of s u ch
ch a n ges on th e qu an ti tati v e a s pect of th e r ela ti v e expr es s i on of

v a lu e .

I . Let th e v a lue of th e li n en v ar y ,
ll
th a t of th e c oat r em ai n i n g
con s tan t . If ,
s ay in c on s e quen c e of th e e xh a us ti on of fi ax
g r ow i n g s oi l, th e la b our ti m e n eces s ar y for th e pr od u c ti on of
th e li n en b e d ou led , th e b v a lue of t h e li n en w ill a ls o b e d oub led .

I n s tea d of th e eq u a ti on 20 y a r d s,
of li n en =1 c oa t, we s h ould

h a v e 2 0 y ar d s of li n en 2 c oa ts , s i n ce 1 c oa t w ould n ow c on

ta i n on ly h alf th e lab our ti m e em b od i e d i n 2 0 y ar d s of li n en .

If, on th e oth er h an d , i n q
c on s e u en c e, s ay , of i m pr ov ed loom s ,
th i s la b ou r ti m e b e r ed u ced by on e h a lf, t h e v a lue of th e li n en
w ould fall b y on e h alf . C on s eq uen tly ,
w e s h ould h a v e 2 0

y a r ds of li n en v e value of c o mm od i ty A
c oa t . Th e r ela ti ,

i e i ts v a lue ex pr es s ed i n c om m od i ty B i s es a n d fa lls d i r ec tly

. .
, ,
r

a s t h e v alu e of A t h e v alu e of B b ei n g s u os ed c on s tan t

pp , .

II Let th e value of th e li n en r em ai n con s tan t w h ile th e

.
,

v alue of th e coat v ar i es If u n d er th ese c i r c um s ta n ces i n .

, ,

c on s equ en c e for i n s ta n c e of a p oor c r op of w ool th e la b ou

, , ,
r

ti m e n ec es s ar y for t h e p r od u c ti on of a coa t b ecom es d ou b led ,

w e h a v e i n s tea d of 2 0 y a d s of li n en 1 c oa t 2 0 y a r d s of li n en r ,

t If on th e oth er h an d th e v a lu e f h oa t s i n k s
5 c oa .
,
t e c ,
o

by on e h alf, th en 2 0 y a r d s of li n en 2 c oa ts . H en c e i f th e ,

value of c om m od i t
y A r em ai n c on s ta n t, i ts v e value ex
r ela ti

p r es s ed in c om m od i ty B r i s es an d fa lls i n v er s ely a s th e value

of B .

If w e com
p ar e th e d i ffer en t c a s es in I . an d II .
,
we s ee th at
th e s a m e c h an ge of m a g n i tud e i n r e a ti l ve v alu e m ay ari s e fr om
tota lly o
pp os i t e c a u s es . T h us ,
th e e quati on ,
2 0 y ar d s of li n en
1 c oa t, b ecom es 2 0 yar d s of li n en 2 c oa ts , e i th er , b eca us e ,

th e v alue of th e li n en h a s d oub led , or b ecaus e th e v alue of th e

c oa t h a s fallen b y o n e h alf an d it b ecom es 2 0 y ar d s of li n en
c oa t, ei th er , b ec au s e t h e v alu e of th e li n en h a s fa llen b y
5
on e h alf ,
or b ecaus e th e v alue of th e c oa t h a s d ou led b .

III Let . th e qu a n ti ti es of lab our ti m e r es ec t

p i v ely n eces

1 V l is h r a ue e e, a s o cc si n lly in th pr c di g p g s us d in th s n
a o a e e e n a e , e e e s e of v lu a e

d t rmin d
e e e as to qu ntity
a f m gnit d
, or of v lu a u e o a e .
 Com m od i fi es . 2 3

s ar y for t h e pr od u cti on of th e li n en a n d th e coat v a r y s i m

u lta n e ou s ly i n th e s a m e d i r ecti on a n d i n th e s a m e pr op or ti on .

In thi s cas e 2 0 y ar d s of li n en c on ti n ue e u a l q to 1 coat, h ow ev er

m u c h th ei r valu es m ay h a v e a lter ed . T h ei r c h a n g e of v a lue i s
een s oon th ey a r e c om par ed w i th th i r d comm odi t
s as as a y,
w h os e v alue ha s r em a i n ed c on s ta n t . If th e values of a ll com

m od i ti es r os e or fell s i m ultan eou s ly , an d i n th e s am e

p ro
p or ti on ,

th ei r r ela ti v e v alues w ould r em ai n u n a lter ed . T h ei r r eal

c ha n g e of value w ould appear fr om th e d i m i n i s h ed or i n cr ea s ed

q uan ti ty of c om m od i ti es
p r od uced in a gi ven ti m e .

IV The lab our ti m e

. r es
p ecti v ely n ec es s ar y for th e pr od uc
ti on of th e li n en an d th e c oa t, an d th er efor e th e v alue of t h es e
c om m od i ti es m ay s i m ulta n eou s ly v a r y i n t h e s a m e d i r ecti on ,
b u t a t un equal r a tes or i n opp os i te d i r ec ti on s or i n oth er , ,

w ay s Th e effec t of all th es e pos s i ble d i ffer en t v ar i ati on s , on

.

t he r ela t i ve v alue of a com m od i ty , m ay b e d ed uced fr om th e

r es ult s of I, . II .
,
an d III .

Th us r eal ch a n g es i n th e m agn i tu d e of v alue ar e n ei th er

un e ui q v ocally xh aus ti vely r eflected i n th ei r r elati v e

n or e

ex r es s i on th a t i s i n th e equ ati on ex r es s i n g th e m a gn i tu d e
p , p ,

of r ela ti v e v a lue Th e r ela ti v e v alue of a c om m od i ty m ay .

va r y alth ough i ts v alu e r em ai n s c on s tan t Its r elati v e value

,
.

m ay r em ai n c on s tan t alth ou gh i ts v alu e v ar i es ; a n d fi n ally , ,

s i m u ltan eou s v a r i at i on s i n th e m a g n i tu d e of v a lu e a n d i n th at

of i ts r ela ti v e ex r es s i on b n m n s n eces s ar i l r r es on d
p y o ea y c o p
in a m ou n t
1
.

1 This inc ngruity b tw n th m gnit d f v lu d its r l tiv xpr ssi n h

o e ee e a u e o a e an e a e e e o as ,

with c st m ry ing nuity b n xpl it d by vulg r c n mists F x m pl

u o a e , ee e o e a e o o . or e a e

Onc dmit th t A f lls b c s B with w hich it is xch ng d ris s whil

e a a al ss , e au e ,
e a e ,
e , e no e

l b r is b st w d in t h m ntim
a ou e A d y r g n r l principl f v l f lls t
o e e ea e on , an ou e e a e o a ue a o

t h gr end ou If h [Ric rd ] ll w d th t wh n A ris s in v l

. r l tiv ly t e a o a o e a e e a ue e a e o

B B f lls in v l r l tiv ly t A h t w y th gr nd which h r st d his

,
a a ue e a e o , e cu a a e ou on e e e

gr nd p r p siti n th t th v lu f c mm dity is v r d t rmin d by th l b r

a o o o , a e a e o a o o e e e e e e a ou

e mb di d in it f i f ch ng in th c st f A lt rs t nly its w v l in r l
o e or a a e e o o a e no o o n a ue e a

ti n t B f which it is xch ng d b t ls th v l f B r l tiv ly t th t f A

o o ,
or e a e , u a o e a ue o e a e o a o ,

th gh ch ng h t k n pl c in th qu ntity f l b r t p r d c B th n t
ou no a e as a e a e e a o a ou o o u e , e no

o nly th d ctri n f lls t th gr nd which ss rts th t th q ntity f l b u r

e o e a o e ou a e a e ua o a o

b st w d
e o rticl r g l t s its v l b t ls th t which ffirms th c st f
e on a n a e e u a e a u e, u a o a a e o o an

a rticl t r gul t its v l u ( J Br dhurst P litic l Ec n my L nd n 1 842 p 1 1

e o e a e a e.
”
. oa : o a o o , o o , , .

an d

Mr Br dh rst might j ust w ll

. oa u as e s ay : c nsid r
o r cti ns 3 33 3 &
e th e f a o 1
2 , 3
-
, 3 5
1
, c. ,

th n mb r 1 0 r m ins nch ng d
e u e e a u a e , an d ye t its p r p rt i n l m gnit d
o o its m gnitud
o a a u e, a e
2 4 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

3 . The Eq ui v a lent for m o

f v a lue .

We have s een th a t x pr es s i n g
c om m od i ty A ( th e li n en ) b y ,
e

i ts v a lu e i n th e u s e v a lu e of a c om m od i ty d i ffer i n g i n k i n d
-

i m i r es s es u on th e lat ter a s eci fi c

( t h e c oa t ) a t th e s a m e
,
t e m p p p
for m of v alu e n a m ely th a t of th e equi v alen t
,
The comm od i ty .

li n en m an i fes ts i ts q u ali ty of h a v i n g a v a lu e b y t h e fa ct th at
th e coa t w i th ou t h a v i n g a s s u m ed a v a lue for m d i ffer en t fr om
,

i ts b od i ly for m i s e quated to th e li n en ,
Th e fa c t th at th e .

la tter th er efor e h a s a v alu e i s ex pr es s ed b y s ay i n g th at th e

coa t i s d i r ec tly ex c h a n g ea b le w i th i t T h er efor e w h en w e s ay .
,

th a t a c om m od i ty i s i n th e eq u i va len t for m w e ex pr es s th e ,

fa c t th a t i t i s d i r ectly ex ch an g eab le w i th oth er c omm od i ti es .

W hen on e com m od i ty s uch as a c oat s er ves as th e equ i v a len t , ,

of a n oth er s u ch as li n en a n d c oa ts c on s eq u en tl a c q u i r e th e
, y ,

ch a r a c ter i s ti c r o er t
p p y of b ei n g d i r e c tl
y ex c ha n g ea b le w i th

li n en w e a r e far f om k n ow i n g i n w h a t pr op or ti on th e tw o a r e
,
r

ex c h a n g ea b le Th e v a lu e of th e li n en b ei n g gi v en i n m agn i
.

t u d e th a t pr opor ti on d epen d s on th e v a lue of th e c oat

,
.

Wh eth er th e c oat s er ves as th e eq ui v a len t a n d th e li n en as

r ela ti v e v a lu e or th e li n en as th e eq ui v a len t a n d th e c at as
,
o

r ela ti v e v a lu e th e m a g n i tu d e of th e c oa t s v a lu e i s d eter m i n e d
’

, ,

in d epen d en tly of i ts v alu e for m b y th e la b our t i m e n ec es s ar y ,

for i ts pr od u c ti on Bu t w h en ever th e c oa t as s um es i n th e
.

equa ti on of v a lu e th e pos i ti on of e qu i v alen t i ts v a lu e a c qu i r es

, ,

n o q u a n ti ta ti v e ex pr es s i on ; on th e c on tr ar y th e c om m od i ty ,

c oa t n ow fig ur es on ly a s a d efi n i te q u an ti ty of s om e a r ti c le

F or i n s ta n c e, 4 0 y a r d s of li n en ar e w or th — w hat ? 2 c oats

B eca us e th e com m odi ty c oat h er e play s th e par t of equi valent ,

b eca us e th e u s e v alu e c a a s oppos ed to th e li n en fig u es as

-
c
‘

, ,
r

a n em b od i m en t of v a lu e t h er efor e a d efin i t e n u m b er of coa ts ,

s u ffices to ex pr es s th e d efi n i te qu a n ti ty of v a lu e i n th e li n en .

Tw o c oats m ay th er efor e expr es s th e qu an ti ty of v a lu e of 4 0

a r d s of li n en b u t th ey ca n n ev er ex r es s th e q u an ti t f th i
y , p y o e r

ow n v a lu e A s u per fi c i a l ob s er v a ti on of th i s fa c t n a m ely th at
.
, ,

r l tiv ly t th n m b rs 20 50 1 00 & c ntin lly diminish s Th r f r th

e a e o e u e , , , c. , o ua e . e e o e e

g t principl th t th m gnit d f wh l n mb r s ch 1 0 is r g l t d by
r ea e a e a u e o a o e u e , u as ,
e u a e

t h n u mb r
e f tim s u nity is c nt i d in it f lls t th gr n d —{ Th
e o e th r x o a ne , a o e ou e au o e

p l ins
a i s cti n n4 f this ch pt r p 52 n t 2 wh t h nd rst ds by V lg r
e o o a e , .
, o e , a e u e an
“
u a

Ec n my —Ed ]
o o .
”
.
2 6 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

th ey ar e b oth th e s a m e, an d th at, th er efor e, w h en tak en i n

p ro
per
p ro
p or ti on s , th ey h a ve th e s am e w ei h t g . J us t as th e
sub s tan ce i r on , as a m eas u r e of w ei h t, g re
p r es en ts in r ela ti on

to th e s u g a r -
loaf w ei gh t a lon e, s o, in our e xpr es s i on of v alue ,

th e m a t er i al o bj ec t ,
c oat, in r ela ti on to th e lin en , re
p r es en ts

v a lu e a lon e .

H er e h ow ev er
,
gy ceas es The i r on i n th e ex
,
th e a n a lo .
,

r es s i on of th e w ei g h t of t h e s ug a r loaf r e r es en ts a n atu r a l
p p p ro -
,

p ert
y c om m on t o b ot h b od i e s n a m ely th e i r w ei g h t ; b u t th e coa
,
t ,

i n th e ex pr es s i on of v alue of th e li n en r epr es en ts a n on n a tur a l ,

-

p pr o er t
y of b ot h s om et hi n g p u r el
, y s oc i a l n am e ly th ei r v a lue , , .

S i n ce th e r elati v e for m of value of a c om m od i ty th e li n en — ,

for ex a m ple— ex pr es s es th e v alue of th a t c om m od i ty a s b ei ng ,

s om e th i n g w h oll d i ff r en t fr om i ts s u b s tan ce a n d r o er ti es
y e p p ,

a s b ei n g for i n s ta n c e c oa t li k e w e s ee t h at th i s ex r es s i on
p
-

, , ,

i ts elf i n d i c a tes th a t s om e s oci a l r ela ti on li es at t h e b ottom of

it . W i th th e equi valen t for m i t i s j us t th e c on tr ar y Th e v er y .

es s en ce of th i s for m i s th a t th e m ater i a l c om m od i ty i ts elf— th e

c oa t —j us t as it is ,
e x pr es s es valu e , an d is en d ow ed w i th t h e
for m v alue b y N a tur e i ts elf Of c our s e th i s h old s good on ly
of .

s o lon g a s th e v a lu e r elati on ex i s ts i n w h i ch th e c oa t s ta n d s i n ,

th e p s i ti on of equ i va len t to th e li n en
o S i n ce h ow ev er the .
1
, ,

r o er ti es of a thi n g a r e n ot th e u lt f i t l t i n t th
p p e s o s r e a o s o o e r r

thi n gs b u t on ly m a n i fes t th em s elv es i n s uch r ela ti on s th e

, ,

c oa t s eem s t o b e en d o w e d w i th i ts eq u i v alen t for m i ts oper ty

p ,
r

of b ei n g d i r ec tl
y ex c h a n g ea b le j u s t a s m u ch b
y N a t u r e as it is ,

en d ow ed w i t h t h e
p oper t
y o f b ei n g h ea v
y o
r r th e c a ac i t
p y to ,

k eep us w ar m H en ce th e en i g m a ti cal c h a r a cter of t he eq ui v a

.

len t for m w h i c h es ca p es th e n oti c e of th e b ou r g eoi s p oli ti ca l

econ om i s t u n ti l thi s for m c om letel
, p y d e v el o ed c on fr on ts h i m
p , ,

i n th e s h a pe of m on ey He t h en s eek s to ex plai n a w ay the

.

m y s ti c al ch ar a c ter of g old a n d s ilv er b y s u b s ti tuti n g fo th em ,

r ,

les s d a zz lin g c omm od i ti es a n d b y ec i ti n g w i th ev er r en ew ed ,

r ,

s a ti s fa c ti on th e ca talog u e of a ll os s i b le c om m od i ti es w h i ch a t
, p
on e ti m e or an oth er h a v e la y ed th e
p p a r t of eq ui v a len t H e h as .

1S ch xpr ssi ns f r l ti ns in g n r l c ll d by H g l fl c t g ri s f rm
u e e o o e a o e e a , a e e e re ex -
a e o e ,
o a.

v ry c ri s cl ss F i nst nc
e u ou am . or a e, on e an is ki g nly b c s th r m st nd in
n o e au e o e en a

th r l ti n f s bj cts t him
e e a o o Th y u e o . e , on t h c ntr ry im gin th t th y
e o uba ,
a e a e ar e s

j t b c us h e is king
ec s e a e .
 C om m od i ti es . 2 7

n ot th e leas t s us pi c i on th a t th e m os t s i m ple ex pr es s i on of v alue ,

s u ch a s 20 y d s of li n en 1 c oat, alr ea d y p un d th e r i d d le
. ro
p o s

of th e qui va len t for m for ou r s oluti on

e .

Th e b ody of th e c om m od i ty th at s er v es as th e equ i v alen t ,

fig ur es a s th e m ater i ali s ati on of h u m an la b our i n th e a b s tr a c t ,

a n d i s a t t h e s am e ti m e th e pr od uct of s om e s peci fi call u fu l

y s e

c on cr ete la b our T hi s c on cr ete la b our b ecom es th er efor e th e

.
, ,

m ed i u m for ex pr es s i n g ab s tr a ct h u m an lab our If on th e .

on e h an d th e coa t r a n k s a s n oth i n g b ut th e em b od i m en t of

a b s tr a ct h um an lab ou r s o on th e oth er h an d ,
th e tailor i n g
, ,

w hi ch i s a ctu ally em b od i ed i n i t c oun ts a s n oth i n g b u t th e ,

for m u n d er w hi ch tha t ab s tr a ct lab our i s r eali s ed In th e ex .

r es s i on of v alu e of th e li n en th e u ti li t f t h t i l r i n g c on
p y o e a o ,

s i s ts n ot i n m ak i n g cloth es b u t i n m ak i n g an obj ec t w hi ch w e
, , ,

a t on ce r ecogn i s e to b e V a lu e an d th er efor e to b e a c on g ela ti on ,

of la b our b u t of la b our i n d i s ti n g ui s h a b le fr om th at r eali s ed i n

,

th e v alue of th e li n en In or d er to a ct a s s uc h a m i r r or of
.

valu e th e lab our of tailor i n g m u s t r efl ec t n othi n g b es i d es i ts

,

ow n a b s tr a c t qu a li ty of b ei n g h um an la b ou r g en er ally .

In tai lor i n g a s w ell as i n w eav i n g h u m a n la b our pow er i s

, ,
-

ex p en d ed B oth th er efor e pos s es s th e gen er a l pr oper ty of

.
, ,

b ei n g h um an lab our an d m ay th er efor e i n c er tai n cas es s u ch

, , , ,

a s i n t h e pr od u cti on of v alu e h a v e to b e c on s i d er ed un d er ,

thi s a s pect alon e T h er e i s n oth i n g m y s ter i ou s i n th i s

. Bu t .
.

i n th e ex pr es s i on of v alu e th er e i s a com plete tur n of th e

tab les .F or i n s tan ce h ow i s th e fac t to b e ex pr es s ed th at
,

w ea v i n g c r eates th e v a lu e of th e li n en n ot b y v i r tu e of b ei n g ,

w eav i n g as s u c h b ut b y r ea s on of i ts g en er al pr oper ty of b ei n g
, ,

h u m an lab ou r ? S i m ply b y O ppos i n g to w eav i n g th at oth er

i l f r m of c on cr ete la b ou r ( i n th i s i n s tan ce tai lor i n g
p a r t c u a r o
) ,

w h i ch pr od u c es th e equi v alen t of th e pr od uct of w eav i n g .

J u s t as th e c oat i n i ts b od ily for m b ecam e a d i r ec t expr es s i on

of v a lue s o n ow , d oes tai lor i n g a c on c r ete for m of lab our , ,

app ear as th e di r ec t a n d
p p
al a b le em b od i m en t o f h u m a n la b o u r

g en er ally .

H en ce th e s econ d p eculi ar i ty of th e equi va len t for m i s th at

, ,

c on c r ete lab ou r b ec om es th e for m u n d er w h i c h i ts opp os i te ,

a b s tr a c t h um an lab our m an i fes ts i ts elf , .

2 8 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

But b ec aus e th i s c on c r ete lab ou r , tai lor i n g i n our ca s e, ran k s

as , an d i s d i r ec tly i d en ti fi ed w i th ,
u n d i ffer en ti ated h u m an
la b our , i t a ls o r an ks as i d en ti cal w i th a n y oth er s or t of la b our ,
an d th er efor e w i th th at em b od i ed i n th e li n en . C on s equen tly ,

alth ou gh ,
li k e a ll oth er c om m od i ty -

p r od uc i n g lab our , i t i s th e
la b o ur of
p ri vate i n d i vi d uals , y et,
at th e s am e ti m e, i t r an ks as

la b our d i r ectly s oci al i n i ts c h ar acter . T h i s i s th e r eas on w hy

it r es u lts i n p a r od u c t d i r ec tly e x ch an g eab le w i th oth er c om

m od i ti es . W e h a v e th en a th i r d pec uli ar i ty of th e Equ i alen t v

for m , n am el
y t h,
a t th e la b v
our of pr i a te i n d i i d uals ta k es th e v
for m of i ts oppos i te, la our di r ec tly b s oc i al i n i ts for m .

Th e tw o latter pecu li ar i ti es of th e Equi valen t for m w i ll

b ec om e m or e i n telli g i ble i f w e go b ack to th e gr ea t thi n k er
w h o w a s th e fi rs t to a n aly s e s o m an y for m s w h eth er of ,

th ough t, s oc i et
y , or n atu r e, a n d a m on gs t th em als o th e for m of

value . I m ean A r i s totle .

In th e fi r s t pla ce ,
h e clea r ly en u n ci a tes th at th e m on ey for m
of c omm od i ti es velopm en t of th e s i m ple
is on ly th e fur th er d e
for m of v alu e of th e ex pr es s i on of t h e v a lue of on e c om

m odi ty i n s om e oth er c omm od i ty ta k en at r an d om ; for h e s ay s

5 b ed s 1 h ou s e ( m m im i ur“ ) i s n ot to b e , gr
’
a vs
'
o

d i s ti n gu i s h ed fr om
5 b ed s s o m u ch m on ey .

( ul tr a : t
ar y r t
-
dw l gn u a t W EVT t ‘
sal i va “)

He fur th er s ees th a t th e valu e r elati on w h i ch g i ves r i se to

thi s e x pr es s i on m ak es i t y t h t t
n eces s a r
a h e h ou s e s h ould q u a li

t ati v ely b e m a d e th e eq u al of th e b ed , a n d th at, w i th out s uc h

an e qu ali s a ti on ,
th es e tw o c lear ly d iffer en t th i n g s c ould n ot be
c om p ar ed w i th each oth er as c omm en s u r a ble qu a n ti ti es Ex .

c han ge ,
”
he sa
y ,
s
“
ca n n ot ta k e pla ce w i th out e qu ali ty a n d ,

e qu ali ty n ot w i th ou t c om m en s u r a i li ty b ( 7
01 7
3
70 uh 3 m
0 a

” W
-
es
pm) . H er e h ow ev er , ,
he c om es to a s top, an d g i ves
up th e fur th er a n aly s i s of th e for m of value . It i s ,

h OW GV OI in r eali t i m p os s i b le fai r d ndei qt th a t

’
ac l
y,
‘
a v
,

s u ch u n li ke th i n gs c an be c om m en s u r a ble quali ta
tiv ely equal S uch an equali s ati on can on ly
. be s om e thi n g

for ei gn to th ei r r eal n at ur e c on s equ en tly only m ak e s h i ft

“
,
a -

”
for pr ac ti c al pu r pos es .
 C om m od i ti es . 2 9

Ar i s totle th er efor e hi m s elf ,

th e w ay to ,
t ells u s , w h at b ar r ed
h i s fur th er a n aly s i s i t w a s th e a s en ce of a n y con cep t of b
value W
h a t i s th at equ al s om eth i n g, th at c om m on s u s ta n ce,
. b
w h i ch a d m i ts v alu e of th e b ed s b ei n g ex pr es s ed b y a
of th e
h ou s e ? S uch a th i n g i n tr uth c an n ot ex i s t s ay s A r i s totle
, , , .

An d w h y n ot ? C om par ed w i th th e b ed s th e h ous e d oes r e ,

r es en t s om ethi n g equ al t o th em i n s o far a s i t r epr es en ts w h at

p ,

i s r eally equal b oth i n th e b ed s a n d th e h ous e

,
An d t h a t i s .

h u m an lab ou r .

T h er e w as h ow ev er an i m p or tan t fa c t w hi c h pr ev en ted
, ,
.

Ar i s totle fr om s eei n g th at to attr i bu te v alue to c om m od i ti es i s, ,

m er ely a m od e of ex pr es s i n g a ll la b our a s eq ual h u m a n la b our ,

a n d con s eq u en tly as lab ou r of equ al qu a li ty Gr eek s oci ety .

w a s fou n d ed u pon s lav er y an d h a d th er efor e for i ts n a tur a l , , ,

b as i s th e i n equ ali ty of m en a n d of th ei r lab our pow er s The

,
.

s ecr et of th e ex p r es s i on of v a lu e n a m el th a t a ll k i n d s of
y , ,

lab ou r ar e equ al a n d equi v a len t b ecau s e a n d s o far as th ey , ,

a r e h u m a n la b ou r i n g en er al c an n ot b e d ec i ph er ed u n ti l th e , ,

n oti on of h u m a n e qu ali ty h a s a lr ea d y a c q u i r ed th e fi xi ty of a

p po u la
p r ej u d i c e
r T h i s h ow ev er i s p os s i b le on ly i n a s oc i ety
.
, ,

i n w h i ch th e gr ea t m a s s of t h e pr od u ce of la b our t a k es th e for m
of com m odi ti es i n w hi c h con s eq u en tly th e d om i n an t r ela ti on
, , ,

b etw een m an an d m an i s th at of ow n er s of c om m od i ti es Th e
, .

b r i lli an cy of Ar i s totle s gen i us i s s h o w n b y thi s a lon e th at h e

’

d i s c ov er ed i n th e ex pr es s i on of th e v a lue of c om m od i ti es a
, ,

r ela ti on of eq uali t T h u li r c on d i ti on s of th e s oc i et i n
y e p ec a .
y
w h i ch h e li v ed a lon e pr ev en ted h i m fr om d i s cov er i n g w h a t
, ,

“
i n tr uth w a s at th e b ottom of th i s equ ali ty
, .

4 . The E lem en ta r y for m o f va lu e cons i d er ed a s a w hole .

The elem en tar y for m of v alu e of a c om m od i ty i s c on tai n ed

in th e equa ti on ex pr es s i n g i ts v a lue r ela ti on to a n oth er c om
,

m od i ty of a d i ffer en t ki n d
x ch an ge r ela ti on to th e,
or i n i ts e

s am e . Th e v alue of c om m o d i ty A i s qua li tati v ely ex pr es s ed , ,

b y th e fact th a t com m odi ty B i s d i r ectly ex ch an g ea b le w i th i t .

Its v alue i s qu a n ti tati v ely ex pr es s ed b y th e fa c t th a t a d efi n i te ,

qu an ti ty of B i s ex ch an g ea ble w i th a d efin i te quan ti ty of A .

In oth er w or d s th e v a lu e of a c om m od i ty ob tai n s i n d epen d en t

,
3 0 Cap i ta ti s c P r od ucti on .

an x pr es s i on b y tak i n g th e for m of ex ch an g e va lu e
d d efi n i te e ,
.

W h en a t th e b egi n n i n g of th i s c h ap ter w e s ai d in c om m on
, , ,

r lan c e th a t a c om m od i ty i s b oth a u s e v a lu e a n d a n ex
p a -
,

c h a n g e v alu e w e w er e a c c ur a tely s p ea k i n g w r on g
,
A c om , ,
.

m od i ty i s a u s e v a lue or o bj ec t of u ti li ty an d a value -
It ,
.

m an i fes ts i ts elf a s th i s tw o fold th i n g th a t i t i s a s s oon as i ts -

, ,

n —
v alue a s s um es a n i n d epen d e t or m v i z th e for m of exch an g e
f .
,

v alue It n ev er as s u m es th i s for m w h en i s olated b ut on ly

.
,

w h en pla c ed i n a v a lue or ex c h an g e r elati on w i th a n oth er

c omm od i ty of a differ en t k i n d W h en on ce w e kn ow thi s .
,

s u ch a m od e of ex r es s i on d oes n o h ar m ; i t s i m ply s er v es as
p
a n a bb r ev i a ti on .

Ou r a n aly s i s h a s s h ow n th at th e for m or ex pr es s i on of th e ,

value of a comm od i ty or i gin ates i n th e n atur e of v alue a n d ,

n ot th a t v alue a n d i ts m ag n i tud e or i g i n a te i n th e m od e of

th ei r ex pr es s i on a s ex ch a n g e v alue T hi s h ow ev er i s th e .
, ,

d elus i on a s w ell of th e m er c a n ti li s ts a n d th ei r r ec en t r ev i v or s ,

F er r i er , Glani lh fi a n d l
oth er s , as a ls o of th ei r a n ti pod es , th e
m od er n b agm en of F r ee T r a d e ,
s uch as Bas ti a t Th e m er ca n
.

t ili s ts lay s
p ec i al s tr es s on th e quali tati v e as pec t of th e
e x pr es s i on of v alue ,
and con s e u en tly on q th e equi v a len t for m

of c om m od i ti es , w hi ch a tta i n s i ts full per fecti on i n m on ey .

Th e m od er n h aw k er s of F r ee T r a d e w h o m us t get r i d of th ei r
,

a r ti cle a t a n i c e, on th e oth er h an d lay m os t s tr es s on th e

y pr ,

q uan ti ta ti v e a s pect of th e r ela t i v e for m o f v a lu e F or th em .

th er e c on s equ en tly ex i s ts n ei th er v alu e n or m a gn i tu d e of ,

v alu e a n y w h er e ex c ept i n i ts ex pr es s i on b y m eans of th e

,

e x ch a n g e r ela ti on of c om m od i ti es th a t i s i n th e d aily li s t of , ,

p r i ces c ur r en t M a c Leo d w h o h a s t a k en. u

p on h i m s elf t o ,

d r es s u p th e c on fus ed i d eas of L om b ar d S tr eet i n th e m os t

lea r n ed fi n er y i s a s u cces s ful cr os s b etw een th e s u per s ti ti ous
,

m er c an tili s ts a n d th e en li g h ten ed Fr ee T r a d e b ag m en
,
.

A clos e s c r uti ny of th e ex pr es s i on of th e v alu e of A i n ter m s

of B c on ta i n ed i n th e e qu ati on ex r es s i n g th e v a lu e r ela ti on of
, p
A to B h as s h ow n u s th a t w i th i n th a t r ela ti on th e b od i ly for m
, , ,

F L A F rri r s s insp ct r d d n s
1 . . . e e , ou -
e eu es o ua e ,
g v rn m nt c nsid é ré d ns
Du ou e e e o a

pp t
s es r a v c l c mm rc P ris 1 805 :
or s a e e o e e,
”
a , an d Ch rl s G ilh
a D e System an ,
“
es es

m i p litiq 2md d P ris 1 82 1

'

d E
’ ”
c on o e o ue, e .
, a , .
 C om m od i ti es .
3 I

of A fig ur es on ly a s a u s e -
v alue ,
th e b od i ly for m of B on ly a s

t h e for m or a s p ec t of valu e . Th e o
p pos i ti on or c on tr a s t

e x i s ti n g i n ter n ally i n ea ch c omm od i ty b etw een us e -

value an d

v a lu e, is ,
th er efor e, m ad e v i d en t
e ex t er n ally by tw o c om

m od i ti es b ei ng p laced i n s u ch r ela ti on to each oth er , th at th e

c om m od i t
y w h os e v alue i t i s
xpr es s fig u r es d i r ec tly s ou gh t to e ,

a s a m er e u s e v a lu e w hi le th e c om m od i t i n w h i h th a t v lu
y c a e
-
,

i s to b e expr es s ed fig ur es d i r ec tly a s m er e ex c h an g e v a lue

, .

H en ce th e elem en tar y for m of v alu e of a c om m odi ty i s th e

e lem en tar y for m i n w h i ch th e c on tr a s t c on t a i n ed in th at
c om m od i ty ,
b etw een u s e -
va lue a n d v alu e b ecom es ,
a ppar en t .

E v er y p r od u c t of lab our i s , i n a ll s tates of s oc i ety , a use

v alue b ut i t i s on l d efi ni te h i s tor i cal ep och i n a s oc i ety s

’
at a
y
d ev elopm en t th at s u ch a p r od u c t b ec om es a c om m od i t , v i z ,
y .

at th e ep och b our s pen t on th e pr od u c ti on of a

w h en th e la
us eful a r ti cle b ec om es ex pr es s ed as on e of th e obj ec ti v e
quali ti es of th at ar ti cle i e a s i ts v alu e It th er efor e follow s , . .
, .

th at t h e elem en ta y v alu e for m i s a ls o th e pr i m i ti v e for m

r -

un d er w h i ch a r o d u ct of la b ou r a p ear s h i s tor i c a lly as a

p p
c om m od i t
y an d t h a t t
,
h e g r a d u al tr an s for m ati on of s u c h
p r od u c ts i n to com m odi ti es , p r oc ee d s p a r i p a s s u w i th th e
d ev elopm en t v a lu e of th e for m .

W e per c ei v e a t fi r s t s i gh t th e d efi ci en ci es of th e elem en tar y

, ,

for m of v a lu e i t i s a m er e ger m w h i ch m us t un d er g o a s er i es ,

of m eta m or ph os es b efor e i t can r i pen i n t o th e P r i ce for m -

.

Th e ex pr es s i on of th e v alue of c om m od i ty A i n ter m s of a n y
oth er c om m od i ty B m er ely d i s ti n g ui s h es th e va lu e fr om th e
,

u s e v alu e of A a n d th er efor e places A m er ely i n a r ela ti on of

-
,

ex ch an g e w i th a s i n gle d iffer en t com m od i ty B ; b u t i t i s s ti ll ,

far f om ex pr es s i n g A s q uali ta ti v e equali ty a n d q ua n ti tati v e

’
r ,

r o or ti on a li ty to all c om m od i ti es T o th e elem en tar y r ela ti v e

p p ,
.

v alue for m of a com m od i ty th er e c or r es pon d s th e s i n gle equi

-
,

valen t for m of on e oth er c om m od i ty T h u s i n th e r elati v e .

,

ex r es s i on of v a lu e of th e li n en th e c oat a s s u m es th e for m o f
p
equi v alen t or of b ei n g d i r ec tl ex ch a n g ea b le on ly i n r ela ti on
, y ,

to a s i n gle comm od i ty th e li n en , .

N ev er th eles s th e elem en tar y for m of v alu e pas s es b y a n ea s y

,

t r a n s i ti on i n to a m or e c om p let e for m . It i s tr ue th a t b y m ea n s
3 2 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

of th e elem en ta r y for m , th e va lue of a c om m od i ty A , b ecom es

e x pr es s ed i n t er m s of on e, an d on l
y on e, oth er com m odi ty
.

Bu t th a t on e m ay b e a c om m odi t
y of a ny ki n d ,
c oat, i r on , c or n
,

or a n thi n
y g els e . T h er efor e ,
ac c or d i n g as A i s placed in r ela

ti on w i th on e or th e oth er , w e get for on e a n d th e s am e c om

m odi ty , d i ffer en t elem en ta r y Th e n u mb er e x pr es s i on s of value} l

of s u c h p os s i b le ex pr es s i on s i s li m i ted on ly b th n u m b r of
y e e

th e d i ffer en t k i n d s of c om m od i ti es di s ti n c t fr om i t Th e .

i s olated ex pr es s i on of A s v a lue i s th er efor e con v er ti b le i n to a

’
,

s er i es ,
p r olon g ed to a ny len g th , of th e differ en t elem en tar y ex

pr es s i ons of th at va lue .

B Tota l or Exp a n d ed
.
f or m f
o v a ue l .

z Com A=u Com . . B or =v Com . C or =w Com D . or =x Com .

E or = &c .

( y
2 0 d of li n en = l = 1 0 ih tea or =40 lb flee
’

ar s c oa t or co or

1 quar ter c or n or = 2 oun c es g old or = § ton i r on

1 . The Exp a n ded R ela ti v e for m of v a lu e .

Th e v alue of a
gle c om m od i ty th e li n en for ex ample i s s in , , ,

n ow ter m s of n u m b er les s oth er elem en ts of th e

ex pr es s ed i n

w or ld of c om m od i ti es E ver y other comm od i ty n ow b ecom es .

a m i r r or of th e li n en s v a lu e It i s th us th a t for th e fi r s t ti m e
’
2
.
, ,

1In H m r f inst nc th v lu f
o e , rticl is xpr ss d i n s ri s f diff nt
or a e, e a e o an a e e e e a e e o er e
thi gs 1 1 VII 47 24 75
n . . . .

F
2 this r s n w
or s p k f th c t v lu f th li n n wh n its v l u i x
ea o ,
e can ea o e oa -
a e o e e e a e s e

p r ss d i c
e e ts f its c rn v l
n wh n xp r ss d in c rn d
oa or o E ry such o a ue e e e e o an s o on . ve
-
, ,

exp r ssi n t lls

e th t wh t pp rs in th
o e v lu s c t r & is th v l u
us , a a a ea e us e -
a e , oa , co n , c .
, e a e

f th l i n n Th v l y c mm dity d n ting its r l ti n in xch ng

“
o e e f . e a ue o w an o o e o e a o e a e, e

m y sp k f it
a ea c rn v l cl th v l u cc rding t th c mm dity with
o as o -
a ue , o -
a e, a o o e o o

which it is c mp r d ; d h nc th r o th s nd diff r nt kinds f v l

a e an m ny e e e e ar e a ou a e e o a u e, as a

kinds f v l o th r c mm diti s in xist nc

a u e as d ll q u lly r l d
e e ar e o o e e e e, an a ar e e a ea an

eq lly n min l ( A Critic l Diss rt ti n th N t r M s r d C s s f

ua o a .
”
a e a o on e a u e, ea u e an au e o

V l chi fly in r f r nc t th writings f Mr Ric rd d his f ll w rs By th

a ue e e e e e o e o . a o an o o e . e

au th r f Ess ys th F rm ti n & f O p ini ns L nd n 1 825 p

o o a on eS o a o , c. , o o .
”
o o , , . .

B il y th th r f thi n ym s w rk w rk which in i t d y cr t d m uch

a e , e au o o s a on ou o , a o s a ea e

stir in Engl d f nci d th t by thus p i ting t th v ri s r l tiv xpr ssi ns f

an , a e a ,
o n ou e a ou e a e e e o o

on e a nd th s m v l h h d p r v d th imp ssibility f
e a e y d t rmin ti n f t h
a u e, e a o e e o o an e e a o o e

c nc pt f v l
o e H w v r n rr w his w vi ws m y h v b n y t th t h l id
o a ue . o e e a o o n e a a e ee , e , a e a

his fing r s m s ri s d f cts in th Ric rdi n Th ry is pr v d by th nim sity

e on o e e ou e e e a a eo , o e e a o

with which h w tt ck d by Ric rd s f ll w rs S th W tmi t R i ew f

e as a a e a o
’
o o e . ee e es ns er ev or

ex m pl a e .
34 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

3 . Defects of the Tota l or Exp a nd ed f or m of l

va u e .

In th e fi r s t place th e v e expr es s i on of v alue i s i n c om plete

,
r ela ti

b ecau s e th e s er i es r epr es en ti n g i t i s i n te m i n able Th e ch ai n r .

of w hi c h ea c h e qu a ti on of valu e i s a li n k i s li ab le a t a ny ,

m om en t to b e len gth en ed b y ea ch n ew k i n d of com m od i ty th at

c om es i n to ex i s ten c e a n d fu r n i s h es th e m a ter i a l for a f es h r

ex pr es s i on of v alu e In th e s ec on d pla c e i t i s a m an y
.
,

c olou r ed m os ai c of d i s par ate a n d i n d epen d en t ex pr es s i on s

of v a lu e . An d las tly i f as m u s t b e th e ca s e th e r elati v e v alue
, , ,

of ea ch com m od i t
y i n t ur n b ec om es ex r es s ed i n t h i s ex
p ,

p a n d ed for m w e g e
,
t f or e ac h o f t h em a r ela ti v e v a lu e f o m -
r ,

di ffer en t i n e v er y c a s e a n d c on s i s ti n g of a n i n t er m i n a b le
,

s er i es of ex r es s i on s of v a lu e T h d f c ts of th e ex pa n d ed
p e e e .

r ela ti v e v alu e for m a r e r efl ec ted i n th e c or r es on d i n g e u i v a

p q
-

len t for m S i n ce th e b od ily for m of ea ch s i ngle comm odi ty i s

.

on e par ti c ular equ i v a len t for m a m on gs t n u m b er les s o th er s w e ,

h av e on th e w h ole n oth i n g b ut fr a g m en tar y eq ui v alen t fo m s

, ,
r ,

each ex clu di n g th e o th er s In th e s a m e w ay a ls o th e s peci a l

.
, , ,

c on cr ete u s eful ki n d of la b our em b od i ed i n ea c h a r ti c ula r

, p
eq ui v a len t i s p r es en ted on ly a s a a r ti c ula r k i n d of la b our
, p ,

a n d th er efor e n ot as a n exh a us ti v e r epr es en ta ti ve of h u m a n

lab our g en er ally Th e la tte i n d eed ga i n s a d eq uate m a n i fes

. r, ,

tati on i n th e totali ty of i ts m an ifold , par ti cu lar , con c r ete for m s .

Bu t, i n th at i ts ex r es s i on i n a n i n fi n i te s er i es i s ev er
c as e, p
i n c om plete an d d efi c i en t i n u n i ty .

The ex pa n d ed v e value for m i s h o wev er n oth i n g b ut

r ela ti -
, ,

th e s um of t h e elem en tar y r ela ti v e expr es s i ons or equ a ti on s of

th e fi r s t k i n d s u c h a s,

20 y ar d s of li n en 1 c oa t

2 0 y ar d s of li n en 1 0 lb s . of tea , etc .

E ach of th es e i m pli es th e c or r es pon d i n g i n v er ted e quati on ,

1 coa t 2 0 y ar d s of li n en
1 0 lb s . of tea 2 0 y ar d s of li n en ,
etc .

In fact, w h en a p er s on e x ch an g es h i s li n en for m an y oth er

c om m od i t i es , a n d th u s e x pr es s es i ts v alue in a s er i es o f oth er

c om m od i ti es , it n ec es s a r i ly follow s , th a t th e v ar i ou s ow n e s of r

t h e latter e x ch an ge th em for th e li n en , a n d c on s equ en tly ex p es s r

 Com m od i ti es .
35

t he value of th ei r v ar i ous com m od i ti es in on e an d th e s am e

th i r d c omm od i t
y th e li
,
n en . If th en , w e re v er s e th e s er i es , 20
ar d s of li n en 1 c oat or 1 0 lb s of tea etc th a t i s to
y .
, .
, y sa
,

if we gi v e ex pr es s i on to th e c on ver s e r ela ti on alr ead y i m pli ed

i n th e s er i es , w e get,
0 The Gen er a l for m
.
f
o v a lu e .

1 c oa t

1 0 lb s . of tea
4 0 lb s . of c offe e

1 quar ter of c or n 2 20 y ar d s of li n en
2 ou n c es of g old
of i r on
g a ton
x com . A .
,
etc .

Th e a lter ed the for m v a lue

1 . c ha r a c ter f
o o
f .

All comm od i ti es n ow e xpr es s th ei r v alue ( 1 ) i n a n elem en ta r y

for m ,
b ecaus e i n
g le c omm od i ty ; ( 2) w i th u n i ty b ec au s e i n
a s in ,

o n e a n d th e s am e com m od i ty T hi s for m of v a lue i s elem en tar y .

a n d th e s a m e for a ll th er efor e g en er al ,
.

Th e for m s A a n d B w er e fi t on ly t o ex pr es s th e v a lue of a
c om m od i ty as s om eth i n g d i s ti n c t fr om i ts us e v a lu e or m a ter i a l -

for m .

Th e fi r s t for m A , fu r n i s h es ,
s u ch e qu ati on s a s th e follow i n g
1 c oa t 2 2 0 y ar d s of li n en , 1 0 lb s of tea . ton of i r on .

Th e v alue of th e coa t i s e qu a te d to li n en , th a t of th e tea to

i r on .But to b e e qu a ted t o li n en a n d ag a i n to i r on i s to b e a s , ,

d i ffer en t a s a r e li n en a n d i r on T h i s for m i t i s plai n occu r s .

, ,

p r a c ti c all
y on ly i n th e fi r s t b eg i n n i n g w h en th e pr od u c ts of
,

lab our v er ted i n to

ar e c on c om m od i ti es b y a c ci d en tal a n d
o c ca s i on al ex c h a n g es .

The s ec on d for m B d i s ti n g ui s h es i n a m or e a d equa te m an n e

, , ,
r

th an th e fi r s t th e v a lu e of a c om m od i ty fr om i ts u s e v a lue ; fo
,
-
r

th e v alu e of th e c oa t i s th er e pla c ed i n c on tr a s t u n d er all

s s i ble s h a es w i th th e b odi l f r m of th e coa t i t i q u t d
p o
p y o s e a e

to li n en to i r on to t ea i n s h or t to ev er y th i n g els e on ly n o t to
'

, , , , ,

i ts elf t h e c oa t
, On th e oth er h a n d a n y g en er a l ex p es s i on of
.
,
r

v alu e com m on to all i s d i r ec tly ex clud ed for i n th e equ ati on ,

o f v alu e of ea c h c om m od i t a ll oth er comm od i ti es n ow a p pea r

y,
 Cap z ta /i s t P r od u cti on
'

3 6 .

on ly u n d er qui valen ts The ex pan d ed for m of

th e for m of e .

v alue com es i n to a ctual exi s ten c e for th e fir s t ti m e s o s oon a s

a r ti c u lar r od u c t of la b ou r u h tt l i l g
p a
p s c a s ca e s n o o n ,er ,

ex cep ti on all b u t h a b i tuall x h n g d f v i u t h

y , y e c a e o r a r o s ,o er

com m od i ti es .

Th e th i r d an d la s tly d ev elop ed for m e x pr es s es th e v alues of

th e w h ole w or ld of c om m od i ti es i n ter m s of a s i n gle c om m od i ty

s et a pa r t for th e pur pos e, n a m ely , th e li n en , an d th u s r epr es en ts

to us th ei r v alu es b y m ea n s of th ei r equ ali ty w i th li n en Th e .

v alue of e v er y b ei n g eq uated to li n en
c om m od i ty is n ow , by ,

n ot on l
y d i ffer en ti a ted fr om i ts o w n u s e v a lu e b u t fr o m a ll -
,

oth er u s e v a lu es g en er all n d i b t h t v f t x r es s ed
y a s y a e r
y a c e p
-

, , ,

as th a t w h i ch i s c om m on to all c om m od i ti es By th i s for m ,
.

c om m od i ti es ,
ar e, for th e fir s t ti m e, effec ti v ely b r oug h t i n to

r ela ti on w i th on e a n oth er as v alues ,

or m a d e to a
ppear as

e x ch an ge v alues .

Th e tw o ea r li er for m s ei th er e x pr es s th e v alue of eac h c om

m odi ty i n ter m s of a s i n gle com m od i ty of a d i ffer en t k i nd ,

or

in a s er i es of m an y s u c h com m od i ti es . In b oth c a s es , it is ,
so

to s ay , th e s pec i a l b us i n es s of eac h s i n gle c om m od i ty to fi n d an

expr es s i on for i ts v alu e a n d th i s i t d oes w i th ou t the h elp of
,

th e oth er s . T h es e oth er s w i th ,
r es
p ect to th e for m er , play th e
as s i ve ar ts T g en er a l for m of v a lue C ,
of e u i
h q valen ts
p p e .
,

r es ults fr om th e j oi n t a c ti on of th e w h ole w or ld of comm odi ti es

,

a n d fr om th a t alon e A com m od i ty can a c q ui r e a gen er al ex pr es

.

s i on of v alue only b y a ll oth er com m od i ti es s i m ultan eous ly

i ts ,

w i th i t ex pr es s i n g th ei r v alues i n th e s a m e equi va len t ; an d

,

ev e y n ew c om m odi ty m u s t follow
r s ui t It th us b ec om es .

evi d en t th a t s i n ce th e exi s ten ce of c om m od i ti es a s v alu es i s

,

u r el s oc i al th i s s oc i al ex i s ten c e c a n b e ex p r es s ed b th
p y , y e

totali ty of th ei r s oci al r ela ti on s a lon e a n d c on s equ en tly ,

th a t th e for m of th ei r v a lu e m u s t b e a s oc i ally r ec ogn i s ed

for m .

b ein g equ a ted to li n en n ow a ppear n ot only

All com m od i ti es
a s qu ali ta ti v ely equ al a s v a lu es ge n er a lly b u t a ls o a s v a lues ,

w h os e m agn i tud es ar e ca pab le of c om pa i s on By ex pr es s i n g r .

th e m agni tud es of th ei r v a lues i n on e an d th e s am e m a ter i a l ,

th e li n en th os e m agn i tu d es a r e als o c om par ed wi th ea ch oth er

,
.
 Com m od i ti es .
37

F or i n s ta n c e, 1 0 lb s of tea . 2 0 y ar d s of li n en , an d 4 0 lb s . of

c offee 2 0 y ar d s of li n en . T h er efor e 1 0 lb s ,
. of tea 4 0 lb s .

of c offee . In oth er w or d s , th er e i s c on tai n ed i n 1 lb . of c offee

on ly on e -
fou r th as — —
m u ch s u b s tan c e of v alue lab ou r a s i s con

t ai n ed i n 1 lb . of t ea .

Th e g en er al for m of r elati v e v alue ,

em b r a ci n g th e w h ole
w or ld of c om m od i ti es , c on ver ts th e sin gle c om m od i ty th a t i s
e x clud ed fr om th e r es t ,
an d m a d e to play th e p ar t of equi v alen t
— h er e th e li n en — i n to th e u n i v er s al equ i v alen t Th e b odi ly .

for m of th e li n en i s n ow th e for m a s s u m ed in comm on b y th e

v alu es of a ll c omm od i ti es ; i t th er efor e b ecom es d i r ec tly
e x ch an g ea b le w i th a ll a n d ev er y of th em Th e s ub s tan ce .

li n en b ecom es th e v i s i ble i n car n at i on th e s oci al ch r y s ali s s tate ,

o f ev er y k i n d of h u m an lab our W ea vi n g w hi ch i s th e lab our

.
,

of c er tai n pr i v a te i n d i v i d uals pr od u ci n g a p ar ti c ular ar ti cle li n en

‘

, ,

a c qu i r es i n c on s equ en c e a s oci al ch ar a cter th e ch a r a c ter of ,

equ ali ty w i th a ll oth er k i n d s of la b our Th e i n n um er a ble .

equ a ti on s of w h i ch th e g en er a l for m of v alue i s com pos ed ,

e qu ate i n tur n th e lab our em b od i ed i n th e li n en to th at e m

b od i ed i n ev er y oth er comm od i ty an d th ey th us c on v er t ,

w eav i n g i n to th e g en er al for m of m an i fes tati on of u n d i ffer

en ti ated h u m a n la b our In thi s m an n er th e lab our r eali s ed i n
.

th e v alues of com m odi ti es i s pr es en ted n ot only u n d er i ts

n eg ati v e a s pect un d er w hi ch a b s tr a c ti on i s m a d e fr om ev er y
,

c on cr ete for m an d u s eful pr oper ty of a ctual w or k b u t ,

i ts ow n p os iti v e n atu r e i s m ad e t o r ev eal i ts elf ex pr es sly .

Th e g en er al v alu e for m i s th e r ed uc ti on of all k i n d s of

-

a c tu a l lab our to th ei r c om m on ch a r a cter of b ei n g h u m an

lab our g en er ally of b ei n g th e ex pen d i tur e of h um an la b our
,

p ow er .

g en er al valu e for m
Th e , w h i ch r epr es en ts
p all r od u cts of

lab ou r a s m er e c on g elati on s of un d i ffer en ti a ted h u m an la b ou r ,

s h ow s b
y i ts v er
y s tr u c tur e th at i t i s the s oci al r es u m e of th e
w or ld of com m od i ti es . T h at for m c on s e u en tly q m ak es i t
i n d i s pu tab ly e vi d en t th at i n th e w or ld of c om m od i ti es th e
c h a r a c ter d by a ll la b our of b ei ng huma n lab our
p os s es s e

c on s ti tutes i ts i fic soci al ch a r ac ter

s
p ec .
3 8 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

2 . Th e i n ter d ep en d en t d ev elop m en t of the R ela ti v e for m o

f l
v a ue,

a n d o the E u i v a len t or m
f q f .

Th e d eg r ee of d e v elop m en t of th e r ela ti ve v alu e

for m of

cor r es p on d s to th a t of th e e qui valen t for m . But w e m u s t b ear

i n m i n d th at th e d ev elopm en t of th e latter is on ly th e ex pr es
s i on a n d r es ult of th e d e v elopm en t of th e for m er .

Th e pr i m ar y or i s ola ted r elati v e for m of v alue of on e

c om m od i t
y v er ts s om e oth er comm od i t
con y i n to a n i s ola ted

e q ui v a len t The ex pan d ed for m of r elati ve v alue w hi c h i s th e

.
,

ex pr es s i on of th e v a lu e of on e com m od i ty i n ter m s of a ll oth er

com m od i ti es , en d ow s th os e oth er c om m od i ti es w i th th e c h a r a c ter

of r ti c ular qui valen ts difler i n i ki n d An d la s tly
'

n a
p a e g .
,

p a r ti c ular k i n d of com m od i ty a c qui r es th e ch ar acter of

u n i v er s al equi v alen t b eca us e a ll oth er com m od i ti es m ak e i t th e
,

m a ter i al i n w h i ch th ey u n i for m ly ex pr es s th ei r v alue .

Th e an tag on i s m b etw een th e r ela ti v e for m of v alu e a n d th e

q u i v alen t for m th e t w o
p oles ,
of t h e v alu e fo r m i s d ev elo ed
p ,

c on c u r r en tly w i th th a t for m i ts elf .

fi r s t for m 20 y d s of li n en
Th e ,
on e c oat a lr ea d y c on tai n s
.
,

th i s a n tag on i s m w i th ou t a s y et fix i n g i t
,
A ccor d i n g a s w e .

r ea d th i s e q ua ti on for w a r d s or b a c k w a r d s th e t la ed b y
p ar s p y ,

th e li n en an d th e c oa t ar e di ffer en t . In th e on e cas e th e .

r ela ti ve v alue of th e lin en i s e x pr es s ed i n th e c oa t, i n th e

oth er cas e th e r elati v e v alu e of th e c oa t is expr es s ed i n th e :

li n en . In th i s fi r s t for m of value ,
th er efor e, i t i s d i fl
i c ult to .

g r as p th e p olar c on tr a s t .

F or m B
s h ow s th a t on ly on e s i n gle com m od i ty a t a ti m e c an

c om pletely e x p an d i ts r elati v e v a lu e ,
and th at i t ac qui r es th i s .

e x pan d ed for m on l
y b ecaus e ,
an d in so far as, all oth er c om

m od i ti es a r e,
p w i th q v alen ts
r es H
ect to i t,
er e w e c a n n ot e ui .

r ev er s e th e equ a ti on as w e ca n th e equ a ti on 20 d s f li n n
, y o e .

1 coa t w i th ou t a lter i n g i ts g en er al c h ar a cter a n d con v er ti n g

, ,

i t fr om th e ex pa n d ed for m of v alu e i n to th e g en er al for m of

’

value .

F i n ally th e for m C gi v es to th e w or ld of c om m odi ti es a

,

g en er al s oci al r elati v e for m of value b eca us e an d i n s o far a s , , ,

th er eby a ll c om m od i ti es w i th t h e ex c epti on of on e ar e ex clu d ed

, ,
 Commod i ti es .
39

fr om th e e ui q valent for m . A sin gle c om m od i ty ,

t h e li n en ,
a
pp ea rs th er efor e to h a v e a c qui r ed th e c h ar a cter of d i r ec t ex

c h an g eabi li ty w i th e v er y oth er c om m od i ty b ecaus e ,

an d in so

far as , th i s v er y other c omm od i ty

ch ar a cter i s d en i ed to e .
1

Th e com m od i ty th at fig ur es as u n i v er s al e q u i v alen t i s on , ,

th e oth er h an d ex clud ed fr om th e r elati v e v alu e for m

, If th e .

li n en or a n y oth er com m od i ty s er v i n g a s un i v er s al equi v alen t

, ,

w er e a t th e s am e ti m e to s h ar e i n th e r elati v e for m of v alu e

, , ,

i t w ou ld h av e to s er v e a s i ts ow n eq ui v a len t W e s h ould th en .

h av e 2 0 y d s of li n en 2 0 y d s of li n en ; th i s t au tology ex
. .

r es s es n ei th er v a lu e n or m a g n i tu d e of v a lu e I n or d er to
p ,
.

e x r es s th e r elati v e v alu e of th e u n i v er s al eq ui v alen t w e m u s t

p ,

r a th er r ev er s e th e for m C T h i s equi v alen t h as n o r elati v e .

for m of v alu e i n c om m on w i th oth er c om m od i ti es b ut i ts v alue ,

i s r ela ti v ely ex pr es s ed b y a n ev er en d i n g s er i es of oth er com

m od i ti es T h u s th e expan d ed for m of r elati v e v alu e or for m
.
, ,

B n ow s h ow s i ts elf as th e s peci fi c for m of r elati ve v alu e for the

,

equ i v alen t c om m od i t
y .

3 . Tr a n s i ti on f r om the Gen er a l for m f

o l
va u e to the
Mo ne
y f or m .

Th e un i v er s al equi valen t for m i s a for m of v alu e i n g en er al .

It c an , th er efor e, b e On th e a s s u m ed by any c omm od i ty .

oth er h an d i f a c omm odi ty b e foun d to h a v e a s s u m ed th e

,

un i v er s al equi valen t for m ( for m C ) th i s i s on ly b ecau s e a n d ,

It is by m ns s lf vid nt th t this ch r ct r f dir ct d niv rs l x

1
no ea e -
e e a a a e o e an u e a e

ch ng bility is t s p k p l r
a ea d
, intim t ly c nn ct d with its pp sit
so o ea , a o a on e, a n as a e o e e o o e

p l t
o e,h bs nc f dir ct
e a xch g ebility t h
e op sitiv p l f t h
e m gn t is with
e an ea , as e o e o e o e a e

its n g tiv c unt rp rt It m y th r f r b im gin d th t ll c mm diti s

e a e o e a . a e e o e e a e a a o o e can

simult n sly h v this ch r ct r imp r ss d up n th m j st it

a eou a e b im gin d a a e e e o e , u as c an e a e

th t ll C th lics n b p p s t g th r It is f c rs highly d sir bl in th y s

a a a o ca e o e o e e .
,
o ou e, e a e e e e

of th p tit b urg is f
e e wh m th pr ducti n f c mm diti s is th
o eo , or pl s ultr o e o o o o o e e ne u a

of h u m n fr d m d individ u l ind p nd nc th t th inc nv ni nc s r s lti g

a ee o an a e e e e, a e o e e e e u n

fr m this ch r ct r f c mm diti s
o a at b ing dir ctly xch ng bl
e o sh ld b
o o e no e e e a ea e, ou e re

m v d P udh
o e . s ci lism is w rking t f this Philistin Ut pi f rm f
ro on s
’
o a a o ou o e o a, a o o

s ci lism which I h v ls wh r sh wn d s t p ss ss v n th m rit f rigin

o a , as a e e e e e o ,
oe no o e e e e e o o

ality L ng b f r h i tim th t sk w tt mp t d with much b tt r succ ss by

. o e o e s e, e a as a e e e e e

Gr y Br y d th rs B t f ll th t wisd m f this kind fl rish s v n w

a , a , an o e . u , or a a , o o ou e e e no

in c rt in circl s und r th n m f sci nc

e a e Nvrh e
y sch l pl y d m r
e a e o
“
e e.
”
e e as an oo a e o e

tricks with th w rd sci nc th n th t f Pr u dh n f

e o e e, a a o o o , or

w B gri ff f hl n o e e e e

D st llt u r cht n Z it i W rt sich i a e z r e e e e n o e n .

 '

4 0 Cap i ta ti s t P r od ucti on .

in so far as i t h as b een ex clud ed fr om th e r es t of all oth er

c om m odi ti es as th ei r equi v alen t an d th at b y th ei r ow n a ct
,
.

An d fr om th e m om en t th at th i s ex clus i on b ecom es fin ally

r es tr i c ted to on e r ti c u lar com m odi ty , fr om th at m om en t on ly ,
p a

th e g ener al for m v e valu e of th e w or ld of comm od i ti es

of r elati

ob tai n s r ea l con s i s ten ce an d g en er al s oc i al v ali d i ty .

Th e p ar ti cular c om m odi ty w i th w h os e b od i ly for m th e ,

equ i valen t for m i s th u s s oci ally i d en ti fi ed n ow b ec om es th e ,

m on ey c om m od i ty or s er ves as m on ey
,
It b ec om es th e s pec i al .

s oci al fu n c ti on of th a t com m od i t n d c ons eq uen tl i t i l

y a
y s s oc
,
a

m on opoly , to play w i th i n th e w or ld of com m od i ti es th e par t of

th e u n i v er s a l equi v alen t Am on gs t th e c om m odi ti es w h i ch i n
.
,

for m B fig ur e a s par ti cular equ i valen ts of th e li n en , a n d , i n

,

for m C, expr es s i n com m on th ei r r elati v e v alu es i n li n en , thi s

for em os t place h as b een a tta in ed b y on e i n pa r ti c ular — n a m ely ,

g old If, then , i n for m C w e r eplace the li n en b y gold, w e get,

.

D .

2 0 y ar d s of lin en
1 coa t

1 0 lb of tea
4 0 lb of coffee
2 oun ces of gold .

1 q r of cor n.

a ton of i r on

x c om m od i ty A

In pas s i n g fr om for m A to for m B, an d fr om th e la tter t o

for m C , th e ch an g es ar e fun d am en tal On th e oth er h an d , .

th er e i s no d i ffer en ce b etw een for m s C an d D ,

x cept th at
e ,
in
th e latter , g old h as as s u m ed th e e qui v alen t for m i n th e plac e
of li n en Gold i s i n for m D , w h a t li n en
. w a s i n for m C— th e
un i v er s al eq ui v alen t Th e p r ogr es s c on s i s ts i n th i s a lon e th at
.
,

th e c h ar a cter of d i r ect an d un i v er s al ex ch a n g ea b ili ty — i n oth er

w or d s , th at th e uni v er s al equi v alen t for m — h a s n ow b y s oci al ,

c us tom , b ec om e fi n ally i d en ti fi ed w i th th e su b s tan ce g old, .

Gold i s n ew m on ey w i th r efer en ce to all oth er c om m od i ti es

on l
y b ecau s e i t w as pr evi ou s ly w i th r efer en ce to th em , a
,

s i m le
p c omm odi t
y L i k e a ll. oth er com m od i ti es , i t w as als o
 4 2 Cap i ta li s t P r od uct i on .

e v er d ay th i n g , w ood But s o s oon as p it s te s for th as a

y
-
.
,

c om m od i t
y, i t i s c h a n g ed i n t o s om eth i ng It n ot tr an s cen d en t .

on l t n d w i t h i t s feet on th e g r oun d , b ut, i n r elati on to all

y s a s

oth er c om m od i ti es , i t s tan d s on i ts h ea d , an d ev olv es ou t of i ts

w ood en b r a i n g r otes qu e i d eas , far m or e w on d er ful th an ta ble

tur n i n g e v er w as .

Th e m y s ti cal ch ar a cter of c omm od i ti es d oes n ot or i g i n a te ,

th er efor e, i n th ei r u s e v alue J us t as li ttle d oes i t pr oceed fr om

.
-
.

t h e n a tur e of th e d eter m i n i n g fa ctor s of v alu e F or , i n th e .

fi r s t plac e ,
h ow ev er v ar i ed th e u s efu l k i n d s of lab our , p or ro

d uc ti v e a c ti v i ti es ,
m ay b e, i t i s a h
p y s i ologi ca l fac t th a t t hey
,

ar e fun c ti on s of th e h u m a n or g an i s m ,
an d th at each s u ch fun c
t i on , w h a te v er m ay b e i ts n atu r e or for m , i s es s en ti ally th e ex

p en d i tur e of v es m us cles &c S econ d ly w i th

h um an br ai n ,
n er , ,
.
,

r e g a r d to th a t w hi ch for m s th e gr oun d w or k for th e qu a n ti tati v e -

d eter m i n ati on of v alue n am ely th e d ur a ti on of th at expen di , ,

t u r e or t h e q u an ti ty of lab o
,
u r i t i s q u i te clear th at th er e i s a ,

a l ab le d i ffer en c e b et w een i ts qu an ti t n d q u li t I n ll
p p y a a y a .

s ta tes of s oci et
y t h e la b ou r ti m e th a t i t c os ts to
, p r od uc e th e -

m ean s of s ub s i s ten c e m u s t n eces s ar ily b e an obj ect of i n ter es t,

t o m a n k in d th oug h n ot of equ al i n ter es t i n d i ffer en t s tag es of

,

d ev elopm en t An d las tly fr om th e m om en t th at m en i n an y

.
1
,

w a w o k for on e a n oth e th ei r la b ou r as s um es a s oci al for m

y r r, .

Wh en ce th en ar i s es th e en i g m ati cal ch ar acter of th e pr od uc t

, ,

of la b ou r s o s oon a s i t a s s u m es th e for m of c om m o d i ti es
,

Clear ly f om thi s for m i ts elf Th e equali ty of all s or ts of

r .

h um an la b our i s ex pr es s ed obj ec ti v ely b y th ei r pr od u c ts a ll

b ei n g equally values ; th e m eas ur e of th e expen d i tu r e of lab our
p ow er b y th e d u ati on of th at ex pen d i t u e ta k es th e for m of
r r ,

t h e qu an ti ty of v alu e of t h e pr od u c ts of lab ou r ; an d fi n ally ,

th e m u tu al r ela ti on s of th e pr od uc er s , w i th i n w h i c h th e s oci a l

c h a r a c ter of t hei r la b ou r a ffi r m s i ts elf, ta k e th e for m of a

s oc i a l r elati on b etw een t h e pr od u c ts .

A com m od i t
y i s th er efor e a m y s ter i ous th i n g , s i m ply b ecau s e
i n i t th e s oci a l ch ar a c ter of m en lab our to th em
’
ap as an
s
p ea r s

1Am ng th nci nt G rm ns th unit

o e a e e a e form suring l nd w wh t c ld b
ea a as a ou e

h rv st d in d y d w c ll d T gw rk
a e e a a , an as a e a e , T gwa (j l
a nn et rr j liur n a e , or e a ur n a s , or

d i or n ali s ), Man n s maa d , &c .

( See G L . . v on M r r Einl itung u G schicht d r
au e e z r e e e

M rk
a &c . V r f ss ng M nch n
e a u , u e , 1 8 5 9 , p 1 29 .
 C om m od i ti es .
43

obj ecti v e ch ar acter s tam

p e d u
p t
onh e p r od uc t of th at la ou r , b
b ecaus e th e r elati on of th e pr od u c er s to th e s u m t otal of th ei r

ow n la b ou r i s pr es en ted to th em a s a s oci al r elati on ex i s ti n

g ,

n ot b etw een th em s elv es b ut b etw een th e pr od u cts of th ei r

,

lab our . T h i s i s th e r eas on w hy t h e pr od u c ts of lab our b ecom e

c om m od i ti es s oci al thi n gs w h os e q u ali ti es a r e a t th e s am e ti m e
:

er ce ti ble an d i m p er c e ti b le b th I t h m w
p p p y e s e n s es n e s a e a v .

th e li gh t fr om an obj ect i s p er c ei v ed b y u s n ot a s th e s u bj ec ti v e
ex ci ta ti on of ou r op ti c n er v e b u t as th e obj ec ti v e for m of ,

s om ethi n g outs i d e th e e e i ts elf B u t i n th t of s eei n g

y e a c .
, ,

th er e i s a t all ev en ts an a ctual p a s s ag e of li g h t fr om on e th i n g
,

to a n oth er fr om th e exter n al obj ec t to th e ey e

,
T h er e i s a .

h i c al r elati on b etw een h i l th i n g B u t i t i s d iffer en t

p y s
p y s ca s .
.

w i th c om m od i ti es T h er e th e exi s ten ce of th e th i n g s gud

.
,

c om m od i ti es an d th e v alu e r ela ti on b etw een th e r od u c ts of

, p
lab ou r w h i ch s tam ps th em a s c omm odi ti es h av e a b s olu tely n o ,

c on n ec ti on w i th th ei r ph y s i c al pr op er ti es an d w i th th e m ater i al
r ela ti on s ar i s i n g
th er efr om T h er e i t i s . a d efi n i te s oci al r ela

ti on b etw een m en , th at a s s u m es , i n th ei r ey es , th e fan tas ti c

for m of a r elati onb etw een thi n gs In or d er th er efor e to fin d .
, ,

a n a n alogy w e m u s t h a v e r ec our s e to th e m i s t en v elop ed r egi on s

,
-

of th e r eli g i ou s w or ld In th at w or ld th e pr od u cti on s of th e
.

h um an b r ai n appear a s i n d ep en d en t b ei n g s en d ow ed w i th li fe ,
.

a n d en ter i n g i n to r elati on b oth w i th on e a n oth er an d th e h um an

r ace . So i t i s i n th e w or ld of com m od i t i es w i th th e pr od u c ts
of m en h an d s T hi s I call th e F eti s h i s m w h i ch attach es i ts elf
’
s .

to th e pr od u c ts of lab our , s o s oon a s th ey a r e pr od u ced a s c om

m od i ti es , an d w hi ch i s th er efor e i n s epar ab le fr om th e pr od uc
ti on of com m od i ti es .

T hi s F eti s hi s m of c omm od i ti es h as i ts or i gi n ,
as th e for e
g oi n g
'

an aly s i s h as alr ead y s h ow n , in th e p ec u li ar s oci al

c ha r a c ter of th e la b our th a t pr od u ces th em .

As a g en er al r ule ,
ar ti cles of u ti li ty b
ec om e c om m od i ti es , on ly

b ecau s e th ey ar e pr od u cts of th e la b our of pr i va te i n d i vi d uals

or gr ou s of i n d i v i d u als w h o c ar r th i r w or k i n d e en d en tl
p y on e p y
of ea ch oth e Th e s um total of th e lab ou r of all th es e pr i v ate
r .

i n d i v i d uals for m s th e a gg r eg ate lab our of s oci ety S i n c e th e .

pr od u cers do n ot c om e i n to s oci al con tac t w i th ea ch oth er un ti l

 -

44 Cap i ta ti s t P r od ucti on .

t hey e x c h an g e th ei r pr od u c ts , th e s p eci fi c s oci al ch ar a cter of

r

each p r od u c er s
’
b
la our d oes n ot s h ow i ts elf ex cept i n th e a c t of

e x ch an g e . In oth er w or d s , th e la b our of th e i n di i d ual v ass er t s

i ts elf as ap ar t of b ou r of s oc i ety on l
th e la y y b m e an s o f t h e ,

r ela ti on s w hi ch th e a c t of ex c h a n g e es ta b li s h es d i r ec tly b etw een

th e pr od uc ts a n d i n d i r ec tly th r ou gh th em b etw een th e pr o

, , ,

d ucer s To th e latter th er efor e th e r elati on s con n ecti n g th e

.
, ,

lab our of on e i n d i v i d ual wi th th at of th e r es t a ppear n ot as ,

d i r ect s oci al r ela ti on s b etw een i n di vi d ua ls a t w or k b u t a s w h at ,

th ey r eally a r e m ater i al r elati on s b etw een p er s on s an d s oc i a l

,

r elati on s b etw een thi n g s It i s only b y b ei n g ex ch a n g ed th a t

.

th e pr od uc ts of lab ou r a c qu i e a s v alues on e u n i for m s oci al r , ,

s ta tu s d i s ti n c t fr om th eir v a r i ed for m s of exi s ten c e as obj ec ts

,

of u ti li ty T hi s d i vi s i on of a pr od u ct i n to a u s eful thi n g an d
.

a v alue b ec om es pr acti ca lly i m p or tan t on ly w h en ex ch ang e ,

h as a c q ui r ed s uch a n ex tens i on th at u s eful a r ti c les a r e pr od u c ed

for th e pur pos e of b ei n g ex ch an ged a n d th ei r c h a r ac ter as ,

v alu es h as th er efor e to b e tak en i n to a cc ou n t b efor eh an d , ,

d ur i n g pr od u c ti on Fr om th i s m om en t th e lab o ur of th e
.

i n di vi d ual pr od ucer a cq u i r es s oci ally a tw o fold c h ar a cter On -

.

t h e on e h a n d i t m us t a s a d efi n i te u s eful k i n d of la bour
, , ,

s ati s fy a d efi n i te s oci al w a n t an d th u s h old i ts la ce as a rt

,p p
a n d par cel of th e collec ti v e la b our of a ll as a b r an c h of a s oc i a l ,

d i v i s i on of lab our th at h as s pr un g u p s pon ta n eous ly On th e .

oth er h an d i t c an s a ti s fy th e m an i fold w an ts of th e i n d i v i d ual

,

r od ucer hi m s elf on l i n f r a s th e m u tual ex c h a n g ea b ili t

p y s o a
, y
of all k i n d s of u s eful r i v a te la b ou r i s a n es tab li s h ed s oc i a l fac t
p ,

a n d th er efor e th e p r i v a te u s eful la b our of eac h pr od u cer r a n k s

on a n eq u ali ty w i th th at of all oth er s Th e equali s a ti on of th e .

m os t d i ffer en t k i n d s of lab our c an b e th e r es ult on ly of a n

a b s tr a c ti on fr om th ei i n equ ali ti es or of r ed uci n g th em to
r ,

t h ei r c om m on d en om i n ator v i z ex pen d i tu r e of h um an lab our

, .
,

o w e r or h u m an la b ou r i n th e a b s tr a ct T h tw f ld i l
p e o o s o c a -
.

ch ar a c ter of th e lab our of t h e i n d i v i d ual a t h i m w h

pp n
r
ea s o e ,

r efl ected i n h i s b r ai n on l u n d er th es e for m s w h i ch a r e i m
y ,

r es s ed u on th a t la b our i n ev er d a t i b t h x h g
p p y y p r ac c e y e e c a n e

of r od u c ts I n thi s w a t h h r a c ter th at hi s o w n la b ou
p .
y e c a , r

o s s es s es of b ei n g s oci all u f u l t k t h f m f th d i ti
p y s e a e s e o r o e c on o n ,
 Com m od i ti es .
45 .

th a t th e pr od uc t m us t b e n ot on ly u s eful, b u t u s eful for oth er s ,

a n d th e s oci al ch ar ac ter th a t h i s par ti c ular la b our h as of b ei n g

th e q
e ual of a ll oth er
pa r ti cular ki n d s of la b our ,
ta k es th e for m
th at all th e p hy s i cally d i ffer en t ar ti cles th at ar e th e pr od u cts
of lab our , h a v e on e com m on qu ali ty ,
v iz .
,
th at of h av i n g v alue .

H en ce br i n g th e pr od u c ts of our lab our i n to r ela

,
w h en w e
ti on w i th ea ch oth er as v alu es i t i s n ot b ecau s e w e s ee i n th es e ,

a r ti cles th e m a ter i al r ec e ta cles of h om og en eou s h u m an lab our

p .

Q ui te th e c on tr ar y z w h en ev e r b y a n ex ch a ng e w e equ ate as , ,
.

valu es our d i ffer en t pr od u c ts b y th a t v er y a ct w e als o eq uate , , ,

a s h u m an lab our th e d i ffer en t k i n d s of la b ou r ex en d ed u pon

p
,

t h em We ar e n ot a w a r e of th i s n ev er th eles s w e d o i t
.
,
.
1

Valu e th er efor e d oes n ot s talk a b out w i th a lab el d es cr i b i n g

, ,

w h at i t i s It i s v alue r ath er th at con v er ts ev er y pr od u c t

.
_ , ,

i n to a s oci al h i er ogly phi c L ater on w e tr y to d eci ph er th e .

,

h i er ogly ph i c to get b ehi n d th e s ecr et of our ow n s oci a l pr o

,

d u cts for to s tam p an obj ect of utili ty a s a v alu e i s j u s t a s ,

m u ch a s oci al pr od u ct a s lan g u age Th e r ec en t s ci en ti fi c d i s .

c ov er y th a t th e r od u c ts of la b our s o far a s th ey a r e v alu es

p, , ,

a r e b ut m ater i al ex r es s i on s of th e h u m a n la b ou r s en t i n
p p .

th ei r pr od u c ti on m ar k s i n d eed a n epoch i n th e h i s tor y of th e

, , ,

d ev elopm en t of th e h um an r a ce b ut b y n o m ean s d i s s i pates

’

, , ,

ter of lab ou r a ppear s .

er of th e pr od u c ts t h em s elv es .

for m p of r od u c ti on w i th w h i ch
we ar e d eali n g , v iz ,
th e.
p r od u c t i on of c om m od i ti es , th e s p eci fi c

s oci al c h a r a c ter of p r i v a te la b our c a r r i ed on i n d ep en d en tly ,

c on s i s ts quali ty of ev er y k i n d of th a t lab our b y vi r tue

i n th e e ,

of i ts b ei n g h um an la b ou r w hi ch c h a r a cter th er efor e a s s um es , , ,

i n th e p r od u ct th e for m of v alu e— th i s fa c t a pp ear s to th e

r od u cer s n otw i th s tan d i n g th e d i s cov er b v r efer r ed to
p , y a o e ,

to b e j u s t a s r eal a n d fi n al as th e fa c t th a t a fter th e d i s c ov er y , , ,

b y s ci en ce of th e c om p on en t gas es of a i r th e a tm os ph er e i ts elf ,

r em ai n ed u n alter ed .

W h at fi ,
rst o f a ll,
p r a c ti ca lly con cer n s p r od uc er s w h en th ey
1
Wh n th r f r G li i s ys V lu is r l ti n b t w n
e e e o e, a an a : a e a e a o e ee p ers ons
—“
La
r gi n t d u p rs n —h ght t h v dd d r l ti n b
,

Ricch zz au e a na a o e ra e e o e,
”
e ou o a e a e a e a o e
t w n p rs ns xpr ss d
ee e r l ti n b tw n things ( G li i D ll M n t p
o e e e as a e a o e ee a an : e a o e a,
22 1 V III f C t d i c ll cti n f Scritt ri Cl ssici It li ni di Ec n mi P li
. . .

’
o us o s o e o O o a a a o o a o
tic P rt M d rn Mil n 1 803)
.
,
.

”
a . a e o e a, a o,
4 6 Ccap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

m ak e an e x ch an g e ,
i s th e q u es ti on ,
h ow m u ch of s om e oth er

p r od u c t th ey get for th ei r ow n ? i n w h a t pr op or ti on s th e pr o
d u c ts a e
r ex c h a n g ea le ? b W h en th es e pr ep or ti on s h a v e, b y
c u s tom , a tta i n ed a c er ta i n s ta b i li ty , th ey a
pp ea r to r es u lt fr om
th e n atu r e of th e p r od ucts , s o th a t for i n s ta n ce, on e ton of i r on ,

and t wo ou n c es of g old a p pear a s n atu r a lly to b e of equ al v a lu e

as a p ou n d of g old an d a p oun d of i r on i n s pi te of th ei r
d i ffer en t ph y s i cal a n d ch em i cal qu ali ti es a ppear to b e of eq u al
w ei g h t Th e ch ar acter of h a vi n g v alu e, w h en on ce i m pr es s ed
.

u
p on p r od u c ts , ob tai n s fi xi ty on l b
y y r eas on of th ei r a cti n g an d
re -
a c ti n g u p on ea ch oth er as q ua nti ti es of v a lue . T h es e
quan ti ti es v ar y con ti n ually , i n d epen d en tly of th e w i ll, for e
s i gh t a n d a c ti on of th e pr od u c er s To th em , th ei r ow n s oc i al
.

a c ti on tak es th e for m of th e a c ti on of obj ec ts w hi c h r ule t h e ,

p r od ucer s i n s tea d of b ei ng r uled b y th em . It re qu ir es a fu lly

d ev elop ed pr od u c ti on of c om m odi ti es b efor e, fr om ac c um ula ted
e x er i en c e a lon e, th e s c i en ti fi c con vi c ti on s r i n g s u p , th at all
p p
ki n ds vate la b ou r w h i c h
‘

th e d i ffer en t p of ri ,
ar e c a r r i ed on in
d ep en d en tly of each oth er a n d y et as s pon ta n eou s ly d ev eloped ,

br an ch es of th e s oci al d i vi s i on of lab our , ar e c on tin ually b ei n g

r ed u ced quan ti ta ti v e p r opor ti on s i n w h i ch s oci ety r e
to th e .

qu i r es th em An d w hy ? Be ca us e i n th e m i d s t of all th e
.
,
“

a c ci d en tal a n d ev er fl u c tu a ti n g ex ch a n g e r ela ti on s b e tw een -

th e pr od uc ts th e la b our ti m e s oc i ally n ec es s ar y for th ei r pr o

,
-

d u c ti on for c i b ly a s s er ts i ts elf li k e a n ov er r i d i n g la w of n a tur e -

.

Th e law of gr a v i ty th us a s s er ts i ts elf w h en a h ous e falls a b ou t

ou r ea r s Th e d eter m i n ati on of th e m a g n i tu d e of v alu e b y
.
1

lab ou r ti m e i s th er efor e a s ec r et h i d d en u n d er th e a ppa r en t

-

fluc tua ti on s i n th e r ela ti ve v alu es of c om m od i ti es Its d i s .

c ov er y w hile r em ov i n g a ll a ppea r a n ce of m er e a cci d en ta li ty

,

fr om th e d eter m i n ati on of th e m ag n i tu d e of th e v alu es of

r od u c ts , in a lt er s th e m od e in w h i ch
p y t
e no w ay t h at
d eter m i n ati on tak es place .

M an s r efl ec ti on s on th e for m s q
’
of s oci al li fe, a n d c on s e u en tl
y ,

Wh t
1 “ w t think f
a l w th t ss rts its lf nly by p ri dic l
ar e e o lo a a a a e e o e o a r ev o u

ti ns It is j st n thing b ut l w f N t r f nd d th w nt f kn wl dg f
o ? u o a a o a u e, ou e on e a o o e e o

th s wh s cti n is th s bj ct f it ( Fri drich Eng ls Umriss

o e o e a o e in r Kritik
u e o . e e : e zu e e

der N ti lok a mi
on in th D tsch f e i h J h b ii h
a
‘

on o e, dit d by A rn ld
e eu -
r an z s sc e a r c er ,
”
e e o

R g d K rl M rx P ris
u e an a a . a ,
 Com m od i ti es .

47

a ls o, his s c i en ti fi c an aly s i s of th os e for m s ,

ta k e a c ou r s e d i r ec tly
oppos i te to th a t of th ei r a c tu al hi s tor i cal d ev elop m en t . He
b egi ns , p os t fes tum , w i th th e r es u lts th e pr oces s of d ev elop
of

m en t r ea d y to h a n d b efor e him . Th e ch ar a cter s th a t s tam p

p ro d u c ts a s com m od i ti es , an d w h os e b li s h m en t i s a n eces s ar y
es ta

pr eli m i n a r y to th e c i r c ula ti on of c omm od i ti es h a v e a lr ea d y ,

a c qu i r ed th e s tab i li t of n a tur a l, s elf u n d er s tood for m s of s oc i a l

y
-

li fe, b efor e m a n s ee k s to d ec i ph er , n ot th ei r h i s tor i c al c h a r a c ter ,

f or in hi s ey es th ey ar e i mm u tab le, b ut th ei r m ea n i n g .

C on s equ en tly i t w as th e a n aly s i s of th e p r i ces of com m od i ti es

t h at alon e led to th e d eter m i n ati on of th e m a g n i tu d e of a lu e, v
a nd i t w as th e c emm on xpr es s i on of all c om m od i ti es i n m on ey e

th a t a lon e led t o th e es tab li s h m en t of th ei r ch ar a cter s a s v alu es .

It i s h ow ev er j us t th i s u lti m ate m on ey for m of th e w or ld of

, ,

c om m od i ti es th a t ac tu a lly con cea ls i n s tea d of d i s clos i n g t h e , ,

s oci al c h ar a c ter of pr i v a te la b our a n d th e s oci al r ela ti on s ,

b etw een th e i n d 1 v i d ual pr od uc er s Wh en I s tate th at c oa ts or .

b oots s tan d i n a r elati on to li n en b ecau s e i t i s th e un i v er s al ,

i n car n ati on of a b s tr a c t h u m an lab our th e a b s u r di ty of th e ,

s ta tem en t i s s elf ev i d en t N ev er th eles s w h en th e pr od uc er s of

-
.
,

c oats a n d b oots c om par e th es e ar ti cles w i th li n en or w h a t i s , ,

th e s am e th i n g w i th g old or s i lv er a s th e u n i v er s al eq ui v alen t
,\ , ,

th ey ex pr es s th e r elati on b etw een th ei r ow n pr i v ate lab our a n d

th e collec ti v e lab our of s oci ety i n th e s am e a b s ur d for m .

This categ or i es of b our g eoi s econ om y c on s i s t of s u ch li k e

for m s T h ey ar e for m s of th ough t ex pr es s i n g w i th s oci a l
.

v ali d i t t h e c on d i ti on s a n d r ela ti on s of a d efi n i te hi s tor i cally

y ,

d eter m i n ed m od e p ,
th e p r od of
u c ti on of com ro d u c ti on ,
v iz .

m od i ti es Th e w h ole m y s ter y of com m od i ti es , all th e m ag i c

.

a n d n ec r om a n cy t h a t s u r r oun d s th e pr od uc ts of la our a s lon g b

as t h ey tak e t h e for m of c om m od i ti es , va n i s h es th er efor e, so

s oon as we c om e to oth er for m s of r od u c ti on

p .

S i n ce R ob i n s on C r us oe s ex per i en c es ”
ar e a fa v our i te th em e
w i th p oli ti c al econ om i s ts let u s tak e ,
I a look a t h i m on h i s

1Ev n Ri c rd h his st ri s a l R bins

e a o H m k s th primitiv h nt r d
as o e a o on . e a e e e u e an

t h primitiv fish r str ightw y

e e wn rs f c mm diti s xch ng fish d g m in
e a a , as o e o o o e , e a e an a e

th p r p ti n in which l b
e o or r tim is inc rp r t d in th s xch g v l s On
o a ou -
e o o a e e e e an e a ue .

t his cc si n h c mmits th
o a o n chr nism f m king th s m pply t th c lc l
e o e a a o o a e e en a o e a u a

ti n
o ,
f so th ir impl m nts h v t b t k n int cc unt th nn ity t bl s in
ar as e e e a e o e a e o a o , e a u a e
4 8 Ccap i ta li s t P r odu ct i on .

i s lan d . M od er ate th ough h e b e y et ,

s om e few w an ts h e h a s to
s a ti s fy , a n d k of v ar i ous
m u s t th er efor e d o a li ttle u s efu l w or
s or ts s u ch a s m a k i n g t ools an d fu r n i tur e tam i n g g oats fi s h i n g
, , ,

a n d h u n ti n g Of h i s p r ay er s an d th e li k e w e tak e n o a ccoun t
.
,

s i n c e th ey a r e a s our c e of pleas u r e to hi m a n d h e look s u p on ,

th em a s s o m u ch r ecr ea ti on In s pi te of th e v a r i ety of hi s .

w or k h e kn ow s th at hi s lab our w h a tev er i ts for m i s b u t th e

, , ,

a c ti v i ty of on e a n d th e s a m e R ob i n s on a n d c on s eq u en tly th at , ,

i t con s i s ts of n othi n g b u t d i ffer en t m od es of h u m an lab ou r .

N ec es s i ty i ts elf c om pels h i m to a pp or ti on h i s ti m e a c c ur a tely

b et w een h i s d i ffer en t ki n d s of w or W h eth er on e ki n d

k .

oc c u
p i es a gr eater s
pac e i n hi s g en er al a cti vi ty th an a n oth er ,

d epen d s on th e d i ffi c ulti es ,
gr eater or les s a s th e ca s e m ay b e ,

t o b e ov er com e i n a tta i n i n g th e u s eful effec t a i m ed a t T hi s .

our fr i en d R ob i n s on s oon lear n s b y ex per i en ce an d h av i n g ,

r es c u ed a w a tch led ger an d pen a n d i n k fr om th e w r eck

, , ,

c om m en c es li k e a tr u e b or n B ri ton to k eep a s et of b ook s

,
-

,
.

Hi s s tock b ook con ta i n s a li s t of th e obj ec ts of u ti li ty th a t

-

b elon g to h i m of t h e oper ati on s n eces s ar y for thei r pr od uc ti on ;

,

an d las tly of th e lab ou r ti m e th at d efi n i te q uan ti ti es of th os e

,

obj ec ts h a v e on a n a v er ag e cos t h i m, All th e r elati on s , .

b etw een R ob i n s on an d th e obj ects tha t for m th is w ealth of hi s

o w n cr eati on a r e h er e s o s i m le a n d c lea r a s to b e i n telli g i b le
p ,

w i th ou t ex er ti on ev en to Mr S ed ley T ay lor An d y et th es e
, . .

r ela ti on s c on tai n all th at i s es s en ti al to th e d eter m i n ati on of

v alue .

Let us n ew tr a n s por t our s el es v fr om R ob i n s on s ’

i s lan d
b ath ed i n li gh t to th e E ur opean
m i d d le a g es s h r ou d ed i n d a r k
n es s H er e i n s tead of th e i n d epen d ent m an , w e fin d ev er y on e
.
,

d ep en d en t s er fs an d lor d s v a s s als an d s uz er a i n s lay m en an d

, , ,

cler gy P er s on al d epen d en ce h er e ch ar acter i s es th e s oci al

.

r ela ti on s of r od uc ti on j u s t a s m u ch a s i t d oes th e oth er s h er es

p p
of li fe or gan i z ed on th e b as i s
th at pr od ucti on But for th e
of .

v er y r ea s on th at p er s on al d ep en d en c e for m s th e g r oun d w or k
of s oci ety , t h er e i s n o n eces s i t
y for lab our an d i ts p r od uc ts to

c urr t u
en th L nd n Exch ng in th y r 1 81 7
s e on Th p r ll l gr ms f Mr
e o o a e e ea . e a a e o a o .

Ow n pp r t b th nly f rm f s ci ty b sid s th b rg is f rm with which

e a ea o e e o o o o e , e e e ou eo o ,

h w
e cqu int d ( K rl M rx Z u Kritik & p 38
as a a e .
”
a a r ,
”
c. , .
,
 50 Cap i ta ti s t P r od ucti on .

th e re g ula ti on of -
th e la b our -
ti m e of th e se ve ra l m em b er s ,
d epen d as w ell u pon d i ffer en c es of a ge a n d s ex a s u pon n a tu r a l

c on d i ti on s var i n
y w i t hgth e s eas on s Th e la ou r
p ow er . b -
of ea c h

i n d i v i d u a l, b y i ts v er y
Oper ates i n thi s ca s e m er ely a s
n atu r e,

a d efi n i te p or ti on of th e w h ole la b ou r o w r of th e fa m i l n d
p e y a
-

th er efor e th e m ea s ur e of th e ex pen d i tu r e of i n d i v i d u al lab our

,

p o w er b y i ts d u r a ti on a pp ea r s h er e b y ,
i t s v er
y n a tu r e a s a

s oci al c h a r a c ter of th ei r lab our .

Let u s n e w pi c tu r e to ou r s elves b y w ay of ch an g e a c om , ,

m un i ty of fr ee i n d i vi d ua ls c ar r y i n g on th ei r w or k w i th th e ,

m ean s of pr od u cti on i n com m on i n w hi ch th e lab ou r p ow er of ,

-

a ll th e d i ffer en t i n di v i d u als i s con s c i ou s ly a p li ed as t h

p e

c om b i n ed la b our p ow er of th e com m u n i t A ll t h e c h ar a c
y
-
.

ter i s ti cs of R ob i n s on s lab our a r e h er e r epeated b ut w i th th i s

’

d i ffer en c e th a t th ey a r e s oc i al i n s tea d of i n d i vi d u al
, ,
E ver y .

th i n g pr od u c ed b y h i m w as e x clu s i v ely th e r es u lt of h i s o w n
n a l la b ou r d t h f i m l n bj t f u f
p er s o a n e r e o
,
r e s
py a o ec o s e o r

h i m s elf . Th e total pr od u ct of ou r com m u n i ty i s a s oci a l

p r od uc t . On e por ti on s er ves as fr es h m ean s of pr od uc ti on a n d
r em a i n s s oc i a l . But a n oth er p or ti on is c on s u m ed b y th e
m em b er s as b sis ten ce A d i s tr i b uti on of th i s
m ean s of su .

or t i on a m on g s t th em i s c on s eq u en tl n eces s a r y T h e m od e
p y .

o f th i s d i s tr i b u ti on w ill v a r w i t h th od u c ti v e or g a n i z a ti on
y e
p r

of th e c omm u n i ty a n d t h e d egr ee of h i s tor i ca l d evelopm en t

,

a tta i n ed b y th e pr od uc er s We wi ll a s s um e b ut m er ely for

.
,

th e sa ke of a pa r a llel w i th th e pr od u c ti on of com m od i ti es th a t ,

th e s h ar e of ea c h i n d i vi d u al pr od u cer i n t h e m ean s of s u b s i s
ten c e i s d eter m i n ed b y h i s la b our t i m e L ab ou r ti m e w ould , -
.
-

i n th at ca s e,
p lay d ou b le p ar t
a Its a ppor ti on m en t i n a c c or
.

d a n ce w i th a d efi n i te s oci al plan m a i n tai n s th e pr eper pr ep or ti on

b etw een th e d i ffer en t ki n d s of w or k v a i ou s
to b e d on e an d th e r

w a n ts of th e c om m u n i ty . On th e oth er h a n d i t a ls o s er v es a s ,

m ea s ur e of th e por ti on of th e co m m on la b ou r b or n e b ea ch
a
y
i n di vi d u al, a n d of hi s s har e i n th e p a r t of th e total pr od u c t d es
t i n ed for i n d i i d u a l v c on s u m
pt i on . Th e s oc i al r ela ti on s of th e

i n d i v i d ua l pr od u c er s , w i th r ega r d b oth to th ei r la b ou r a n d to i ts
r od u c ts a r e i n th i s c as e r fec tl i m l n d i n telli gi b le, a n d
p , p e y s
p e a

t h a t w i th re gar d n ot on ly t o pr od u cti on b ut als o to d i s tr i b uti on .

 Com m od i ti es .
5 I

The g i ous w or ld i s b ut th e r efl ex of th e r eal w or ld An d

r eli .

for a s oci ety b a s ed up on th e pr od u c ti on of com mod i ti es i n ,

w hi ch th e pr od u cer s i n g en er al en ter i n to s oci al r ela ti on s w i th

o n e a n oth er b t r ea ti n g th ei r r od uc ts a s c om m od i ti es a n d
y p
values w h er eby th ey r ed uce th ei r i n di vi d ual pr i va te lab our to
,

th e s ta n d ar d of h om og en eou s h um an la b our — for s u ch a s oci ety ,

Jh r i s ti an i ty w i th i ts c u ltus of a b s tr ac t m an m or e es peci ally i n ,

i ts b our geoi s d ev elopm en ts P r otes ta n ti s m D ei s m & c i s th e , , ,

.
,

m os t fi tti n g for m of r eli g i on In th e a n ci en t A s i ati c a n d oth er

.

an ci en t m od es of pr od u c ti on w e fi n d t h a t th e c on v er s i on of
,

p r o d u c ts i n to c o m m o d i ti es a n d t h e r ef o
,
r e t h e co n v e r s i o n o f m e n

i n to p r od u c er s of com m od i ti es h old s a s u b or d i n a te pla c e w h i c h

, , ,

h ow ev er i n cr ea s es i n i m por ta n ce a s th e pr i m i ti v e c omm u n i ti es
,

a
pp r oa c h n ea r er a n d n ea r er t o t h e i r d i s s o lu ti on T r a d i n g .

'

n ati on s r o er l a lled ex i s t i n th e a n c i en t w or ld on l i n
p p y
,
s o c , y
i ts i n ter s ti c es li k e th e g od s of E pi c ur us i n th e In ter m u n d i a or
, ,

li k e J ew s i n th e por es of P oli s h s oci ety T h os e a n ci en t s oc i a l.

or g a n i s m s of pr od u c ti on a r e as c om pa r ed w i th b our geoi s
,

s oc i ety ex tr em ely s i m le a n d tr a n s ar en t B u t t h e
, p p y a re .

fou n d ed ei th er on th e i m m atur e d ev elopm en t of m an i n

d i vi d ually w h o h a s n ot y et s ev er ed th e um b i li ca l c or d th a t
,

u n i tes hi m w i th h i s fellow m en i n a r i m i ti v e tr i b a l com

p
m un i ty or u pon d i r ec t r ela ti on s of s u bj ec ti on
,
T h ey c an .

a r i s e a n d ex i s t on ly w h en th e d ev elo m en t of th e r od u c t i v e
p p
w r of la b ou r h as n ot r i s en b e on d a low s ta g e a n d w h en
p o e y , ,

t h er efor e, th e s oc i al r ela ti on s w i thi n th e s

ph er e of m a t er i a l

li fe ,
b etw een m an an d m an a n d b etw een ,
m an a n d N a tur e, a r e
c or r es pon d i n gly n ar r o w T h i s n ar r ow n es s . is fl ec ted
re i n th e
a n ci en t w or s hi p of Na tur e ,
an d i n th e oth er elem en t s of th e

p p
o ula r r eli T h e gi on s
r eli i ous r efl ex of th e r ea l w or ld ca n
g .
,

i n a ny c as e, only th en fin a lly v an i s h w h en t h e pr a cti cal r e ,

la ti on s of ev er y d ay li fe offer to m a n n on e b u t per fec tly i n

t elligi b le a n d r eas on ab le r ela ti on s w i th r eg a r d t o h i s fellow m en
and to n a tur e .

Th e li fe pr oces s of s oci ety w hi ch i s b a s ed on th e pr oces s of

-
,

m a ter i al pr od u c ti on d oes n ot s tr i p off i ts m y s ti ca l v ei l u n til i t

,

i s tr ea ted a s pr od u cti on b y f r eely a s s oci ated m en , a n d i s c on

s ci ous l r eg ula ted b t h m i d w i th tt led l
y y e n a c c or an c e a s e p a n .
 5 2 Ccap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

T hi s h ow ev er d em a n d s for
, ,
s oci et
y a cer tai n m ater i al gr oun d
w or k or s et of c on di t i on s of e xi s ten c e w hi ch i n th ei r tur n ar e
th e s
p on ta n eo u s
p r o d uc t of a lon g a n d pa i n ful r oc es s of
p
d ev elopm en t .

P oli ti cal econ om y h as i n d eed an aly s ed h ow ev er i n com ,

p letel
y v a lu e a n d i ts m a g,
n i tu d e a n d h as d i s c ov er e d w h a t li es ,

b en ea th th es e for m s But i t h as n ev er on ce a s k ed th e qu es ti on .

w h y la b ou r i s r epr es en ted b y th e v alu e of i ts r od u c t a n d la b our

p
t i m e b y th e m a gn i tud e of th a t va lu e T h es e for m ulae w h i ch .
2
,

1 ins ffici ncy f Ric rd s n lysis f th m gnit d f v l

Th e u e d his
o lysi a o
’
a a o e a u e o a u e, a n an a s

i by f th b st will pp r fr m th 3 d d 4 th b ks f this w rk As r g rd
s ar e e , a ea o e r an oo o o . e a s

v l in g n r l it is th w k p int f th cl ssic l sch l f p litic l c n my th t

a ue e e a , e ea o o e a a oo o o a e o o a

it wh r xpr ssly d with f ll c nsci usn ss disting ish s b tw n l b r i t

no e e, e e an u o o e , u e e ee a ou , as

a pp rs in th v l
ea f p r d ct d t h s m l b ur
e it pp rs in th
a ue o a o u an e a e a o , as a ea e us e

v l f th t pr d ct Of c rs t h distincti n is p r ctic lly m d sinc this sch l

a ue o a o u . ou e e o a a a e, e oo

tr ts l b r t
ea tim nd r its q ntit tiv sp ct t n th r nd r its q lit
a ou , a on e e u e ua a e a e , a a o e u e ua a

tiv sp ct B t it h
e a et th l st id
. th t wh n th diff r nc b tw n v ri us
u as n o e ea ea , a e e e e e e ee a o

kinds f lab r is tr t d pur ly qu ntit tiv th i r q lit tiv nity q lity

o ou ea e as e a a e, e ua a e u or e ua ,

an d th r f r th ir r d cti n te e o e bstr ct hum n l b r is impli d F i st nc

e e u o o a a a a ou ,
e . or n a e,

Ric rd d cl r s th t h gr s with D t tt d Tr cy in this p r p siti n As it i

a o e a e a e a ee es u e a o o o
“
s

c rt in th t
e a p hysic l nd m r l f c ulti s
a our l n rigi n l rich s th m
a a o a a e ar e a o e o ur o a e , e e

pl ym nt f th s f c l ti s l b
o e r f s m kind is
o o e nly rigin l tr s r
a u d it is
e , a ou o o e ,
our o o a ea u e, a n

a lw ys fr m this mpl ym nt th t ll th s things cr t d which w c ll rich s

a o e o e a a o e ar e ea e , e a e .

It is c rt in t th t ll th s things nly r pr s nt th l b r which h

e a ,
oo , a a o e o e e e e a ou as

cr t d th m d i f th y h v v l
ea e e ,v n t w di stinct v l s th y
an e nly a e a a u e , or e e o a ue , e ca n o

d riv th m fr m th t ( th v l ) f th l b r fr m which th y m n
e e e o a ( Ric rd e a ue o e a ou o e e a at e . a o,

Th Princi pl s f P l Ec n 3 Ed L nd 1 821 p
e e o W w uld h r nly p i n t
o . o . . o .
, . e o e e o o

ou t th t Ric rd p ts his w m r p r f
,
a nd int rpr t ti n p n th w rds f D
a o u o n o e o ou e e a o u o e o o es

t utt t t th l tt r r lly s ys is th t th
. a eh nd ll things which c nstitut
a e ea a , a on e on e a a o e

w lth r p r s nt th l b ur th t cr t s th m b t th t th th r h nd th y
ea e e e e a o a ea e e ,
u a on e o e a , e ao

q ir th ir t w diff r nt v l s (u v l
u e e d xch ng v l ) fr m
o th v l
e e a ue s e- a ue a n e a e- a ue o e a ue

fl b r H th u s f lls int th c mm npl c rr r f t h v lg r c n mists w h

”
o a ou . e a o e o o a e e o o e u a e o o , o

a ss m th v l u f
u e c mm dity (in this c s l b r ) in rd r t d t rmin th
e a e o on e o o a e a ou o e o e e e e

v l s f th r st B t Ri c rd r ds him i f h h d s id th t l b r ( t th
a ue o e e . u a o ea as e a a , a a ou no e

v l f l b ur ) is mb di d b th in
a ue o a o vl d xch ng v l e N v rth l ss
o e o us e -
a ue a n e a e- a ue . e e e e ,

Ric rd hims lf p ys littl tt nti n t th t w f ld ch r ct r f t h l b r which

a o e a so e a e o o e o- o a a e o e a ou

h t w f ld mb dim nt th t h d v t s th wh l
as a o -
o e f his ch pt r
o Vl e d ,
a e e o e e o e o a e on a ue an

Rich s Th ir Disti nctiv Pr p rti s t l b ri s x min ti n f t h trivi liti

e ,
e e o e e ,
”
o a a o ou e a a o o e a es

o f J B S y
a A nd t th finish h is q it st nish d t find th t D t tt th
. . a . a e e u e a o e o a es u on e

on e h d gr s with him t l b r b ing th s urc f v l

an a ee d th th r as o a ou e e o e o a u e, a n on e o e

h nd with J B S y t th n ti n f v l
a . . a as o e o o o a ue .

It is
2 f th chi f f ilings f cl ssic l c n my th t it h
on e o e n v r s cc d d by
e a o a a e o o a as e e u ee e ,

m ns f its n lysis f c mm diti s d in p rtic l r f th ir v l in disc v r

ea o a a o o o e , an , a u a , o e a u e, o e

ing th t f rm nd r which v l b c m s xch ng v l

a o u Ev n A d m Smith d
e a ue e o e e a e
-
a ue . e a an

Ric rd th b st r pr s nt tiv s f th sch l tr t th f rm f v lu

a o, e e e thing f
e e a e o e oo ,
ea e o o a e as a o

no imp rt nc h ving c nn cti n with th inh r nt n t r f c mm diti s

o a e, as a no o e o e e e a u e o o o e .

Th r s n f
e this is t s l ly b c s th ir tt nti n is ntir ly bs rb d in th
ea o or no o e e au e e a e o e e a o e e

a n lysis f th m gnit ud f v l
a o It li s d p r Th v l f rm f th p r d ct
e a e o a ue . e ee e . e a ue o o e o u
 C 53

b ear s tam ped u pon th em i n un m i s tak eable letter s th at th ey ,

b elon g to a s ta te of s oci ety i n w hi ch th e pr oc es s of pr od uc ti on ,

ha s th e m a s ter y ov er m a n i n s tea d of b ei n g c on tr olled b y h i m , ,

s u c h for m u lae a r to th e b ou r g eoi s i n tellect t o b e a s m u ch a

pp e a

s elf ev i d en t n ec es s i ty i m p os ed b y n a tu r e as pr od u c ti v e la b our
-

i ts elf . H en ce for m s of s oci al p r od u c ti on th a t p r eced ed th e

b ou geoi s r for m , ar e tr eated b y th e b our g eoi s i e i n m u ch th e

s am e way as th e Fa th er s of th e C h u r ch tr eated pr e—
C hr i s ti an
r eli g i on s .
1

of l b ur is t nly th m st bstr ct b t is ls t h m st niv rs l f rm t k n by

a o no o e o a a , u a o e o u e a o ,
a e

th p r d ct in b ur g is p r d ucti n
e o u d st m p s th t p r d cti n p rtic ul r
o eo o o , an a a o u o as a a a

s p ci s f s ci l pr d cti n d th r by giv s it its sp ci l hist ric l ch r ct r If

e e o o a o u o , an e e e e a o a a a e .

th n w tr t this m d f p r d cti n
e e ea t rn lly fix d by t r f v ry o e o o u o as on e e e a e na u e or e e

s t t f s ci ty w n c ss rily v rl k th t which is th diff r nti p i fi f th

a e o o e ,
e e e a o e oo a e e e a s ec ca o e

v l f rm d
a ue -

q tly f th c mm dity f rm
o , an d f its f rth r d v l p
c on s e u en
’

o e o o -
o , an o u e e e o

m nts m n y f rm c p it l f rm 8 W c ns q ntly find th t c n mi ts w h

e , o e -
o , a a -
o , 10 . e o e ue a e o o s ,
o

ar e th r ghly gr d t l b r tim b ing th m su f th m gnitud f v l

o ou a ee as o a ou e e e ea re o e a eo a ue ,

h v th m st str ng
a e d c ntr dict ry id s f m n y th p r f ct d f rm f th
e o a e an o a o ea o o e , e e e e o o e

g n r l q iv l nt This is s n in striking m nn r wh n th y tr t f b nking

e e a e u a e . ee a a e e e ea o a ,

wh r th c mm npl c d finiti ns f m n y will l ng r h ld w t r This l d t

e e e o o a e e o o o e no o e o a e . e o

th ris e f r st r d m rc ntil syst m ( G i lh

e o a which s s in v l n thi g
e o e e a e e an ,
ee a ue o n

b t s ci l f rm
u a r th r th ns bst nti l gh st f th t f rm Onc f ll I m y
o a o ,
or a e e u u a a o o a o . e or a a

h r st t th t by cl s ic l p litic l c n my I u nd rst nd th t c n my which

e e a e, a a s a o a e o o , e a a e o o ,

sinc th tim f W P tty h inv stig t d th r l r l ti ns f p r d cti n in b r

e e e o . e , as e a e e ea e a o o o u o ou

g i s ci ty in c ntr distincti n t v lg r c n my which d ls with pp r nc s

eo s o e , o a o o u a e o o , ea a ea a e

o nly r min t s with t c sing th m t ri ls l ng sinc pr vid d by sci ntific

, u a e ou ea on e a e a o e o e e

e c n my d th r s ks pl sibl xpl n ti ns f th m st btr siv p h n m n

o o , an e e ee au e e a a o o e o o u e e o e a,

f b urg is d ily
or o b t f th r st c nfi
eo s its lf t syst m tizing in p d ntic
a u s e, u or e e ,
o ne e o e a a e a

w y a d p r cl iming f
, an v rl sting tr ths th trit id s h ld by th s lf c mpl
o a or e e a u , e e ea e e e -
o a

ce nt b rg isi with r g rd t th ir w w rld t th m th b st f ll p ssibl

ou eo e e a o e o n o , o e e e o a o e

w rlds o .

L éc n mist s
1 “ t u i g li e m n i r d p r céd r
es o Il y p u r ux q u
o e on ne s n u re a e e e o e . n
’
a o e e

d eux s rt s d i ti t ti c ll s d l rt t c ll s d l tur L i stit ti ns d

o e
’
ns u on s , e e e
’
a e e e e a na e. es n u o e

l f é d lité s nt d
a o instit ti ns ti fi i ll c ll s d l b urg isi s nt d i ti t
a o es u o ar c e es , e e e a o eo e o es ns u

ti ns tur ll s Ils r ss mbl nt c ci ux thé l gi ns q i x ssi ét bli s nt

o na e e . e e e en e a o o e ,
u eu au a s e

d u x s rt s d r ligi ns
e T t r ligi n q i n st p l l r t u inv nti n d
o e e e o . ou e e o u
’
e as a eu , es ne e o es

h mm s t ndis q l r pr pr r ligi n t
o e , a em ti d Di u— A i si i l
ue eu o e e o es un e an a on e e n

y a d l hi t ien m is i l y pl us
e
( K rl M rx Mi e d l Phil s p hi
’
s o r e, a n
’
en a . a a . s rc e a o o e .

{ep a l Phil s p hi d l Mis er p

on s e M Pr dh n 1 847 p
a Tr ly c mic l
o o e e a e ar . ou o , . u o a

i M B ti t w h im gin s th t th
s . as nci nt Gr ks d R m s liv d by pl nd r
a , o a e a e a e ee an o an e u e

l n B t wh n p pl p l d r f c nt ri s th r m st lw ys b s m thing t
a o e . u e eo e un e or e u e ,
e e u a a e o e a

h nd f th m t s iz th bj cts f pl nd r m st b c ntin u lly r pr d c d It

a or e o e e e o e o u e u e o a e o u e .

w ld th s pp r th t v n G r ks d R m ns h d s m p r c ss f pr d cti n
ou u a ea a e e ee an o a a o e o e o o u o ,

co n q ntly s e ue c n my which j st much c nstit t d th m t ri l b sis f th ir

, an e o o ,
u as o u e e a e a a o e

w rld b rg is c n my c nstit t s th t f m d rn w rld Or p rh p s B

o , as ou eo e o o o u e a o ou r o e o . e a as

t i t m ns th t
a m d f pr d cti n b s d sl v ry is b s d
ea , a syst m f pl
a o e o o u o a e on a e a e on a e o un
d In th t c s h tr ds d ng r s gr nd If gi nt think r lik Arist tl
er . a a e e ea on a e ou ou . a a e e o e

e rr d in his ppr ci ti n f sl v l b r why sh ld dw r f c n mist lik B ti t

e a e a o o a e a ou , ou a a e o o e as a
b e right in his ppr ci ti n f w g l b r — I s iz this pp rt nity f sh rtly a e a o o a e a ou e e o o u o o
 Caf z z a lz s l P r od zzcz z m
’ ’ ’
‘ ‘
54 .

To w h at e x ten t s om e ec on om i s t s a r e m i s led b y th e F eti s h i s m

i n h er en t i n c om m od i ti es , or b y th e obj ec ti v e a r a n ce of th e
pp ea

s oci al c h a r a c ter i s ti c s of la b ou r , i s s h ow n , a m on gs t oth er w ay s ,

b y th e d u ll qu ar r el over th e par t pla y ed b y N a tur e
an d ted i ou s
i n th e for m a ti on of ex ch an ge v a lu e S i n c e ex ch a ng e value i s .

a d efi n i te s oc i al m a n n er of ex pr es s i n g th e a m ou n t of la b ou r

b es tow ed u pon an obj ect N atur e h a s n o m or e to d o w i th i t , ,

th a n i t h a s i n fixi n g th e cour s e 01 ex ch an g e .

Th e m od e of p r od u c ti on i n w h i c h th e pr od u ct ta kes th e
for m of a c om m od i ty or i s p r od u c ed d i r ec tly for ex ch a n g e i s th e , ,

m os t gen er al a n d m os t em b r y on i c for m of b our g eoi s pr od ucti on .

It th er efor e m a k es i ts a pp ear a n ce a t a n ear ly d a te i n h i s tor y ,

th ough n ot i n th e s am e pr ed om i n a ti n g a n d c h ar a c ter i s ti c
m an n er as n ow a - -
d ay s . H en ce i ts F e ti s h ch a r a c ter is com

p a r a ti v ely ea s
y to b e s een th r ough . But w h en w e c om e

to m or e c on cr et e for m s ,
e v en thi s
p a
p li c i ty
p ear an c e of sim

van i s h es W h en ce a r os e th e
. i llu s i on s of th e m on eta r y s y s tem ?
To i t g old a n d s i lv er w h en ,
s er v i n g a s m on ey d i d n ot r ep r e ,

s en t a s oci al r ela ti on b etw een pr od uc er s b ut w er e n at ur a l ,

obj ec ts w i th s t r an g e s oc i al pr oper ti es An d m od er n econ om y .

,

w hi ch look s d ow n w i th s u c h d i s d ai n on th e m on etar y s y s tem ,

d oes n ot i ts s up er s ti ti on c om e o u t a s clear as n oon -

d ay , w h en
e ve r i t tr ea ts of c a pi ta l ? How lon g i s i t s i n ce y d i secon om

c a r d ed th e ph y s i ocr a ti c i llu s i on , th a t r en ts gr ow ou t of th e
s oi l a n d n ot ou t of s oc i ety ?

an sw ring e bj cti n t k n by G rm n p p r in Am ri c t my w rk Z u
an o e o a e a e a a e e a, o o , r

Kritik d P l O k m i 1 859 In th stim ti n f th t p p r my i w th tf h

er o . e on o e, . ee a o o a a e ,
V e a eac

s p ci l m d f p r d cti n d th s ci l r l ti ns c rr sp nding t it in sh rt th t
e a o e o o u o an e o a e a o o e o o ,
o , a

th c n mic str uct ur f s ci ty is th r l b sis which th j ridic l d p litic l

e e o o e o o e ,
e ea a on e u a an o a

s p rstr ct r is r is d d t which d finit s ci l f rms f th ght c rr sp nd ;

u e u u e a e , an o e e o a o o ou o e o

th t th m d f pr d cti n d t rmin s th ch r ct r f th s ci l p litic l d i

a e o e o o u o e e e e a a e o e o a , o a , an n

t ll t l li f g n r lly
e ec ua ll this is v ry tr
e e fe a w tim s in which m t ri l
,
a e ue or ou r o n e , a e a

int r sts pr p nd r t b t t f th middl g s in which C th licism

e e e o e a e, u f no or e e a e ,
a o ,
n or or

Ath ns d R m wh r p litics r ign d s pr m In t h first pl c it strik s

e an o e, e e o ,
e e u e e . e a e e on e

a s an o d d thing f y t s pp s th t th s w ll w rn p hr s s b
or a n t th middl
on e o u o e a e e e -
o a e a ou e e

a g s d th nci nt w rld
e an e a nkn w t ny n ls This m ch h w v r is
e o ar e u o n o a o e e e
. u , o e e ,

cl r th t th middl g s c ld t liv
ea ,
a e C th licism e ath nci nt w rld
e ou no e on a o ,
n or e a e o on

p litics
o On th c ntr ry it is th m d in which th y g in d liv lih d th t x
. e o a , e o e e a e a e oo a e

p l ains why h r p litics d th r

e eC th licism op l y d th chi f p rt
, F t h r st
an e e a o ,
a e e e a . or e e ,

it r q ir s b t slight cq u int c with th hist ry f th R m n r p blic f

e u e u a a a an e e o o e o a e u ,
or

e x m pl t b w r th t its s cr t hist ry is th hist ry f its l nd d pr p rty

a e, o e a a e a e e o ,
e o o a e o e .

On th th r h nd D Q ix t l ng g p id th p n lty f w r ngly im gini g

e o e a ,
on u o e o a o a e e a or o a n

th t knight rr ntry w c mp tibl wi th ll c n mic l f rms f s ci ty

a e a as o a e a e o o a o o o e .
 Comm odi ti es .
55

But n ot to a n ti c i pa te, w e w i ll c on ten t ou r s el es v w i th y et

a n oth er e xa m ple r ela ti n g to th e com m od i ty for m C ould c om .

m odi ti es th em s elv es s peak th ey w ould s ay : Our u s e v alue m ay ,

-

b e a th i n g th a t i n ter es ts m en It i s n o par t of u s a s obj ects .

.

Wh at h ow ever d oes b elon g to u s a s obj ec ts i s our v alue Our

, , , .

n a tur a l i n ter c ou r s e a s c omm od i ti es p r ov es i t In th e ey es of .

ea ch oth er w e a r e n oth i n g b ut ex ch a n g e v alu es Now li s ten .

h ow th os e c om m od i ti es s p ea k th r ough th e m ou th of th e ec on o
ex ch a n g e v a lu e) i s a p r op er ty of th i n gs “
mi st Valu e
.
,

r i ch es u s e v a lu e -

) of m an . V a lu e, i n th i s s en s e, n ec es
”1
s ar il
y i m pli es e x c h a n g es ,
r i ch es d o n ot . Ri ch es ( u s e valu e)
“ ” -

a r e th e a ttr i b ute of m en v alu e i s th e ,

a ttr i b ute of c om m od i

ti es . A m an or a c om m u n i ty is r i ch , a
p ear l or a d i am on d i s
valuable A pear l or a d i a m on d i s v alu able as a
p ea r l or

di a m on d .
2
So far n o ch em i s t h as e v er d i s c ov er ed e x c h an g e
va lue ei th er i n a p ear l or a d i am on d . Th e ec on om i c al di s
c ov er er s of thi s c h em i ca l elem en t, w ho b y th e b y e lay s p ec i al
- -

c la i m to c r i ti cal a c um en , fin d h ow ev er t h a t th e u s e v a lue of -

o bj ects b elon gs t o th em i n d epen d en tly of th ei r m a ter i al pr o

p er ti es , w h i le th ei r v alu e ,
on th e oth er h an d , for m s a pa r t of
th em as o bj ects . W h at c on fir m s th em i n th i s v i ew , i s th e

p ec u li a r v a lu e of obj
c i r c u m s ta n ce ec ts i s r ea li s ed th a t th e us e -

w i th out ex ch a n g e b y m ean s of a d i r ect r ela ti on b etw een th e ,

ob j ec ts a n d m a n w hile on th e oth er h an d th ei r v a lu e i s r ea l , , ,

i s ed on ly b y ex c h a n g e th a t i s b y m ea n s of a s oc i a l pr oc es s , ,
.

Wh o fai ls h er e to call to m i n d our g ood fr i en d D ogb er y w h o ,

r ,

i n for m s n ei gh b our Sea coal th at To b e a w ell fa v ou r ed m a n , ,

-

i s th e g i ft of for tun e b ut r ea d i n g a n d w r i ti n g c om es b y
n a tu r e .

Obs rv ti ns c rt in v rb l d isp t s in P l Ec n p rtic l rly r l ting t v lu

1 e a o on e a e a u e o . o .
, a u a e a o a e

an d t d m nd od s p ply L nd 1 821 p 1 6
e a an u . o .
, , . .

S B il y 1
2 .
p 1 65
a e , . c .
, . .

Th
3 th r f Obs rv ti n
e au d S B il y cc s Ric rd
o o f c nv rting x e a o s an . a e a u e a o o o e e

ch ng v l fr m s m thing r l tiv int s m thing bs l t Th pp sit is th

a e a ue o o e e a e o o e a o u e . e o o e e

f ct
a H h
. xpl in d th pp r nt r l ti n b tw n bj cts s uch di m n d s d
e as e a e e a a e e a o e ee o e , as a o an

p rls i which r l ti n th y pp r
ea , n xch ng v l s d discl s d th tr r l
e a o e a ea as e a e a ue ,
an o e e ue e a

t i n hidd n b hind th
o
pp r nc s n m ly th ir r l ti n t
e e ch th r m r e a ea a e , a e , e e a o o ea o e as e e

e xpr ssi ns f h m n l b ur If th f ll w rs f Ric rd nsw r B il y s m wh t

e o o u a a o . e o o e o a o a e a e o e a

r d ly d by m ns c nvinci gly th r s n is t b s ght in this th t th y

u e , an no ea o n ,
e ea o o e ou , a e

w r un bl t find in Ric rd s w w rks y k y t th hidd n r l ti ns xisting

e e a e o a o
’
o n o an e o e e e a o e

b tw n v lu d its f rm xch ng v lu
e ee a e an o , e a e a e .
 P r od uoz z on
'
‘
.

C HAP T ER II .

EX CHANG E .

IT i s plai n th at c om m od i ti es c ann ot go to m ar k et an d m ak e
ex c h a n g es of th ei r ow n a cc oun t . We m us t ,
th er efor e, h a ve
r ec ou r s e g uar d i an s w h o ar e als o th ei r ow n er s Com
to th ei r , .

m od i ti es a r e th i n gs an d th er efor e w i th out p ow er of r es i s tan ce

,

a ga i n s t m a n If th ey ar e w a n ti n g i n d oci li ty h e ca n u s e for c e ;
.

i n oth er w or d s h e c an tak e p os s es s i on of th em In or d er th a t ll
.
,

t h es e obj ects m ay en ter i n to r ela ti on w i th eac h oth er a s

c om m od i ti es th ei r g uar d i an s m u s t pla c e th em s elv es i n r ela ti on
,

to on e a n oth er a s per s on s w h os e w i ll r es i d es i n th os e obj ec ts

, ,

a n d m u s t b eh a v e i n s u ch a w ay th a t ea ch d oes n ot a ppr opr i a te

th e com m odi ty of th e oth er an d pa r t w i th hi s ow n ex cep t b y , ,

m ean s d on e b y m u tu al c on s en t
of a n a ct T h ey m u s t th er e .
,

for e m u tu a lly r ec ogn i s e i n ea c h oth er th e r i gh ts of pr i va te

,

r o r i etor s
p p T h i s j u r i d i cal r ela ti on , w hi c h th u s ex pr es s es i ts elf
.

in a c on tr ac t, w h eth er s u ch c on tr a c t b e pa r t of a d ev eloped
leg al s y s tem or n ot i s a r ela ti on b etw een tw o w i lls , a n d i s b ut ,

th e r efl ex of t h e r eal econ om i c al r ela ti on b etw een th e tw o It .

i s thi s ec on om i ca l r ela ti on th a t d eter m i n es th e su bj ect m atter

c om pr i s ed in ea ch s u ch ju ri d i cal ac t .
2
Th e per s on s exi s t for
on e a n oth er m er ely as re
p r es en tati v es of, a n d th er efor e a s , ,

1 In c nt ry
t h e 1 2th r n wn d f its pi ty th y incl d d m ngst m
e u ,
so e o e or e ,
e u e a o co

m d i ti
o s m v ry d lic t things Th s Fr nch p t f th p ri d num r t s
es o e e e a e . u a e oe o e e o e e a e

am ng t th g ds t b f nd in th m rk t f L d i t t nly cl thing sh s
o s e oo o e ou e a e o an ,
no o o , oe ,

l th r gric lt l impl m nts & b t ls f mm s f ll s d l r c rps

ea e ,
a u ur a e e , c .
,
u a o e e o e e eu o .
”

2Pr dh n b gins by t king his id l f j stic f j stic ét rn ll fr m

ou o e a ea o u e, o
“
u e e e e,
”
o

th j ridic l r l ti ns th t c rr p nd t th p r d cti n f c mm diti s

e u a e a o a o th r by
es o o e o u o o o o e : e e ,

it m y b a t d h p r v s t th c ns l ti
e no e ,
f ll g d citi ns th t th
e o e , o e o o a on o a oo z e , a e

p r od cti u n f c mm
o dit i so is f rm
o f p r d cti on v rl sting
e j stic a o o o u o as e e a as u e .

Th n h t rns r nd d s ks t r f rm th ct l pr d cti n f c mm diti s d

e e u ou an ee o e o e a ua o u o o o o e , an

th e a ct l l g l syst m c rr sp nding th r t in cc rd nc with this id l Wh t

ua e a e o e o e e o, a o a e ea . a

op ini n sh
o ld w h v f
ou ch mist w h e inst d a f st dying
e o t h ct
a u l l ws
e f th ,
o, ea o u e a a a o e

m l c l r ch ng s in th c mp siti n d d c mp siti n f m tt r d
o e u a a e e o th t o o an e o o o o a e ,
an on a

f nd ti n s lving d fi it
ou a o p r bl ms cl im d t
o r g l t th c mp siti n d
e n e o e ,
a e o e u a e e o o o an

d c m p iti n f m tt r by m ns t rn l id s f “ “ ”
e o os o o f th a e t li te ea d o e e e a ea , o n a ur a an

D w r lly kn w y m r b t s ry wh n w y it c ntr
“ ”
affi i te n ? ” o e ea o an o e a ou u u e e sa o
, a

dicts j stic é t rn ll
“
u éq ité ét rn ll
e e m t lit é é t rn ll
e e,
” “
du th r e e e,
” “
u ua e e e,
”
an o e

v é rit é s é t rn ll s th n th f th rs f th ch rch did wh n th y s id it w i m

e e e a e a e o e u e e a as n co

p tibl with grac ét rn ll f i é t rn ll l v l nt é ét rn ll d Di ” ” “

a e e d e e e, o e e e, an a o o e e e e eu
 ‘

5 8 Cafi i ta ti s t P r od ucti on .

hi m sim l
pyp v a teat ri
r a n s a c ti on O n th e oth er h a n d h e d e .
,

s i r es t o r ea li s e th e v a lu e of hi s c om m od i t t o c on v er t i t i n to
y ,

a n y oth e s u i ta b le c om m od i t f qu al v a lue i r r es ec ti v e of
r
y o e p ,

w h eth er h i s ow n c om m od i ty h a s or h as n ot an y u s e v a lu e
-
for
th e ow n er of th e oth er . F r om thi s poi n t of vi ew ex ch a n ge i s
,

for h i m a s oci a l tr an s ac ti on of a gen er al ch a r a c ter . But on e

an d th e s a m e s et of tr a n s ac ti on s c a n n ot be s i m u lta n eou s ly for

a ll ow n er s of com m od i ti es b oth exclus i vely p ri v ate and ex

c lu s i v el
y s oc i al an d gen er al .

Let us look at th e m a tter To th e ow n er of a

a li ttle c los er .

c om m od i t
y e v er
y oth
, er c omm od i t
y i s i n r ega r d t o h i s o w n a , ,

a r ti c ular equ i v alen t a n d con s equ en tl h i s o w n com m od i ty i s

p ,y
th e un i v er s al equi valen t for all th e oth er s But s i n c e thi s .

a p li es to ev er ow n e t h re is i n f t n o c omm od i ty a c ti ng
p y e a c r, , ,

a s u n i v er s a l equ i valen t a n d th e r ela ti v e v a lu e of comm o d i ti es

,

s es s es n o g en er a l fo m u n d er w h i ch th e n b e equ a t ed a s
p os r
y ca

va lu es an d h av e th e m agn i tud e of th ei r v a lu es c om par ed So .

fa r , th er efor e th ey d o ,
n ot c on fr on t ea ch oth er a s c om m od i ti es ,

b ut on l
y p as v
r od uc ts a l u or
es I n th ei r d i ffi c ulti es ou r
us e -
.

c om m od i t
y o w n e r s-
th i n k li k e F a u s t : Im A n f a n g w a r d i e
“

T hat T h ey th er efo e a c ted a n d tr an s a cted b efor e they

”
. r

th ou gh t In s ti n c ti v ely th ey c on for m to th e law s i m pos ed b y

.

th e n a tu r e of c om m od i ti es T h ey ca nn ot b i n g th ei r c om
. r

m od i ti es i n to r ela ti on a s v a lu es an d th er efo e as com m od i ti es ,

r ,

ex c e t b m i n g th m w i th m n t h m m d i t
p y c o p a r e s o e o e o er co o y
a s th e u n i v er s a l eq ui v a len t T h a t w e s aw fr om th e a n aly s i s
.

of a c om m od i ty But a par ti c ula r c om m od i ty can n ot b ec om e

.

t h e u n i v e s al equi va len t ex ce t b y a s oc i a l a c t
r T h e s oci al
p .

a c ti on th er efor e of a ll oth er t h c om m od i ti es , s ets ar t

p e p ar a

ti c ula r c om m o d i t
y i n w h i ch th e
y all r e r es en t th ei r
p a lu es v .

T h er eb y th e o d i ly b
f or m of t hi s c omm od i t
y ec om es t h e f or m b
of th e s oci all g n i s ed u n i v er s al equi va len t
r ec o T o b th
y e e .

u n i v er s al eq ui va len t b ec om es b y th i s s oci a l pr oces s th e

, , ,

s peci fi c fun c ti on of th e com m od i ty th us ex clu d ed b y th e r es t .

—
T h u s i t b ecom es m on ey Illi u n u m con s i li u m h ab en t et
.
“

v i r tu tem et p otes ta t em s uam b es ti ae tr a d un t Et n e q ui s .

os s i t e m er e a ut v en d er e n i s i u i h ab et c h a r a cter em a ut
p q ,
”
n om en b es ti ae, aut n u m er um n om i n i s e u s j . A
( p oca lyp s e
)
 Ex t /ta ng o .
59

M on ey i s a c r y s tal for m ed of n ec es s i ty i n th e c ou r s e of th e
e x ch an ges w h er eby di ffer en t pr od ucts of lab our ar e pr a cti cally
,

equated to on e a n oth er a n d th us b r a c ti ce c on v er ted i n t

y p o

com m od i ti es Th e hi s tor i cal p r ogr es s a n d ex ten s i on of ex

.

c h an g es d ev elo s th e con tr a s t la ten t i n c om m od i ti es b et w een

p , ,

u s e v alu e a n d v alu e
-
Th e n ec es s i ty for gi v i n g a n ex ter n a l .

ex pr es s i on t o th i s c on tr as t for th e u r os es of c om m er ci a l i n
p p
t er cou r s e u r ges on th e es tab li s h m en t of a n i n d ep en d en t for m
,

o f v a lu e a n d fi n d s n o r es t u n ti l i t i s on c e for a ll s a ti s fi ed b
, y
th e d i ffer enti ati on of c om m od i ti es i n to c om m od i ti es an d m on ey .

At th e s am e r ate, th en , as th e c on v er s i on of p ro d u c ts i n to
c om m od i ti es
pli is b ei n g
s h ed , s o a ls o i s th e c on v er s i on of a c c om

on e s ec i al c om m od i t i t m 1
p n n
y o o ey .

Th e d i r ec t b ar ter of pr od u c ts a ttai n s th e elem en tar y for m

of th e r ela ti v e expr es s i on of v a lu e in on e r es
p ec t,
b ut n ot in
a n oth er . T h at for m i s x C om m od i ty A y C om m odi ty B z .

The for m of d i r ect b ar ter i s x us e value A y u s e v a lu e B 2 - z -

.

Th e a r ti cles A an d B i n th i s ca s e a r e n ot a s
y et c om m od i ti es ,

b ut b ecom e s o on ly b y th e a ct of b ar te Th e fi r s t s tep m ad e r .

b y a n obj ect of u ti li ty tow ar d s a c qu i r i n g ex ch a n g e v alue -

i s w h en i t for m s a n en u s e v a lu e for i ts ow n er a n d th a t - -
,

h appen s w h en i t for m s a s u per fl u ous p or ti on of s om e a r ti c le

r equ i r ed for h i s i m m ed i a te w a n ts O bj ects i n th em s elv es a r e .

ex ter n al to m an an d c on s equ en tl li en a ble b h i m In r d er

y a y ,
o .

th at th i s a li en a ti on m ay b e r eci
p r oc a l, it is on ly n ec es s ar
y for

m en b y ta ci t u n d er s tan d i n g to tr ea t ea ch oth er as r i v a te
,
a , p
ow n er s of th os e a li en a b le obj ec ts ,
an d b y i m pli cati on { as inde
p en d en t i n d i v i d u als . But s u ch a s tat e of r eci
p r ocal i n d epen
d en ce h a s no e xi s ten c e in a p r i m i ti ve s oci ety b a s ed p on ro

per ty in c om m on , w h eth er s u ch a s oc i ety ta k es th e for m of a

p a tr i a r c h a l fa m ily , a n a n c i en t In d i an c om m u ni ty ,
or a P er uvi an
Fr m this w m y f rm
1 o stim t f th sh r wdn ss f th p tit b rg i
e a o an e a e o e e e o e e -
ou eo s

s i lism which whil p rp t ting th pr d cti n f c mm diti s ims t b lishing

oc a , , e e e ua e o u o o o o e , a a a o

th e nt g nism b tw n m y d c mm diti s d c s q ntly sinc m y

a a o e ee on e an o o e , an on e u e , e on e

exists nly by virtu f this nt g nism t b lishing m n y its l f W might j st

o e o a a o , a a o o e e . e u

as w ll try t r t in C th licism with t th P p F m

e o e a this p int
a my o ou e o e . or or e on o s ee

w rk Z Kritik d P l O k n p 6 1 q
o , ur er o . e e .
, .
, s .

S l ng inst d f tw distinct u v lu s b ing xch ng d ch tic m ss f

o o as , ea o o se -
a e e e a e , a ao a o

articl s ff r d
e th quiv l nt f si gl rticl which is ft th c s wi th
ar e o e e as e e a e o a n e a e, o en e a e

s v g s v n th dir ct b rt r f pr ducts is in its first in f ncy

a a e , e e e e a e o o a .
60 Cup i tci ti s t P r od ucti on .

I n ca S tate Th e ex ch an ge of . c om m od i ti es , th er efor e, fir s t
b egi n s on th e b oun d a i es of s u ch r c omm un i ti es , t h ei r poi n ts
at

o f con tac t w i th oth er s i m i la r c om m u n i ti es , or w i th m em er s of b

th e la tter . So s oon , h ow ev er , as p r o d u c ts on c e b ecom e c om

m od i ti es i n t h e e x ter n al r ela ti on s o f a c om m un i ty , th ey als o,

by r ea c ti on , b ecom e s o i n i ts i n t er n al i n ter c ou r s e . Th e pr o
p or ti on s i n w hi ch th ey ar e x ch an geable a r e at fi r s t qui te a
e

m atter of c h a n ce . Wh at m a k es th em ex c h an geable i s th e
m utu a l d es i r e of th ei r ow n er s to ali en a te th em . M ean ti m e th e
n eed for for ei g n o bj ects of u ti li t
y g r a d u all
y e s ta b li s h es i ts elf.

Th e ex ch a n g e m a k es i t a n or m al s oc i a l
~

c on s tan t r ep eti ti oi i of

t In th e c ou r s e of ti m e, th er efor e, s om e or ti on at leas t of
za c .
p
t h e pr od u c ts of la ou r m us t b e
z b
a s peci a l i ew pr od uc ed w i th v
t o ex ch an g e F r om th a t m om en t th e d i s ti n c ti on b ec om es
.

fir m ly es ta bli s h ed b etw een th e u ti li ty of a n o bj ec t for th e pu r

p os es of con s u m ti on , a n d
p i ts u ti li ty for th e p u r pos es of ex
c h an ge . Its use -
value b ecom es di s ti n gu i s h ed fr om i ts ex ch an ge
va lue On th e oth er h a n d th e q uan ti ta ti v e pr opor ti on i n
.
,

w hi ch t h e a r ti c les a r e ex c h an g eab le b ec om es d epen d en t on ,

th ei r pr od u c ti on i ts elf C us tom s tam ps them a s v alues w i th .

d efi n i te m agn i tu d es .

In th e d i r ect ba r ter of pr od ucts each com m od i ty i s d i r ectly ,

a m ean s of ex ch an g e to i ts ow n er a n d to a ll oth er p er s on s an ,

equi v alen t b ut t h a t on ly i n s o far a s i t h as u s e v a lue for t h em

,
-
.

At thi s s tage th e efor e th e ar ti cles ex c h an ged d o n ot a cqu i r e

,
r ,

a v a lu e for m i n d epen d en t of th ei r ow n u s e v alu e or of th e

- -
,

i n d i v i d ual n eed s of th e exc h a n g er s Th e n eces s i ty for a v alu e .

for m g ow s w i th th e i n cr ea s i n g n u m b er a n d va r i ety of th e
r

c omm od i ti es ex ch an g ed Th e pr ob lem a n d th e m ean s of s olu .

t i on a i s e s i m u lta n eou s ly
r C om m od i ty ow n er s n ev er equ ate .
-

th ei ow n c omm odi ti es to th os e of oth e s a n d ex c h an ge th em

r r ,

on a la r g e s cale w i th ou t d i ffer en t ki n d s of c om m od i ti es b elon g

,

i n g to d i ffer en t ow n er s b ein g ex ch an g eab le for a n d eq ua ted a s ,

valu es to on e a n d th e s a m e s peci a l a r ti cle S uch la s t m en

, .
-

ti on ed a ti cle b y b ec om i n g th e equi valen t of v a r i ou s oth e

r ,
r

c omm od i ti es a c qu i r es a t on ce th oug h w i thi n n a r r ow li m i ts

, , ,

th e c h a a c ter of a g en er a l s oc i al equ i v alen t

r T hi s c h a a c ter . r

c om es a n d g oes w i th th e m om en tar y s oci al ac ts t ha t ca lled it

 Ex cnung c . 6 I
i n to li fe . In tur n s an d tr a n s i en tly i t atta ch es i ts elf fi r s t to thi s
an d th en to th at com m od i t
y . But w i th th e d ev elopm en t of

ex ch a n g e it fix es i ts elf fi r m ly
to pa r ti cu la r an d e x clus i v ely
s or ts of c om m od i ti es , a n d ec om es cr y s ta lli s ed b
y a s s u m i n g th e b
m on ey for m Th e par ti c ular k i n d of c omm odi ty to w hi c h i t
-
.

s ti c ks is at fir s t a m atter of a c ci d en t . N ev er th eles s th er e ar e

tw o c i r cu m s tan c es w h os e i n flu en c e i s d eci s i v e . Th e m on ey
for m a tta c h es i ts elf ei th er to th e m os t i m por tan t a r ti c les of ex

ch an ge fr om outs i d e, a n d v e an d n atur a l
th es e i n fa ct ar e p r i m i ti
for m s i n w h i ch th e ex ch a n g e v alu e of h om e pr od u cts fi n d s ex -

p r es s i on o r els e i t a tta ch es i ts elf to th e obj ec t o f u tili ty

t h a t for m s li k e ca ttle th e c h i ef por ti on of i n d i g en ou s a li en ab le
, ,

w ea lth N om a d r aces a r e th e fi r s t to d ev elop th e m on ey for m

.
-
,

b ecaus e all th ei r w or ld ly good s con s i s t of m ov eable obj ects

an d a r e th er efor e d i r ec tly ali en a b le a n d b ec a u s e th ei r m od e of

li fe b y c on ti n u ally b r i n gi n g th em i n to c on ta c t w i th for ei gn com

,
-

mun i ti es s oli ci ts th e ex ch an g e of pr od u cts

,
Man h a s often .

m a d e m an h i m s elf un d er th e for m of s la v es s er v e a s th e pr i
, ,

m i ti v e m a ter i al of m on ey b ut h a s n ev er u s ed lan d for th a t ,

p pu r os e S u c h .a n i d ea c ou ld on ly ps r i ng u
p i n a b ou r g eo i s

s oci ety alr ea d w ll d ev elo ed I t d a tes fr om t h e las t th i r d o f

y e p .

th e 1 7 th c en tur y a n d th e fi s t attem pt to put i t i n pr a c ti c e

,
r

on a n a ti on al s ca le w a s m a d e a c en tur y a fter w ar d s d u r i n g th e ,

F r en ch b ou g eoi s r ev olu ti on r .

In pr opor ti on as ex c h a n g e b ur s ts i ts local b on d s a n d th e ,

v alue of c omm od i ti es m or e a n d m or e ex pan d s i n to an em b od i

m en t of h um an lab our i n th e a b s tr a ct i n th e s am e pr opor ti on ,

th e c h ar ac t er of m on ey a ttac h es i ts elf to comm od i ti es th a t ar e

by n atu r e fi tted to per for m th e s oci al fun c ti on of a u n i v er s a l

q valen t
e ui . T h os e c om m od i ti es ar e th e pr eci ous m etals .

Th e tr u th th e pr opos i ti on th a t,
of a lth oug h g old a n d s il er v
a r e n ot b n atur e m on ey m on ey i s b y n atu r e g old a n d
y ,

v
s i l er ,
” 1
i s s how n b y th e fi tn es s of th e ph y s i ca l pr op er ti es o f
th es e m etals for th e fun cti on s of m on ey .
2
Up
t o th i s poi n t,
h ow ev er , w e ar e ac quai n ted on ly w i th on e fun c ti on of m on ey ,
1 K rl M rx l c p 1 35
a a I m t lli
. .n t r lm nt m n t ( G li
. . . e a . a u a e e o e a,
”
a a ni .

D ll m n t in C t d i C ll cti n P rt M d rn t
e a o e a us e
’
s o e o a e o e a .

2 F f rth r d t ils
or u this s bj ct
e in my w k cit d b v th ch pt r
e a on u e s ee or e a o e, e a e on

Th p r ci s m t ls
”
e e ou e a .
6 2 Cupi tuti s t P r od ucti on .

n a m el
y, t o s er e a s th e for m o f m a n i fes ta ti ov
n of th e a lu e v of

c om m od i ti es , or a s t h e m a ter i al i n w hi c h th e m a n i tu d es g of

th ei r v a lues y x p r es s ed A n a
ar ed eq u a te for m of
s oc i a ll e .

m an i fes ta ti on of v alue a fit em b od i m en t of a b s tr a ct u n d i ffer , ,

en ti a ted a n d th er efor e e qu al h u m a n la b our

,
th at m a ter i a l ,

a lon e c a n b e w h os e ev er s a m le exh i b i ts th e s a m e un i for m

y p
u a li ti O n th e oth er h a n d s i n ce th e d i ffer en c e b etw een th e
q es .
,

m agn i tu d es of v a lu e i s pu r ely quan ti ta ti v e th e m on ey c om ,

m od i ty m u s t b e s us cepti b le of m er ely q uan ti tati v e d i ffer en c es ,

m us t th er efor e b e d i v i s i b le a t w i ll a n d eq ua lly c apab le of b ei n g ,

r e u n i ted
-
Gold a n d s i lv er pos s es s th es e pr oper ti es b y n a tu r e
. .

Th e u s e v alue of th e m on ey c om m odi ty b ec om es t w ofold

-
.

In a d d i ti on to i ts s pec i a l u s e v a lu e as a c om m od i ty ( g old -
,

for i n s tan c e s er vi n g to s top teeth to for m th e r a w m ater i al o f

, ,

a r ti cles of lux u r y i t ac qui r es a for m al u s e value or i gi na

,
-
,

ti n g i n i ts s peci fi c s oc ial fun c ti on .

S i n ce a ll com m od i ti es ar e m er ely par ti cular equi v alen ts of

m on ey th e la tter b ei n g th ei r u n i v er s al equ i v a len t th ey w i th
, , ,

r ega r d to t h e la tter as th e un i v er s al c om m od i t l t h t
y p y a e par s ,

of a r ti c ula r c om m od i ti es
1
p .

We h ave s een th a t th e m on ey for m i s b ut th e -

re fl ex ,
th r ow n
u pon on e s i n gle com m od i ty valu e r ela ti on s b et w een a ll th e
,
of t h e

r es t . T h a t m on ey i s a c om m od i ty i s th er efor e a n e w d i s cov er y
2

on l
y for th os e w h o, w h en t h e
y a n a ly s e i t,
s ta r t fr om i ts full
y
d ev eloped s h ape Th e a c t of ex ch a n g e gi v es to th e com m od i ty
.

c on v er te d i n to m on ey , p fi c v a lu e form n ot i ts v alue ,
b ut i ts s ec i -
.

By c on foun d i n g t h es e tw o d i s ti n c t th i n gs s om e w r i ter s h a v e
b een led to h old th a t th e v alue of g old a n d s ilv er i s i m agi
1Il d n r el m rc niv rs l (V rri
a a o p a e e u e a e e , .

2 ilv r d g ld th ms lv s ( which w m y c ll by th g n r l n m f b lli n )

S e an o e e e e a a e e e a a e o u o ,

ar e c mm diti s rising d f lli g in

o o vl e B lli n th n m y an a n a ue . u o , e , a

b r ck n d t b
e e f high r v l
o e wh r th sm ll r w ight will p rch s th gr t r
o e o e a ue e e e a e e u a e e ea e

qu ntity f th pr duct m n f ct r f th
a o e t y o& A Disc rs f th
or a u a u e o e c e un r e ,
”
c . ou e o e

G n r l N ti ns f M y Tr d d Exch ng
e e a o o th y st nd in r l ti ns t ch
o on e , a e, a n a e, a s e a e a o o ea

oth r By M rch nt L nd 1 695 p

e .
”
a Silv re d g ld c in d
a . nc in d o .
, , . e an o , o e or u o e ,

th gh th y us d f m s r f ll th r things
ou e ar e e l ss c mm dity th n
or a ea u e o a o e , ar e n o e a o o a

win yl t b cc cl th
e, o , t fl o a A Disc rs c nc rni g Tr d
o, o d th t i
, or s u s.
”
ou e o e n a e, a n a n

p rtic l r f t h E st Indi s L nd n 1 689 p Th st ck d rich s f

”
a u a &
o e a e , c . o o , , . e o an e o

th ki gd m c n
e t pr p rly b c nfin d t m n y
n o a no ght g ld d silv r t b
o e e o e o o e , n or ou o an e o e

excl d d fr m b ing m rch ndiz

u e o A Tr tis c nc rning t h E st Indi Tr d
e e a e .
”
ea e o e e a a a e

b ing m st pr fit bl Tr d
e a o L nd n 1 6 80 R print 1 6 96 p
o a e a e
.
”
o o , ,
e , .
 Ex c/uz ng c . 63

n ar y T h e
.
f1
a c t t h a t m o n ey c a n ,
i n c er t a i n fu n c ti o n s , b e r e p l ac e d
b y m er e y s m b o ls of i ts e l f,
g a v e r i s e t o t h a t o t h e r m i s t a k en n o ti o n ,

th a t i t i s i t s e lf a m er e s y m b o l N e v e r t h e le s s u n d e r t h i s e r r or .
’

lu r k e d a p r e s e n t i m e n t t h a t t h e m on e
y f o r m o f a n o bj e c t i s n o t -

a n i n s epar a ble p ar t of th at obj ec t b u t i s s i m ply th e for m u n d er ,

w h i c h c er t a i n s o c i a l r e la ti o n s m a n i fe s t t h e m s e l v e s I n t h i s .

s en s e e v er y com m od i ty is a sym b ol s i n ce i n , ,
so far as it is
value ,
it is on ly th e m a ter i al en v elope of th e h u m an la b our
s pen t u p on But i f i t b e d eclar ed th at th e s oci al c h a r ac ter s
it .
2

a s s u m ed b y obj ec ts or th e m a ter i al for m s a s s u m ed b y th e ,

s oc ai l qu ali ti es of la b ou r u n d er th e r é g i m e of a d efi n i te m od e of

p r od uc ti on , ar e m er e sy m b ols ,
i t i s i n th e s am e b r eath a ls o

d eclar ed th a t t h es e c h a r a c ter i s ti c s ar e a r bi t rar

y fi c ti on s s an c

t i on ed b y t h e s e - c a lled u ni ve rsa l c on s en t of m an k i n d . T hi s
1 L r
l rg nt h nn v l r c m m t lli nt ri r ll ss r m n t
’
o o e
’
a e e a o a o e o e e a a e o e a
’
e e o e a .

( G lia i an L ck ys ,
T h niv rs l c ns nt f m nkind og v t silv r
e sa ,
“
e u e a o e o a a e o e , on

a cc nt f its qu liti s which m d it suit bl f m n y im gin ry v l

ou o a L w
e a e a e or o e , an a a a ue . a ,

on th th r h nd H w c ld diff r nt n ti ns giv
e o e a im gin ry v l t y
,
“
o ou e e a o e an a a a ue o an

singl thi g e h w c ld this im gin ry v l

n h v m int in d its l f
or B t o ou a a a ue a e a a e e ? ” u

th f ll wing sh ws h w littl h hims lf nd rst

e o o d b t th m tt r Silv r w
o o e e e u e oo a ou e a e e as

e xch ng d in pr p rti n t th v l in u it p ss ss d c ns q ntly in p r p rti n t

a e o o o o e a ue se o e e , o e ue o o o o

it r l v l
s ea By its d p ti n m y it r c iv d
a ue . dditi n l v l ( vl r a o o as on e e e e an a o a a ue une a eu

a dditi nn ll ) ( J n L w C i d e ti
o e e l n mér i r t l c mm rc
ea in a : on s ra on s s ur e u a e e e o e e

E D ir s Edit f E m i t Fi
. a e
’
i d X V III .
p
o c on o s es n a n c er s u . .

( d d nr é s ) t l sign ( V d F rb nn is Elem nts d C m ”

LA g t
’
2 r en en es e e es e e . . e o o a e u o

m rc N u Edit L y d
e e, t II p
e v . C mm sign il t tti e p l
. e e, . .
, . o e e es a r ar es

d nr é s
e ep . L rg nt t sign d n ch s t l r pr é s nt ( M
”
.
’
a e es un e
’
u e o e e a e e e . on

t q i
es u eu Esprit d L is O vr s L nd 1 7 6 7 t II p L rg nt n st p
es o , eu e , o .
, . .
, .
“ ’
a e
’
e as

simp l sign e il t lui m em rich ss ; i l

e, r prés nt p l v l urs i l l
car es -
e e e ne e e e as es a e , es

é q iv t (L Tr sn l p
u au . Th n ti n f v l
e c nt mpl t s th v l bl
e e, . o .
, . e o o o a ue o e a e e a ua e

a rticl m r symb l ; th rticl c nts t f wh t it is b t f wh t it is

e as a e e o e a e ou no or a , u or a

w rth ( H g l l p
o .
”
L wy rs st rt d l g b f r c n mists th id th t
e e , . c .
, . a e a e on e o e e o o e ea a

m n y is m r symb l d th t th v l f th pr ci us m t ls is p r ly im gi ry
o e a e e o , an a e a ue o e e o e a u e a na .

This th y did in th c ph ti s rvic f th cr wn d h ds s pp rting th right

e e s an c e e o e o e ea ,
u o e

o f th l tt r t d b s th c in g
e a d ring th wh l f th middl g s by th tr di
e o e a e e o a e, u e o e o e e a e , e a

t i ns f th R m n Em p ir
o o d th c nc p ti n
e f m n y t b f nd in th P nd cts
o a e an e o e o s o o e o e ou e a e

u c n p i ss i d iv f ir d ut s ys p t sch l r f th i rs Phili p f
,

“ ’
O
”
u a u u e n o e a e o e, a an a o a o e , o

V l is in d cr f 1 346 q u a n s t a n tr m j sté r y l n pp rti nn nt

a o , a e ee o , e ou e o e a e o a e
’
a a e e

ul m nt l m ti l f it l et t l p r visi n t t t l d ’ ’
se e e e d es er , e a , a ,
a o o e ou e or on n a n c e es

m nn i s d d n r t l c urs t p ur t l p rix c mm i l n s pl it t b n u s
o a e , e on e e o , e o e o e ou a e on o

s mbl
e It w e . m xim f th R m n L w th t th v l f m n y w fix d by
”
as a a o e o a a a e a ue o o e as e

d cr f th mp r r It w xpr ssly f rbidd n t tr t m n y

e ee o e e e o c mm dity . as e e o e o ea o e as a o o .

P t uni s v r n lli m r f i t m in u p blic

e a e o ti tutu
p t t ss
e e e a s er ,
na su u o c on s as o or e n on e e
m m
er c e S m g d w rk .
”
this q sti n h b n d n by G F P g i i
o e oo o on ue o as ee o e . . a n n
“
S ggi p i l gi st p r gi d ll c s 1 7 51 C st di P rt M d r
a o se ra u t IIo e o e e o e, u o
“
a e o e na ,
”
.

In th s c nd p rt f his w rk P g i i dir cts his p l mics sp ci lly g inst th

,

e e o a o o a n n e o e e e a a a e
l wy rs
a e .
 64 Ccap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

'

s u i ted th e m od e of e x plan ati on i n fa v our d u r i n g th e 1 8 th

c en tu r
y . U n able to a c c ou n t for th e or i gi n of th e pu li ng zz
for m s a s s um ed by s oc i a l r ela ti on s b etw een m an a n d m an , eo le
p p
s ou gh t to d en u d e th em of th ei r s tr a n g e a
pp ea ra n ce b
y as cr i b i n g

to th em a c on v en ti on al or i gi n .

It h as alr ea d y b een r em a r k ed a b ov e th at th e equi v alen t for m

of a com m od i t
y d oes n ot i m l
py th e d et er m i n a ti on of t h e m a g n i
tu d e of i ts v a lu e T h er efor e a lth oug h w e m ay b e a w ar e th at g old
.
,

i s m on ey a n d c ons equ en tly di r ectly ex ch an geable for all oth er

,

com m od i ti es , t th a t fac t b y no m ean s tells h ow m uch 1 0 lb s

y e .

for i n s tan ce ,
of g old i s w or th . M on ey li k e ,
e ve r
y oth er c om

m od i ty ,
can n ot e xpr es s th e m agn i tu d e of i ts v alue e xc ept
r ela ti vely i n oth er com m odi ti es T hi s value i s d eter m i n ed b y .

th e la b our ti m e r equi r ed for i ts p r od u cti on a n d i s expr es s ed b y

-

t h e q ua n ti ty of a n y oth er c om m od i ty t ha t cos ts th e s a m e
a m ou t of la b our ti m e S uch quan ti tati v e d eter m i n ati on of i ts
-
1
.

r ela ti v e v a lu e ta k es la c e a t th e s ou r c e of i ts r od u c ti on b
p p y
m ea n s of bar ter W h en i t s teps i n to ci cula ti on as m on ey i t
. r ,
s

va lue i s a lr ea dy gi v en In th e las t d ec ad es of th e 1 7 th .

c en tu r y i t ha d a lr ea d
y b e en s h ow n th a t m on ey i s a com m od i ty ,

b ut th i s s tep m ar k s on ly th e i n fan cy of th e a n aly s i s Th e .

d i ffi cu lty li es n ot i n com pr eh en di n g th at m on ey i s a c omm o

,

d i ty b ut i n d i s cov er i n g h ow w h y a n d b y w h a t m ea n s a c om
, , ,

m odi ty b ecom es m on ey .
2

1 If m
“
bring t L nd n
a nc f Silv r t f th E rth in P r in th
a n can o o o an ou e o e ou o e a e u, e

s m tim th t h
a e p r d
e c b shal f C rn th n t
e c anh is t h n t r lop ric f
u e a u e o o , e e on e e a u a e o

th th
e o ; w i f by r
er sn f w mr
ne ,
i min s m pr c r t w
ea o o ne or o e ea s e e a a n can o u e o

ounc s f silv r
e o sily h f rm rly did
e as t h c rn will b
ea ch p t t as e o e on e, e o e as ea a en

shillings th b sh l it w b f r t fi shillings t i p ribus Willi m

e u e as as e o e a ve , c ae er s a .
”
a

P tty A Tr tis
e T x s d C ntrib ti ns L nd 1 6 62 p 32
ea e on a e an o u o .
”
o .
, , . .

Th l rn d Pr f ss r R
2 e ea h ft r first in f rming u th t
e o e th f ls d finiti n
o os c er , a e o s a
“
e a e e o s

of m n y m y b o edivid d int tw m in gr p s th s which m k it m r

a e e d o o a ou : o e a e o e, an

th s which m k it l ss th n c mm dity giv s u l ng d v ry mix d c t

o e a e e ,
a a o o ,
”
e s a o an e e a a

l g f w rks th n t r f m y fr m which it p p rs th t h h
o ue o o on e a u e o t th on e ,
o a ea a e as no e

r m t st id f th r l hist ry f th th ry d th n h m r lis s th s F
e o e ea o e ea o o e eo an e e o a e u or

th r st it is
e e t t b d ni d th t m st f th l t r c n mists d
, no o e t b r s ffi ci ntly
e e a o o e a e e o o o no ea u e

in mind th p c li riti s th t disting ish m n y fr m th r c mm diti s (it is th

e e u a e a u o e o o e o o e en ,

ft r ll ith r m r l ss th n c mm dity th s mi m rc ntilist

“
a e a ,
e e o e or S f e a a o o o ar ,
e e -
e a

r cti n f G ilh is t lt g th r with t f nd ti n (Wilh lm R h

ea o o an no a Di
o e e ou ou a o . e os c er : e

Gr ndl g n d N ti l k mi 3 d Ed 1 858 pp 27 7
u a e er a on a oe M r l ss on o e,
”
r n .
, ,
. o e e

t s ffici ntly t lt g th r W t cl rn ss d p r cisi n f id s d

"

no u f e so ar no a o e e ha ea e an e o o ea an

l ng g And s ch cl ctic p r f ss ri l tw ddl is m d stly b ptis d by Mr

a ua e u e e o e o a a e o e a e .

R h
os c th n t mic physi l gic l m th d f p litic l c n my O disc v ry
er , ea a o o- o o a e o o o a e o o ne o e

h w v r h must h v cr dit f n m ly th t m n y is pl s nt c mm dity

o e e , e a e e or , a e , a o e a ea a o o .
”
66 Cupi tuti s t P r od uct i on .

C HAP T ER III .

MO N E Y ,
OR T H E CIRCUL ATIO N O F COMMODITIES .

SECT I ON 1 .
—TH E ME A U R E S or VA UE S L .

T H ROU GH OUT th i s w or k I ,
a s s u m e, for th e sa ke of s i m pli ci ty ,

gold as th e m on ey -
c om m odi ty .

Th e fi r s t chi ef fun c ti on of m on ey i s to s up ply com m od i ti es

w i th th e m ater i al for th e x pr es s i on of th ei r v alues or to r e e ,

r es en t th ei r v a lu es a s m ag n i tu d es of th e s a m e d en om i n ati on
p ,

quali ta ti v ely equ al an d qu an ti tati vely c om pa r a ble It thus ,

.

s er v es as a u n i v e s a l m ea s ur e o v a lue A d l b v i f
f n on y y r true o .

th i s fun cti on d oes g old th e eq ui v alen t c om m od i ty p a excel ,

r

lenc e b ec om e m on ey
, .

It i s n ot m on ey th a t r en d er s c omm od i ti es com m en s ur able .

J u s t th e c on tr ar y It i s b ecaus e all com m od i ti es as v alues ar e .

, ,

r ea li s ed h u m an lab our a n d th er efor e comm en s ur a b le th a t th ei r , ,

values can b e m eas ur ed b y on e an d th e s am e s peci al com m od i ty ;

an d th e la tter b e c on v er ted i n to t h e c om m on m ea s ur e of th ei r

values i e i n to m on ey M on ey as a m eas ur e of v alu e, i s th e

,
. .
, .

ph en om en al for m t h a t m u s t of n ecess i ty b e as s um e d b y th a t
m eas u r e of v alue w h i ch i s i m m a n en t i n c om m od i ti es , la b ou r
ti m e .
1

Th e e x pr es s i on of th e v alue of a c om m od i ty in g eld — x
c om m od i t A m ne comm od i ty — i s i ts m on ey for m or
y y o y
- -

1 q sti n—Why d s t m n y di r ctly r pr s nt l b r tim

Th e ue o th t oe no o e e e e e a ou -
e, so a a

pi c f p p r m y r p r s nt f inst nc x h r s l b r is t b tt m t h s m ’
e e o a e a e e e , or a e, ou a ou , a o o e a e as

th q e sti n why giv n th p r d ucti n f c mm diti s m st pr d cts t k th f rm

ue o , e e o o o o o e , u o u a e e o

of c mm diti s
o This is vid nt s i nc th ir t king th f rm f c mm di ti s impli s
o e ? e e , e e a e o o o o e e

th ir diff r nti ti n int c mm diti s d m n y Or why

e e e a o t p riv t l b r o o o e an o e .
, ca nn o a e a ou

l b r f th cc nt f p riv t i ndividu ls —b tr t d its pp sit imm di t

a ou or e a ou o a e a e ea e as o o e, e a e

s ci l l b r I h v ls wh r x min d th r ghly th Ut pi n id f l b r
o a a ou ? a e e e e e e a e o ou e o a ea o a ou

m n y in s ci ty f und d th pr d cti n f c mm diti s ( l

o e
”
a o e p 61 o e on e o u o o o o e . c .
, .
,

On this p int I w ill nly y f rth r th t Ow n s l b r m n y f inst nc is

o o sa u e , a e
’ “
a ou -
o e , or a e,

no m r m n y th n tick t f th th tr
o e
“
o Ow n pr supp s s dir ctly
e
”
a a e or e ea e . e e o e e

a ss ci t d l b ur f rm f pr ducti n th t is ntir ly inc nsist nt with th pr d c

o a e a o , a o o o o a e e o e e o u

ti n f mm diti s Th c rtific t f l b ur is m r ly vid nc f th p rt t k n

o o co o e . e e a e o a o e e e e e o e a a e

by th individ l in th c mm n l b ur d f his right t c rt in p rti n f th

e ua e o o a o , an o o a e a o o o e

c mm n pr d c d stin d f c nsumpti n B t it n v r nt rs int Ow n s h d t

o o o u e e e or o o . u e e e e o e
’
ea o

p r s pp s th p r d ucti n f c mm diti s
e u o e d t th s m tim by j ggling with
e o o o o o e ,
an a e a e e, u

m y t try t
on e v d th n c ss ry c nditi ns f th t pr ducti n
, o o e a e e e e a o o o a o o .
 Mon y tne Ci r c u la ti on f Com m od i ti es 67
'

e , or o .

p r i ce . q A s i n g le
u a ti on s u ch as 1 ton of i r on 2 ou n ces of
e ,

g old n e w s uffi ces to expr es s th e value of th e i r on i n a s oci ally

,

v a li d m ann er T h er e i s n o lon ger an y n eed for thi s equati on

.

t o fig ur e a s a li n k i n th e c h ai n of equ ati on s th a t ex pr es s th e

valu es of all oth er c om m od i ti es b ecaus e th e equi valent c om ,

m od i ty g old n o w h a s th e ch ar a c ter of m on ey
, ,
Th e g en er a l .

for m of r ela ti v e va lu e h as r es um ed i ts or i g i n al s ha pe of s i m ple

f
or i s ola ted r ela ti v e v a lue On the oth er h an d th e ex pa n d ed .
,

ex pr es s i on of r elati v e v alu e th e en d les s s e r i es of eq u a ti on s h a s , ,

n ow b ecom e th e for m uli ar to th e r elati v e v a lu e of th e

p ec
,

m on ey c om m odi ty -
Th e s er i es i ts elf too i s n ow g i v en a n d .
, , ,

h a s s oci a l r ecogn i ti on i n th e pr i c es of a c tu al com m od i ti es We .

h a v e on ly to r ea d th e qu ota ti on s of a pr i ce li s t b a ck w ar d s to -

fi n d t h e m a gn i tu d e of th e v alue of m on ey ex pr es s ed i n all s or ts
o f comm od i ti es But m on ey i ts elf h as n o pr i ce
. In or d er to .

p u t it on a n equ al footi n g w i th a ll oth er c om m od i t i es i n thi s

r es e
p ct w e s h ould b e
,
o b li g ed to e quate i t to i ts elf as i ts o wn

e qui valen t .

Th e pr i c e or m on ey for m -
of com m od i ti es i s , li k e th ei r for m
of valu e g en er ally ,
a for m qui te d i s ti n c t fr om th ei r p alpab le
b od i ly for m ; i t i s th er efor e a u r ely i d ea l or m en tal for m
’

p
.
.
, ,

Al th ough i n v i s i b le th e valu e of i r on li n en , ,
a n d cor n h as a c tu a l

e xi s ten ce i n th es e v er y ar ti cles : i t i s i d eally m ad e per cepti b le

b y th ei r equ ali ty wi th g old a r elati on th a t s o t o s ay exi s ts , , ,

on ly i n th ei r ow n h ea d s . T h ei r ow n er m u s t, th er efor e, len d
th em h i s t on b efor e th ei r pr i ces
gu e ,
or h an g a ti c k et on th em ,
c an b e c om m u n i ca ted to th e ou ts i d e w or ld S i n ce th e ex .
1

r es s i on of th e v alu e of c om m od i ti es i n g old i s a m er ely i d ea l

’

S v g s d h lf civilis d r c s u th t gu diff r ntly C pt in P rry s ys

1
a a e an a -
e a e se e on e e e . a a a a

f th inh bit nts n th w st c st f B ffi B y In this c s (h r f rs t

‘ ’
o e a a o e e oa o a n s a : a e e e e o

b rt r ) t h y lick d it ( th thing r pr s nt d t th m ) twi c t th ir t ng s ft r

a e e e e e e e e o e e o e o ue , a e

which th y s m d t c nsid r th b rg in s tisf ct rily c ncl ud d In th s m

e ee e o o e e a a a a o o e .
”
e a e

w y th E st rn Esquim
a , e x lick d th rticl s th y r c iv d in xch ng If th
a e au e e a e e e e e e a e . e

t ngo is thus s d in th N rth th rg n f ppr pri ti n w d th t in

ue u e e o as e o a o a o a o , no on er a ,

t h S th th
e st m ch s rv s th rg n f cc m l t d p r p rty d th t
ou , e o a e e as e o a o a u u a e o e , an a a

K ffi astim t s th w lth f m by t h siz f his b lly Th t th K ffi kn w

r e a e e ea o a an e e o e . a e a rs o

wh t th y a b t is sh wn by th f ll wing t th s m tim th t th ffi ci l
e ar e a ou o e o o : a e a e e a e o a

British H lth R p rt f 1 864 discl s d th d fici ncy f f t f rming f d m ng

ea e o o o e e e e o a -
o oo a o a

l rg p rt f th w rki g cl ss c rt in Dr H rv y ( t h w v r th c l br t d
a e a o e o n a , a e a . a e no , o e e ,
e e e a e

disc v r r f th circ ul ti n f th bl d ) m d g d thing by dv rtising r cip s

o e e o e a o o e oo , a e a oo a e e e

f r d cing th s uperfl us f t f t h b rg isi d rist cr cy

or e u e uo a o e ou eo e an a o a .
68 Capi ta ti s t P r od ucti on .

a c t, w e m ay us e for th i s p ur pos e i m agi n ar y or i d eal m on ey .

Ev er
y tr a d er k n ow s th at h e i s far fr om h a vi n g tur n ed h i s
,

g ood s i n to m on ey , w h en h e h a s e x pr es s ed th ei rva lu e i n a p r i c e
or i n i m agi n ar y m on ey ,
an d th at i t d oes n ot r equ i r e th e lea s t

b it of r ea l gold , to i n th at m etal m i lli on s of pou n d s

es ti m a te
’

w or th of good s . W h en th er efor e m on ey s er v es as a m ea s ur e
, ,

of value ,
it is em p lo ed on ly a s i m a gi n ar
y y or i d eal m on e
y .

T hi s c i r c um s tan c e h as gi v en ri se t o th e w i ld es t th eor i es .
1
But ,

a lth ou gh
th e m on ey th a t p er for m s th e fu n c ti on s of a m ea s u r e
of v
a lu e 1 s on l
y i d eal m on e
y , p r i ce d ep en d s e n t i r ely pu on t h e

a c tu al s u s tan ce th a t i s m on e
y Tbh e a lu e ,
or i n o th e r w or d s . v ,

th e q uan ti ty of h u m an lab ou r o
c n ta i n ed in a ten o f i r on i s ,

e x pr es s ed
i n i m agi n ati on b y s u c h a qua n ti ty of th e m on ey
c om m odi ty a s c on ta i n s th e s am e a m oun t of la b our as th e i r on .

A ccor d i n g valu e i s gold s i lv er o

,
th er efor e, as th e m ea s ur e of , ,
r

c op p er t h e v a lu e of th e te n of i on w ill b e ex r es s ed b v e r
, p y ry

d i ffer en t pr i c es or w ill b e r ep es en ted b y v er y d i ffe en t q uan

,
r r

ti ti es of th es e m eta ls r es pec ti v ely .

If th er efor e tw o di ffer en t
, ,
c om m odi ti es , s u ch as g old an d

v er
sil ,
ar e s i m u lta n eou s l
y m ea s u r es of v alu e ,
a ll c om m od i t i es

ha v e t wo pr i ces — on e a g old
p r i ce -
,
th e o th er a s i l er v -

p r i ce .

T h es e ex i s t qui etly s i d e b y s i d e, so lon g as th e r a ti o of th e

v v
a lu e of s i l er to th a t of g old em a i n s u n c ha n g ed s ay a t 1 5 1 r , , .

E v er y ch a n ge i n th ei r r ati o d i s tur b s th e a ti o w h i ch exi s ts r

b etw een th e gold p r i ces an d th e s ilv er pr i c es of c om m od i ti es - -

,

a n d th u s pr ov es b y fa c ts th a t a d oub le s tan d a r d of v alue i s , ,

i n c on s i s ten t w i th th e fun cti on s of a s tan d ar d .

1
See K rl M rx a a : Z ur Kritik , &c .
“
Th ri eo en v on d er M ss inh it
a e e d es G ld s
e e ,

p 53 ,
. s eq .

2
Wh r v r g ld d silv r h v b y l w b n m d t p r f rm th f ncti n f
“
e e e o an e a e a ee a e o e o e u o o

m n y f m s r f v l sid by sid it h lw ys b n tri d b t in v in t

o e or o a ea u e o a ue e e, as a a ee e , u a , o

tr t th m
ea d th s m m t ri l
e T ss m th t th r is inv ri bl
as on e a n e a e a e a . o a u e a e e an a a e

r ti b tw n th q ntiti s f g ld d silv r in which giv n q ntity f l b r tim

a o e ee e ua e o o an e a e ua o a ou -
e

is inc rp r t d is t ss m in f ct th t g ld d silv r
o o a e ,
f d th s m
o a u e, a ,
a o an e ar e o on e a n e a e

m t ri l d th t giv n m ss f th l ss v l bl m t l silv r is c ns t nt
a e a , an a a e a o e e a ua e e a ,
e , a o a

fr cti n f
a giv n m ss f g ld Fr m th r ign f Edw rd III t th tim f
o o a e a o o . o e e O a . o e e o

G rg II th hist ry f m y in Engl nd c nsists f

eo e .
, e l ng s ri s f p o o on e a o o on e o e e o er .

t b ti
ur a c s d by th cl shi g f th l g lly fix d r ti b tw n th v l s f
en s au e e a n o e e a e a o e ee e a ue o

g ld d silv r with th fl ct ti ns in th ir r l v l s At
o an e ,
tim g ld w t e u ua o e ea a ue . on e e o as oo

high t n th r silv r Th m t l th t f th tim b ing w stim t d b l w its

, a a o e , e . e e a a or e e e as e a e e o

v lu w withdr wn fr m circul ti n m lt d d xp rt d Th r ti b tw n
a e, as a o a o , e e an e o e . e a o e ee

th t w m t ls w
e oth n g in lt r d by l w b ut th w n min l r ti s n c m
e a as e a a a e e a , e ne o a a o oo a e
7 0 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

As m ea s ur e f
o l
v a ue an d a s s ta n d a r
f d
p i
o c e m on
r ey h a s t w, o

en ti r el
y d i s ti n c t fu n c ti on s to p er for m I t. i s th e m e as u r e

o f v alue i n as m uch a s i t i s th e s oci all

y r ec og n i s ed i n c a r n a ti on

of h u m a n la b ou r ; i t i s th e s ta n d a r d of r i ce i n a s m u ch a s i t i s
p
a fix ed w ei g h t of m etal As th e m eas u e of va lue i t s e v es to
'

. r r

c on v e t t h e va lu es of a ll th e m a n i fold com m odi ti es i n to

r r i ces
p ,

i n to i m agi n ar y q u an ti ti es of g old ; a s th e s ta n d ar d of p i c e i t r

m ea s ur es th es e qu a n ti ti es of g old Th e m eas ur e of v a lu es .

m eas ur es c om m odi ti es c on s i d e ed a s v alu es ; th e s tan d a r d of r

p r i ce m ea s u r es on th e c on tr a r
y qu a n
,
ti ti e s of g o ld b y a u n i t ,

qu an ti ty of gold n ot th e value of on e qu an ti ty of g old b y the

,

w ei gh t of a n oth er In or d er to m a k e g old a s ta n d a d of p i c e
. r r ,

a c er ta i n w ei g h t m u s t b e fix ed u on as th e u n i t In thi s cas e
p .
,

as i n a ll c as es of m eas u r i n g qu a n ti ti es of th e s am e d en om i n a

ti on th e es tab li s h m en t of a n u n v a y i n g u n i t of m ea s u e i s a ll
,
r r

i m p or tan t H en ce th e les s th e u n i t i s s ub j ec t to v a i a ti on s o
.
,
r ,

m u c h th e b etter d oes th e s ta n d a d of pr i c e fu lfi l i ts offi c e But r .

on ly i n s o fa r a s i t i s i ts elf a r od u c t of la b ou r a n d t h e efor e
p , ,
r ,

p o t en ti all
y v a r i a ble i n v a lu e ca n g old s er v e a s a m ea s u r e of ,

valu e .
1

It i s i n th e fir s t pla ce qui te clear th at a c h an ge i n th e value

, ,

of g old d oes n ot i n a n w a y a ffec t i ts fu n c ti on as a s ta n d a d

y , ,
r

of
p i cre N o m a tt e r
. h ow th i s v a lu e v a r i es t h e r o or t i on s
p p ,

b et w een th e va lu es of d i ffer en t qu an ti ti es of th e m etal r em ai n

c on s ta n t H ow ev er gr eat th e fall i n i ts valu e 1 2 ou n ces of
.
,

g old s till h av e 1 2 ti m es th e v a lu e of 1 oun ce ; a n d i n pr i c es ,

th e on ly thi n g c on s i d er ed i s th e r ela ti on b etw een d iffer en t

qu an ti ti es of gold Si n ce on th e oth er h an d n o r i s e o fa ll i n
.
, ,
r

th e v a lu e of a n ou n c e of g old c an a lter i ts w ei gh t n o a lter a ti on ,

ca n ta k e plac e i n th e w ei gh t of i ts a li qu ot p a ts T h u s g old r .

alw a y s en d e s th e s a m e s er v i ce a s a n i n v a i a b le s ta n d a d of
r r r r

r i ce h ow ev er m u c h i ts v alu e m a v
p , y a
y r .

In th e s ec on d pla c e a ch an ge i n th e alu e of g old d oes n ot ,

v

i n te fe e w i th i ts fu n c ti on s a s a m ea u r e of value
r r Th e ch a n g e s .

a ffec ts a ll c omm o di ti es s i m u lta n eou s ly , a n d , th er efor e, c aeter is

p ar i b us lea v es th ei r,
r ela ti v e v a lu es i n ter s e, u n a lter ed , a lt h ou gh
1With English writ rs th c nf si n b tw n m s r f v l e e o u o e ee ea u e o a u e an d st nd rd f
a a o

p ric (
e st nd rd f v la) is ind scrib bl Th
a i r f ncti s w ll
o a ue e a e
. e u on , as e as th ir n m s
e a e ,

ar e c nst ntly i t h g d
o a n er c an e .
 M ny o e , or five C i r c ula ti on of Com m od i ti es .
7 1

t h os e va lues ar e n ow e x pr es s ed in h i gh er or low er g old

r i c es
p .

J u s t a s w h en w e es ti m ate th e valu e of an y c omm odi ty b y

a d efi n i te qu a n ti t of th e u s e va lu e of s om e oth er c om m od i t
y y
-
,

s o in es ti m ati n g th e v alu e of th e for m er i n g old w e a s s u m e ,

n oth i n g m or e th an th a t th e r od u c ti on of a g i v en qu a n t i t f
p y o

gold c os ts at th e gi v en pe i od a g i v en a m oun t of lab ou r As

,
r , .

r eg a r d s th e fl u ctu a ti on s of r i c es g en er a ll t h r e s u bj ec t t o
p y ey a ,

th e la w s of elem en ta r y r ela ti v e v a lu e i n v es ti ga ted i n a for m er

ch a t
p er .

A g en er al r i s e i n th e pr i ces of c om m od i ti es can r es u lt on ly ,

ei th er f r om a r ise i n th ei r alu es — th e a lu e of m on ey r em ai n
v v
i ng c on s tan t — or fr om a fall i n th e valu e of m on ey th e ,
v a lu es
of com m od i ti es re m ai n i n g c on s ta n t . On t h e oth er h an d , a

g en er al fall i n pr i ces c an r es ult on ly ei th er fr om a fa ll i n th e ,

f i i —
v a u es o comm od t es th e v alu e of m on ey r em ai ni n g con
l
s ta n t — or fr om a r i s e i n th e v a lu e of m on e th v lu f
y e a es o ,

c om m od i ti es r em a i n i n g c on s ta n t It th er efor e b y n o m ean s .

follow s th a t a r i s e i n th e v alu e of m on ey n eces s ar i ly i m pli es a

,

p ro
p or ti on al fa ll i n th e pr i c es of com m od i ti es ; or th a t a fall i n
th e v a lu e of m on ey i m pli es a p r op or ti on al r i s e i n p r i c es .

S u ch c h an ge of p r i ce h old s good on ly i n th e c as e of c om

m od i ti es w h os e v alu e r em ai n s c on s tan t . W i th th os e, for

e xam ple ,
w h os e v a lu e r i s es , a
s i m u lt n eou s ly w i th , an d
p re
p or

ti on ally to, th at of m on ey , th er e i s n o alt er a ti on in p r i ce .

An d i f th ei r v alu e r i s e ei th er s low er or fa s ter th a n th at of

m on ey th e fall or r i s e i n th ei r pr i ces w i ll b e d eter m i n ed b y
,

th e d i ffer en ce b etw een th e c h an g e i n th ei r v alu e a n d th at of

m on ey ; a n d s o on .

Let us n ow g o b a ck t o th e c on s i d er ati on of r i
th e p c e for
-
m .

By d eg r ees th er e a r i s es a d i s c r epa n cy b etw een th e c u r r en t

m on ey n a m es of th e v ar i ou s g
w ei h ts th e pr eci ou s m etal
of

fig ur i n g a s m on ey an d ,
th e a c tu al w ei gh ts w h i c h th os e n a m es

or i g i n a lly r e r es en ted
p . T hi s d i s cr epan cy i s th e r es u lt of

h i s t or i cal c a u s es , a m on g w h i ch th e chi ef a r e Th e i m
p or ta ti on of for ei gn m on ey i n to an i m per fectly d ev elop ed
c om m un i ty . T hi s h a ppen ed i n R om e i n i ts ear ly d ay s w h er e ,

gold v
a n d s i l er c oi n s ci r c ula ted a t fi r s t a s for ei gn c om m od i ti es .
7 2 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

Th e n am es of th es e for ei gn c oi n s n e v er c oi n c id e w i th th os e of

th e i n di gen ous w ei h ts g .
( )
2 As w ealth i n c r ea s es , th e less
p r ec i ou s m etal i s th r us t b y th e m or e pr eci ou s fr om i ts pla ce
ou t

as a m ea s ur e of valu e ,
co
pp er b
y s i lv er s ilv er b
y g old h ow ev er , ,

m u c h th i s or d er of se qu en ce m ay b e i n c on tr a d i cti on w i th

p o eti ca l c h r on olo Th e w or d poun d for i n s tan c e w a s th e gy .

1
, ,

m on ey n am e gi v en to a n a c tu al p oun d w ei gh t of s i lv er
-
W h en .

g old r eplac ed s i lver a s a m ea s ur e of v alue th e s am e n am e w as ,

li d r d i n g to th e r a ti o b etw een th e v a lu e s of s i lv er a n d
a
pp e acc o

g old , to per h aps 1 1 5 th of a p ou n d of g old Th e w or d p oun d , -

.

a s a m on e n am e, th us b ecom es d i ffer en ti a ted fr om th e s a m e

y
-

w or d as a w ei gh t -
n am e .
( )
3 Th e d eb a s i ng of m on ey c a r r i ed

on for c en tur i es by k i n gs an d p r i n ces to s uc h a n e x ten t th a t ,

of

th e or i gi n al w ei gh ts of th e c oi n s , n oth i n g i n fa c t r em ai n ed b ut
th e n a m es .

T h es e h i s tor i cal v er t the s epar ati on of th e m on ey cau s es con

n a m e fr om th e w ei g h t n a m e i n to a n es ta b li s h ed h a b i t w i th th e -

c om m u n i t
y S i n ce th e s ta n d a r d of m on e
.
y i s on th e on e h an d

p u r el
y c on v en ti o n a l a n d m u s t 0 1 1 th e o th er h a n d fi n d g en er al ,

a cc e ta n c e i t i s i n th e en d r eg u la ted b
p , y law A g i v en w ei gh t .

of on e of th e r ec i ou s m etals n u n e of g old for i n s ta n ce

p a o c , , ,

b ecom es offic i ally d i v i d ed i n to ali q uot pa r ts w i th legally ,

b es tow ed n am es s uc h a s pou n d d ollar 85 0 T h es e a li quot , , ,

.

a r ts w hi c h th en cefor th s e v e a s u n i ts of m on e a r e th en s u b
p , y r ,

di v i d ed i n to ot her ali quot par ts w i th legal n a m es s uc h as ,

s h illi n g
p enn y & c
,
Bu t b o th b e fo r e an d ,
a fter t h es e .
4
,

di v i s i on s ar e m a d e a d efi n i te w ei gh t of m eta l i s th e s ta n d ar d ,

o f m etalli c m on ey . Th e s ole a lter ati on c on s i s ts i n th e s ub

di vi s i on an d d en om i n a ti on .

M r v r it h
1 t g n r l hist ric l v lidity
o eo e , as n o e e a o a a .

It is t h s th t th p nd st rling in English d n t s l ss th n
2 u a third f its
e ou e e o e e a on e -
o

o rigin l w ight ; th p nd Sc t b f r th ni n nly 1 3 6 th th Fr nch livr

a e e ou o , e o e e u o , o -
e e e,

1 7 4th
-
th S p nish m r v di l ss th n 1 1 000th
e d t h P rt gu s
a i still a a e ,
e a -
an e o u e e re a

sm ll r fr cti n
a e a o .

L m n t l q li ggi s n id li s n l p ntich d g i n i n t tt ’
3 e o e e e ua o o o ea o o e 1u a e o n az o e, e u e

f n
ur o o n u t m p r li p rche r n r li e ss si c nt v ( G li i D ll
o ea , e e e a o ea c on e e o a a .
”
a an : e a

mnt l p o e a, . c .
, .

D vid Urq h rt r m rks i his F mili r W rds

4 a u th a th t
e a n a a o on e a

no w d ys p nd ( st rli g ) which is th nit f th English st nd rd f m n y is

-
a- a a ou e n ,
e u o e a a o o e ,

e q l t b ut q rt r f
ua o a nc f g ld
o This is f lsifying m s r
a ua t e o an ou e o o .
“
a a ea u e , no

e st blishing t nd rd H s s in this f ls d n min ti n f th w ight f

a a s a a .
”
e ee
“
a e e o a o
”
o e e o

g ld in v rything ls th f lsifying h d f ci ilis ti n

o , as e e e e, e a an o v a o .
74 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

P r cei i s th e m on ey b our r eali s ed i n a c om m o

-
n a m e of th e la
d i ty H en c e th e ex p es s i on of th e eq u i v alen ce of a c om m od i ty
. r

w i th th e s u m of m on ey c on s ti tuti n g i ts pr i c e i s a tau tolog }

y ,

j u s t a s i n gen er al th e ex pr es s i on of th e r ela ti ve v alu e of a

com m odi ty i s a s tatem en t of th e equ i va len c e of t w o c om m od i ti es .

Bu t a lth ou gh p i ce b ei n g th e ex p on en t of th e m agn i tu d e of a
r ,

c om m odi ty s v alu e i s th e ex on en t of i ts e x ch a n g e
’

p , a t i o w i th -
r

m on ey i t d oes n ot foll w th a t th e expon en t of thi s ex c h a n g e

,
o

r a ti o i s n eces s ar i l
y t h e e x p on e n t o f t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e c om

m od i ty s v a lue S uppos e t w o equal qua n ti ti es of s oci a lly

’
.

n ec es s a r
y la b ou r t o b e r es p e c ti v ely r e p r es e n t e d b y 1 q u a t e r r

of w h ea t a n d £ 2 n ear l
( y 1, o o f g old ) £ 2 i s t h e e x p r es s i on i n z .
,

m on ey of th e m ag n i tud e of th e v alue of th e q uar ter of w h eat ,

or i s i ts r i ce If n e w c i c u m s tan ces a llow of th i s r i ce b ei n g

p .
p r

r a i s ed to £ 3 or c om el i t to b e r ed u ced to £ 1 th en a lth ou g h
p , ,

£ 1 a n d £ 3 m ay b e too s m all or too gr ea t pr oper ly to ex pr es s

t h e m ag n i tu d e of th e w h eat s v alu e n ev e th ele s th ey a r e i ts
’

,
r s

p i
r c es fo t h,
ey a r e i n
r t h e fi r s t p la ce th e f or m ,
u n d er w h i c h i ts ,

valu e a ppear s i e m on ey ; an d i n th e s econd place th e ex

,
. .
, ,

n en ts of i ts ex ch a n g e r a t i o w i th m on e If t h n di ti on s
p o y e co -
.

of r od uc ti on i n oth er w or d s i f th e r od u cti v e w r of la b ou r
p , p p o e ,

r em a i n c on s ta n t th e s am e a m oun t of s oc i al la b ou r ti m e m u s t
,
-
,

b oth b efor e a n d after th e ch an ge i n pr i ce b e expen d ed i n th e ,

r e r od u c ti on of a qu a r ter
p o f w h ea t T h i s c i r c u m s ta n c e d e .

p en d s , n ei th er on th e w i ll th e w h ea t pr od ucer
of ,
n or on th at
of th e ow n er s of oth er c om m o d i ti es .

M ag n i tu d e of value ex pr es s es a r elati on of s oci al p r od u c ti on ,

it ex pr es s es t h e c on n ec ti on th a t n ec es s ar i ly e xi s ts b etw een a

c er tai n a r ti cle a n d th e por t i on of th e t ota l la b our -

ti m e of s oc i et
y
re qui r ed to pr od u c e i t . As s oon v alue i s c on
as m a gn i tu d e of

v er ted i n to p r i ce th e a ,
b ov e n ec es s a y r ela ti on ta k es th e s h a pe
r

of a m or e or les s a cci d en t al e x c h an g e a ti o b etw een a s i n g le -

r

c om m od i ty a n d a n oth er , th e m on ey -
c omm od i ty . But th i s ex

c h an ge r a ti o -
m ay e x pr es s ei th er th e r eal m ag n i tu d e of th a t
c om m od i ty s
’
v alue ,
quan ti ty of gold d evi a ti n g fr om th at
or th e
value ,
for w h i c h , a c c or d i n g to c i r c um s ta n ces i t m ay b e p a r ted ,

O bi n il f t c ns tir a dir q u l r d milli n rg nt v t pl ’ ’

1
u e au o en e u n e v a eu un o en a e au us
,

q
’
u une l r ég l m rch
v a eu ndis s ( L Tr sn l c p which
a e en m unts t a a e e e e . . . a o o

s ying q u
a v l ur v t plus q u
’
v l ur ég l
un e a e au
’
une a e a e .
 Mny o e , or tne C i r c u la ti on f
o Comm od i ti es .
75 .

w i th Th e p os s i b i li ty th er efor e, of qu a n ti tati v e i n con gr ui ty

.
,

b etw een pr i c e a n d m agn i tu d e of v alue or th e d ev i ati on of th e ,

for m er fr om th e la tter , i s i n h er en t i n th e pr i c e for m i ts elf -

.

T hi s i s n o d efect, b u t, on th e c on tr ar y , a d m i r a bly a d apts th e

r i c e- for m to m od e of pr od uc ti on w h os e i n h er en t la w s i m p os e
p a

th em s elv es on l th m n f r en tl l w les s i r r l
a u lari
y as e ea o a ppa y a
g
ti es th a t c om p en s a te on e a n oth er .

h e pr i ce for m , h ow ev er i s n ot on ly -
b le w i th th e ,
c om
pa ti
p os s i b i li ty of a q u a n ti ta ti v e i n c on g r b etw een m agn i tu d e
ui ty
of v a lue a n d r i ce i e b etw een th e for m er a n d i ts ex r es s i on
p , p . .
,

i n m on ey b ut i t m ay a ls o c on cea l a q ua li ta ti v e i n c on s i s t en cy s o
, ,

m u ch s o th a t a lth ou gh m on ey i s n oth i n g b u t th e v alu e for m of

, ,
-

c om m od i ti es r i ce c eas es altog eth er t o ex r es s v a lu e O bj ects

p p
,
.

th a t i n th em s elv es a r e n o c om m od i ti es , s u ch a s c on s ci en ce, h on our , .

&c .
, p a r e ca b ei n g offer e d fo
a b le s ale b of
y t h ei r h old er s an d r ,

of th u s a c qu i r i n g th r oug h th ei r r i c e th e for m of com m od i ti es

p , ,
.

H en ce a n obj ec t m ay h a v e a pri c e w i th ou t h a v i n g value Th e .

r i c e i n th at ca s e i s i m a g i n ar li k r tai n q u a n ti ti es i n m a th e
“

p y e c e ,

m a ti es On th e oth er h an d th e i m agi n ar y pr i ce for m m ay

.
,
-

s om eti m es con c eal ei th er a d i r ec t or i n di r ec t r eal v a lu e r ela ti on -

for i n s tan c e the pr i c e of u n culti va ted lan d w h i c h i s w i th out

, ,

value b ecau s e n o h um an la b our h as b een i n cor por a ted i n i t

,
.

P r i ce li k e r elati v e v alu e i n gen er al expr es s es th e va lu e of

, ,

a c om m od i ty a ton of i r on b i n g th a t a g i v en q uan
) y s t a t ,

ti ty of th e eq ui v alen t ( e g a n ou n ce of gold ) i s d i r ectly ex , ,

ch an g ea b le for i r on But i t b y n o m ean s s tates th e con v er s e

.
,

th a t i r on i s d i r ectly ex ch a n g ea b le for g old In o d er th er e . r ,

for e th at a com m od i ty m ay i n pr a c ti c e a ct effecti v ely as ex

,

ch a n g e v a lue i t m u s t q ui t i ts b od ily s h a pe m u s t tr an s for m i t

, ,

s elf fr om m er e i m a gi n ar i n to r ea l g old a lth o ug h to th e c omm e

y ,

d i ty s u ch tr an s ub s ta n ti a ti on m ay b e m or e d i ffi cult th an to th e
H eg eli an c on c ept th e tr a n s i ti on fr om n eces s i ty to fr ee ,
”

d om or to a lob s ter th e c a s ti n g of h i s s h ell or to S a i n t J er om e

”
, ,

th e pu tti n g off of th e old A d a m T h ou gh a c om m od i ty m ay .

1
,

J r m h d t wr stl h rd t nly in his y th with th b dily fl sh is

1 e o e a o e e a ,
no o ou e o e ,
as

sh wn by his fight in th d s rt with th h nds m w m n f his im gin ti n b ut

o e e e e a o e o e o a a o ,

als in his ld g with th sp irit l fl sh

o o I th ght h s ys I w in th
a e e ua e . ou ,
”
e a ,
“
as e

spirit b f r th J dg f th Univ rs
e o e Wh t th u
e sk d v ic
u I m
e o e e e .
”
o ar o a e a o e . a

a Christi n Th u li st thund r d b ck th gr t Jud g

a .
” “
th u t n ght b ut
o e ,
”
e e a e ea e,
“
o ar ou

a Cic r ni n e o a .
 7 6 Cep i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

side by s i de w i th i ts a c tu al for m r on , for i n s ta n c e , ta k e i n

( i )
o ur i m ag i n a ti on th e for m of g old , y et it can n ot a t on e an d th e
s am e ti m e b oth
a c tu ally be i r on an d gold . To fix
i ts p r i ce i t ,

s uf fi ces to eq ua te i t to g old i n i m agi n a ti on . But to en ab le i t to

r en d er to i ts ow n er th e vi ce of
s er a uni v er s al equi v alen t ,
it
m us t b e a c tu all
y re
pla ced b y g old . If th e ow n e r of th e i r on
w er e to go t o th e o w n er of s om e oth er c omm od i ty offer ed for
e x ch an ge ,
an d w er e to r efer
hi m to th e pri ce of th e i r on a s
p r oof th at i t w a s a lr ea d
y m on e , h e w ou ld
y g et t h e s a m e

a n s w er as St . P eter ga ve i n h ea v en to D an te w h en th e la tter ,

r ec i ted th e c r eed
As s ai b en e e tr a s co r s a
D s t m on et gia l lega e l p es o
’
e a a a
’

Ma d i m m i s e tu l h ai n ell t u b or s a ’
a a .

A pr i ceth er efor e i m pli es b oth th a t a x ch a n g e c omm od i ty is e

a b le for m on e a n d a l o t h t i t m u t b s x c h a n g e d O n
y s ,
a s e o e .

t h e oth er h a n d gold s er v es a s a n i d ea l m eas ur e of v a lue on ly

, ,

b ecaus e i t h as alr ea d y i n th e pr oces s of ex ch a n ge es tabli s h ed

, ,

i ts elf as t h e m on ey -
comm od i ty . U n d er th e i d eal m ea s ur e of

v alues th er e lur ks th e h a r d ca s h .

S E CTI ON 2 . TH E M E D I U M
-
or C IR C U L A TI ON .

a . The Met a m or
p hos i s o
f Com m odi ti es .

We s aw in a for m er c h a pter th a t t h e x c h a n ge of c om m od i
e

ti es i m p li es c on tr a d i c t or y a n d m u tu a lly ex c lus i v e c on d i ti on s .

Th e d i ffer en ti a ti on of c omm od i ti es i n to c om m od i ti es a n d m on ey
d oes n ot s w eep a w ay th es e i n c on s i s ten c i es , b ut d ev elop es
a m od us i
v v en d i , a for m i n w hi ch th ey ca n e xi s t side by s i de .

Thi s i s g en er ally th e w ay i n w h i ch r ea l c on tr a di c ti on s ar e

r ec on c i led . F or i n s tan ce, i t i s a con tr a d i c ti on to d epi c t on e

b od y a s c on s ta n tly falli n g tow a r d s a n oth er , a n d a s , a t th e s am e

t i m e, con s tan tly y ffly i n g

r om i t T h e elli ps e i s
aw a . a for m of

m oti on w h i c h , w hi le a llow i n g thi s c on tr a d i c ti on t o g o on, a t th e

s am e ti m e r econ ci les it .

In so far as e x ch an ge i s a p r oces s , b y w h i ch com m od i ti es ar e

t r a n s fer r ed fr om h an d s i n w h i ch th ey ar e n on u s e - -
valu es ,
to
h an d s i n w h i c h th ey b ecom e u se -
valu es ,
it is a s oc i al c i r c u la

ti on of m atter . Th e pr od u ct of on e for m of u s eful la b ou r

 7 8 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on
‘

of th e var i ous u s es of g old . T h es e a n ta goni s ti c for m s of c om

m od i ti es ar e th e r eal for m s i n w h i ch th e pr oces s of th ei r

e x ch ang e m ov es an d ta k es p la c e .

Let u s n e w a cc om pa n y th e ow n er of s om e c om m odi t
y
— s ay ,

our old fr i en d th e w ea v er of li n en — to th e s cen e of a c ti on , th e

m ar k et . Hi s 2 0 yar d s of d efin i te pr i c e, £ 2
li n en h as He a .

e xch an ges i t for th e £ 2, a n d th en , li k e a m an of th e

g ood old

s ta m
p th at h e i s , h e pa r ts w i th t h e £ 2 for a fa m i l
y B i b le of th e

s am e
p T h e l i
r i ce n en w h i c h i n h i s e es i s a m er e c om m od i t
.
y y , ,

a d e os i tor of v a lue h e ali en a tes i n ex ch an g e for g old w hi ch

p y , ,

i s th e li n en s valu e— for m an d th i s for m h e a gai n pa r ts w i th for

’

a n oth er c om m od i t
y t h e B i b le w h i c h i s d es ti n ed to en ter h i s
, ,

h ou s e a s a n obj ec t of u ti li ty an d of ed i fi ca ti on to i ts i n m ates .

Th e ex ch an g e b ec om es a n a c c om pli s h ed fact b y tw o m etam er

‘

h of O os i te y et s u plem en ta r y ch a r a c ter — th c on v er s i on
p es es
pp p e

of th e com m odi ty i n to m on ey , a n d th e r e c on v er s i on of th e -

m on ey i n to Th e tw o ph a s es of th i s m eta m er
a c omm od i ty }
l

p h os i s a r e b oth of th em d i s ti n c t tr a n s ac ti on s of th e w ea v er

s elli n g or th e ex ch a n g e of th e c om m od i ty for m on ey ; b u i n g
, y ,

or th e x ch an g e of th e m on ey for a c om m od i ty an d the un i ty
e ,

of th e tw o ac t s s elli n g i n or d er to b u y ,
.

Th e r es u lt of th e w h ole tr an s a c ti on as r egar d s th e w ea v er , ,

i s th i s th at i n s tea d of b ei n g i n pos s es s i on of th e li n en h e n ow
, ,

h as th e B i ble i n s tea d of h i s or i g i n al c om m od i ty h e n ow , .

s s es s es an oth er of th e s a m e v a lue b ut of d i ffer en t u tili t

p o
y .

In li k e m a n n er h e pr ocur es hi s o th er m ean s of s u b s i s ten c e a n d

m ean s of pr od u c ti on Fr om h i s po i n t of v i ew th e w h ole pr oces s
.
,

effectu a tes n oth i n g m or e th a n th e ex ch a n g e of th e d u t f

p r o c o

h i s lab our for th e pr od u ct of s om e on e els e s n oth i n g m or e t ha n

’

a n ex ch a n g e of r od u cts
p .

Th e ex ch an g e of comm od i ti es i s th er efor e a cc om pan i ed b y

th e follo w i n g ch a n g es i n th ei r for m .

— —
C om m odi ty M o ey C om m od i ty
n .

C -
M -
C .

Th e r es u lt of th e w h ole pr oc es s i s , so fa r as c on c er n s th e
ix B
é effis a é n ai v e ar ,
'
I t
r ?
ot ar t/
pas d rv a
p
’a t -

¢ na i v 5 d n 7t z w ag, n oe l n ap
(F L ss ll D i Phil s p hi
”
la n sp xpuo oi} xpr wa m i xpnué m v xpua és
'
&wd vr &
w v, ' ‘ '
r
xa r
‘
. . a a e : e o o e

Her ak lei tos d es u e e D nk ln B rlin . I , 1 84 5 V ol ,

.
p . . L ss ll in his n t
a a e, o e on

t his p ss g
a a e, p . 2 24 n 3
,
rr n usly m k s g ld m r symb l
.
, e o eo a e o a e e o of vla ue .
 Mon y e , or th e Ci r c ula t i on o f Comm od i ti es .
79

o bj ects th em s el v es —
C C, th e e x ch an g e of on e c om m od i ty for
,

a n ot h er , th e c i r c ulati on of m ater i ali s ed s oc i al la b our . W h en

th i s r es u lt is a tta i n ed , th e pr oc es s i s a t an en d .

C— M . F i r s t m eta m orp hos i s , or s a e l .

Th e leap ta k en b y v alu e fr om th e b od y of th e c om m od i ty ,

i n to th e b ody of th e g old i s , a s I h a v e els ew h er e called i t th e

, ,

s alto m or ta le of th e c om m odi t If i t fa lls s h or t th en a lth o ugh

y .
, ,

th e c omm od i ty i ts elf i s n ot h a r m ed , i ts ow n er d eci d ed ly i s .

Th e s oci al d i vi s i on of lab our c au s es h i s la b our to b e a s o n e s i d ed -

as h i s w an ts ar e m an y -
s i d ed . T hi s i s pr eci s ely th e r eas on w hy
b
th e pr od u c t of h i s la ou r s er es h i m s olely v
x ch an ge value as e .

q
Bu t i t c an n ot a c ui r e th e pr oper ti es of a s oci a lly r ec og n i s ed

u n i v er s al equ i v a len t ex c e t b b ei n g c on v er ted i n to m on ey

p y ,
.

T ha t m on ey h ow ev er i s i n s om e on e els e s p ock et In or d er to
’
.
, ,

en ti ce t h e m on e h c k et o u r fr i en d s c om m o d i ty
’

y o u t o f t a t p o ,

m us t a b ov e a ll th i n gs b e a u s e v a lu e to th e ow n er of th e
, ,
-

m on ey .F or thi s i t i s n ec es s ar y th at th e la b our ex pen d ed u pon

,

i t b e of a k i n d th a t i s s oci ally u s efu l of a k i n d th at con s ti t utes

, ,

a b r a n c h of th e s oc i al di v i s i on of la b ou r Bu t d i vi s i on of lab ou r .

i s a s y s tem of pr od u c ti on w h i ch h a s gr ow n u p s p on tan eou s ly

a n d c on ti n u es to g r o w b eh i n d th e b a c k s of th e r od u c er s T h
p e .

c om m od i t
y to b e e x c h a n g ed m a y p os s i b ly b e t h e p r o d u c t o f
s om e n ew k i n d of la b our th a t r eten d s to s a ti s f n w l r i s en
p , y e y a

r eq ui r em en ts or ev en to g i v e r i s e i ts elf to n ew r equ i r em en ts
,
A .

r ti c ula r o er a ti on th oug h t d h f m i g t
p a
p y es
,
er a
y p er a p s o r n on e o u , ,

of th e m an
y po e r a ti on s con d u cted b
y o n e p r o d u c e r i n c r ea t i n g a

gi v en c om m od i ty m ay to d ay s epar a te i ts elf fr om thi s c on n ecti on

,
-
,

m ay es tab li s h i ts elf a s a n i n d ep en d en t b r an ch of lab our a n d s en d

i ts i n com plete pr od uc t to m ar k et a s a n i n d epen d en t c om m od i ty .

Th e ci r c um s tan c es m ay or m ay n ot b e r i pe for s u ch a s epar a ti on .

Te d ay th e pr od u ct s ati s fi es a s oci al w a n t To m or r ow th e ar ti c le
-
.
-

m ay , ei th er a ltog eth er or pa r ti a lly b e s u p er s ed ed b y s om e oth er ,

a r o r i ate
pp p p r od u c t M o r eov e r a lth ou.g h o u r w ea v er s la b ou r ,
’

m ay b e a r ec ogn i s ed b r a n ch of th e s oci a l d i v i s i on of la b ou r ,

y e tth a t fa ct i s b y n o m ean s s ufl i ci en t to g uar a n tee th e u ti li ty

of h i s 2 0 r d s of li n en If th e c om m un i ty s w an t of li n en , a n d
’
a
y .

s u ch a w an t h as a li m i t li k e e v er y oth er w an t, s h ould a lr ea d y
80 Cafi i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

b y th e pr od uc ts of r i v a l w eav er s our fr i en d s
’
be s atu r a ted ,

r od u c t i s s u er flu ou s , r ed un d an t, a n d c on s equ en tly u s eles s

p p .

Alth ough p eople d o n ot look a g i ft h or s e i n th e m outh ou r -

fr i en d d oes fr eq uen t th e m a r k et for th e pur pos e of m ak i n g

n ot

p r e s en ts . Bu t s uppos e h i s pr od u ct tu r n ou t a r eal u s e v alu e -

,

and b
th er e y attr a c ts m on ey ? Th e qu es ti on ar i s es , h ow m u ch
w i ll i t a ttr ac t ? No d ou t th e ans w er i s a lr ead y an t i ci pa ted
b
i n th e pr i c e of th e a r ti cle i n th e ex p on en t of th e m a g n i tu d e of
,

i ts v alu e We lea v e out of c on s i d er a ti on her e any a c ci d en tal

.

m i s c alc ulati on v alue b y our fr i en d a m i s tak e th at i s s oon

of ,

r ec ti fi ed i n th e m a r k et We s u ppos e h i m to h a ve s pen t on h i s
.

p ord u c t on ly th a t a m ou n t of la b ou r ti m e t h at i s on a n a v e a g e -
r

i lly n ec es s a r y
s oc a . Th e pr i ce th en i s m er ely th e m on ey
,
-
n am e

of th e q u a n ti t of s oc i a l la b ou r r ea li s ed i n h i s c om m od i ty But
y .

w i th ou t th e lea ve
b ehi n d th e b a ck of our w ea v e
,
an d ,
r ,
th e
old fa s h i on ed m od e of w ea v i n g u n d er g oes a c h a n g e Th e la b ou r .

ti m e th a t y es ter d ay w a s w i th ou t d ou b t s oci a lly n ec es s a r y to

t h e pr od u cti on of a y ar d of li n en , c ea s es to b e s o t o d a y , a fa ct -

w h i ch th e ow n er of th e m on ey i s on ly too ea er to pr o e fr om g v
qu oted Un lu c k i ly for
’
th e p r i c es by o ur fr i en d s com
pet i t or s .

h i m , w ea v er s ar e n ot few an d far b etw een . L a s tly ,

su
pp os e

th at e vey pr i ece o f li n en i n th e m a r k et con ta i n s n o m or e la b our

ti m e th an i s s oci a lly n ec es s ar y In s pi te of th i s all th es e pi eces

.
,

ta k en as a w h ole, m ay h a ve h a d
p la b ou r ti m e s en t
su er p flu ous -

u
p on th em . If th e m ar k et ca nn ot s tom ach th e w h ole qu a n ti ty
at th e n or m a l p r i c e of 2 s hi lli n gs a y a r d, thi s pr o v es th a t t oo
gr ea t a por ti on of th e total lab our of th e com m un i ty h a s b een
ex en d ed i n th e for m of w ea v i n g T h ff t i s th e s am e a s i f
p e e ec .

e ac h i n di v i d u al w ea v er ha d ex en d ed m or e lab ou r ti m e u on
p p
-

hi s pa r ti c u lar pr od u c t th a n i s s oci ally n ec es s ar y H er e w e m ay .

s a , w i th th e G er m a n r ov er b : c a u gh t togeth er , h un g t og eth er
y p .

All th e li n en i n th e m a r k et c ou n ts b u t a s on e a r ti cle of c om m er ce ,

of w h i ch ea ch i i on l n a li qu ot r t An d as a m a tt er
p ece s y a p a .

of fa ct th e
,
valu e als o of each s i n gle y ar d i s b ut th e m a ter i ali s ed
for m of th e s am e d efi n i te a n d s oci all
y fix ed quan ti ty of h om o
g en een s h u m an la b our .

We s ee th en , com m od i ti es a r e i n lov e w i th m on ey , b u t th e
c our s e of tr ue lo ve ne ver did r un s m ooth .
”
Th e quan ti tati ve
 Cap z z a lz s t P r od ucti on
' '

82 ‘
.

m od i ty . Th e a
p p ar en tl
y sin gle p r oces s is i n r eali ty a d ou b le
on e . F r om th e p ole of th e c om m od i ty ow n er it is a s a le, fr om
th e oppos i t e p ole of th e m on ey ow n er , it is a p u r c h as e . In
o th er w or d s , a s ale is a
p u r c h as e , C Mi s
— a ls o —
llZl C 1
.

Up
to th i s poi n t w e h ave c on s i d er ed m en i n on l
y on e e c on o

m i cal c apa ci ty , th at of ow n er s of c om m od i ti es , a capa c i ty in

w h i c h th ey a ppr opr i ate th e pr od u ce of th e la b our of oth er s , by
a li en a ti n g th a t of t h ei r o w n la our b . H en c e for ,
on e com m od i ty

ow n er to m eet w i th a n oth er w h o h a s m on ey , i t i s n ec es s a r y ,

ei th er , th a t th e pr od u ct of th e la b our th e la tter per s on , th e

of

b uy er ,
s h ou ld b e i n i ts elf m on ey , s h ould b e old th e m a te r i a l g ,

of w h i ch m on ey con s i s ts , tha t hi s pr od u c t s h ou ld a lr ea d y
or

ha v e c h an g ed i ts s ki n v
a n d h a e s tr i pp ed off i ts or i i n al for m g
of a us eful o bj ect . In or d er th at i t m ay play th e pa r t of

m on ey , g old m us t of cour s e en ter th e m ar k et a t s om e poi n t or

o th er . T h i s poi n t i s to b e foun d at th e s ou r c e of
p r od u c ti on

of th e m etal, at w h i ch pla c e gold is b ar ter ed ,

as th e i m m ed i a te
p r od u c t of la b our , for s om e oth er p r od uc t of e q ual v alue .

F r om tha t m om en t i t alw ay s r epr es en ts th e r eali s ed pr i ce of

s om e c om m od i t
y
2
A p a r t fr om i ts ex c h an g e for o th er com .

m od i ti es at th e s ou r ce of i ts pr od u c ti on , g old i n w h os e s o ev er ,
- -

ha n d s i t m ay b e i s th e ,
tr a n s for m ed s h a pe of s om e com m od i ty
a li en at ed b i t w n r ; i t i s th e r od u c t of a s ale or of th e fi r s t
y s o e p
m eta m or ph os i s C — 3
Gold as w e s a w , b eca m e i d eal m on ey M .
, ,

or a v alu es i n c on s eq uen c e of a ll c omm od i ti es

m eas ur e of ,

m eas ur i n g th ei r va lu es b y i t a n d th us c on t as ti n g i t i d eally ,
r

w i th th ei r na tur al s h a pe as u s eful obj ec ts a n d m ak i n g i t th e ,

s h a e of th ei r v alu e It b m r eal m on e b th g n l
p ec a e y y e e er
. a ,

ali en a ti on o f c om m od i ti es b
y a c tu a lly c h a n g i ng
p la ces w i t h th ei ,
r

n a tu a l fo m s a s u s eful obj ec ts a n d th u s b ec om i n g i n r eali t

r r
y ,

th e em b od i m en t of th ei r va lues W h en they a s s u m e thi s .

m on ey s h ap e c om m od i ti es s tr i p off ev er y t ac e of th ei r n a tu r a l
-
,
r

u s e v a lu e a n d of th e r ti c ula r k i n d of la b ou r to w h i c h th e
p a
y
-

1 “T t v nt t ch t ( Dr Qu sn y Di l g s u l C mm rc t l
ou e e e es a a . . e a a o ue s r e o e e e es

T r v ux d
a a A rtis n ? Physi cr t s d D ir I P rti P ris 1 846 p
es a s o a e e . a e . a e, a , , . or as

Q sn y in his M xim s g é nér l s p ts it V ndr t ch t r

ue a a e a e u ,
e e es a e e .

2 L prix d n m rch ndis

e
p u v nt etr p yé q
’
u p l prix d
e u tr m
a a e ne o a e a ue ar e
’
un e a e ar

( M rci r d l Ri i é n tur l t ss nti l d s ciétés p li

”
h di LO d
’
c an se . e e e a v re r re a e e e e e es o o

t i q s Physi cr t s d D ir II P rti p
ue .
”
o a e ,
e . a e . a e, .

P ur v ir t rg nt i l f ut v ir v nd 1 p 543
3 “ o a o ce a e , a a o e u,
”
. c .
, . .
 Mon y e ,
or f/z e C he m /a ti on of 83

owe th ei r c r ea ti on , in or d er to t r a n s for m th em s el v es i n to th e
u n i for m , s oci ally r eco n i s ed g i n car n ati on of h om og en eous h um a n

lab our . We ca nn ot tell fr om th e m er e look of a p i ec e of

m on ey , for w h a t par ti c ula r c om m odi ty i t h as b een ex c h a n g ed .

Un d er th ei r m on ey for m a ll com m od i ti es look ali k e -

. H en ce ,

m on ey m ay b e d i r t a lth ough d i r t i s n ot m on ey ,
W e w ill .

a s s u m e th at th e tw o g old i i n n i d ti n f w hi h u
p ec es ,
c o s er a o o c o r

w ea ver h a s par ted w i th h i s li n en ar e th e m eta m or ph os ed s h ap e ,

o f a q u a r ter of w h ea t Th e s ale of th e li n en O M i s at th e .
,
-
,

s am e ti m e i ts u h as e M C Bu t t h l i s th e fi r s t a ct of
'

p r c e s a e -

, .

a p r oc es s th a t en d s w i th a tr an s a cti on of a n opp os i t e n a t ur e,

n a m el
y ,
th e pu r c h a s e of a B i ble ; th e pur ch as e of th e li n en on ,

th e oth er h an d , en d s a m ov em en t th a t b eg a n w i th a tr a n s a c
ti on of a n o
pp os i te n a tu r e, n a m el ,
y w i th th e s ale of th e w h eat .

C — M (li n en m on ey ) w h i ch i s th e fi r s t ph as e of C M C
— —
,
—

( li n en — m on e
y
— B i b le
) i s a ls o M— C ( m on ey
— li n en
), th e l
,
as t

p h as e of a n ot h er m o v em e n t C — M— C w h ea t— m o n ey
— li n e n
) ( .

Th e fir s t m eta m or ph os i s of on e c om m od i ty , i ts tr a n s for m a
ti on fr om a com m od i ty i n to m on ey , i s th er efor e a ls o i n v a r i ab ly
th e s ec on d m eta m or ph os i s of s om e oth er com m od i ty , th e re

tr a n s for m a ti on of th e la tter fr om m on ey i n to a c om m od i ty
1
.

1 — 0 u r cha s e The s econ d d con c ud i n l m ta m or

.
,
or p . an
g e

p h os i s o f a com m od i ty .

Becaus e m on ey i s th e m eta m or ph os ed s h a pe of a ll oth er

c om m od i ti es , th e r es ult of t h ei r g en er al a li en a ti on , for t h i s
r ea s on it is a li en a ble i ts elf w i th ou t r es tr i c ti on or con d i ti on .

It r ea ds a ll
p r i c es b a ck w a r d s ,
an d t h us , so to
y d ep i
sac ts i ts
,
elf
i n th e b odi es of a ll oth er c om m od i ti es , w h i ch offer to i t th e
m ater i al for th e r ea li s a ti on of i ts ow n us e -
v alue . At th e s am e

ti m e th e pr i ces , w ooi n g g lan c es ca s t a t m on ey b y c om m od i ti es ,

d efin e th e li m i ts of i ts c on er ti i li ty , b y poi n ti n g to i ts qu a nti ty v b .

S i n ce ev e r
y c omm odi t
y ,
on b ecom i n g m on ey , d i s a pp ear s as a

c om m od i ty , i t i s i m pos s i b le to tell fr om th e m on ey i ts elf, h ow

i t got i n to th e h an d s of i ts p os s es s or , or w h a t a r ti cle h a s b een
c h a n ed i n to i t
g N o n ole t,
fr om w h a t
.ev er s o ur c e i t m a y c om e .

As b f r r m rk d th ct l pr d c r f g ld silv r f rms
1 e o e e a e , e axc p ti n H ua o u e o o or e o an e e o . e

e xch ng s his pr d uct dir ctly f n th r c mm dity with ut h ving first s ld it

a e o e or a o e o o , o a o .
84 Cap z mlz s t P e od uelzon
' '

R epr es en ti ng on th e on e h an d a s old c om m odi t

y ,
i t re
pr es en s t
on th e oth er a c om m od i t
y to b e b ough t .
1

M— C ,
a pu r ch a s e, is ,
at th e s am e ti m e, C— M a s ale
,
the con

c lud i n g m eta m or ph os i s of on e c om m od i t i s th e fir s t m etam o

y r

p h os i s of a n oth er . Wi th
gar d to our w ea v er th e life of h i s re
,

c om m od i t
y en d s w i th t h e B i b le i n to w h i c h h e h a s r ec on v er ted ,

hi s £ 2 But s u ppos e th e s eller of t he B i ble tur n s th e £ 2 s et

.

fr ee b y th e w ea v er i n to b r an d y M— G th e c on clu d i n g ph as e .
,

of C— M — C li n en m on e B b — M t h e fi r s t h as e
( y i le
) i s a ls o C , p , , ,

of C — M — C B i b le m on e b ‘
( y r a n d y) T h e
p r od u,c er of a p a r , .

ti cular comm od i t
y h as t h a t on e a r ti c le a lo n e t o offer ; t hi s h e

s ells v er y often i n la r g e q u a n ti ti es b u t hi s m a n y a n d v ar i ous ,

w a n ts com
p el hi m to s pli t u
p th e p r i ce r ea li s ed , th e sum of

m on ey s et fr ee i n to ,
n u m er ou s
p u r c h a s es . H en ce a s a le lea d s
to m a n y pu r c h a s es of v a r i o us a r ti cles . Th e con c lu d i n g m eta
m or ph os i s of a c om m od i t
y th u s con s ti tutes a n a ggr ega ti on of

fir s t m etam or ph os es of var i ous oth er c om m odi ti es .

If w e n ow c on s i d er th e c om pleted m eta m or ph os i s of a c om

m od i ty , as a w h ole, i t pp ian th e fi r s t l
ea r s
p a c e,
th a t i t i s m a d e

u p of tw o o
pp os i te a n d com lem en ta r
p y m o v em en ts C — and ,
M
M — 0 . T h es e tw o a n ti th eti c a l tr a n s m u ta ti on s o f a c omm od i ty

ar e br ough t a b ou t b y tw o a n ti th eti c a l s oc i a l a c ts on th e p a r t
of th e o w n er , a n d th es e a c ts i n th ei r t ur n s ta m t h e c h a r a c ter
p
of th e ec on om i c al
la ed b h i m A a r ts th e p er s on w h o
p p y y s .

m a k es a s ale, h e i s a s eller ; a s th e p er s on w h o m ak es a pur

c h a s e h e i s a b uy er
,
Bu t j u s t a s , u p on ev er y s u c h tr a n s m u
.

ta ti on of a c om m od i t i ts tw o for m s , c om m od i ty - for m an d
y ,

m on ey for m , -
ex i s t s i m u lta n eou s ly b u t at o
pp os 1 te
p oles , so

e ver y s eller h as a b uy er Op pos ed to h i m , an d v er y b uy e a

e r

s eller . W h ile on e p a r t i c u lar c om m od i ty is g oi n g th ou gh i ts r

t w o tr an s m u ta ti on s in s u c ces s i on , fr om a c om m od i ty i n to
m on ey an d fr om m on ey i n to a n oth er c omm od i ty , th e o w n er of

th e c omm od i ty ch a n ges in s u c c es s i on h i s pa r t fr om th a t of
s eller to t h a t of b uy er . T h es e c h a r a cter s of s eller a n d b uy er

ar e th er efor e n ot p er m a n en t, b ut a tta c h th em s el v es i n tu r n s to
th e v ar i ous p er s on s en ga ged i n th e c i r c ula ti on of com m od i ti es .

1 Si l rg nt r prés nt d ns
’
a m ins l ch s s q n s p v ns d é sir r
e e e e, a n os a , es o e ue ou ou o e

h te il y r p rés nt ssi l ch s s q u n u s v ns v nd s p ur t rg nt
’ ”
d ac e r, e e e au es o e e o a o e ue o ce a e .

( M rci r d l Ri i é l c p
e e e a v re . . .
86 Capi ta li s t P r od n eti on .

of a ll th e d i ffer en t c i r cu i ts c on s ti tu tes the ci r c u la ti on o f co m

m od i ti es .

Th e c i r c u la ti on of c om m odi ti es d i ffer s fr om th e d i r ect ex

c h an ge pof r od u c ts ( b ar ter
) ,
n ot on ly i n for m b u t i n su b s tan ce .

O n ly c on s i d er th e cour s e of ev en ts Th e w ea v er h as .
,
as a

m atter of fa c t, ex ch an g ed h i s li n en for a B i ble, h i s own c om

m od i ty for th at Bu t th i s i s tr u e only s o far

of s om e on e els e .

a s h e h i m s elf i s c on cer n ed Th e s eller of th e B i b le w h o pr efer s

.
,

s om ethi n g to w a r m hi s i n s i d e n o m or e th oug h t of ex ch an g i n g ,

his B ible for li n en th an our w eav er kn ew th at w h ea t h ad b een

ex ch a n g ed for h i s li n en B s c om m odi ty r eplaces th at of A
’

,
.

b u t A an d B d o n ot m utually ex ch a n ge th os e com m od i ti es .

It m ay of c our s e h a ppen th at A a n d B m ak e s i m ulta n eous

, ,

u r ch as es th e on e fr om th e oth er ; b ut s u ch ex c e ti on al tr an s
p , p
ac ti on s ar e b y n o m ea n s th e n ec es s ar y r es ult of th e g en er al c on

d i ti on s of th e c i r c u la ti on of comm od i ti es . We s ee h er e, on

th e on e x ch an ge of c omm od i ti es br ea k s th r ough
h a n d , h ow t h e e

a ll loc al a n d r s on al b ou n d s i n s e a r a b le fr om d i r ec t b ar t er a n d
p e p ,

d ev elops th e c i r culati on of th e pr od uc ts of s oci al lab our ; a n d

on th e oth er h a n d h ow i t d ev elops a w h ole n etw or k of s oci al
,

r elati on s s on tan eou s i n th ei r gr owt h an d en ti r el

p y b e on d th e
y
c on tr ol of th e a c tor s It i s on ly b eca u s e th e far m er h as s old
.

h i s w h eat t ha t th e w eav er i s en a b led to s ell h i s li n en on ly ,

b eca us e th e w ea v er h as s old h i s li n en th a t our Hots pur i s

en a b led to s ell h i s B i b le an d on l b c au s e th e latter h a s s old
y e ,

th e w ater of ev er las ti n g life th at th e d i s tiller i s en ab led to s ell

hi s d e v z e, a n d s o on
’

ea n - -
.

Th e pr oces s of ci r culati on , th er efor e, d oes n ot li ke d i r ec t ,

b ar ter of pr od u c ts , b ecom e exti n g ui s h ed upon th e u s e values

ch an gi n g p la c es Th e m on ey d oes n ot v an i s h on
an d h an d s .

d r oppi n g ou t of th e c i r c ui t of th e m etam or ph os i s of a gi v en

com m od i ty It i s con s tan tly b ei n g pr eci pi ta ted i n to n ew

.

la i n th r en a of c i r cu la ti on v a ca ted b th r c om m od i ti es
p c es e a y o e .

In th e c om plete m etam or ph os i s of th e li n en for ex am ple li n en , ,

—
m on ey B i ble th e li n en fi r s t fal s out of ci r c ulati on a n d m on ey
,
l
,

s te s i n to i ts
p p lac e T h e n t h e B i
. b le fa lls o u t o f c i r c u l a ti on a n d ,

ag ai n m on e
y t ak es i ts p la ce W h en o ne c o m m o d i
. ty r e
pla c es

an oth er , the m on ey com m odi ty al w ay s s ti c ks to th e h an d s of

 Mon y e
,
on M e C i r c u la ti on o f Com m od i ti es . 87

s om e th i r d p er s on .
1
C i r c ulati on s w eats m on ey fr om v er y
e

or e
p .

N oth i n g ca n b e m or e c hi ld i s h th a n th e d ogm a, th a t b ecaus e

e ver y s a le is a
p u r c h as e, an d e ver y p ur ch as e a s ale, th er efor e
th e c i r c ula ti on of c om m od i ti es n eces s a r ily i m pli es a n eq ui li
b r i um of s a les a n d
p ur c h a s es . If th i s m ea n s th a t th e n um b er
of a c tual sales is q
e u al to th e n um b er of
p u r ch a s es , i t i s m er e
tau tolo y g . But i ts r eal i s to pr ov e th at ev er y
u
p pr or t s eller

br i n g s hi s b uy er to m ar k et w i th h i m N othi n g of th e . ki n d .

Th e s ale and t h e p ur c h a s e con s ti tu te on e i d en ti ca l ac t, an

ex ch ang e b etw een a comm od i ty ow n er a n d a n ow n er of m on ey -

,

b etw een tw o per s on s as oppos ed to each oth er a s th e t w o poles

of a m a gn et T h ey for m tw o d i s ti n ct acts of pola r a n d
.
,

o
pp o s i te c h a r a c ter s w h en
p er for m ed b y on e s i n g,
le p er s on ,

H en ce th e i d en t i ty of s ale a nd p ur c h as e i m pli es th a t th e
c om m od i t i s u s eles s i f on b ei n g th r ow n i n to th e a lch em i s ti cal
y , ,

r etor t of c i r c ula ti on i t d oes n ot com e ou t a g ai n i n th e s h a e

, p
of m on e ; i f i n oth er w or d s i t c a n n ot b e s old b i t s o w n er an d
y , y , ,

th er efor e b e b ought b y th e ow n er of t h e m on ey T h at i d en ti ty .

fur th er i m pli es th a t th e ex c h a n g e i f i t d o ta k e place c on s ti tu tes , ,

er i od of r es t a n i n te va l lon g or s h or t i n th e li fe of t h e
a
p ,
r , ,

c om m od i t
y S i n ce t h e fi r s.t m et a m o r
ph o s i s of a c om m o d i ty i s

a t on c e a s ale a n d a ur ch as e, it is i n d epen d en t pr oces s

a ls o a n
p
i n i ts elf Th e pur ch as er h as th e
. com m odi ty , th e s eller h a s th e

m on ey , i e , a c om m od i ty r ea d y to go i nto c i r cula ti on a t a ny
. .

ti m e No on e can s ell unles s s om e on e els e pur ch as es But n o

. .

on e i s for th w i th b ou n d t o p ur ch a s e, b ec au s e h e h a s j us t s old .

Ci r cula ti on b ur s ts thr ou gh all r es tr i c ti on s as to ti m e place, an d ,

i n di vi d uals , i m pos ed b y d i r ec t b ar ter ,

an d thi s i t effec ts by
s li tti n g u i n t th n ti th i of a s ale an d a u r c h a s e, th e
p p o e a e
,s s p
b ar ter d oes exi s t b etw een th e a li en a ti on
d i r ect i d en ti ty that i n
of on e s o w n a n d th e a c qu i s i ti on of s om e oth er m a n s
’
r od u ct
’

p .

To s ay th a t th es e tw o i n d epen d en t a n d a n ti th eti cal ac ts h a v e

an i n tr i n s i c un i t
y, a r e es s en ti ally on e, i s th e s am e a s to y sa

th a t th i s i n tr i n s i c on en es s xpr es s es i ts elf i n
e an ex ter n al

a n ti th es i s . If th e i n ter val i n ti me b etw een th e tw o c om ple

S lf vid nt this m y b it is n v rth l ss f th m st p rt un bs rv d b y

‘

1 e e e as or e o a o e e
-
a e, e e e e

po litic l c n mists d sp ci lly by th Fr tr d r Vulg ris

a e o o , an e e a e
“
ee a e a .
88 Cap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

m en tar y ph as es of th e c om plete m etam or ph os i s of a com m od i ty

b ec om e too gr eat, i f th e s pli t b etw een th e s ale a n d th e pur ch ase
b ecom e too pr on oun ced ,
th e i n ti m a te x i on b etw een
c on n e th em ,

th ei r on en es s , as s er ts i ts elf by r od u ci n g — a r i s is Th e
p c .

a n ti th es i s , u s e -
valu e a n d v alue th e c on tr a d i c ti on s
th a t pr i a te v
lab our i s b ou n d to m a n i fes t i ts elf as b di r ec t s oc i al la ou r , th a t a
p a r t i c ula r i z ed c on c r ete k i n d of la b ou r h a s t o
p a s s f o a b s tr ac t r

h u m an lab ou r ; t he c on tr a d i c ti on b etw een th e per s on i fi ca ti on

of obj ec ts a n d th e e r es en ta ti on of r s on s b th i g ll th
p p e
y r n s a es e

a n ti th es es an d c on tr a di cti on s , w h i ch ar e i m m a n en t i n c om

m od i ti es , a s s er t th em s el v es ,
an d d ev elop th ei r m od es of m oti on ,

i n th e an ti th eti ca l
p h a s es of th e m eta m or ph os i s of a c om m od i ty .

T h es e m od es th er efor e i m ply th e pos s i b i li ty ,

an d n o m or e th a n
b
t h e p os s i i li ty , of c r i s es The con er s i on of th i s m er e p os s i ili ty . v b
i n to a r ea li ty i s th e r es ult of a lon s er i es of r ela t i on s , th a t, g
fr om our p r es en t s tan d poi n t of s i m ple c i r c ula ti on , h av e as
y et
no e x i s ten ce .
1

b Th e c ur r en cy
2
f
o m oney .

Th e ch a n g e, , y of for m C—
— C b w hi ch th e c i r c ula ti on of M
th e m a ter i al pr od u c ts of la b our i s b r oug h t a b out, r eq ui r es th at
a gi v en v alue i n th e p r o
th e s h a p e of a c om m od i ty s h a ll b eg i n
c es s a n d s h a ll, a ls o i n th e s h a e of a c om m od i ty , en d i t
, p T h e .

m ov em en t of th e c om m od i ty i s th er efor e a c i r c ui t On the .

o th er h a n d , th e for m of th i s m o em en t pr eclu d es a c i r cu i t fr om v
1 my bs rv ti s J m s Mill in Z u Kriti k & p 7 4 7 6 IVi th r g rd
See o e a on on a e r , c. , .
-
. e a

t this s bj ct w m y n tic t w m th ds ch r t ri tic f p l g tic c n my

o u e , e a o e oTh e o a ac e s o a o o e e o o . e

first is th id ntific ti n f th circ l ti n f c mm diti s with th di ct b rt r f

e e a o o e u a o o o o e e re a e o

r d cts by sim l bstr cti n r m th ir ints di r c s c nd

'

p o u p ,
f p e a f ff ; at h o i t h o e o o e en e e e o s, e

a tt m pt t xpl in w y th c ntr dicti ns f c pit list pr d cti n by r d cing th

e o e a a a e o a o o a a o u o , e u e

r l ti ns b tw n th p rs ns ng g d in th t m d f pr d c ti n t th simpl r l
e a o e ee e e o e a e a o e o o u o ,
o e e e a

ti ns rising ut f th circ l ti n f c mm diti s Th pr d cti n d circ l ti n

o a o o e u a o o o o e . e o u o an u a o

o f c mm diti s
o h w v r ph n m n th t cc r t gr t r l ss xt nt in
o e ar e, o e e ,
e o e a a o u o a ea e or e e e

m d s f p r d cti n th m st div rs If w
o e o o u o cq int d with n thing b t th
e o e e . e ar e a ua e o u e

abstr ct c t g ri s f circ l ti n which c mm n t ll th s m d s f pr d cti n

a a e o e o u a o ,
ar e o o o a e e o e o o u o ,

w c nn t p ssibly kn w nything f th s p cific p ints f di ff r nc

e a o o o a f th s m d s o e e o o e e e o o e o e ,

n or p r n nc o y j dgm
ou nt p
e ann th m In sci
u nc is s che big f u ss m d with
o e . no e e u a u a e

c mm n pl c tr isms in p litic l c n my F inst nc J B S y s ts hims l f

o o a e u as o a e o o . or a e, . . a e e

u p j dg
as a f cris us b c se of rs th h kn wse th t ,
c mm di
e au e,ty is p r d ct o oo ,
e o a a o o a o u .

T
2 l t t — This w rd is h r s d in its rigi l si gnific ti n f th
r a n s a or s
’
no e . o e e u e o na a o o e

c urs tr ck p rs d by m n y it ch ng s fr m h nd t h nd c rs which
o e or a u ue o e as a e o a o a , a ou e

e ss nti lly diff rs fr m circul ti n

e a e o a o .
9 0 Cap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

m od i ty c h an g es p lac e w i th th e m on ey . T h er eupon t he co m
m od i ty ,
u n d er i ts a s p ec t of a us eful o bj ect ,
fa lls ou t of

c i r c ula ti on i n to c on s um p ti on .
1
In i ts s tead w e ha v e i ts v alue
s ha — th m on e It th en goes th r ough th e s ec on d h a s e of
p e e y .
p
i ts c i r c ula ti on , n ot u n d er i ts o wn n atu r a l s h ape, b u t un d er th e
s ha
p e of m on ey . Th e c on ti n ui ty of th e m o v em ent i s th er efor e
kept up b y th e m on ey alon e, a n d th e s a m e m ov em en t th a t a s

r eg a r d s th e c omm od i t c on s i s t s of t w o p r oces s es of an a n ti
y
th eti cal ch a r ac ter , is ,
w h en c on s i d er ed as th e m o em en t of v
th e m on ey , a lw ay s on e an d th e sa m e
p r oces s , a con ti n u ed

ch an g e of places w i th ever H en c e th e fr es h c omm od i ti es .

r es ult b r ough t a b out b th e c i r c ulati on of comm odi ti es n a m ely

y ,

th e r epla c i n g of on e c om m odi ty b y an oth er ta k es th e a ppea r ,

a n ce of h av i n g b een effect ed n ot b m n f th c h a n g e of
y ea s o e

for m of th e com m od i ti es b ut r a th er b y th e m on ey a cti n g a s a ,

m ed i u m of c i r c ula ti on , by an ac ti on th at ci r c ulates c om m od i

ti es , to p a ll a pea r an ce m oti on les s i n th em s elv es , an d tr a n s fer s

th em fr om h a n d s i n w h i ch th ey a r e n on u s e — -
v alues ,
to h a n d s i n
w hi ch th ey a r e us e- v alues an d th at i n a d i r ecti on con s ta n tly

O ppos ed to th e d i r ec ti on of th e m on ey . Th e la tter i s c on

ti n u a lly w i th d r aw i ng c om m od i ti es fr om c i r c ula ti on a nd s tep

pi n g i n to t h ei r
p lac es ,
a n d i n th i s w ay con ti n u a lly m ov i n g
fur th er an d fur th er fr om i ts s ta r ti n g p oi n t H en ce, alth ough -
.

th e m o v em en t of th e m on ey i s m er ely t he e x pr es s i on of

th e c i r c ula ti on of c om m od i ti es , y et th e c on tr ar y a ppear s to b e
th e ac tual fa ct ,
an d th e c i r c ula ti on of com m od i ti es s eem s to b e
th e r es ult of th e m o v em en t of th e m on ey .
2

Aga i n m on ey fun cti on s

, as a m ean s of c i r cula ti on , on ly

b eca u s e valu es of
i n i t th e c om m od i ti es h av e i n d ep en d en t
r eali ty . H en c e i ts m ov em en t ,
as th e m ed i u m of c i r cu la t i on , is ,

i n fa c t ,
m e ely th e m ov em en t
r of c om m odi ti es w h i le ch an gi n g
th ei r for m s . T hi s fa c t m u s t th er efor e m ak e i ts elf plai nly vi s i ble
i n th e cu r r en cy of m on ey . Th e tw ofold ch an ge of for m i n a

1 Ev n wh n th c mm dity is s ld v r d v r g i
e e e o p h n m n n th t
o o o e an o e a a n, a e o e o a at

p r s nt h
e e xist nc f u it f lls wh n d finit ly s ld f th l s t tim
as n o e e e or t s, a ,
e e e o or e a e, ou of

th s ph r
e f circ l ti n int th t f c ns u m p ti n wh r it s rv s ith r
e e o u a o o m ns a o o o , e e e e e e as ea of

s bsi t nc m ns f p r ducti n
u s e e or ea o o o .

Il ( l rg nt ) m u v m nt q u c l i q i lui t imp rim é p l p

“ ’ ’
d ut
’
2 a e n a a re o e e e e u u es ar es ro

d ucti on s .
( Le Tr os n e l c . .
p .
 Money ,
on the C i r c u la ti on o f C omm od i ti es .
9 1

c om m od i ty is re fl ected i n th e tw i ce re
p eated c h an ge of plac e of
th e s am e pm on ey d ur i n g th e com plete m etam or ph os i s Of
i ec e of

a com m od i ty , a n d i n i ts con s tan tly r epea ted ch an g e of pla c e,

a s m eta m or ph os i s follow s m etam or ph os i s , an d ea c h b ec om es

i n ter la ced w i th th e oth er s .

Th e li n en for i n s tan ce fi r s t Of a ll ex ch an g es i ts com m odi ty

, ,

for m for i ts m on ey for m Th e las t ter m of i ts fi r s t m etam or

-
.

p h osi s
( C — M ) o r t h e m on ey for m i s th e fi r s t ter m of i ts fi n a l
,
-
,

m eta o p
m r h os i s ( M — C ) o f i ts r e c on v er s i on i n to a u s eful c om m o
,
-

d i ty th e B i ble
,
But each of th es e c h an g es of for m i s a ec om
.

li s h ed b an ex c h a n g e betw een c om m od i t a n d m on ey yb
p y y ,

th ei r r eci pr ocal di s plac em en t Th e s am e pi eces of coi n i n th e .

,

fi r s t act ch a n ged pla ces w i th th e li n en i n the s econ d w i th th e

, , ,

Bi ble T h ey a r e di s placed tw i ce Th e fir s t m etam or ph os i s

. .

s th em i n to th e w ea v er s oc k et th e s econ d d r a w s th em ou t
’

p u t p ,

o f it . Th e t w o i n v er s e ch an g es u n d er g on e b y th e s am e com
m od i ty a r e r efl ected i n th e d i s pla cem en t t w i c e r ep ea ted b ut , ,

i n O ppos i te d i r ecti on s of th e s am e pi eces o f coi n

,
.

If, on th e h
c on tr a r y , on ly on e
f t h m ta m or h os i s i s
p a s e o e e p
g on e th r ough , i f th er e ar e on ly s ales or only pur ch as es , th en a
gi v en pi ece Of m on ey ch an ges i ts place on ly on ce Its s econ d .

c h an ge cor r es pon d s to a n d expr es s es th e s econ d m etam or ph os i s

Of th e c omm od i ty i ts r e con v er s i on
,
-
fr om m on ey i n to an oth er

com m od i ty i n ten d ed for us e . It i s a m atter of c ou r s e, th at all

thi s i s pp li
a ca b le t o th e s i m ple c i r cu la ti on of c om m od i ti es

a lon e, th e on ly for m th at w e a r e n ow con s i d er i n g .

E v er y comm od i ty w h en i t fi r s t s teps i nto ci r culati on an d

, ,

u n d er g oes i ts fi r s t c h a n g e of for m d oes s o onl t o f ll u t f

y a o O ,

ci r culati on a gai n an d to b e r epla ced b y oth er com m od i ti es .

M on ey on th e con tr ar y a s th e m ed i um of c i r culati on k eeps

, , ,

c on ti n uall
y w i th i n t h e s p h er e of c i r cu la ti on a n d m ov es a b ou t ,

in it . Th e qu es ti on th er efor e ar i s es h ow m uch m on ey thi s ,

s h er e con s tan tl
p y a b s or b s

In a gi v en c oun tr y th er e ta k e pla ce ev er y d ay a t th e s am e
ti m e, b ut i n d i ffer en t loca li ti es , n u m er ou s on e s i d ed
-
m etam or
p h os es of c om m od i ti es or i n oth er w or d s n u m er ou s s ales an d
, , ,

n um er ou s
p u r c h as es T h e c om m o d
. i ti es a r e eq uated b efor e

h an d i n i m ag i n ati on , b y t h ei r pr i c es , to d efi n i te q uan ti ti es Of
9 2 Cap i tcz /i s t P r od u ct i on .

m on ey . An d s i n c e i n th e for m ,
of c i r c ula ti on n ow u n d er con

s i d er a ti on , m on ey a n d comm od i ti es a lw a
y s com e b odily fa ce to
face ,
on e at v
th e pos i ti e pole of p ur ch as e, t h e oth er at th e
g
n e a ti ve p ole of s a le, i t i s clea r th a t t h e a m ou n t of th e m ean s
Of c i r c ula ti on r e qui r ed ,
i s d eter m i n ed b efor eh an d b y th e s u m of

t h e pr i c es Of a ll th es e c omm od i ti es . As a m a tter of fac t, th e

m on ey i n p r eali t
y re r es en ts th e quan ti ty or s u m of g old i d eally
ex r es s ed b efor eh an d b y th e s u m of th e r i ces of th e c om
p p
m od i ti es Th e equ ali ty of th es e tw o s u m s i s th er efor e
. s elf

e vi d en t . W e k n ow ,
h ow ev er , th at th e ,
v alues of c omm od i ti es

re m ai n i n g th ei r pr i c es
con s ta n t, a r y w i th th e a lu e of v v g old
( th e m a ter i al of m on ey ), r i s i n g i n pr op or ti on a s i t fa lls , an d

fa lli n g i n pr opor ti on a s i t r i s es . Now if in,

c on s e quen ce of

s u ch a r i s e or fall i n th e v a lu e of g old ,
th e s um of th e pr i c es of

c om m o di ti es fall or r i s e, th e qua n ti ty of m on ey i n c u r r en cy

m u s t fa ll or r sei to th e s am e ex ten t . Th e c ha n ge i n th e
q u a n ti t
y Of th e c i r c u la ti n g m ed i u m i s , i n th i s ca s e, i t i s tr u e,
c a us ed b y th e m on ey i ts elf y et n ot i n v i r tue Of i ts fun c ti on ,

a s a m ed i u m of c i r c u lati on , b u t Of i ts fu n c ti on as a m eas u r e of

v alu e . Fi r s t , th e pr i ce of th e com m od i ti es v a r i es i nv er s ely

as th e v alue of th e m on ey , a n d t h en th e quan ti ty of t h e
m ed i u m Of c i r c u la ti on v a r i es d i r ectly as p th e r i ce of th e
c om m od i ti es . Exa ctly th e sa m e th i n g w ould h a ppen i f, for
i n s ta n c e i n s tea d,
valu e of g old falli ng gold w er e r epla ced
of th e ,

b y s i lv er a s th e m eas u r e of v alu e or i f i n s tea d of th e v alu e Of , ,

s ilv er r i s i n g g old w er e to th r u s t s ilv er ou t fr om b ei n g th e

,

m ea s u r e of v a lue In th e on e c a s e m or e s i lv er w ould b e
.
,

cu rr en t t h a n g old w as b efor e ; i n th e oth er ca s e les s gold ,

w ould b e c u r en t t h an s i lv er w a s b efor e
r In ea c h c a s e th e .

v alue of th e m a ter i a l of m on ey i e th e v alue of th e c om ,

. .
,

m od i ty th a t s er v es a s th e m eas u e Of valu e w ou ld h a v e u n d e r ,
r

g on e a ch an ge a n d th e efor e s o too w ould th e p i ces of com

,
r , ,
r

m od i ti es w h i ch ex pr es s t h ei r v alu es i n m on ey a n d s o too , , ,

w ould th e q u an ti ty Of m on ey cu r en t w h os e fu n c ti on i t i s t o r

r eali s e th os e
p r i c es W e h a v e a l ea d y s een th a t t h e s ph e e of
. r ,
r

c i r c ula ti on h as a n O en i n g th r oug h w h i ch g old ( or th e m a te i a l r

p
of m on e g n er all i i a c om m od i ty w i th a gi v en
y e y) en t er s n t o t as

v alue H en ce w h en m on ey en ter s on i ts fun cti on s a s a

.
,
94 Cap i ta li s t P mod u cti on .

p la c e w i th th e w h ea t,
w h en s old , m u s t i n cr ea s e w i th th e quan
ti ty of th at w h ea t .

If th e m as s of c om m od i ti es r em ai n c on s ta n t, th e qu an ti ty of

c i r c ula ti n g m on ey v a r i es w i th th e fl uc tuati ons i n th e pr i ces of

th os e com m od i ti es . It i n c r eas es and d i m i n i s h es b eca us e th e

s um of th e pr i ces i n c r eas es or di m i ni s h es i n q
con s e u en c e of th e
ch a n ge p of T o
p r i ce
r od u ce thi s eff
.ec t,
i t i s b y n o m ea n s

r eq u i s i te th a t th e r i c es of all c om m od i ti es s h ould r i s e or fall

p
s i m ulta n eous ly A r i s e or a fa ll i n th e pr i ces of a n um b er of
.

lea di n g a r ti cles , is s uffici en t i n th e on e cas e to i n c r eas e, i n th e

oth er to d i m i n i s h , th e s um of th e pr i c es of a ll com m od i ti es ,

an d , t o pu t m or e or les s m on ey i n c i r culati on
th er efor e , .

W h eth er t h e c h an g e in th e pr i c e cor r es pon d to a n ac tual

c h an g e of v
alue i n t h e comm od i ti es , or w h eth er i t b e th e r es ult

of m er e fluc tu ati ons i n m ar k et pr i ces , th e effect on th e quan

ti ty Of th e m edi u m Of c i r c ula ti on r em ai n s th e s am e .

S uppos e th e follow i ng a r ti cles to b e p s old or ar ti all

y m eta
m or ph os ed s i m ultan eous ly in d i ffer en t loc ali ti es s ay , on e

q uar ter of w h ea t, 20 y a r d s of li n en , on e i le, an d 4: a llons of Bb g

b r an d y . If th e pr i c e of ea ch a r ti cle b e £ 2, a n d th e s u m of the
p r i c es to b e r eali s ed ,
be c ons e u en tly q £ 8 i t follow s th a t £ 8 i n
m on ey m us t go i n to c i r c ula ti on If, on th e oth er h an d th es e ,

s a m e a r ti cles a r e li n k s i n th e followi n g ch a i n of m eta m or ph os es

1 qu ar ter of w h eat — 20 y a r ds of li n en —1 Bi b le
£ 2— 4 g allon s of b r an d y a c h ai n th a t i s alr ea d y w ell
k n ow n to us i n th a t ca s e ,
th e £ 2 ca us e th e d i ffer en t c om

mod i ti es to c i r c ula te on e a fte r th e oth er , an d a fter r eali z in g

v
th eir pr i ces s u c c es s i ely , a n d th er efor e th e s um of th os e pr i ces ,
£ 8 , th ey c om e to r es t a t las t i n th e poc et of th e d i s ti ller The k .

£ 2 th us m ak e fou r m ov es . T hi s
ge of pla ce of th e re
p ea ted c h a n

s am e
p i ec es Of m on ey c or r es p on d s to th e d ou b le ch a n g e i n for m

of th e c omm od i ti es , t o t h ei r m oti on i n op
p os i te d i r ec ti on s
th r ou h tw o g s ta g es Of c i r c ula ti on , an d to th e i n ter la c i n g of th e
m eta m or ph os es of d i ffer en t c om m od i ti es .
‘
T h es e an ti th eti c an d

c om p lem en tar
y p h as es ,
Of w h i ch th e pr oc es s Of m eta m or ph os i s
1 “
Ce s nto r d cti ns q ui l ( l rg nt ) m tt nt
les p o u om uv m nt s
’
a e e e en o e e et ls fo nt
circ l ru e L cél é rité d
a m uv m nt ( d l rg nt ) s uppl é a
e s on o e e 8 0. e
’
a e e sa q uan ti té
Lor s q u il t b s in i l f it q gliss r d un m in d ns l utr s ns
’ ’ ’ ’
en es e o , ne a ue e e a a a e a s a r r ét er un

inst nt a .
( L Tr sn l c pp 91 5
e e e . . .
,
 Mon ey , or th e C i r cu la ti on o
f C om m od i ti es .
95

g on e thr ough n ot s i m ultan eous ly b ut s ucces s i vely

c on s i s ts , a r e , ,
.

T i m e i s th er efor e r equ i r ed for th e c om pleti on of th e s er i es .

H en ce th e v eloc i ty of th e cur r en cy of m on ey i s m eas ur ed b y

th e n um b er of m ov es m a d e b y a g i v en pi ec e of m on ey i n a
gi ven ti m e S uppos e th e ci r c ulati on of th e 4 ar ti cles ta k es a
.

d ay . Th e s um of th e pr i ces to b e r eali s ed i n th e d ay i s £ 8 ,

th e n um b er of m ov es of th e tw o
p i ec es of m on ey i s fou r , a n d

th e quan ti ty of m on ey c i r c u la ti ngi veng is £2 . H en c e for ,

a

i n ter v al Of ti m e d u r i n g th e pr oces s of c i r cula ti on w e h av e t h e ,

follow i n g r ela ti on : th e q uan ti ty of m on ey fu n c ti on i n g as th e

c i r culati n g m ed i u m i s equ al to th e s u m of th e p r i ces of th e

com m od i ti es d i v i d ed b y th e n um b er of m ov es m a d e b y c oi n s

of t h e sa m e d en om i n a ti on T h i s la w h old s g en er ally
. .

Th e tota l ci r c ula ti on of com m od i ti es i n a gi v en cou n tr y

d ur i n g a gi v en p er i od i s m a d e u p on th e on e h a n d of n u m er ou s
i s olated an d s i m ulta n eou s
p a r ti al m eta m or ph os es ,
s ales w h i ch
ar e at th e s am e ti m e p u r c h as es , i n w h i ch ea ch c oi n c h a n g es i ts
pla c e on ly on ce o r m a k e s ,on ly on e m ov e on th e o th e r h a n d ,

Of n u m er ous d i s ti n c t s er i es of m eta m or h os es a r tl r un n i n g
p p y
s ide by s i d e, a n d
p a r tl
y coa les ci n g w i th ea ch oth er , in ea c h of

w hi c h s er i es ea ch coi n m ak es a n um b er of m ov es , th e n um b er

b ei n g gr ea ter or les s a ccor d i n g to c i r cum s ta n ces The total .

n u m b er of m ov es m a d e b a ll th e c i r c u la ti n g c oi n s of on e
y
d en om i n a ti on b ei n g g i ven w e c a n a r r i v e a t th e a v er a g e n u m
,

b er of m ov es m a d e b y a s i n gle coi n Of th at d en om i n a ti on or a t ,

th e av er ag e v eloci ty of th e c ur r en cy of m on ey Th e qu a nti ty .

Of m on e t h r ow n i n to th e ci r c u la ti on a t th e b eg i n n i n g of ea ch
y
d ay i s o f cou r s e d eterm i n ed b y th e s u m of th e pr i c es of a ll th e
c om m od i ti es ci r c u lati n g s i m ulta n eou s ly s id e b y s i d e But on c e .

in c i r c ula ti on , c oi n s p
a r e, s o to s ay , m ade r es on s i ble for on e

a n oth er If th e on e i n c r eas e i ts v eloc i ty , th e oth er ei th er

.

r etar d s i ts ow n , or alt og eth er fa lls ou t of c i r c ulati on ; for th e

c i r c u la ti on can a b s or b
ly s uc h a q uan ti ty of g old a s w h en
on

m ulti pli ed b y th e m ean n um b er Of m ov es m a d e b y on e s i n gle

c oi n or elem en t, i s eq ual to th e s u m of th e r i c es to b e r ea
p
li s ed . H en c e i f th e n um b er
m ov es m ad e b y th e s epar a te
of

p i ec es i n cr eas e, th e total n um b er Of th os e pi ec es i n ci r c ula ti on

d i m i n i s h es If th e
. n um b er of th e m o v es di m i n i s h , th e tota l
9 6 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

n um be
f pi ec es 1 n cr ea s es
r o S i n ce th e qu an ti ty of m on ey ca p .

a b le Of b ei n g a b s or b ed b th e c i r c ula ti on i s g i v en for a g i v en
y
m ean v eloci ty of c u en cy a ll th at i s n eces s ar y i n or d e to rr ,
r

a b s t a c t a gi v en n u m b e
r of s ov r ei gn s fr om th e c i c ula ti on i s t o r e r

th r ow th e s a m e n u m b er of on e p ou n d n otes in t o i t a tr i c k w ell -
,

k n ow n to a ll b a n k er s .

J us t a s th e c u en cy of m on ey gen e ally c on s id e ed i s b ut
rr ,
r r ,

a r efl ex of th e c i r c u la ti on of c om m od i ti es or Of th e a n ti th eti ca l ,

m etam or ph os es th ey u n d er g o s o too th e v eloc i ty of th a t c u , , ,

r

r en cy r efl ec ts t he r a i di t w i th w hi h m m d i ti s h an ge
p y c c o o e c

th ei r for m s th e c on ti n ued i n te la c i n g of on e s er i es of m e ta
,
r

m or ph os es w i th a n oth e t h e h u r r i ed s oci al i n ter c h a n ge of r,

m a tter th e i d d i ra r a n ce f m m d i ti fr o m th e
, p s a
pp ea o c o o e s

s h er e Of c i r c u la ti on a n d th e equ all r a id s u b s ti t uti on of

p y p ,

fr es h on es i n th ei r pla c es . H en c e i n ,
th e v elo c i t
y of th e c ur

r en c w e h a v e th e fl uen t u n i ty Of th e a n ti th eti ca l a n d com

y
p l em en ta r y
ph a s es th e u n i t
y o f t h e c on v er s i on,
of th e u s efu l

a s p ec t of comm od i ti es i n to t h ei r v a lu e as ec t a n d th ei r r e c o n
p
- -
,

v er s i on fr om th e la tt er p as ec t to t h e for m er , or the u n i ty Of th e
t w o pr oc es s es of s a le and
p u r c h as e . On th e o th er h a nd t he ,

r eta r d a ti on of th e c u r r en c
y re fl ec ts th e se
p a r a ti on of th es e t w o
p r oc es s es i n to i s ola t ed a n ti t h eti c a l
p h a s es ,
re fl ects th e s ta g na
t i on i n th e ch a n g e
°

of for m ,
an d th er efor e, i n th e s oc i a l i n ter
c h an ge of m a tter . g i v es n o
Th e c i r c ula ti on i ts elf ,
of c ou r s e,

c lu e to th e or i gi n of thi s s ta g n a ti on i t m er ely pu ts i n ev i d en c e
th e ph en om en on i ts elf Th e g en er a l pub li c w h o s i m ulta n e .
, ,

o us ly , w i th th e r eta r d a ti on of th e c u r r en cy , s ee m on ey a
ppear

and d i s a ppear les s fr eq uen tly th e p er i ph er y of ci r c ula ti on ,at

n atu r a lly a ttr i b ute th i s r eta r d a ti on to a q ua n ti ta ti e d efi ci en cy v

in th e c i r c ula ti n g m ed i u m .
1

M n y b ing
1 o th c mm n m s ur
e e f b uying
. d s lli g v ry b dy w h
e o o ea e o an e n , e e o o

h th thing t s ll d c nn t pr c r ch p m n f it is p r s ntly pt t hink

a an y o e , an a o o u e a e or , e e a o t ,

th t w nt f m n y in th kingd m
a a o c ntry is th c s why his g ds d t
o e e o ,
or ou ,
e au e oo o no

g ff
o O d w nt f m n y is t h c mm n cry ; which is gr t mist k
an s o, a O o e e o o a ea a e .

Wh t d th s p pl w nt w h cry t f m n y
a o e e eo Th f rm r c mp l ins
e a ,
o ou or o e ? e a e o a

h thinks th t w r m r m n y in th c ntry h sh ld h v
e a e e p ric f his o e o e e ou , e ou a e a e or

g ds Th n it s ms m y is t his w nt b ut p ric f his c rn d tt l which

oo . e ee on e no a , a e or o an ca e ,

h w uld s ll b t c nn t
e o Why c nn t h g t p ric
e , u a ( 1 ) Eith r th r is
o . a o e e a e? e e e

t much c rn d tt l in th c untry th t m st w h c m t m rk t h v
oo o an ca e e o ,
so a o o o e o a e a e

n d f s lling h h th d f w f b ying ; ( 2 ) Th r w nts th usu l v nt

ee o e , as e a , an e O u or e e a e a e
9 8 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

t o t h e i n cr eas e i n t h ei r p p v e loc i ty of r i c es , or ro vi d ed th e
c u r r en c i n cr eas e a t th e s a m e r a te a s p r i c es r i s e th e n um b er of
y ,

c om m od i ti es i n c i r c ula ti on r em ai n i n g c on s ta n t Th e q uan ti ty .

of th e c i r c ula ti n g m ed i um m ay d ec r eas e o w i n g to th e n u m b e ,
r

Of c om m od i ti es d ecr ea s i n g m or e r a p i d ly ; or to th e v eloci ty of

c u r en cy i n c r eas i n g m or e r a pi d ly th an p r i c es r i s e
r , .

Wi th a gen er al fall i n th e pr i c es Of c om m od i ti es th e qu a n ti ty ,

of t h e c i r c ula ti n g m ed i u m w i ll r em a i n con s tan t i d e d th e

p o ,
r v

n um b er of com m od i ti es i n cr eas e p r o or ti on all to t h e i r fa ll i n

p y
p r i ce or
p r ov i d
,
ed th e v e l o c i ty of c u r r e n c y d e c r eas e i n t h e s a m e

p pr o or ti on T h e q u a n t i ty of
. th e c i r c u la ti n g m e d i u m w ill
i n cr eas e pr ov i d ed th e n um b er of c om m od i ti es i n c r ea s e q ui c k er
, ,

or th e r a i d i t f i r c ula ti on d ecr ea s e q u i c k er th an th e r i c es
p y o c p ,

fall .

Th e var i ati on s of th e d i ffer en t fa c tor s m ay m u tually com pen

sa te ea ch oth er s o th a t n otw i th s ta n d i n g th ei r c on ti n ued
,

i n s tab i li ty , th e s u m Of th e pr i c es to b e r eali s ed a n d th e q uan ti ty

Of m on ey i n ci r c ula ti on r em ai n s c on s ta n t ; c on s e quen tly ,
we
fin d , es peci all
i f w e ta k e lon g p er i od s i n to cons i d er a ti on , th at
y
th e d ev i a ti on s fr om th e a v er age lev el, of th e qua n ti ty Of m on ey
c ur r en t in a ny coun tr y , a r e m uch s m aller th a n w e s h ould at

fi r s t s i gh t ex pect ,
a
par t of c ou r s e fr om e x ces s i v e per tu r bati ons
p er i odi ca ll
y ar i s i n g fr om i n d u s tr i al an d c om m er c i a l c r i s es , or ,

les s fr equ en tly , fr om flu ctuati on s i n th e value of m on ey .

Th e la w ,
th at th e qu an ti ty Of th e c i r c ulati n g m e d i um is
d eter m i n ed b y th e s um of th e pr i ces of th e c om m od i ti es

c i r c ulati n g , an d th e a v er age v eloci ty of c ur r en cy 1

m ay als o be

1 Th r is c rt in m s r d p r p rti n f m n y r quisit t driv th

“
e e a e a ea u e a n o o o o o e e e o e e

tr da f n ti n m r
e o a l ss th n whi ch w uld pr j udic th s m Just th r
a o ,
o e or e a o e e e a e. as e e

is a c rt in pr p rti n f f rthi gs n c ss ry in sm ll r t il tr d t ch ng silv r

e a o o o o a n e e a a a e a a e, o a e e

m n y
o ed t v n such r ck nings c nn t b dj st d with th sm ll st silv r
,
an o e e e o as a o e a u e e a e e

pi c s
e e Nw
. th p r p rti n f th n mb r f f rthi gs r q isit in
o , as m e o o o o e u e o a n e u e co

m rc is t b t k n fr m th n mb r f p pl th fr q ncy f th ir xch ng s
e e o e a e o e u e o eo e, e e ue o e e a e

as a ls d p rincip lly fr m th v l
o, a n f th sm ll st silv r p i c s f m n y ;
a , in o e a ue o e a e e e e o o e so

lik m nn r th pr p rti n f m n y [g ld d silv r sp ci ] r q isit in

e a e , e o o tr d o O o e o an e e e e u e ou r a e,

is t b lik wi t k n fr m th fr q ncy f c mmut ti ns d fr m th bign ss f

o e e se a e o e e ue o o a o , an o e e o

t h p ym nts ( Willi m P tty T x s d C ntributi ns L nd

”
e a e AT ti
. a e . r ea s e on a e an o o .
”
o .

1 66 2 p , Th Th ry f H m w
. d f nd d g inst th tt cks f J St u rt d
e eo o u e as e e e a a ea a o . e a an

o th rs by A Y u g in his P litic l Arithm tic L nd 1 774 in which w rk th r

e , . o n , o a e ,
”
o .
, o e e

is sp ci l ch pt r ntitl d Pric s d p nd q ntity f m n y t p 1 1 2 sqq

a e a a e e e
“
e e e on ua o o e ,
”
a .
, .

I h v st t d in
a e Z r Kritik
a e p 1 49 H ( Ad m Smith ) p ss s v r
u , . e a a e o e
 Mon y e , or th e C i r cu la ti on f
o Com m od i ti es .
99

s ta ted a s follow s : g i v en th e s um Of th e values Of c omm odi ti es ,

and th e a v er age r api d i ty Of th ei r m etam or p h os es , th e quan ti ty

of p r eci ou s m etal c ur r en t a s m on ey d epen d s on th e v alue of
th at pr eci ous m etal Th e on th e . er r on eous O p in i on th a t i t i s ,

c on tr a r y , p r i ces th at a r e d eter m i n ed b y th e qu an ti ty of th e

c i r c ula ti n g m edi um , a n d th a t th e la tter d ep en d s on th e

n ti t th e pr eci ous m etals i n a cou n tr y ; t h i s opi n i on w a s
1
q u a y of
b as ed b y t h os e w h o fi r s t h eld i t, on th e a s ur d h y poth es i s th at b
c om m od i ti es a r e w i th ou t a pr i c e, a n d m on ey w i th out a alue, v
w h en th ey fir st en ter i n to ci r c ulati on , an d th a t, on c e i n th e
c i r culati on , an ali qu ot par t of th e m ed ley of c om m od i ti es is
e x ch an g ed for an ali q u ot p a r t of th e h ea p of pr eci ous m etals .
2

with ut r m rk th qu sti n t th qu ntity f c in in circul ti n d tr ts

o e a e e o as o e a o o a o , an ea

m n y q it wr ngly
o e um r c mm dity This st t m nt ppli s nly in f
e o as a e e o o .
”
a e e a e o so ar

as Ad m Smith x tfi i tr ts f m n y N w d th n h w v r
a , e o in his
c o, ea O o e . o an e , o e e , as

c riticism f th rli r syst ms f p litic l c n my h t k s th right vi w

o e ea e Th e o o a e o o , e a e e e . e

q uantity f c in in v ry c ntry is r g ul t d by th v l f th c mm diti s which

o o e e ou e a e e a ue o e o o e

ar e t b circ l t d by it
o e Th v l u a ef th g ds nn lly b ght d s ld . e a ue O e oo a ua ou an o

in an y c ntry r q ir s c rt in qu ntity f m n y t circ l t d distrib t th m

ou e u e a e a a O o e o u a e an u e e

t oth ir pr p r c ns m rs d
e giv mpl ym nt t
o e o m r Th ch nn l f
u e , an c an e e o e o no o e. e a e O

circ l ti n n c ss rily dr ws t its l f um s ffi ci nt t fill it d n v r dmits y

u a o e e a a o e a s u e o , an e e a an

mr o e. W lth f N ti ns Bk I V h I ) In lik m nn r x fli i h Op ns
”
ea o a o .
”
. .
, o . . e a e , e o c o, e e

his w rk with n p th sis th divisi n f l b u Aft rw rds in th l st b k

o a a o eo on e o O a o r . e a , e a oo

which tr ts f th s urc s f public r v n h cc si n lly r p ts th d n unci ti ns

ea o e o e o e e u e, e o a o a e ea e e a o

O f th divisi n f l b r m d by his t ch r A F rgu s n

e o o a ou a e ea e , . e o .

1Th p ric s f things will c rt inly ris in v ry n ti n

e e o th g ld d silv r e a e e e a o , as e o an e

incr s m ngst th p pl ; d c ns q ntly wh r th g ld d silv r d cr s

ea e a o e eo e an o e ue , e e e o an e e ea e

i
n an y n ti n th p ric s f ll things m ust f ll p r p rti n bly t s uch d cr s
a o , e e f o a a o o o a o e ea e o

m n y ( J c b V d li t M n y nsw rs ll Things L nd 1 7 34 p
o e .
”
a o an er A n
“
o e a e a .
”
o .
, .

c r ful c mp ris n f this b k with H m s Ess ys pr v s t my mind with u t

a e o a o O oo u
’
e a ,
”
o e o o

d bt th t H m w cqu int d with d m d

ou a u f V
e d li t w rk which is
as a a e an a e use O an er n
’
s o ,

c rt inly imp rt nt
e a Th O pini n th t p ric s
an o d t rmin d by th qu ntity
a on e. e o a e ar e e e e e a

o f th circ l ting m di m w
e ls h ld by B rb n d th r much rli r writ rs
u a e u , as a o e a o an o e ea e e .

N inc nv ni nc
O s ys V d li t
o e ris by u nr str in d tr d b ut v ry
e e,
”
a an er n , c an a e an e a e a e, e

gr t dv nt g sinc i f th c sh f th n ti n b d cr s d by it which
ea a a a e e, e a o e a o e e ea e ,

p r hibiti ns
o d sign d t pr v nt th s n ti ns th t g t th c sh will c rt inly
o ar e e e o e e , o e a o a e e a e a

find v rything dv nc in p ric

e e th c sh incr s s m ngst th m
a a And e e, a s e a ea e a o e .

o u m n f ct ur s
r a d v rything ls wi ll s n b c m
u a e , m drt
an t t urn th
e e e e, oo e o e so o e a e as o e

b l nc f tr d i u f v ur d th r by f tch th m n y b ck g in (1
a a e O a e n o r a o , an e e e e o e a a a . . c. ,

pp 43, .

Th t th pric f ch singl kind f c mm dity f rms p rt f th um f th

2 a e e o ea e o o o o a a o e s o e

p ric s f ll th c mm diti s in c i rc l ti n is
e o a s l f vid nt pr p siti n But h w
e o o e u a o a e e e o o o o
-
, .

u v lu s which
s e- a inc mm ns r bl with r g rd t ch th r
e , ar e t b x o e u a e e a o ea o e , ar e o e e

ch ng d m ss f th t t l m f g ld d silv r in c untry is q it i m
a e , en a e, or e o a su O o an e a o , u e n co

p r h nsibl
e eIf w st rt fr m th n ti n th t ll c mm diti s t g th r f rm
e . e a o e o o a a o o e o e e o on e

singl c mm dity f which ch is b ut

e o liq t p rt w g t th f ll wing b utiful
o , o ea an a uo a , e e e o o ea

r sult Th t t l c mm dity x cwt f g ld ; c mm dity A n liqu t p rt f th

e e o a o o . o o o o a a o a o e
I 00 Cap z ta li s t P r od u cti on .

c . Coi n an d s
y m b ols o
f va lu e .

T h at m on ey ta k es th e s h a p e Of c oi n , s pr i n g s fr om i ts fun cti on
as th e c i r c ula ti n g m ed i u m . Th e w ei gh t of g old r e r es en ted i n
p
i m agi n a ti on b y th e pr i ces or m on ey n a m es of c om m od i ti es -
,

m u s t c on fr on t th os e c om m od i ti es , w i th i n th e c i r c ula ti on i n th e ,

s h a pe of c oi n s or i e ces of gold Of a gi v en d en om i n a ti on
p .

C oi n i n g ,
li k e th e b
es ta li s h m en t of p i a i s th e s ta n d a r d of r c es ,

bu s i n es s of th e S ta te . Th e d i ffer en t n a ti on al uni for m s w or n

at h om e b y g old a n d s i lv er a s c oi n s , an d d offed ag ai n i n th e
m ar k et Of th e w or ld i n d i ca t e th e ,
s epa r a ti on b etw een th e
i n ter n al or n ati on a l s ph er es of th e c i r cu la ti on Of c om m od i ti es ,

an d th ei r u ni v er s al s pher e .

Th e on ly d i ffer en c e th er efor e , ,
b etw een c oi n a n d b ulli on ,
is
on e of s h a p e, a n d g old c an a t an y ti m e pas s fr om on e for m to
th e o th e r .
1
Bu t n o s oon er d oes c oi n lea e th e m i n t, t h a n i t v
t t l c mm dity th s m liq t p rt f x wt f g ld This is st t d in ll
o a o o e a e a uo a o c . O o . a e a

s ri sn ss by M nt squi
e ou e Si l c m p r l m ss d PM t d l rg nt q i t
o e eu
’
on o a e a a e e e e
’
a e u es

d ns l m nd v c l s mm d m rch ndis s q i y s nt i l t c rt in q ch qu
a e o e a e a o e es a a e u o ,
es e a ue a e

d nré
e m rch ndis
e ou p rtic li r p urr etr c m p r é a
a a c rt in p rti n
e, e n a u e ,
o a e o a e un e e a e o o

d l m ss S pp s ns q il y i t q u s ul d nré m rch ndis d ns l ’ ’ ’

e e ti e a e en r e. u o o u n a un e e e e e ou a a e a o

m ndo q il y i t q
e , ou s ul q i h et t q ll divis c mm l rg nt
u
’
n
’
a
’
u un e e e u s ac
’
e, e u e
’
e se e o e
’
a e

C tt p rti d c tt m rch ndis p d a u p rti d l m ss d l rg nt l

e e a e e e e a a e r e on ra ne a e e a a e e
’
a e a

m itié d t t l d l un a l m itié d t t l d l tr &

o u o a e
’
l ét b li
e m t a o u o a e
’
au e, c .
’
a sse en

d u p rix d ch s s d ep d t j rs f nd m nt l m nt d l r is n d u t t l d ch s s
es o e en ou ou o a e a e e e a a o o a es o e

au t t l d sign s ( M nt sq i u l c t III pp 1 2
o a es e A s t th f rth r d v l
. o e u e . . .
, .
,
o e u e e e

opm t f this th ry by Ric rd

en o d his di scipl s J m s Mi ll L rd Ov rst n
eo d a o an e ,
a e , o e o e, a n

oth rs e Z u Kr i tik
, s ee & pp 1 40 1 46 d p 1 5 0 sqq
r J hn Stu rt Mill with ,
”
c .
, .
-

, an .
,
. o a ,

his s l cl ctic l gic nd rst nds h w t h ld t th s m tim th i w f his

u ua e e o , u e a o o o a e a e e e V e o

f th r J m s Mill
a e , d th a pp sit evi w On c mp ri n f th t xt f h i
, an e o o e e . a. o a so O e e O s

c mp ndi m Princi pl s f P l
o e u , with his pr f c t th first d iti in
“
e o o . e a e o e a on ,

which pr f c h nn nc s hims lf th Ad m Smith f his d y— w d n t kn w

e a e e a ou e e as e a o a e o o o

wh th r t dmir m r th sim plicity f th m

e e o a th t f th p blic w h t k
e o e e o e a n , or a O e u , o oo

him in g d f ith f th A d m Smith h nn nc d hims lf t b lth gh h b rs

,
oo a , or e a e a ou e e o e, a ou e ea

ab t m ch r s mbl nc t Ad m Smith
ou as u y G n r l Willi ms
e e f K rs t th
a e o a as s a e e a a ,
o a , o e

D k f W llingt n Th rigin l r s rch s f M J S Mill which

u e o e o . n ith r e o a e ea e o r . . .
, ar e e e

ext nsiv e pr f d in th d m in f p litic l c n my will b f nd m st r d

e n or o o un , e o a o o a e o o ,
e ou u e e

in r nk d fil in his littl w rk S m Uns ttl d Q sti ns f P litic l Ec n my

a an e e o , o e e e ue o o o a o o ,

which pp r d in 1 844 L ck ss rts p int bl nk th c nn xi n b tw n th

a ea e . o e a e o a e o e o e ee e

ab nc f v lu in g ld d silv r d th d t rmin ti n f th ir v l s by q ntity

se e o a e o an e , an e e e a o o e a ue ua

l n M nkind h ving c ns n t d t put im gin ry v l up n g ld d silv r

a o e,
“
a a o e e o an a a a ue o o an e

i k v l r g rd d in th s m t ls is n thing b ut th q ntity ”
th i t i e n r ns c a u e, e a e e e e a ,
o e ua .

Sm o e 1 6 91 W rks Ed 1 7 7 7 l II p ,
'

o .
,
vo . .
, .

It li s f c urs ntir ly b y nd my p rp s t t k int c nsid r ti n s ch

1 e , o o e, e e e o u o e o a e o o e a o u

d t ils th s ig i r g
e a as minti g I wi ll h w v r cit f th b n fit f th
e e n o a e on n .
,
o e e ,
e or e e e o e

r m ntic syc ph nt Ad m Milll w h dmir s th g n r s lib r lity with

o a o a , a er , o a e e
“
e e ou e a
I02 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

Oop er
p tok en s b s ti tu tes fo gold c oi n s S i lver an d c opper
as s u r .

tok en s tak e th e pla c e of g old i n th os e egi on s of th e c i r c u la ti on r

w h er e p c oi n s as s fr om h a n d to h an d m os t ra
p i dly ,
an d ar e

s u bj ect to th e m a x i m u m am ou n t of w ear an d t ear . T hi s oc cu r s

w h er e s ales an d p u r c h a s es on a v er y s m all s cale a r e c on ti n u ally

h a pp en i n g . In or d er v
to p r e en t t hes e s atelli tes fr om es ta li s h b
i n g th em s elv es p er m an en tl
y i n th e p lac e o f g old , p os i ti e v
en a c tm en ts d eter m i n e th e xtent to w hi ch th ey m us t b e c om
e

pu ls or i l
y r ecei v ed as a
p y m en t i n s tea d of g old Th e p a r t i c ula r .

tr a cks pur s u ed b y th e d i ffer en t s pec i es of c oi n in c ur r en c

y ,
r un

n atu r all i n to ea ch oth er T h e tok en s k eep c om pan y w i th

y .

g old to pay fr acti on al par ts of th e s m alles t gold c oi n gold i s

, ,

on th e on e h an d c on s tan tly p our i n g i n to r eta i l c i r c ula t i on a n d

, ,

on th e oth er h an d i s a s c on s ta n tly bei n g th r ow n out a g ai n b y

b ei ng ch an g ed i n to tok en s .
1

Th e w ei g h t of m etal i n th e s i lv er an d Copper tok en s i s

a r b i tr a r i ly fix ed b y la w W h en i n c ur r en cy th ey w ear a w ay .
,

e v en m or e r a pi d l
y th a n g old coi n s H en ce th ei r fun c ti on s a r e .

totally i n d epen d en t of th ei r w ei gh t a n d con s eq u en tly of all ,

v alue Th e fun cti on Of g old as coi n b ecom es c om pletely i n d e

.

p en d en t of th e m etalli c v alue Of th a t g old T h er efor e th i n gs .

th a t a r e r ela ti v ely w i th out v a lu e s u c h a s pape r n otes ca n , ,

s er v e as c oi n s i n i ts place T hi s pur ely s y m b oli c ch ar a c ter i s .

t o a c er tai n e xten t m as k ed i n m etal tok en s In pa per m on ey .

i t s tan d s l i l In fa c t le pr em i er pas q ui
’
out p a n y .
,
cc n es t q u e .

co ute .

We allu d e h er e only to i n con v er ti ble paper m on ey i s s u ed b y

th e S tate an d h av i n g c om p uls or y ci r cula ti on It h as i ts .

i m m ed i ate or i gi n i n th e m etalli c c ur r en cy . M on ey b as ed u pon

c r ed i t i m pli es on th e oth er h an d c on di ti on s , w h i ch , fr om ou r

1 silv r n v r xc d wh t is w nt d f th sm ll r p ym nts it c nn t b
If e e e e ee a a e or e a e a e , a o e

c ll ct d in suffici nt q ntiti s f th l rg r p ym nts

o e e e ua th u ef g ld in
or e a e a e e se O o

th m in p ym nts n c ss rily impli s ls its u in th r t il tr d th s w h

e a a e e e a e a o se e e a a e : o e o

h v g ld c in Off ring th m f sm ll purch s s d r c iving with th c mm dity

a e o o e e or a a e , an e e e o o

p rch s d
u b l nc f silv r in r t rn ; by which m ns th s u pl s f silv r th t
a e a a a e o e e u ea e r u o e a .

w ld th r wis ncu mb r th r t il d l r is dr wn ff d dis p rs d int g n r l

ou o e e e e e e a ea e ,
a O an e e o e e a

circ l ti n But if th r is much silv r will tr ns ct th sm ll p ym nts i

u a o . e e as e as a a e a a e n

d p nd nt f g ld th r t il tr d r must th n r c iv silv r f sm ll p rch s s ;

e e e o o , e e a a e e e e e e or a u a e

d it m st f n c ssity ccu m l t in his h nds ( D vid B uch n n Inq iry int ”

an u o e e a u a e a . a a a . u o

th T x t i n d C mm rci l P licy f G r t Brit in Edinburgh 1 844 pp 248 ”

e a a o an o e a o o ea a .
, , .
,
 M ny o e , or th e C i r c u la ti on f
o Com m od i t i es . 1 03

s tan d poi n t ofth e s i m ple c i r c ulati on of com m od i ti es , a r e a s y et

tota lly u n k n ow n to u s But w e m ay a ffi r m th i s m u ch , th at .

j us t as tr ue paper m on ey tak es i ts r i s e i n th e fun cti on of m on ey

as th e c i r c ula ti n g m ed i um , so m on ey b as ed u pon c r ed i t tak es
r oot s
p on ta n eou s ly i n th e fun cti on of m on ey as th e m ea n s of

p y
a m en t .
1

Th e S tate p u ts in c i r cula ti on b i ts of a
p p er on w h i ch th ei r
var i ous d en om i n a ti on s , s ay £ 1 , £ 5 , &c .
,
ar e p r i n te d . In so far
as th ey a c tually ta ke t h e pla ce of gold to th e s am e a m oun t ,

t h ei r m o v em en t i s s u bj ec t to th e law s th a t r eg ula te th e c u r r en cy

of m on ey i ts elf . A law peculi ar t o th e c i r c ula ti on of p p

a er

m on ey c an s
p r in g u p on ly fr om th e pr opor ti on i n w h i ch th a t
p p
a er m on ey re
p r es en ts gold S uch a law ex i s ts s tated
.

s im l
py ,
i t i s a s : th e i s s ue follow s of p aper m on ey m u s t n ot

ex c eed i n a m ou n t th e g old ( or s i lver as th e ca s e m ay b e) w h i ch

w ould a c tu ally ci r c ulate if n ot r e
p lac ed b y s y m b ols . N ow th e
u n t i t of g old w h i ch th e c i r c ula ti on c an a b s or b , con s tan tly
q a
y
fl uctuates ab out a g i v en lev el S till th e m as s of th e c i r culati ng .
,

m ed i um i n a g i v en c ou n tr y n ev er s i n k s b elow a c er tai n
m i n i m um eas i ly a s cer tai n ed b y a ctu a l ex per i en ce Th e fact .

th at th i s m i n i m um m a s s c on ti n ually u n d er g oes ch an g es i n i ts
c on s ti tu en t
p a r ts or th a t th e
p i ece s O f g old of w h
,
i c h i t con s i s ts

a r e b ei n g c on s tan tly r e la ced b fr es h on es c a u s es of c ou r s e n o

p y ,

c h an g e ei th er i n i ts a m ou n t or i n th e con ti n u i ty of i ts c i r cu la

ti on It c an th er efor e b e r eplac ed b y paper s y m b ols

. If on .
,

th e oth er h a n d all t h e con d u i ts of c i r culati on w er e to d ay fi lled

,
-

w i th p ap er m on ey to th e full ex ten t Of th ei r c a pa ci ty for '

1 m nd rin W m i th Chin s Ch nc ll r f th Exch qu r t k it int

Th e a a an -
ao -
n, e e e a e o o e e e , oo o

his h d d y t l y b f r th S
ea on e a f H v n p r p s l th t s cr tly im d t
o a e o e e on O ea e a o o a a e e a e a

c nv rti g th
o e ig n t f th mp ir i t c nv rtibl b nk n t s Th ssign ts
e a ss na s o e e e n o o e e a o e . e a a

C mmitt i its r p rt f April 1 854 giv s him s v r sn ubbing Wh th r h

o ee, n e o O , , e a e e e . e e e

als r c iv d th tr diti n l dr bbing with b mb s is n t st t d Th c ncluding

o e e e e a o a u a oo o a e . e o

p rt
a f th rop rt is f ll
e ws
e o— Th C mmitt h c r f lly x min d his p
as o o
“
e o ee as a e u e a e ro

p s l
o a d finds th t it is ntir ly in f v u r f th m rch nts
an a d th t dv nt g
e e a o o e e a , an a no a a a e

will r s lt t th cr wn ( Arb it n d K is rlich R ssisch n G s ndtsch ft u

e u o e o .
”
e e er a e u e e a a z

P king ti b r Chin A d m R ssisch n

e e a. Dr K Ab l u d F A M ckl nb rg
us e u e v on . . e n . . e e u .

Erst r B nd B rlin 1 858 pp 47

e a . In his vid c b f r th C mmitt f th
e , , .
, e en e e o e e o ee o e

H s f L rds th B nk Acts g v rn r f th B nk f Engl nd s ys with

ou e o o on e a , a o e o o e a o a a ,

r g rd t th br si n f g ld c ins d ring curr ncy Ev ry y r fr sh cl ss f

e a o e a a o O o o u e :
“
e ea a e a o

s v r igns b c m s t light Th cl ss which

o e e e o e y r p ss s with f ll w i ght
oo . e a on e ea a e u e ,

l s s n gh by w r d t r t dr w th sc l s n xt y r g inst it (H us f
o e e ou ea an ea o a e a e e ea a a . o e o

L rds C mmitt 1 848 n

o
’
o ee, , .
I 04 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

a b s or bi n g m on ey th ey m igh t to m or r ow b e ov er flow i n g i n ,
-

c on s eq u en c e Of a fl uc tu at i on i n th e c i r c ulati on of comm od i ti es .

T h er e w ould n o lon ger b e a n y s tan d ar d If th e paper m on ey .

ex c eed i ts r o er li m i t w hi ch i s th e a m ou n t i n g old coi n s of

p p ,

th e li k e d en om i n a ti on th at c a n a c tu ally b e cu en t i t w ould rr , ,

ap ar t fr om th e d an g er of falli n g i n to g en er al di s r epu te ,

p r es en t on l
y th a t q u an ti ty of g old w hi c h i n a c cor d a n c e w i th , ,

t h e la w s of th e ci r c ulati on of c om m od i ti es i s r eq u i r ed a n d i s , ,

alon e ca ab le of b ei n g r e r es en ted b y If th q u a n ti ty
p p a
p p er e .

of pa er m on ey i s s u ed b e d oub le w h a t i t ou g h t to b e th en as
p , ,

m a tter of fa c t, £ 1 w ould b e th e m on ey n a m e n ot of 2I Of a n
’
a -

ou n c e, g b ut g olof
d T h e effec t w o u l
of a n oun c e of
d b e t h e .

s am e a s i f a n alter a ti on h a d tak en la c e i n th e fu n c ti on of g old

p
a s a s tan d a r d o f
p r i c es T h os e v a lu es t h a t w er e p r ev i ou s ly .

ex pr es s ed b th r i c e of £ 1 w ou ld n ow b e ex pr es s ed b y th e
y e p
p r i c e of £2 .

P a per -
m on ey i s a tok en re
p r es en ti n g g old
m on ey Th e or .

r ela ti on b etw een it an d th e v alues of c omm od i ti es i s th i s th at ,

th e latter ar e i d eally e xpr es s ed in th e s am e q ua n ti ti es of g old

th at a r e sy m b oli cally re
p r es en ted b y th e pa per O nly i n s o .

far as
p a
p er -
m on ey re
p r es en ts g old , w h i ch li k e all oth er com
m od i ti es h a s b ol Of v alue v alu e ,
is it a sym .
1

F i n ally s om e on e m ay a s k w h y g old i s ca pable of b ei n g

,

r e la c ed b
p y tok e n s t h a t h a v e n o v a lu e ? Bu t a s w e h av e ,

a lr ea d s een i t i s ca a b le Of b ei n g s o r e la ced onl i n s o far

y p , p y
as i t fu n c ti on s ex clu s i v ely a s c oin or a s th e c i r c ula tin g ,

m ed i u m a n d a s n oth i n g els e
,
Now m on ey h a s oth er fun c ti on s .
,

b es i d es thi s on e an d t h e i s ola ted fun cti on of s er v i ng as th e

,

m er e ci r cu la ti n g m ed i u m i s n ot n ec es sa r i ly t h e only on e
1 ll ing p ss g fr m F ll rt n sh ws th w nt f cl rn ss th p rt f
Th e fo o w a a e o u a o o e a O ea e on e a o

evn e b st writ rs m n y in th ir c mpr h nsi n f its v ri s f ncti ns

th e e e on o e ,
e o e e o O a ou u o

Th t f a ,c nc rns
as d m stic xch ng s ll th m n t ry f ncti ns which
ar a s o e o ur o e e a e , a e o e a u o

s lly p r f r m d by g ld d silv r c ins m y b p rf rm d ff ct lly by

a r e u ua e o e o an e o ,
a e e o e as e e ua a

circ l ti n f inc nv rtibl n t s h ving v l b t th t f ctiti s d

u a o o o e e o e , a no a ue u a a ou an c on v en

ti l
on a l th y d riv fr m th l w is f ct which dmits I c nc iv f
v a ue e e e o e a , a a a , o e e, o no

d ni l V l f th i d scripti n m y b m d t nsw r ll th purp s s f i t i i

e a . a ue o s e o a e a e o a e a e o e o . n r ns c

vl d s p rs d
a u e, a n v n th n c ssity f st nd rd p r vid d l y th q ntity
u e e e e e e e e or a a a , o e on e ua

of iss s b k p t u nd r d
ue limit ti n ( Full rt n R g l ti n f C rr nci s
e e e ue a o . a o :
“
e u a o o u e e ,

L nd n 1 844 p
o o , B c s th c mm dity th t s rv s m n y is c p bl
, . e au e e o o a e e as o e a a e

of b ing r pl c d in circ l ti n by m
e e a esymb ls f v l th r f r its f ncti ns u a o or e o o a u e, e e o e u o as

a m s ur f v lu d st nd rd f pric s d cl r d t b sup rfl u s
ea e o a e an a a a o e ar e e a e o e e ou
I 06 C ap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

e i th er i n i ts o wn p er s on or by a r epr es en t a ti ve ,
as th e m edi u m
of c i r c ula ti on , is m on ey . G old ( or v )
s i l er i s th er efor e m on ey .

It fun c ti on s as m on ey , on th e on e h a n d , w h en i t h a s to b e

p r es en t i n i ts ow n gold en p er s on . It i s th en th e m on ey -
c om

m od i ty , n ei th er m er ely i d eal, as i n i ts fun cti on Of a m ea s u r e

of v a lue ,
n or c apa b le Of b ei n g re
p r es en ted , a s i n i ts fun c ti on of

c i r cula ti n g m ed i um . On th e oth er h an d , i t a ls o fun cti on s as

m on ey , w h en b y v i r tu e of i ts fun cti on , w h eth er th at fu n cti on

b e p er for m ed i n p er s on or b y r epr es en tati v e, i t con geals i n to th e
s ole for m of v alu e, th e on ly a d equ ate for m of ex i s ten ce of

e x ch a n ge value -
,
in o
p p os i ti on to u s e -
value ,
re
p r es en te d by all

oth er c om m od i ti es .

a . Hoa r d i ng .

Th e con ti n ual m ov em en t i n c i r cui ts Of th e tw o an ti th eti cal

m eta m or ph os es Of com m od i ti es , or th e n e ver ceas i n g alter n ati on

of s ale a n d p u r ch as e, is re flec ted i n th e r es tles s cu r r en cy of

m on ey , i n th e fun cti on th a t m on ey per for m s of a p er petu um

or

m ob i le of c i r c ula ti on But s o s oon as the s er i es of m eta m or .

p h os es i s i n ter r upted , s o s oon a s s a les a r e n ot s u

pp le m e n ted b
y
su b s equent pur ch a s es ,
m on ey cea s es to b e m ob i li s ed ; i t i s tr ans
for m ed , as Boi s gu illeb er t s ay s fr om m eu b le i n to ,
“
im
m eub le, fr om m ovab le i n to i m m ova b le fr om coi n ,
i n to
m on ey .

W i th th e v er y ea r li es t d ev elopm en t of th e c i r c u lati on of

c om m od i ti es , th er e i s a ls o d ev elop ed th e n ec es s i t
y, an d th e

pa s s i on a te d es i r e, to h old fa s t th e pr od u c t of th e fi r s t m eta m or
p h os i s . T hi s pr od u c t i s th e tr an s for m ed s h a pe Of th e com
m od i ty , or i ts gold y
-
c hr s ali s .
1
C omm od i ti es ar e th u s s old n ot

for th e p ur p os e of b u y i n g
oth er s , b ut i n or d er t o r epla ce th ei r

c om m o di ty for m b y th ei r m on ey for m
-
F r om b ei n g th e m er e -
.

m ean s of effec ti n g th e c i r c ulati on of c om m od i ti es , t h i s c han g e

of for m b ecom es th e en d a n d ai m . Th e ch an ged for m of th e
comm od i ty i s th u s pr ev en ted fr om fun c ti on i n g a s i ts u n c on d i
ti on ally a li en ab le for m , or as i ts m er ely tr an s i en t m on ey for m -
.

1 “
rich ss
Un e rg nt n st q u e e en a e
’
e e rich sse e en p r ducti ns c nv rti s
o o , o e e

rg nt ( M rci r d l Rivi er l c )
en a e .
”
e e e a e, . .
“
Un e v l ur
a e en p r ducti ns
o f it q u
o
’
n a a e

ch g r d f rm
an e ( Id pe o e .
”
.
, .
 Mon y e
,
or th e C i r cu la ti on o f Comm od i ti es . 1 07

Th e m on ey b ecom es p etr i fi ed i n to a h oar d , an d th e s eller

b ecom es a h oa r d er of m on ey .

In th e ear ly s ta ges of th e c i r c u la ti on of c om m odi ti es , it is

th e p lus ur
s u s e v a lu es -
a lon e th at ar e c on v er ted i n to m on ey .

Gold an d s i lv er th us b ecom e of th em s el v es s oci al e x pr es s i on s

for s up er flui ty or w ealth . Thi s n ai ve for m of h oar di n g b e
c om es tu t d i n th os e c om m u n i ti es in w h i ch th e tr a
p p
er e a e

d i ti on al m od e of p ro d u c ti on i s car r i ed on for th e s u pply of a

fix ed an d li m i ted c i r cle of h om e w a n ts . It i s th u s w i th th e
p p
eo le of As i a ,
an d p ar ti c ular ly of th e E as t I n d i es . Van d er li nt ,

w h o fa n ci es th at th e pr i c es Of c omm od i ti es in a c oun tr
y ar e

d eter m i n ed b y th e qu an ti ty of g old an d s i l er v to b e foun d i n

i t, k s hi m s elf w h y In d i an c om m odi ti es ar e s o ch eap Ah
as .

s w er : B ec au s e th e H i n d oos b u r th i r m on e F r om 1 6 02 to
y e y .

1 7 3 4 h e r em ar k s th ey b ur i ed 1 50 m i lli on s of p oun d s s ter li n g

, ,

Of s i lv er w hi ch or i gi n all c a m e fr om A m er i ca to E u r op e I 1
n
, y .

t he 1 0 y ear s fr om 1 8 5 6 to 1 8 6 6 E n gla n d ex por ted to I n d i a ,

an d C h i n a i n s i lv er w h i ch h a d b een r ec ei v ed i n ,

ex c h an g e for A u s tr a li a n g old M os t of th e s ilv er ex por ted to .

C hi n a m ak es i ts w ay to I n d i a .

As th e pr od u cti on of com m odi ti es fur th er d ev elop es ev er y ,

p r od u cer of c omm od i ti es is c om p elled to m ake s ur e of th e

nex us r er um or the s oci al pled g e Hi s w an ts ar e con s tan tly .
2

m ak i n g th em s elv es felt a n d n ec es s i ta te th e c on ti n u al pur ch a s e ,

of oth er w hile th e pr od u cti on a n d s ale of

’
l s comm od i ti es ,
p p
ee e

g ood s
qui r e ti m e a n d d epen d u pon c i r c um s tan ces
'

hi s ow n re ,
.

In or d er th en to b e a b le t o b uy w i th ou t s elli n g h e m us t h a v e ,

s old pr ev i ou s ly w i th out b u y i n g T h i s op er a ti on c on d u c ted .

,

on a g en er al s cale a p ea r s to i m ply a c on tr a d i c ti on
p ,
B ut th e .

p r eci ou s m etals at th e s ou r c es ofth ei r pr od u cti on a r e d i r ectly

e x ch an g ed for oth er c om m od i ti es An d h er e w e h a e s ales . v
b h of c om m o d i ti es i h r ch a s es ( b y t h e
( y t e ow n er s ) w t ou t pu

ow n er s of gold or s i l erv ) .
3
b
An d s u s equen t s ales , b y oth er

1 Tis by this pr ctic th y k p ll th ir g ds d m n f ctur s t s uch l w

’
a e e ee a e oo an a u a e a o

r t s (V d li t l p
a e . an er n , . c .
, .

2Mny is pl dg ( J hn B ll rs Ess ys b ut th P r M nuf ct r rs

o e a e e .
”
o e e : a a o e oo , a a u e ,

Tr d Pl nt ti ns d Imm r lity L nd 1 699 p

a e, a a o , an o a , o .
, , .

A p rch s in c t g ric l s ns im pli s th t g ld d silv r

3 u a e, a lr dy th
a e o a
”
e e, e a o an e ar e a ea e

c nv rt d f rm f c mm diti s th pr d ct f s l
o e e o o o o e , or e o u o a a e .
108 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

p r od u c er s , un follow ed b y p u r c h as es , m er ely b r i n g a b out th e

di s tr i b u ti on of th e n ew ly
p r o d u c ed
p r ec i ou s m etals a m on g a ll

th e ow n er s Of c omm odi ti es In th i s w ay , a ll a lon g th e li n e Of

.

e x ch a n g e ,
h oar d s of g old a n d s ilv er of v a r i ed ex ten t a r e a c

c um u la ted . W i th b
th e p os s i ili ty Of h old i n g a n d s tor i n g u p
e x ch an ge v alue i n th e s h ap e of a par ti cular com m odi ty , ar i s es
a ls o th e g r eed for gold . Alon g w i th th e e xten s i on Of c i r c ula

ti on , i n cr eas es th e pow er of m on ey , th at a b s olutely s oc i a l for m

of w ea lth e er r ea d y for u s e
“
G old i sv . a w on d er f ul th i n g !
Wh oev er pos s es s es i t i s lor d of all h e w an ts By m ean s of .

gold on e can ev en get s ouls i n to P ar ad i s e ( C olu m b u s i n h i s .

”

letter fr om J a m ai c a S i n c e gold d oes n ot di s clos e w h at ,

h as b een tr a n s for m ed i n to i t ev er y thi n g com m od i ty or n ot , , ,

i s con v er ti b le i n to g old E v er y thi ng b ec om es s aleab le a n d .

b uyable Th e c i r culati on b ecom es th e gr eat s oci al r etor t i n to

.

w h i c h ev er y thi n g i s th r ow n to c om e out a g ai n a s a g old ,

c r y s tal Not ev en ar e th e b on es of s ai n ts a n d s till les s a r e

.
,

m or e d eli cate r es s acr os an c tm ex tr a c omm er c i um h om i n u m

a ble to w i th s tan d th i s a lch em y J us t as ev er y quali ta ti v e 1
.

d i ffer en c e b etw een c om m od i ti es i s ex ti n gui s h ed i n m on ey s o ,

m on ey on i ts s i d e li k e th e r a d i ca l leveller th at i t i s d oes
, , ,

a w ay w i th all d i s ti n c ti on s .
2
But m on ey i ts elf i s a c om m od i ty ,

1 H nry III m st Christi n king

e Fr nc r bb d cl ist rs f th i r r lics d
.
, o a Of a e, o e o e o e e , an

t urn d th m int m n y It is w ll kn wn wh t p rt th d sp iling f th D lp hic

e e o o e . e o a a e e o o e e

T mpl by th Ph ci ns pl y d in th hist ry f Gr c T m pl s wi th th nci nts

e e, e o a , a e e o O ee e . e e e a e

se rv d th dw llings f t h g ds f c mm di ti Th y w r s cr d b nks With

e as e e O e o O o o es . e e e
“
a e a .

th Ph nic i n s
e oetr ding p pl p xc ll nc m n y w th tr nsm t d sh p f
a , a a eo e ar e e e e, o e as e a u e a e o

e v rything It w th r f r quit in rd r th t th virgi ns w h t th f st f

e . as , e e o e, e o e a e , o, a e ea o

th G dd ss f L v g v th ms lv s up t str ng rs sh ul d ff r t th g dd ss th
e o e O o e, a e e e e o a e , o o e o e o e e

pi c f m n y th y r c iv d
e e o o e e e e e .

G ld y ll w glitt ring p r ci s g ld
2 “ o , e o , e , e ou o

Th s m ch f this will m k bl ck whi t ; f l f ir

u u o , a e a e ou , a

W r ng right b s n bl Old y ng ; c w rd v li nt
'

o a e, o e , ou o a , a a .

Wh t this y u g ds ? Why this a , o o ,

Will l g y r pri sts d s rv nts fr m y r sid s u ou e an e a o ou e

Pluck st ut m n s pill ws fr m b l w th ir h ds o e
’
o o e o e ea

This y ll w sl v e o a e

IVill knit d br k r ligi ns bl ss th

’
u d an ea e o e e acc rs

M k th b l pr sy d d p l c thi v s a e e ear e o a or
’
a e e e ,

And gi v th m titl k n d pp r b ti n e e e, ee a n a o a o ,

With s n t rs th b nch this is it e a o on e e ,

Th t m k s th w pp n d wid w w d g in a a e e a e
’
o e a a

C m d mn d rth o e a e ea ,

Th u c mm n wh r f m nkind o o o o e o a .

( Sh k sp r Tim n f Ath s ) a e ea e o o en .
1 I0 C ap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

of
p ur ch a s i n g h a s on ly a
,
li m i ted effic a cy . T hi s an ta g on i s m
b etw een th e qu a n ti ta ti v e
li m i ts of m on ey a n d i ts quali tati v e
b ou n d les s n es s c on ti n ually a cts as a s pur to th e h oar d er i n hi s
,

Si s y ph u s li k e lab our Of a ccum ula ti n g It i s w i th h i m as i t i s

-
.

w i th a c on qu e or w h o s ees i n e ver y n ew c ou n tr y ann ex ed on ly

r
,

a n ew b ou n d a y r .

In or d er th a t g old m ay b e h eld as m on ey a n d m a d e to for m ,

a h oar d i t m u s t b e pr ev en ted fr om c i r cula ti n g or fr om tr a n s

, ,

for m i n g i ts elf i n to a m ean s Of enj oy m en t Th e h oar d er .

,

th er efor e m ak es a s acr i fi c e Of th e lu s ts of th e fl es h to his g old

,

feti s h He a c ts i n ear n es t up to th e Gos pel of a b s ten ti on On

. .

th e oth er h an d , h e c an w i th d r a w fr om c i r c u la ti on n o m or e th an
w h a t h e h as th r ow n i n to i t i n th e s ha
p e of c om m od i ti es Th e .

m or e h e pr od uces th e m or e h e i s s ell ,
H ar d w or k, a ble to .

s av i n g a n d a v a r i ce, a r e, th er efor e, h i s th r ee c ar d i n al v i r tu es ,
,

a nd to s ell m u ch an d b uy li ttle th e s um of h i s poli ti cal

e c on om y
1
.

By th e s i d e of th e gr os s for m of a h ear d , w e fin d als o i ts

zes th eti c for m i n th e p os s es s i on Of g old a n d s i lv er a r ti cles T hi s .

g r ow s w i th th e w ealth Of c i vil s oc i ety . S oy on s i

r ch es ou

D
”
a r ai s s on s r i c h es n th i s w a h i
r e i s c r ea ted , on th e
( d
p I y t e er ot
) .

on e h a n d a c on s tan tly ex ten d i n g m a r k et for g old an d s i lv er ,

,

u n c on n ec ted w i th th ei r fun c ti on s as m on ey , a n d , on th e oth er

h an d , a la ten t s our c e Of su
pp yl ,
to w hi c h r ecou r s e i s h a d
p r inci
p all
y i n ti m es of c r i s i s a n d s oci al d i s tur b a n c e .

H oa r d i n g v es var i ou s pur pos es i n th e econ om y Of th e

s er

m etalli c c i r c ulati on Its fi r s t fu n c ti on ar i s es out of th e c on d i ti on s

.

to w h i c h th e c ur r en cy of g old a n d s ilv er c oi ns i s s u bj ec t We .

h a v e s een h ow a lon g w i th th e c on ti n u al fl uc tua ti on s i n th e

,

ex ten t a n d r a i d i t f th i u l ti f m m d i ti n d i n
p y o e c c a on o c o o es a r

th ei r p i c es th e qu an ti ty of m on ey c ur r en t un cea s i n gly ebb s

r ,

a n d fl ow s T h i s m as s m us t th er efor e b e c apab le of expan s i on

.
, ,

an d con tr a c ti on . At on e ti m e m on ey m u s t b e attr ac ted in

or d er to a c t a s ci r c u la ti n g c oi n , a t a n oth er , c i r cu lati n g coi n m u s t
be re
p elled in or d er to a c t a gai n as m or e or les s s tagn an t m on ey .

1Accr sc r q nt pi u si p oi l num r d v ndit ri d gui m rc d i m i u

e e e ua o u e o e
’
e o
’
o e e, n er e

q nt pi n si p o il n m r d i c mpr t ri q sti s n i c rdini i q li si r ggir n

ua o u u e o e o a o ,
ue o o a su ua a a o

t tt l p r zi ni di c n mi p litic ( V rri
u e e o e a o p e o o a o a .
”
e , .
 Mon y e
,
or th e Ci r cu la ti on f
o Com m od i ti es . 1 1 1

In or d er th at th e m as s of m on ey , ac tu ally c u r r en t, m ay c on

s tan tly b s or b i n g pow er of th e c i r culati on i t i s

s atur ate th e a ,

n eces s ar y th a t th e q u an ti ty of g old a n d s i lv er i n a c ou n tr y b e

g r eat er th an th e qu an ti t
y r e q u i r ed to fu n c ti on a s coi n T hi s .

c on di ti on i s fulfi lled b m o n ey tak i n g th e for m of h oar d s

y .

T h es e r es er v es s er v e as con d ui ts for th e s u pply or w i th d r a w a l

Of m on ey to or fr om th e c i r c ulat i on w h i c h i n th i s w a n ev e r
y ,

o verfl ow s i ts b an k s
1
.

6 . Me ans o f P a ymen t .

In th e s i m ple for m of th e ci r c ula ti on of comm od i ti es h i th er to

c on s i d er ed , w e foun d a gi v en v alue a lw ay s p r es en ted to us in
a d ou b le sha
p e, a s a c omm odi t
y p a t on e ole, a s m on ey at th e
Oppos i te pole . Th e ow n er s of comm od i ti es ca m e th er efor e i n to
c on tact a s v e r epr es en tati v es of w h at w er e alr eady
th e r es
p ec ti
e qu i v alen ts But w i th th e d ev elopm en t of c i r cula ti on c on d i
.
,

ti on s ar i s e u n d er w hi ch th e ali en a ti on of c om m od i ti es b ecom es
s e ar ated b
p y a n i n te r v a l O f,t i m e fr om th e r ea li s ati on of th ei r ,

p r i ces I t w i ll b e
. s u ffi c i en t t o i n d i ca t e t h e m os t s i m ple Of

t h es e con di ti on s On e s or t of ar ti cle r equ i r es a lon g er a n oth er

.
,

a s h or ter ti m e for i ts
p r od u c ti on A g a i n th e
p r od u c ti on Of .
,

d i ffer en t c om m odi ti es d epen d s on d i ffer en t s eas on s of th e y ear .

On e s or t of comm odi t
y m a
y b e b o r n on i ts ow n m a r k et place,
a n oth er h a s to m a k e a lon g j our n ey to m ar k et . C om m od i ty
O w n er NO
-
1 , m ay th er efor e b e r ea d y to s ell,
. b efor e NO 2 i s .

r ea d
y to b uy . W
h en th e s am e tr a n s a c ti on s a r e c on ti n ua lly

1Th r is r quir d f c rry ing th t r d f th n ti n d t rmin t um f

e e e e or a on e a e o e a o a e e a e s O

sp i fi k m n y which v ri s
ec c n d is s m tim s m r
o e , s m tim s l ss th circ m
a e , a o e e o e, o e e e , as e u

st nc s w
a ein r q i r e ar e This bbing d fl wi ng f m n y s ppli s d
e u e. e an o o o e u e an

a cc mm d t s its lf with ut y i d f P litici ns

o o a e e , Th b ck ts w rk o an a O o a . e u e o

a lt rn t ly ; wh n m n y is sc rc bulli n is c in d ; wh n b ulli n is sc rc m n y
e a e e o e a e, o o e e o a e, o e

i m lt d
s e( Sir D N rth 1
e .
”
P stscrip t p J hn Stu rt Mill wh f l ng tim
. o , . c., o , . o a , o or a o e

w Offici l f th E st Indi C mp ny c nfirms th f ct th t in Indi silv r rn

a s an a o e a a o a , o e a a a e o a

m nts still c ntinu t p rf rm dir ctly th functi ns f h rd Th silv r

e o e o e o e e o o a oa . e e

o rn m nts br ght ut d c in d w h n th r is high r t f in t r st d g

a e ar e ou o an o e e e e a a e o e e , an o

b ck g in wh n th r t f int r st f lls ( J S Mill s Evid nc

a a a e e R p rts
a e o e e a . . .
’
e e
.
“
e o on

B nk Acts 1 857
a Acc rding t P rli m nt ry d cum nt f 1 864 th g ld
,
”
o o a a a e a o e o , on e o

an d s i lv r im p rt d x p rt f Indi
e th imp rt f g ld
o an d silv r in 1 8 63 xc d d
e o o a, e o o o an e e ee e

th xp rt by
e e o D uring th 8 y rs imm di t ly pr c ding 1 86 4 th e ea e a e e e ,
e

e xc ss f im p rts v r xp rts f th pr ci us m t ls m unt d t

e o o o e e o O e e o e a a o e o

D uring this c nt ury f m r th n e h b n c in d in Indi

ar o e a as ee o e a.
I 1 2 C api ta li st P r od u cti on .

re
p eat ed b etw een th e s am e p er s on s , th e c on d i ti on s Of s ale a r e

re g ula ted in ac c or d a n ce w i th t h e c on d i ti on s of p r od uc ti on . On
th e oth er h a n d th e ,
u s e Of a gi v en c om m od i t
y ,
of a h ou s e for ,

i n s ta n ce i s ,
s old ( i n c om m on p a r la n c e, let) for d efini te p er i od
a .

H er e i t i s ,
on ly at th e en d of th e ter m th a t th e b uy er h as
a c tua ll
y v e d th e u s e v a lu e of th e c om m od i t
r ec ei
y H e t h e e -
. r

for e b uy s i t b efor e h e pay s for i t Th e v en d or s ells a n ex i s t .

i n g c om m od i ty th e pu r ch a s er b uy s a s th e m or e r epr es en ta ti v e
,

o f m on e
y or a t h er O f
,
f u tu r e m orn e
y T h e v en d o r b ec om es a .

c r ed i to th e pu r c h as er b ec om es a d eb to
r, S i n ce th e m etam or r .

h s i s of c om m od i ti es or th e d ev elo m en t of th ei r v a lu e fo m
p o
p r
-
, ,

a
pp e a r s h er e u n d er a n ew as ec t m on e
p y a ls o ac q u i r es a fr es h ,

fun c ti on ; i t b ecom es th e m ean s of pay m en t .

Th e c h a r ac te of c r ed i tor or of d eb tor r es u lts h e r e fr om th e

r , ,

s i m le c i c ula ti on T h
r e c h a n g e i n th e for m of th a t c i r c u la ti on
p .

s ta m s b u er a n d s eller w i th thi s n e w d i e
p y A t fi r s t th er efor e .
, ,

th es e n ew par ts a r e j u s t a s t a n s i en t a n d a lter n ati n g as th os e of r

s elle a n d b uy er a n d a e i n t u n s play ed b y th e s a m e a c tor s

r
r ,
r .

But th e p o p os i ti on is n ot n ea r l
y so
p lea s an t , an d i s fa r m or e
ca a ble of cr y s t a lli z a ti on Th e sa m e ch ar acter s can h ow ev er ‘
p .
, ,

b e a s s u m ed i n d epen d en tly Of th e c i r c ula ti on of c om m od i ti es .

Th e c la s s s tr u ggles Of th e a n ci en t w or ld took th e for m c h i efly

-

of a c on t es t b etw een d eb tor s an d c r edi tor s , w h i ch i n R om e

e n d ed i n th e r u in of th e ple ei a n d e tor s b
T h ey w er e d i s b .

la c ed b y s la v es In th e m i d d le a ges th e con tes t en d ed w i th

p
-
.

th e r u i n of th e feu d a l d eb tor s , w h o los t th ei r poli ti c al p ow er

tog eth er w i th t h e ec on om i cal b as i s on w h i ch i t w a s es ta bli s h ed .

Nev er th eles s ,
th e m on ey r ela ti on of d eb tor an d c r ed i tor th at
exi s ted a t th es e t w o per i od s r efl ec ted on ly th e d eeper lyi n g -

a n ta g o n i s m b etw een th e gen er al econ om i cal c on d i ti on s of

ex i s te n c e of th e cla s s es i n q u es ti on .

Let us r etu r n t o th e c i r c ula ti on of c om m od i ti es . Th e

a
pp ea r a n c e of th e tw o e qu i va len ts ,
c om m od i ti es a n d m on ey , at

t h e t w o p oles of th e pr oces s Of s ale, h as cea s ed to b e s i m u lta

1 ll wing sh ws th d bt r d cr dit r r l ti ns xisting b tw n English

Th e fo o o e e o an e o e a o e e ee

tr d rs t th b ginning f th 1 8th c nt ry
a e a e eS ch spirit f cru lty r ig s h rO e e u . u a O e e n e e

in Engl nd m ng th m f tr d th t is t t b m t with in y th r s ci ty
a a o e en o a e, a no o e e an o e o e

of m in y th r kingd m f th w rld ( An Ess y Cr dit d th

en , n or an o e o o e o .
” “
a on e an e

B nkr pt A ct L nd 1 707 p
a u ,
”
o .
, , .
1 1 4 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

Th e O b li gati on s falli n g d ue w i th i n a g i v en pe r i od , r epr es en t

th e s u m of th e pr i c es of th e c om m od i ti es , th e s a le of w hi ch
gav e r i s e to th os e O li ga ti on sb
q uan ti ty of g old n eces s ar y . Th e
to r ea li s e th i s s u m d epen d s i n th e fi r s t i n s ta n c e on t h e
, , ,

r a i d i ty
p f c u r r en cy o f t h e m ean s of pay m en t
o T h a t q u a n ti ty .

i s con d i ti on ed b y tw o c i r cu m s ta n ces : fi r s t th e r ela ti on s b e

t we en d eb tor s an d c r edi tor s for m a s or t of ch a i n i n s u c h a w a y ,

th a t A w h en h e r ecei v es m on ey fr om h i s d eb tor B s tr a i gh t
, ,

w ay h a n d s i t ov er t o C h i s cr ed i tor a n d s o on ; th e s ec on d ,

c i r c u m s ta n c e i s th e len g th of th e i n ter v a ls b etw een th e

d i ffer en t d ue d ay s of th e O b li g a ti on s
-
Th e con ti n uou s c h a i n
Of a m en ts or r eta r d ed fi r s t m etam or ph os es i s s s en ti ally
p y ,
e ,

d i ffer en t fr om that i n ter laci n g of th e s er i es of m et a m or ph os es

w h i c h w e c on s i d er ed on a for m er pag e By th e c ur r en cy of .

th e c i r c ula ti n g m ed i u m th e c on n exi on b et w een b uy er s a n d ,

s eller s i s n ot m er el
, y ex r es s ed
p T h i s c on n exi on i s or i gi n a ted .

b y a n d e xi s ts i n th e c i r c ula ti on a lon e
, ,
Con tr a r i w i s e the .
,

m ov em en t of th e m ean s of pay m en t ex pr es s es a s oc i a l r ela ti on

t h a t w as i n exi s ten c e lon g b efor e .

Th e fa c t th a t a n u m b er Of s ales ta k e place s i m ulta n eou s ly ,

a n d s id e b y s i d e li m i ts th e ex ten t to w h i ch c oi n c a n b e r e
,

pl a c ed b
y t h e r a idit
p y Of c u r r en cy O n th e o th er h a n d , thi s .

fac t i s a n ew lev er i n econ om i s i n g th e m ean s Of pa y m en t In .

r e or ti on as m n ts ar e con c en tr a ted a t on e s ot, s ec i a l

p p a
p y e p p
i n s ti tu ti on s an d m eth od s ar e d eveloped for t h ei r li qu i d a ti on .

S uch i n th e m i d d le g es w er e th e vi r em en ts a t Ly ons
a . Th e
d eb ts d u e to A fr om B to B fr om C to C fr om A a n d
, , ,
s o on ,

h a ve on ly to b e c on fr on ted w i th ea c h oth er , in or d er to an n ul

ea ch o th e r to a cer ta i n e x ten t li k e p os i ti v e a n d ne ga ti v e
qu a n ti ti es . T her e th us r em a i n s on l
y a s i n g le ba lan c e
t o p ay Th e . r eater g
th e a m oun t of th e pay m en ts c on een

t r a ted , th e les s i s th i s ala n ce r ela ti ely to t h at b v a m oun t,

and th e les s i s th e m as s of t h e m ean s of ay m en t in

p
c i r c ula ti on .

Th e fun c ti on of m on ey as th e m ean s of p y
a m en t i m pli es a

go v rnm nt pu ch s s p ium fr m th ry ts f Indi

e e r a e o In th s c s s h w v r th
o e o o a . e e a e , o e e , e

m n y lw ys cts
o e a m ns f p urch s
a a as a Of c rs c p it l ls is
ea o d a e . ou e a a a o a

d in t h sh p
v an c e f m n ye a This p int f vi w h w v r d s t f ll
e o o e . o o e , o e e , oe no a

w ithin th h ri n f simp l circ ul ti n Kritik & pp 1 1 9 ”

e o zo Z o e a o . ur . c. , .
,
 fi l on ey , or the C i r c u la ti on of Com m od i ti es . 1 1 5

c on tr a d i c ti on w i th ou t a ter m i n u s m ed i u s . In so far as th e
m n ts b alan ce on e a n oth er , m on ey f un c ti on s on ly i d eally
p y a e

a s m on e
y of acc ou n t ,
a s a m eas u r e of v alue . In so fa r a s a c tu a l

p y a m en ts h a v e to b e m a d e,
m on ey d oe s n ot s er v e as a ci r cu

la ti n g m ed i um , a s a m er e tr an s i en t a g en t i n th e i n ter c h an g e
Of
p ro d ucts b u t ,
as th e i n d i vi d u al i n car n a ti on of s oci al la b our ,
as th e i n d epen d en t for m of e xi s ten ce of e x ch an ge v alue ,
as th e
un i v er s al c om m od i ty . T hi s c on tr a d i c ti on c om es to a h ea d i n
th os e ph a s es of i n d u s tr i al and c om m er c i al c r i s es w h i ch ar e

k n ow n a s m on etar y cr i s es S uch a cr i s i s occur s on ly w h er e .

1

th e ev er len g th en i n g ch ai n of pay m en ts an d a n a r ti fi ci a l s y s tem

-
,

Of s ettli n g th em h as b een full d v l d W h n v er th er e

y e e op e ,
e e .

i s a g en er a l a n d ex ten s i v e d i s tu r b a n ce of th i s m ech a n i s m n o ,

m a tter w h a t i ts c a u s e m on ey b ecom es s ud d enly a n d i m m ed i ,

a tel t r an s for m ed , fr om i ts m er el i d al s h a e of m on e f
y y e p y o

a cc ou n t, i n to h ar d cas h Pr ofan e c om m od i ti es c an n o lon g er .

re
p la c e i t T h e u s e v a lu e
. Of co m m o d i ti es b ec om e s v a lu e
-
les s ,

an d th ei r v a lu e v a n i s h es i n th e r es en c e of i ts ow n i n d e en d en t
p p
for m On th e ev e of th e c r i s i s th e b ou r g eoi s , w i th th e s elf
.
,

s u ffi ci en c
y th a t s pr i n gs fr om i n tox i ca ti n g pr os per i ty, d eclar es
m on ey to b e a va i n i m a g i n a ti on C om m odi ti es alon e a r e .

m on ey . But n ow th e cr y is e v er y w h er e : m on ey a lon e is a

c omm od i t
y ! A s th e h a r t
p an ts a fter fr es h w a ter , s o
p a n ts hi s

s ou l a fter m on ey , th e on ly w ealth In a cr i s i s , th e an ti th es i s
2
.

b etw een c om m od i ti es a n d th ei r v alu e for m , m on e , b ec om es

y
-

h ei gh ten ed i n to an a b s olute con tr a d i c ti on . H en ce i n ,

s u ch

e v en ts ,
th e for m u n d er w h i ch m on ey ap
p ear s is of n o i m por t

1 m n t ry crisis r f rr d t in th t xt b ing ph s f v ry crisis m ust b

Th e o e a e e e o e e , e a a e o e e , e

cl rly distinguish d fr m th t p rtic ul r f rm f crisis which ls is c ll d m n

ea e o a a a o o , a o a e a o e

t ry crisis b ut which m y b pr duc d by its lf

a , ind p nd nt ph n m n n in
a e o e e as an e e e e o e o

s ch w y t r ct nly indir ctly ind stry d c mm rc Th piv t f th s

u a a as o ea o e on u an o e e
. e o o e e

cris s is t b f und in m n y d c pit l d th ir s ph r f dir ct cti n is th r

e o e o o e e a a , an e e e o e a o e e

f r th s p h r
o e e f th t c p it l i b nking th st ck xch ng
e e o a ad fin nc a , v z .
, a , e o e a e, an a e .

Th s dd n r v rsi n fr m
2 “ e u syst m f cr dit t syst m f h rd c sh h p s
e e e o o a e o e o a e O a a ea

th r tic l fright t p f th pr ctic l p nic ; d th d l rs by wh s g ncy

eo e a on o o e a a a an e ea e o e a e

circ l ti n is ff ct d shu dd r b f r th imp n tr bl myst ry in which th ir w n

u a o a e e , e e o e e e e a e e e O

c n mi c l r l ti ns inv lv d ( K rl M rx l c p
e o o a e a o ar e Th p r st nd still b
o e
”
a a , . . .
“
e oo a ,
e

c s th rich h v
au e e m n y t mpl y th m th gh th y h v th s m l nd d
a e no o e o e o e , ou e a e e a e a an

h nds t pr vid vict ls d cl th s

a o o v r th y h d
e ua which is th tr Rich s
an o e , as e e e a e ue e
Of N ti n
a ad t th m n y
o , ( J hn B ll rs
an no Pr p s ls f r ising C ll dg
e o e . o e e o o a or a a o e e
f Ind stry L nd 1 695 p ”
o u , o . . .
1 1 6 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

an c e . Th e m on ey fa m i n e c on ti n u es ,
w h eth er p ay m en ts h a ve
to b e m a d e i n g old or in c r ed i t m on ey s u ch as an n otes
1
b k -
.

If w e n ow c on s i d er th e s um total of th e m on ey c ur r en t d ur
i ng a gi ven p er i od , we s h all fi n d th a t, g i v en th e p i d i
raty of
c u r r en cy of th e c i r c u la t i n g m ed i u m a n d of th e m ea n s of pay
m en t, i t i s e q u a l to t h e s um of
th e pr i c es to b e r eali s ed , plus
th e s u m of th e p ay m en ts fa lli n g d ue, m i n u s th e p ay m en ts th a t
b alan ce ea ch oth er , m i n us fin ally th e n um be r Of c i r c u i ts in
w h i ch th e pi
s am e
e ce of c oi n s er v es i n tur n a s m ean s of
c i r c ulati on a n d of a m en t
p y . H en ce ,
ev en w h en p r i c es a i d i ty
p ,
r

of cu r r en c y , a n d
y i n p th e
ay m en ts , a r e e x ten t of th e ec on om

gi v en , th e quan ti ty of m on ey cur r en t a n d th e m as s of com

m od i ti es ci r c ula ti n g d ur i n g a gi v en per i od , s u ch a s a d ay , n o
lon g er c or r es
p on d . M on ey th a t re
p r es en ts c om m od i ti es lon g
w i th d r a w n fr om c i r cu la ti on, c on ti n u es to b e c ur r en t . Com
m od i ti es c i r c ula te, w h os e e qui v alen t i n m on ey w ill n ot a
pp ea r

on th e s cen e till s om e fu tur e d ay M or eo er , th e d e ts con . v b

tr a c ted ea ch d ay , a n d th e m n t fa lli n g d u e on th e s am e
p y
a e s

d ay , qui te i n c om m en s ur a ble q ua n ti ti es
ar e .
2

Cr ed i t m on ey s pr i n gs d i r ec tly out of th e fu n c ti on Of
-
m on ey
a s a m ean s o f
p ya m en t C er ti fi c a tes of th e d eb ts ow i n g . for th e
1 ll wi g sh ws h w s ch tim s
Th e fo o n xpl it d by th o mis d c mm rc o u e ar e e o e e a u o e e.
”

On cc si n (1 839) Old gr sping b nk r (i n th city) in his p riv t r m r is d

on e o a o an a a e e a e oo a e

th lid f th d sk h
e o t v r d displ y d t fri nd r lls f b nkn t s s yi g
e e e sa o e , an a e o a e o o a o e , a n

with int ns gl th r w r e e f th m th y w r h ld t m k m n y tight

ee e e e e o e , e e e e o a e o e ,

d w ld ll b l t ft r thr O cl ck th s m d y ( Th Th ry f ” “
’
an ou a e e our a e ee o on e a e a . e eo o

Exch ng s Th B nk Ch rt r Act f
a e . eL nd 1 864 p
a Th Ob a e o o . . . e s er ver , a

s mi fli i l g v rnm nt rg n c nt in d th f ll wing p r gr ph 24th April 1 8 6 4

e -
o
‘
c a o e e o a , o a e e o o a a a on , :

S m v ry c ri us r m rs
o e e c r nt f th m ns which h v b n r s rt d t
u o u ou ar e u re o e ea a e ee e o e o

in rd r t cr t sc rcity f B nkn t s
o e o ea e a Q sti n bl it w ld s m t
a O a o e ue o a e as ou ee ,
o

s pp s th t y trick f th kind w ld b d p t d th r p rt h b n univ rs l

u o e a an o e ou e a o e , e e o as ee so e a

th t it r lly d s rv s m nti n
a ea e e e e o .
”

2 Th m nt f p rch s s c ntr cts nt r d p n d ri g th c rs f y giv n

ea ou o u a e or o a e e e u o u n e ou e o an e

d y will
a , t ff ct th q ntity f m n y fl t th t p rtic l d y b t in th
no a e e ua o o e a oa on a a u ar a , u , e

v st m j rity f c s s will r s lv th ms lv s int m ltif ri s dr fts p n th

a a o o a e , e o e e e e o u a ou a u o e

qu ntity f m n y which m y b fl t t s bs q nt d t s m r
a o o e l ss dist nt a e a oa a u e ue a e o e or e a .

Th bills gr nt d cr di ts Op n d t d y n d h v
e r s mbl nc
a e or e e e , o- a , ee a e no e e a e

wh t v r i th in qu ntity m nt d r ti n t th s gr nt d nt r d p n
a e e , e er a , a ou , or u a o ,
o o e a e or e e e u o

t m rr w n xt d y y m ny f t d y s bills d cr dits wh n d f ll i n ’
o -
o o or e a na , a o o a , an e , e u e, a

with m ss f li biliti s wh s rigi ns tr v rs r ng f nt c d nt d t s lt g th r

a a O a e o eo a e e a a e o a e e e a e a o e e

ind finit bills t 1 2 6 3 m nths 1 Oft n ggr g ting t g th r t sw ll th c mm n

e e, a , ,
o or e a e a o e e o e e o o

li biliti s f
a p rtic l r d y
e O on e Th C urr ncy Th ry R vi w d ;
a u a a . e e eo e e e a

l tt r t th Sc ot ti h p pl
e e o By B nk r in E gl nd Edinburgh 1 845 pp 29 30
e s eo e.
”
a a e n a .
, , .
,

p s im )
a s .
1 1 8 C ap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

to th e con ve r s i on o f t a x es i n ki n d i n t o m on ey t a x es .
1
In As i a ,

on th e oth er h a n d , th e fa c t t ha t s ta te ta x es a r e chi e fly c om pos ed

of r en ts a
p y a ble i n k i n d p ,
d epen d s on c on di ti on s Of r od uc ti on

th a t ar e r epr od u ced w i th t h e r eg ula r i ty of n a tu r al ph en om en a .

An d th i s m od e of pay m en t ten d s i n i ts tu r n to m a i n tai n th e

a n c i en t for m of
p ro d uc ti on . It i s on e of th e s ec r ets of th e c on

s er v a ti on of th e O ttom an E m pi r e If th e fo ei gn tr a d e fo ced . r ,
r

u p on J a pa n b y E ur op ea n s s h ou ld lea d to th e s u b s ti tuti on of ,

m on ey r en ts for r en ts i n ki n d i t w i ll b e a ll u p w i th th e ,

e x em lar a gr i cultu r e of th at c oun tr T h n w n m i l

p y y e ar r o ec o o ca .

c on d i ti on s u n d er w hi ch th at a g r i c ultur e i s ca r r i ed on w i ll b e ,

swe
pt a w ay .

In y e vey r c oun tr ,
c er ta i n d ay s of th e y ear b ecom e b y ha bi t
r ec ogn i s ed s ettli n g d a s for v ar i ou s la r g e a n d r ecu r r en t a
y p y
m ents T h es e d ates d epen d , a par t fr om oth er r ev oluti on s i n th e
.

w h eel of r e
p r od u c t i on , on con d i ti on s c los ely c on n ec ted w i th
th e s eas on s . T h ey a ls o re g ula te th e d a tes for pay m en ts th at
h a ve no d i r ec t c on n e x i on w i th th e c i r c ula t i on of c om m od i ti es

s u ch as tax es , r en ts , a n d so on . The quan ti ty of m on ey re

q u i s i te to m ak e th e pay m en ts , fa lli n g d u e on th os e d a tes a ll

o v er th e cou n tr y , ca u s es per i od i c al, th oug h m er ely s u per fi ci al,

p er tu r b ati ons i n th e ec on om
y of
p th e m ed i um of a y m en t
?

Fr om th e la w of th e r a i dit
p y of c u r r en c y of th e m ea n s of

1 L rg nt’
a td v n l b
e rr d t t s ch s s Fin nc is th l mbic
es e e u e ou eau e ou e o e .
”
a e e a a ,

qu i af it é v
a p r r q a ntité ffr
o e y bl d bi ns t d
une d w e s ua
p r f ir cc f t l e o a e e e e e e e ou a e a a

p r é cis .
”
L rg nt décl r ’
l ga rr a t t
e l g nr h m in ( B
a ei g i ll b at ue e ou e e e u a .
”
o s u e er

Diss rt ti n u l tur d rich ss s d l rg nt t d trib ts Edit D ir

e a o s r a na e es e e , e
’
a e e es u . . a e .

E m i t fin nci rs
c on o s P ris 1 843 t i pp 41 3 41 9
es a e . a , , . .
, .
, ,

2 On Whits ntid s ys Mr Cr ig b f r th C mm ns C mmitt f 1 826

u e, a a e o e e o o
’
o ee o ,

th r w s ch imm ns d m nd f n t s up n th b nks f Edinb rgh th t

e e as u an e e e a or o e o e a o u , a

by 1 1 O cl ck th y h d t n t l ft in th ir c st dy Th y s nt r nd t ll th
’
o e a no a o e e e u o . e e ou o a e

di ff r nt b nks t b rr w b ut c ld t g t th m d m ny f th tr ns cti ns
e e a o o o ,
ou no e e , an a o e a a o

w r dj st d by slip s f p p r nly ; y t by th O cl ck th wh l f th n t s
e e a u e O a e o e r ee
’
o e o e o e o e

w r r t rn d int th b nks fr m which th y h d iss d It w

e e e u e o em r tr ns f r
a o e a ue as a e e a e

fr m h nd t h nd Alth gh th v r g ff ctiv circ ul ti n f b nk n t s in

”
o a o a . ou e a e a e e e e a o O a -
o e

Sc tl nd is l ss th n thr
o a milli ns st rli g y t c rt in p y d ys in th y r
e a ee o e n ,
e on e a a a e ea ,

v ry singl n t in th p ss ssi n f th b nk rs m nting in th wh l t b t

e e e o e e o e o o e a e , a ou e o e o a ou

is c ll d int ctivity On th s cc si ns th n t s h v singl d

a e o a . e e o a o e o e a e a e an

sp cific f ncti n t p rf rm d s n th y h v p rf rm d i t th y fl w b ck
e u o o e o , an so oo as e a e e o e , e o a

int th v ri s b nks fr m which th y iss u d ( S J hn Full rt n R gul ti n f

o e a ou a o e e . ee o a o , e a o o

C rr nci s L nd 1 844 p 85 n t ) I xpl n ti n it sh ld b st t d

u e e .
”
o , . o e . n e a a o ou e a e ,

th t in Sc tl nd t th d t f F ll t w rk n t s d t ch qu s w r s d t
a o a , a e a e o u a r on s
’
o , o e an no e e e eu e o

withdr w d p sitsa e o .
 Mon y e ,
or M e Ch em /a ti on o
f
p y
a m en t ,
i t follow s th at th e q uanti ty of th e m ea n s of
p
y a

m en t q
r e u i r ed for a ll p er i od i c al m n ts , w h a tev er th ei r
p y ea

s our c e, i s i n i n ver s e pr opor ti on to th e len g th of th ei r p er i od s .

Th e d ev elopm en t of m on ey i n to p y m e n t a m ed i um of a

m a k es i t n eces s ar y to a c cu m ulate m on ey a gai n s t th e d a tes

fi x ed for th e p ay m en t of th e s um s o w i n g W hi le h oar d i ng , a s .

a d i s ti n c t m od e of a c q u i r i n g r i c h es v a n i s h es w i th th e g
, p r o r es s

of civ i l s oci ety t h e for m a ti on of , r es er v es of th e m ean s of p a

y
m en t g r ow s w i th th a t pr ogr es s .

0 . Un i oer s a l Mon ey .

W h en m on ey lea v es t h e h om e s ph er e of c i r culati on , it
s tr i
p s off g ar b s w h i ch i t th er e a s s um es of a s tan d ar d
th e local ,

of r i ces of c oi n of tok en s a n d of a s m b ol of v alu e a n d r e

p , y , , ,

t ur n s to i ts or i g i n a l for m of b ulli on In th e tr a d e b etw een t h e .

m ar k ets of th e w or ld th e v alue of c omm odi ti es i s expr es s ed s o ,

as to b e un i v er s ally r ec ogn i s ed H en ce th ei r i n d epen d en t .

value for m a ls o i n th es e ca s es con fr on ts th em u n d er th e

-
, ,

s h a e of un i v er s al m on e It i s only i n th e m a r k ets of th e
p y .

w or ld th at m on ey a c qu i r es to th e full ex ten t th e ch ar a c ter of th e

com m od i ty w h os e b od i l f r m i s a ls o th e i m m ed i a t e s oc i a l i n
y o

ca r n a ti on of h um a n la b our i n th e a b s tr a ct Its r ea l m od e of .

ex i s ten ce i n t hi s s ph er e a d equ a tely cor r es p on d s t o i ts i d ea l

con c ep t .

Wi th i nph e th e
r e of h om e c i r c ulati on t h er e c an b e b u t on e
s ,

c om m od i t w h i ch b s er v i n g a s a m eas ur e of v a lu e, b ec om es
y y ,

m on ey In th e m a r k ets of th e w or ld a d oub le m ea s u r e of
.

va lue h old s s wa
y ,
gold a n d s il er v .
2

1 q sti n If th r w r cc si n t r is 40milli ns p w h th r th
To th e ue o ,
e e e e o a o o a e o . a. , e e e

s m 6 milli ns (g ld )
a e w ld s ffic f s ch r v l ti ns d i rcul ti ns th r f
o o ou u e or u e o u o an c a o e eo ,

as tr d r quir s P tty r pli s i his s l m st rly m nn r I nsw r y f th

a e e e ,
”
e e e n u ua a e a e ,
a e es or e

exp ns b ing 40 milli ns i f th r v l ti ns w r in s uch sh rt circl s viz w kly

e e e o , e e o u o e e o e , .
, ee ,

as h pp ns m g p r t i
a e a d l b ur rs w h r c iv
on ood p y v ry S t rd y
ar z an s a n a o e , o e e e an a e e a u a ,

th n 3 p rts f 1 milli n f m y w ld nsw r th s nds b t i f th circl s b

e 5
5 a o o o on e ou a e e e e u e e e

q rt rly cc rdi g t
ua e , c st m f p ying r nt d g th ring t x s th n 1 0
a o n o ou r u o o a e , an a e a e , e

milli ns w r r q isi t Wh r f r s upp sing p ym nts in g n r l t b f mix d

o e e e u e . e e o e, o a e e e a o eo a e

circl b tw n e w k d 1 3 th n d d 1 0 milli ns t
e ee on e th h l f f which will
ee an ,
e a o o e a o

i f w h v 5 % milli ns w h v n gh (Willi m P tty P litic l ”

b 55e , s o as e a e o e a e e ou . a e o a

A t my f Ir l nd
na o 1 6 72o Edit L nd 1 6 91 pp 1 3
e a .
”
. . o .
, . .

H nc th bs rdity f v ry l w pr scribing th t th b nks f c ntry sh ll

2 e e e a u o e e a e a e a o a ou a

f rm r s rv s f th t p r ci s m t l l n which circ ul t s t h m
o e e e o a Th pl s nt
e ou e a a o e a e a o e. e ea a
 '
Co oz ed /e
'

I 20 s t P r oa u of z ofl .

M on ey of th e w or ld s er v es as th e v er s al
uni m ed i u m of

p ay m en t,
a s v er s al m ean s th e un i of
p u r ch a s i n g ,
an d as th e
un i v er s ally r ec og n i s ed e m b od i m en t of all w ea lth . Its fun cti on
as a m ea n s of p ay m en t i n th e s ettli n g of i n ter n ati on al b alan ces
i s i ts c hi ef on e . H en ce t h e w atch w or d of th e m er can ti li s ts ,

b ala n ce of tr a d e .
ll
G old a n d s i lver s er v e a s i n ter n a ti on al m ean s
of p u r ch a s i n g chi e fly an d n eces s ar i ly i n th es e p er i od s w h en
th e c u s t om a r
y e u i liq br i um i n th e i n ter ch an ge of pr od u c ts
b etw een d i ffer en t n ati on s i s s ud d enly d i s tur b ed An d las tly .
,

i t s er v es as th e un i v er s ally r ec og n i s ed em b od i m en t of s oc i a l
w ea lth w h en ev er th e qu es ti on i s n ot of b uy i ng or pay i n g b u t
, ,

of tr a n s fer r i n g w ealth f om on e c oun tr y to a n oth er a n d w h en r ,

ev er th i s tr an s fer en c e i n th e for m of c om m od i ti es i s r en d er ed

i m pos s i b le ei th er b y s p ec i al c onj un ctur es i n th e m a r k ets or

, ,

b y th e p ur pos e i ts elf th at i s i n ten d ed .

2

J us t a s ev er y coun tr y n eed s a r es er v e of m on ey for i ts h om e

c i r c ula ti on , s o, too, i t re qui r es on e for e x ter n al c i r c ula ti on in

diffic lti s th us s l f cr t d by th B nk f Engl nd

u e e w ll kn wn On th
-
ea e e a o a , ar e e o . e

subj ct f th gr e t p chs in th hist y f th ch ng s in th r l tiv v l u f g ld d

o e ea e o e or o e a e e e a e a eo o an

silv r e K rl M rx l c p 1 36 sq Sir R b rt P l by his B nk Act f 1 844 s ught

, s ee a a , . . . . o e ee , a o , o

t tid
o v r th diffic ulty by ll wing th B nk f Engl nd t iss n t s g inst
e o e e , a o e a o a o ue o e a a

silv r b lli n
e c nditi n th t th r s rv f silv r sh ld n v r xc d m r th n
u o , on o o a e e e e o e ou e e e ee o e a

on e f th f th r s rv f g ld Th v lu f silv r b ing f th t p rp s stim t d

-
our o e e e eo o . e a eo e e or a u o e e a e

a t its p ric in th L nd n m rk t e e o o a e .

Th pp n nts th ms lv s f th m rc ntil syst m syst m which c nsid r d

1 e o o e e e
, e e ,
o e a e e , a e o e e

th s ttl m nt f s urp l s tr d b l nc s in g ld
e e e e o d s i lv r th i m f int rn ti n l
u a e a a e o an e as e a o e a o a

tr da ntir ly misc nc iv d th f ncti ns f m n y f th w rld I h v sh wn by

e, e e o e e e u o o o e o e o . a e o

th x m pl f Ric rd in wh t w y th ir f ls c nc pti n f th l ws th t r g l t
e e a e o a o a a e a e o e o o e a a e u a e

t h qu ntity f th circ l ting m di m is r fl ct d in th ir q u lly f ls c nc p ti n

e a o e u a e u , e e e e e a a e o e o

o f th int rn ti n l m v m nt
e e f th ap r ci u s m t ls ( 1 c pp 1 50 sq )
o a o Hi e e o e e o e a . . . . s

e rr n s d gm
o eou An u f v u bl b l nc f tr d n v r ri s s b t fr m
o a n a o ra e a a e o a e e e a e u o a re

du d n t c urr ncy
an Th xp rt ti n f th c in is c s d by its ch pn ss d
e . e e o a o o e o au e ea e , an

is t th ff ct b t th c s f u nf v r bl b l nc
no e e e ,
u lr dy cc rs in B rb n
e au e o an a ou a e a a e,
”
a ea o u a o :
“
Th B l nc e f Tr d a ai f th r b e o is t th c us f s nding w y th m n y
a e, e e e on e , no e a e o e a a e o e

o ut f n ti n ; b t th t pr c ds fr m th diff r nc f th v lu f b lli n i
o a a o u a o ee o e e e e o e a e o u o n

e v ry c untry ( N B rb n ; l pp 59
e o .
”
M C ll h in th Lit r t r f
. a o . 0 . .
, ac u oc
“
e e a u e o

P litic l Ec n my cl ssifi d c t l g L nd
o a o o pr is s B rb n f
, a this nti
a e a a o ue, o . a e a o or a

c i p ti a b t p r d ntly p s s v r t h n i v f rms in which B rb n cl th s th

on , u u e as e o e e a e o , a o o e e

a bs d s pp siti n which th c urr ncy principl is b s d Th bs nc f r l

ur u o o on e e e a e . e a e e o ea

criticism d v n f h n sty in th t c t l g c lmin t s in th s cti ns d v t d

an e e o o e , a a a o u e, u a e e e o e o e

t th hist ry f th th ry f m n y th r s n is th t M C ll h in this p rt f
o e o o e eo o o e e ea o a ac u oc a o

th w rk is fl tt ring L rd Ov rst n wh m h c lls f cil p rinc p s “ ”

e o a e g t i um
o e o e o e a a e e ar en ar or .

F 1 i nst nc or in s bsidi s m n y l ns f c rrying w rs f n bling b nks

a e, u e , o e oa or a on a or or e a a

t r o m c sh p ym nts & it i th m n y f rm d
es u e a a th r f v l th t m y
e , c .
, s e o e o , an no o e ,
o a ue a a

b w nt d
e a e .
 Cap i tol /i d P nod zzoi i on
‘
.

th e pr oper per for m an ce of th ei r p ec uli ar fu n c ti on s h en .

1
W
v
e er th es e h oa r d s a r e s tr i k i n gl
y a o e th ei r a er a g e le el, i t b v v v
i s w i th s om e ex c ep ti on s an
, ,
i n d i cati on of s tagn ati on i n th e
c i r c u la ti on of c om m od i ti es , of a n i n t er r u pti on i n th e ev en flow

of th ei r m etam or ph os es 2
.

Th s v ri us functi ns
1 e e a li bl t c m int d ng r us c nflict with
o o ar e a e o o e o a e o o on e a n

o th r wh n v r g ld
e d silv r h v
e e e l t s rv o f nd f th c nv rsi n f b nk
an e a ea so o e e as a u or e o e o o a

nts o e .

Wh t m n y is m r th n f bs l t n c ssity f
2 a o e H m Tr d i d d
o e a o a o u e e e or a o e a e, s ea

st ck
o d brings p r fit t th t c u ntry it s k p t in b t
an no it is tr nsp rt d in
o o a o
’
e , u as a o e

tr da w ll imp rt d ( J hn B ll rs Ess ys p
e, as e as Wh t i f w h v t
o e . o e e , a , .
“
a e a e oo

m ch c in W m y m lt d wn th h vi st d t rn it i nt th spl nd r f pl t
u o ? e a e o e ea e an u o e e ou o a e,

v ss ls
e et nsils f g ld silv r
or u e s nd it t o c mm dity wh r th s m
o or e or e ou as a o o , e e e a e

is w nt d d sir d
a e l t it
or t t i t r st wh r int r st is high
e e or ( W P tty
e ou a n e e , e e e e .
”
. e

Q t l m u q
ua n u u p M n y is b t th f t f th B dy P li tick wh r f
c n u e,
”
. o e u e a o e o o , e eo

too m ch d th u ft n hind r its gility

o ast li ttl m k s it sick
o e f t
e a , as oo e a e as a

l bric t s th m ti n f th m uscl s f ds in w nt f vi ct ls fills up th un v n

u a e e o o o e e , ee a o ua , e e e

c viti s d b ti fi th b dy
a e , an d th m n y in th st t q ick n its cti n f ds
ea u es e o so o o e e a e u e a o ,
ee

fr m br d in tim
o a f d rth t h m
oa v ns cc unts
e o d b ti fi
ea th wh l a o e e e a o an ea u es e o e

a lth m r sp ci lly th p rticul r p rs ns th t h v it i pl nty ( W P tt y

o o e e e a e a a e o a a e n e . . e ,

P litic l An t my f Ir l nd p
o a a o o e a ,
”
.
 PA RT II .

THE TRAN S F O RMA TI ON O F MO N E Y I N TO

CAPI TA L .

C HAP T ER IV .

THE G EN E RAL F ORMULA F OR CAPITAL .

T H E ci r c ulati on of com m od i ti es i s th e s tar ti n g p oi n t of ca pi tal .

Th e pr od u cti on of c om m od i ti es , t h ei r ci r c ula ti on , a n d th a t m or e
d ev elop ed for m of th ei r c i r c ula ti on c alled c om m er c e, th es e for m
th e h i s tor i c al gr oun d w or k fr om w h i ch i t r i s es . Th e m od er n
h i s tor y p iof ca
ta l d a tes fr om th e c r eati on i n th e l 6 th c en tu r
y
of a w or ld em b r a ci n g com m er c e an d a w or ld em b r a ci n g m a r k et
- -
.

If w e a b s tr a ct fr om th e m a ter i al b s tan c e of th e c i r c ulati on

su

of c omm od i ti es , th at i s fr om , th e ex ch a n g e of th e v ar i ous u s e
valu es , a n d con s i d er on l
y th e ec on om i c
for m s pr od u ced b y th i s
p r oc es s of c i r cul a ti on , we fi n d i ts fi n al r es ult to b e m on ey : th i s
fi n al pr od u ct of th e c i r cu la ti on of com m odi ti es i s th e fir s t for m
i n w hi ch ca pi tal a pp ear s .

As a m a tter of h i s tor y , c a pi tal, a s oppos ed to la n d ed pr oper ty ,

i n v ar i ab ly tak es th e for m a t fir s t of m on ey ; i t a ppear s a s

m on ey ed w ea lth , as th e ca i ta l of th e m er ch a n t an d of th e
p
u s ur er .
1
But w e h av e no n eed to r efer to th e or i g i n of capi ta l

in or d er to d i s cov er th a t th e fir s t for m of a p pear an c e of c a pi ta l

i s m on ey . We c an s ee i t d ai ly u n d er ou r v er y ey es . All n ew
ca
pi tal, to com m en ce w i th, c om es on th e s ta ge ,
th a t i s , on th e
m ar k et, w h eth er of c omm od i ti es , lab our , or m on ey , e ven in our

1 c ntr st b tw n th p w r b s d
Th e o a e ee e o e , a e on rs n l r l ti ns f d mini n d
th e p e o a e a o o o o an

s rvit d th t is c nf rr d by l nd d pr
e u e, a o e e a e o p rty
e d th imp rs n l p w r th t is
, an e e o a o e a

giv n by m n y is w ll xpr ss d by th
e o e , e e e e e tw Fr nch p r v rbs
o e N ll t rr s ns o e , u e e e a

s ign ur
e ed ,L rg nt p d m itr
”
an
’
a e n a
’
as e a e .
”
 Cap z z a li s t P r od n ei i on
'
‘
I2 4 .

d ay s , i n th e s h a pe of m on ey th a t b y a d efin i te pr oces s h a s to
b e tr a n s for m ed i n to c api tal .

Th e fi r s t d i s ti n cti on w e n oti ce b etw een m on ey th at i s m on ey

only , a n d m on ey th at i s c a pi tal, is n oth i n g m or e th a n a d iffer
en c e i n th ei r for m of c i r c ula ti on .

Th e s i m ples t for m of th e c i r c ula ti on of c om m odi ti es is C

M— C ,
th e tr a n s for m ati on of c om m odi ti es i n to m on ey , an d th e
c h an ge of th e m on ey b ack a gai n i n to c omm od i ti es ; or s elli n g i n
or d er to b u B u t l n g s i d e of t h i s for m w e fi n d a n oth er
y a o .

s eci fi c ally d i ffer en t for m : M C— M th e tr a n s for m a ti on of

—
p ,

m on ey i n to c om m odi ti es an d th e c h an ge of com m od i ti es b ac k ,

a ga i n i n to m on e
y ; or b u y i n g i n or d er to s ell M on e y t h a t .

c i r c ulates i n th e latter m an n er i s th er eby tr a n s for m ed i n to b e ,

c om es c a i t l an d is alr ea d y oten ti ally ca i ta l

p a , p p .

No w let u s e x am i n e th e c i r cui t M — C— a li ttle clos er M . It

c on s i s ts , li k e th e oth er of tw o a n ti th eti cal ph as es,
In th e fi r s t .

p h a s e, M — C or th e u r ch as e th e m on e i s ch a n g ed i n to a com
, p y
m odi ty . In th e s ec on d pha s e, C — , or t
h e s ale th e c om m odi ty M ,

is ch an g ed b a c k a g a i n bi n ati on of th es e i n to m on ey . Th e com

t w o ph a s es c on s ti tutes th e s i n gle m ov em en t w h er eby m on ey i s

e x ch a n g ed for a com m od i t n d th m m m d i t i g i
y a e s a e co o y s a a n ,

ch a n ged for m on e
y; w h e r eb y a c om m od i ty i s b o ug h t i n o r d e r

to b e s old or n eglec ti n g th e d i s ti n c ti on i n for m b etw e en b u i n g

, ,
y
a n d s elli n g w h e eb m m d i t i b g h t w i th m d
y a c o o
y
, s ou r o n e
y a n ,

t h en m on ey i s b ough t w i th a com m od i ty Th e r es u lt i n w h i ch .
1
,

th e ph a es of th e pr oc es s v an i s h i s th e ex ch an g e of m on e for
s
y ,

m on ey M— M If I p u r ch as e 2 000 lb s of cotton for £ 1 00 a n d

, . .
,

r es ell th e 2 000 lb s of c ot ton for £ 1 1 0 I h a v e i n fa c t ex ch a n g ed

.
, , ,

£ 1 00 for £ 1 1 0, m on ey for m on ey .

Now i t is ev i d en t th at th e ci r c ui t M C M w ould b e
— —
a b s ur d an d w i th ou t m ea n i n g i f th e i n ten ti on w er e to e x ch a n g e
b y t hi s m ean s tw o equ al s um s of m on e , £ 1 00 for £ 1 00 Th e
y .

m i s er s plan w ould b e far s i m pler a n d s ur er ; h e s ti ck s to h i s

’

£ 1 00 i n s tea d of ex pos i n g i t to th e d a n g er s of ci r c u lati on An d .

e
y ,t w h eth er th e m er c h an t w h o h as
p a i d £ 1 00 fo r hi s c ott on

1 “
Av c e l rg nt
de ch et d m rch ndis s t v c
’
a e on a e es a a e , e a e d es m rch n di s s
a a e on
ach et e de l rg nt ( M rci r d l Rivi r
’
a e . L d n t ur l e e e a e e
’
or re a e et e ss nti l d s ciétés
e e es o

p litiq s ”
o ue , p .
 6 Capi ta li s t P r od n oz i on
‘
1 2 .

b ack a g ai n . Th e m on ey th er efor e i s , ,
n ot s en t,
p i t i s m er ely
a d van ced
ll
.

In th e ci r c u i t C — M— C th e
~

,
s am e
p i ec e of m on ey ch a n ges
i ts pla c e t w i ce Th e s eller g ets i t fr om th e b uy er a n d pay s i t
.

a w a y to a n oth er s eller Th e c om plete ci r culati on w hi ch b eg i n s .

,

w i th th e r ec ei t,
p c on clu d es w i th th e pay m en t, of m on ey for
c om m od i ti es . It i s th e ver y con tr ar y i n th e c i r c ui t — C — M M .

Her e i t i s th e pi ece
n ot of m on e
y th a t ch a n es i ts
pla c e tw i ce, g
b ut th e c om m od i ty Th e . b uy er ta k es i t fr om th e h an d s of

th e s eller a n d p a s s e buy er J us t
s i t i n to t he h a n d s of a n oth er .

a s i n th e s i m ple c i c ula ti on of c omm od i ti es th e d o ub le c h an g e

r

o f place of th e s am e pi ece of m on ey efl ec ts i ts pas s a g e fr om on e

'

h an d i n to a n oth er s o h er e th e d ou ble c h an ge of plac e of th e

,

s a m e c om m od i ty b r i n g s a b out th e r efl ux of t he m on ey to i ts

p oi n t of d epa r tur e .

S u ch re fl ux is n ot d epen d en t on th e bei n g s old

c om m od i ty

for m or e th an w a s pai d for i t . T h i s ci r c u m s ta n c e i n fl u en c es

o n ly th e a m ou n t of th e m on ey th a t c om es b ack Th e r efl u x .

i ts elf ta k es pla c e, s o s oon a s th e pur ch as ed c om m odi ty i s r e

l
so d i n ,
h
ot e r r h i
w o d s s o s oon a s t e c r c tu i M — C Mi s c om
— ,

p leted W e h a
. v e h er e, th er e for e, a a l a b le d i ffer en ce b et w een
p p
t h e ci r cula ti on of m on ey as c a pi tal, a n d i ts c i r c ula ti on as m er e
m on ey .

Th e ci r cu i t C— M— C com es c om pletely to an en d , s o s oon

as th e m on ey b l ough t i n b y th e s ale of on e c om m od i ty is
a b s tr a c ted a g a i n b
y th e
p u r c h as e of a n oth er .

If, ne ver th eles s fl ux of m on ey to i ts s tar t

,
th er e follow s a re

in
g p oi n t th i s c a n o n ly h a
, pp en th r ou g h a r en ew a l o r r ep eti
ti on of th e op er a ti on If I s ell a quar ter of c or n for £ 3 a n d .
,

w i th th i s £ 3 b uy cloth es th e m on ey s o fa r a s I a m c on c er n ed , , ,

i s s p en t a n d d on e w i th It b elon gs t o th e cloth es m er c h a n t . .

If I n ow s ell a s ec on d q uar ter of cor n m on ey i n d eed fl ow s ,

b a ck to m e n ot h ow ev er a s a sequ el to th e fi r s t tr an s a cti on
, ,

b u t i n con s eq u en ce of i ts r epeti ti on Th e m on ey a gai n lea v es .

mplete th i s s ec on d tr an s acti on b y a fr es h
,

m e s o s oon a s I c o
,

1 Wh n thing is b ght in rd r t b s ld g in th m mpl y d is c ll d

e a ou o e o e o a a , e su e o e a e

m n y dv nc d wh n it is b ght t t b s ld it m y b s id t b xp nd d
o e a a e e ou no o e o , a e a o ee e e .
”

( J m s St rt W rks & Edit d by G Si J m s St u rt h i L nd ”

a e eua o , c. e en . r a e e a ,
s s on o ,
. .

1 805 . V . I.
, p .
 Tli e Gen er a ! F or m u la f Cap i i d i ‘
or . 1 2 7

p u r c h as e . T her efor e i n th e ,
c i r c ui t C — M C th e ex pen di tur e
— ,

of m on ey h as On th e oth er
n oth i n g to d o w i th i t s re fl ux .

h an d i M C M th e r efl u x of th e m on ey i s c on d i ti on ed b y
n — ,
-
,

th e v er y m od e of i ts ex p en d i tur e W i th out th i s r eflux, th e .

oper a ti on fa i ls , or th e pr oces s i s i n ter r u pted a n d i n com plete,

ow i n g to th e a b s en ce of i ts c om plem en tar y a n d fi n al ph as e th e ,

s a le .

Th e ci r cu i t —
C M C
— s ta r ts w i th on e c omm od i ty , an d

fini s h es w i th a n oth er , w h i c h falls o ut of c i r c ula ti on an d i n to

c on s um p ti on . C on s um pti on ,
th e s a ti s fa c ti on of w a n ts , i n on e

w or d , us e -
va lue ,
i s i ts en d a n d ai m . Th e c i r c ui t M— O— M ,

on th e c on tr a r y , c om m en ces w i th m on ey a n d en d s w i th m on ey .

Its lea d i n g m oti v e, an d th e g oal th at a ttr a c ts i t, i s th er efor e

m er e e x chan g e va lu
In th e s i m ple c i r cu la ti on of com m od i ti es , th e tw o x tr em es of e

th e ci r c ui t h av e th e s am e econ om i c for m . T h ey ar e b oth com

m od i ti es , an d c omm odi ti es of e qu al v a lu e . Bu t th ey a r e a ls o

us e -
va lues d i ffer i n g i n th ei r q uali ti es ,
as , for e x am ple ,
cor n a n d

c lo th es . Th e x ch an ge of pr od ucts of th e d iffer en t m ater i als i n

e ,

w h i c h th e la b our of s oci ety i s em b od i ed for m s h er e th e b as i s ,

of th e m ov em en t . It i s oth er w i s e i n th e c i r c ula ti on M C
— — M ,

w hi c h gh t a ppear s pur pos eles s b ecaus e tautologi cal

at fir s t si , .

B oth ex tr em es h av e the s am e econ om i c for m Th ey ar e b oth .

m on ey a n d t h er efor e ar e n ot quali tati v ely d iffer en t u s e v alu es

,
-

for m on ey i s b ut th e c on v er ted for m of com m od i ti es i n w h i ch ,

th ei r p ar ti cu la r u s e v alues v a n i s h To ex c h an g e £ 1 00 for -
.

c otton a n d th en thi s s am e c otton a g a i n for £ 1 00 i s m er el a

, y ,

r ou n d a b ou t w a
y o f ex ch a n gi n g m on e
y for m on ey th e s a me for ,

t h e s am e a n d a ppear s to b e a n O per a ti on j u s t as pu r pos eles s as

,

i t i s a bs u r d On e s u m of m oney i s d i s ti n g u i s h able fr om a n oth er

.
1

1 On é h g p d l rg nt t d l rg nt s ys M rci r d l Ri x t
n
’
c an e as e
’
a e cen r e e
’
a e , a e e e a v er e o

t h M rc ntili ts ( l
e e a
p In w rk which
s x p r f ss tr ts f tr d
. c. , .d a o , , e o e o, ea o a e an

s p c l ti n ccurs th f ll wing All tr d c nsists in th xch ng f things

e u a o ,
”
o e o o a e o e e a e o

o f di ff r nt kinds ;e e d th dv nt g ( t t h m rch nt ris s ut f thi s

an e a a a e o e e a a e o o

d i ff r nc
e e T xch ng p u d f br d g inst p und f br d
e. o e a e a o n o ea a a a o o ea

w ld b tt nd d with
ou e a dv t g ; e H nc tr d is dv nt g sly
e no a an a e e e a e a a a eou

co ntr st d with g mbling which c nsists in m r xch ng f m n y f m n y

a e a , o a e e e a e o o e or o e .

( Th C rb t
. An Inq iry int th C s s d M d s f th W lth f Indivi du ls
o e , u o e au e an o e o e ea o a

th Princi pl s f Tr d d S p c ul ti n xpl in d L nd n 1 841 p Alth gh ”

or e e o a e an e a o e a e . o o , , . ou

C rb t d
o e t th t M— M th xch ng f m n y f m n y is th ch r ct ristic
oes n o s ee a , ee a eo o e or o e , e a a e
 C op i ed /i d P r od uct i on .

on l b
y y i ts a m ou n t T h e c h a r a c ter a n d t en d en c
y o f t h e p ro .

c es s — C— M M
i s th er efor e n ot d u e to a n y q uali ta ti v e d i ffer en ce
,

b etw een i ts extr em es b oth b ei n g m on ey b u t s olely to th ei r , ,

quan ti ta ti v e d i ffer en ce Mor e m on ey i s wi th d r a w n fr om ci r cula .

ti on a t th e fi n i s h th an w a s th r ow n i n to i t a t th e s tar t Th e .

c otton th a t w a s b oug h t for £ 1 00 i s r h a s r es old for £ 1 00

p e
p
£ 1 0 or £ 1 1 0 Th e ex a c t fo m of thi s pr oces s i s th er efor e M
. r

C M w h er e M
— M A M th e o i gi n al s um a d van ced
’ '
r: r ,
,

p lu s a n i n c r em en t T h i s i n c r em en t or ex ces s ov er th e or i g in a l
.

”
valu e I call s ur plus v alue Th e v alue or i gi n ally a d van ced -
.
,

th er efor e, n ot on ly r em ai n s i n ta c t w h i le i n ci r c ula ti on , b ut ad d s
to i ts elf lu s va lu e or ex a n d s i ts elf
a s ur It i s t hi s m ov em en t
p p
-
.

th a t c on v er ts i t i n to c a pi tal .

Of c o u r s e, it is a ls o p os s i ble ,
th a t i n C— M — O th e t w o
,

x
e t er m e s —
C C s ay c or n a n d c loth es m ay r epr es en t d i ffer en t
, ,

qu an ti ti es of v a lue Th e fa r m er m ay s ell h i s c or n a b ov e i ts .

v a lu e or m ay b uy th e c loth es at les s th an thei r v alue He

,
.

m ay , on th e oth er h an d , “
b e d on e b y the c loth es m er ch an t .

Yet i n th e for m
,
of c i r c u la ti on n ow u n d er c ons i d er ati on , s u ch

d i ffer en ces i n v a lu e a r e
p u r ely a c ci d en tal . Th e fa ct th a t th e
c or n a n d th e c loth es a r e e qu i valen ts ,
d oes n ot d epr i v e th e pr o
c es s o f a ll m ea n i n g ,
as i t d oes i n M — O— M . Th e eq ui v alen c e
of th ei r values is r ath er a n eces s ar y c on d i ti on to i ts n or m al

c o ur s e .

Th e r ep eti ti on or r e n e w al of th e a c t of s elli n g in or d er to
b uy i s ,
k ept w i th i n b oun d s b y th e v er y bj ect i t ai m s
o at,

n a m ely , c on s um pti on or th e s a ti s fa c ti on of d efi n i te w a n ts ,
an

ai m t h a t li es a lto g eth er ou ts i d e th e s ph er e of c i r c ula ti on . But

w h en w e b u
y i n or d er to s ell, w e, on th e c on tr a r y , b egi n a nd

fo rm f circ l ti
o t nl y f m rch nts c pit l b t f ll c p it l y t t l st h
u a on , n o o o e a
’
a a u o a a a , e a ea e

a ckn wl dg s th t this f rm is c mm n t g mbling d t

o e e a sp ci s f tr d i o o o o a an o on e e e o a e, v z .
,

sp c l ti n b t th n c m s M C ll h d m k s ut th t t b y in rd r t s ll
e u a o u e o e ac u oc an a e o , a o u o e o e ,

is t s p c l t
o d th s th diff r nc b tw n S p c l ti n
e u a e, an d Tr d v ni h s
u e e e e e ee e u a o an a e a s e .

Ev ry tr ns cti n in which i ndividu l buys pr d c in rd r t s ll it g i n is

e a a o an a o u e o e o e a a , ,

in f ct sp cul ti n ( M C ll h A Dicti n ry Pr ctic l & f C mm rc

a , a e a o .
”
ac u oc o a a a , c .
, o o e e
.
”

L nd 1 847 p
o .
, With m uch m r n i v te Pint th Pind r f th A mst r
, . o e a e , o, e a o e e

d m St ck Exch ng r m rks
a o L c mm rc t aj u ( t k n fr m L ck ) t
e, e a , e o e e es nu e a e o o e e cc

n st p v c l gu x qu n p t g gn r Si l g gn it l ng t mp s t ut v c
’
e as a e ( es eu
’
o eu a e .
’
on a a o -
e en o a e

t s i l f dr it r ndr d b cc rd l pl us gr nd s p rti s d u pr fit p r
ou , au a e e me on a o es a e a e o ou r ec o

m nc r l j
e e ( Pi nt Tr ité d l Circul ti n t d u C edi t Amst rd m 1 771
e eu .
”
o : a e a a o e r .
”
e a , ,

p .
 Cop i ed /i nf P r od uci i on .

As th e c on s c i ou s r epr es en tati ve of thi s m ov em en t ,

th e

p os s es s or of m on ey b ecom es a c api tali s t . Hi s per s on ,

o r r ath e r

h i s p oc k et i s th e p oi n t fr om w h i c h th e m on ey s tar t s a n d to
,

w h i c h i t r etur n s Th e ex pa n s i on of v alu e, w h i ch i s th e .

obj ec v e b
ti as i s or m a n s p n g of th e c i r c ulati on
i r i — C — -
M M ,

b ec om es hi s s ubj ec ti ve ai m , an d i t i s only i n s o far a s th e

a
pp p ro v er m or e r i ati on
a n d m or e w ea lth i n t h e a b s of
tr a c t e

b ec om es th e s ole m oti v e of h i s oper a ti on s th at h e fun c ti on s a s ,

a c a pi tali s t th a t i s as ca i tal er s on i fi ed a n d en d ow ed w i th
p p , ,

c on s ci ou s n es s an d a w i ll Us e v alu es m us t th er efor e n ev e .
-
r

b e look ed u pon a s th e r eal a i m of th e ca pi tali s t ; n ei th e 1

r

m us t th e pr ofi t on a n y s i n gle tr a n s acti on Th e r es tles s n ev er .

en d in g pr oces s of r ofi t m a k i n g alon e i s w h a t h e a i m s a t
?
p
-

t h t n c ss ry t xi st nc
a ar e d u s ful ith r t
e e h us h ld th st t
a o e Tr e e, a n e e e o a o e o or e a e . ue

w lth ( 5 am en Wk fi ) c nsists f s ch v l s in u ; f th q ntity f p

ea . o
'
r og o o u a ue se or e ua o os

se ssi ns f this kind c p bl f m ki ng lif pl s nt is t nlimit d Th r is

o o , a a e o a e ea a , no u e . e e ,

h w v r s c nd m d f cq iring things t which w m y by p r f r nc

o e e , a e o o d e o a u , o e a e e e e an

with c rr ctn ss giv th n m f Chr m tistic d in this c s th r pp r t b

o e e e e a e o e a , an a e e e a ea o e

no limits t rich s d p ss ssi ns Tr d ( 5 w xm h is lit r lly r t il tr d

o e an d o e o . a e xa n e a e a a e, a n

A ist tl t k s this kind b

r o eus in it v l u s in u p r d min t ) d s t in its
a e ec a e a e se e o a e oe no

n t r b l ng t Chr m tistic f h r th xch ng h r f r nc nly t wh t is

a u e e o o e a ,
or e e e e a e as e e e e o o a

n c ss ry t th ms lv s ( th b y r s ll r ) Th r f r
e e a o e h g s
e t sh w e e u e or e e
”
e e o e, a s e oe on o o ,

th rigin l f rm f tr d w b rt r b t with th xt nsi n f th l tt r th r

e o a o o a e as a e , u e e e o o e a e ,
e e

r s th n c ssity f m n y On th disc v ry f m n y b rt r f n c ssity d

a o e e e e or o e . e o e o o e , a e o e e e

l p d int int tr ding in c mm diti s d this g in in pp siti n t ‘

ve o w efi m o x z n u v, o a o o e , an a a ,
o o o o

its rigin l t nd ncy gr w int Chr m tistic int th t f m ki g m n y N w

o a e e , e o e a ,
o e ar o a n o e . o

Chr m tistic is disting ish bl fr m ( Ec n mic in this w y th t i th c s f

e a u a e o o o a , a
“
n e a e o

Chr m tistic circ l ti n i th s urc f rich ( mfl h xp / i

e a ,
u a 3 } o s e o e o es ar o x n Ao r w v
‘
4a

xp p t B fi kz )
n cc '
r And it pp rs t r v lv b ut m n y f m n y is th b
wv ia o g . a ea o e o e a o o e , or o e e e

ginning d d f this ki d f xch ng ( 3 y dp i p p

an en o x2 l W ip 3 n o e a e 7 v er o
'
a 0 7 01 2 01! x ac a; 7 7 ;
1

’
ac kh y j a Th r f r ls rich s such
’

v; C h r m ti stic striv s f e e o eu a o e , as e a e or , ar e n

limit d J st v ry t th t is t m ns t
e . u d b t
as e d in its l f h
e ar a no a ea o a n en ,
u an en e , as

no limit t its ims b c s it s ks c nst ntly t pp r ch n r r d n r r t

o a ,
e au e ee o a o a oa ea e an ea e o

th t d whil th s rts th t p rs m ns t
a en , e d t b ndl ss sinc
o e a a u ue ea o an en ,
ar e no ou e , e

th g el its l f imp s s limit p n th m with Chr m tistic th r

oa e o e b nds a u o e , so e a , e e ar e no ou

t its ims th s
o a ims b ing bs l t w lth ( Ec n mic t Chr m tistic h
, e e a e a o u e ea . o o no e a as a

limit th bj ct f th f rm r is s m thing diff r nt fr m m n y f th

e o e o e o e o e e e o o e ,
o e

l tt r th
a e g m nt ti n f m n y
e au By c nf unding th s tw f rms which
e a o o o e o o e e o o ,

o v rl p ch th r s m p pl h v b n l d t l k p n th pr s rv ti n d
e a ea o e ,
o e eo e a e ee e o oo u o e e e a o an

i ncr s f m n y d i fi it m
ea e o th d d i m f ( Ec n mic
o e a ( A ist t l s Dn n u as e en an a o o o . r o e e e

R p dit B kk r lib I c 8 9 p ssim )

e . e . e e . . . .
, . a .

C mm diti s ( h r us d in th s ns f v l s )
1 “ o o e t th t rmin ting bj t
e e e e e e o us e -
a ue ar e n o e e a o ec

f th tr di g c pit list m n y is his t rmin ting bj ct ( Th Ch lm rs On P l

”
o e a n a a , o e e a o e . . a e ,
o .

Ec n & 2 d Ed Gl sg w 1 83 2 p 1 6 5
o . c .
,
n .
, a o , , .
,

I1 m rc nt c nt q si p ni nt i l l cr f tt m mir s mpr l f t r ’
e a e n on o a ua er e e u o a o, a a e ea u u e .

( A G n v si L zi ni di Ec n mi Civil Cu t di dit f It li n Ec n mists ’

. e o e , e o o o a e s o s e . o a a o o .

P rt M d rn t viii p
a e o e a . . .
 T/ze Gen er a l F or m u la f or Cap i z ul ‘
. 1 3 1

T hi s b oun d les s gr eed a fter r i ch es thi s pa s s i on ate ch a s e a fter ,

ex c h a n g e v a lu e i s c om m on to th e c a i ta li s t a n d th e m i s er ;
1
p
-
,

b ut w hi le t he m i s er i s m e ely a ca pi ta li s t g on e m a d th e r ,

c a i tali s t i s a r a ti on al m i s er
p T h e n ev e r en d i n g a u g m en ta ti on .
-

of ex c h a n g e v a lu e w hi ch th e m i s er s tr i v es a fter b s eek i n g to
y
-
, ,

s av e hi s m on e f r om c i r cu lati on i s a ttai n ed b h m
3
t or e a c u te
’

e
y y ,

c a i tali s t b l h i n g i t a fr es h i n to c i r c u la ti on
?
p y c on s t a n t y t ,
o w r

Th e i n d epen d en t for m i e th e m on ey for m w h i ch th e v alu e , . .

,
-
,

of com m o d i ti es a s s u m es i n th e cas e of s i m le c i r c ula ti on s er v es

p ,

onl ne u r os e n a m el t h ei r e x c h a n g e a n d v a n i s h es i n t h e
y o
p p y , , ,

fi n a l es ult of th e m ov em en t On th e oth er h an d i n th e ci r cula

r .
,

ti on M — C— M b oth th e m on e a n d th e com m od i t r e r es en t
y , y p
on ly d i ffer en t m od es of ex i s ten ce of v a lu e i ts elf th e m on e i t
y s ,

g en er al m od e a n d th e com m od i ty i ts par ti c ular or s o to s ay

, , , ,

di s g ui s ed m od e It i s c on s tan tly ch an gi n g f om on e for m to

.
4
r

th e oth er w i th out th er eby b ec om i n g los t a n d t hu s a s s u m es a n ,

a u tom ati call a c ti v e c h a r ac ter If n ow w e t a k e i n tu r n ea c h

y .

of th e tw o d i ffe en t for m s w hi c h s elf ex a n d i n g v a lu e s u c

p r -

c es s i v el u m i n t h u r s e of i ts li fe w e th en a r r i v e a t
y a s s e s e c o ,

t h es e tw o pr opos i ti on s : C a pi t al i s m on ey Ca pi tal i s c om
m od i ti es 5
In tr uth , h ow e er , a lue i s h er e th e a c ti e fa c tor i n
. v v v
a p r oces s , i n w h i ch , w h i le c on s tan tly a s s um i n g th e for m i n tu r n
of m on e
y an d com m od i ti es , it at th e g es i n s am e ti m e c h an

m ag n i tu d e, d i ffer en ti ates i ts elf b y th r ow i n g off s ur plus v alu e -

fr om i ts elf ; th e or i gin al valu e ,

i n oth er w or d s ex pa n d s s pon ,

tan eou s ly . F or th e m ov em en t i n th e cou r s e of w hi c h i t a dd s ,

s ur
p lu s v alue ,
is i ts ow n m ov em en t i ts ex p an s i on th er efor e i s , , ,

1 “
Th e in xtinguish bl
ssi n f g in th
e ri s cr f m s will lw ys l d
a e pa o or a , e au a a a e ,
a a ea

c pit lists (M C ll h
a a . rincipl s f P li t Ec n L nd n 1 830 p
”
ac u oc This: Th e p e o o . o .
”
o o , ,
.

i w f c urs d s t p r v nt th s m M C ll h d th rs f h i kidn y
v e , o o e, oe no e e e a e ac u oc an o e o s e ,

w h n in th e r tic l diffic ulti s s uch f x mpl

eo e th q
a sti n f v r pr d cti n e , , or e a e, a s e ue o o o e -
o u o ,

fr m tr ns f rmi ng th s m c p it list int

o a o m r l citiz n wh s s l c nc rn is f
e a e a a o a o a e ,
o e o e o e or

us e v l s d w h v n d v l p s ins ti b l hung r f b ts h ts ggs c lic

-
a ue , an o e e e e o e an a a e e or oo ,
a ,
e , a o,

an d th r xtr m ly f mili r s rts f

o e e vl s e e a a o o u s e- a ue .

Ed g
2 is ch r ct ristic G r k xpr ssi n f h rding S in E glish t s v
e“: a a a e ee e e o or oa . o n o a e

has th s m t w m nings
e a s uv r d é p rgn r
e o ea a e an a e .

Q u st i fi i t h l c s
3 e oh nn in pr gr ss h nn in gir ( G li i )
n n o c e e o e n on a o o e o, a o o . a an

C n st p l m ti er q i f it l c p it l m is l v le r d (J
”
m ti é
’
4 e e as a a e u a e a a a a a u e c es a r es . .
,

B S y Tr ité d l E
. a P lit 3 em éd P ris 1 81 7 t
“
a e
’
p c on . o .
”
e. . a , , . .

C urr ncy ( l) mpl y d in p r d cing rticl s

5 “ e is c pit l ( M L d Th
e o e o u a e a a .
”
ac eo

Th ry d Pr ctic f B nking L nd n 1 855

eo an a ch i p
e o C pit l is m
a .
”
o o , , v . . .
, . a a co

( J m s Mill El m nts f P l Ec L nd 1 821 p

” “ ”
m d i ti
o es . a e : e e o o . on . o .
, , .
1 3 2 Cup i lcz li s l P r od ucl zon .

a u tom ati c e xpan s i on B ecau s e i t i s v alu e i t h as ac qui r ed th e

.
,

oc c u lt qu a li ty of b ei n g a b le to a d d v a lu e to i ts elf It b r i n gs .

for th li vi n g offs pr i n g or a t th e lea s t lay s g old en egg s , , ,

.

V alu e th er efor e b ei n g th e a c ti v e fa c tor i n s u ch a pr oc es s

, , ,

a n d a s s um i n g a t on e ti m e t h e for m of m on ey a t a n oth er th a t ,

of c om m o d i ti es b ut th r ou g h a ll th es e c h an g es pr es er v i n g i ts elf
,

a n d e xpa n d i n g i t r equ i r es s om e i n d ep en d en t for m b y m ea n s of

, ,

w h i ch i ts i d en ti ty m ay a t a n y ti m e b e es tab li s h ed An d thi s .

for m i t p os s es s es on ly i n th e s h a pe of m on ey . It i s u n d er th e
for m of m on ey th at v alu e b egi n s an d en d s , an d b egi n s agai n ,

e v er y a c t of i ts ow n s pon tan eou s gen er a ti on . It b eg an b y

b ei n g £ 1 00 i t i s n ow £ 1 1 0 a n d s o on But th e m on ey i ts elf
, , .

i s on ly on e of th e tw o for m s of v alue U n les s i t tak es t he for m .

of s om e c omm od i ty i t d oes n ot b ec om e c api tal ,

T h er e i s h er e .

n o a n ta g on i s m a s i n th e cas e of h oa d i n g b et w e e n th e m on ey
,
r ,

a n d com m od i ti es Th e c api ta li s t k n ow s th a t all c om m od i ti es

.
,

h ow ev er s c ur vy th ey m ay look or h ow ev e b a dly th ey m ay ,
r

s m ell, a r e i n fa i th and i n tr uth m on ey ,

i n w ar d ly c i r c um c i s ed

J ew s ,
an d w h at i s m or e, a w on d er ful m ean s w h er e y b ou t of

m on ey to m ak e m or e m on ey .

In sim
ple c i r c ula ti on , O— M— O, th e v alue of c omm od i ti es

a ttai n ed at th e m os t a for m i n d epen d en t of th ei r us e -

v alues ,
i . e
.
,

th e for m of m on ey b ut th a t s am e va lu e n ow i n th e c i r c u la ti on

M— C— M o ,
r th e c i r c u la ti on of c a
p i t al, s u d d en l
y p r es en ts i ts elf
as an i n d ep en d en t su b s ta n ce ,
en d ow ed w i th a m oti on of i ts own ,

pa ssin g th r ough a li fe pr oces s of i ts ow n i n w h i ch m on ey an d

-
,

c om m od i ti es a r e m er e for m s w h i ch i t a s s um es a n d c as ts off i n
tu r n . Nay ,
m or e : i n s tea d g th e r ela ti ons of s i m ply r epr es en ti n

of c om m od i ti es i t en t er s n ow s o to s a i n to r i v a te r ela ti on s
, y p , ,

w i th i ts elf It d iffer en ti a tes i ts elf as or i g i n al v alu e fr om i ts elf

.

a s s u r plu s v a lu e as t h e fa th er d i ffer en ti a tes h i m s elf fr om h i m s elf

-

q u a th e s on y e t b oth a r e on e a n d of on e a e : for on l b
, g y y th e s u r
p lu s

valu e of £ 1 0 d oes th e £ 1 00 or i gi nally a d van ced b ec om e capi ta l ,

a n d s o s oon a s th i s ta k es la c e s o s oon a s th e s on a n d b t h
p y e , ,

s on th e fa th er i s b eg otten s o s oon d oes th ei r d i ffer en ce v a n i s h

, , , ,

a n d th e a g a i n b ec om e on e £ 1 1 0
y , .

Va lue th er efor e n ow b ecom es v alu e i n pr oces s m on ey i n p r o ,

c es s , a n d , as s uc h, ca i t l It c om es ou t of c i r c u la ti on , en ter s
p a .
 Cap z la li s l P r od u cz i on
‘
1 34 .

b ut a s a s i m ple ow n er Of c om m od i ti es , I s ell th em to B an d th en

p u r c h a se fr es h on es fr om A A a n d B s ee no d i ffer en c e
b et w een th e t w o s ets Of tr a n s acti on s . T h ey ar e m er ely buy er s
or s eller s . An d I on eac h oc c as i on m eet th em as a m er e ow n er

Of e i th er m on ey or c om m o di ti es , a s b uy er or a a s eller , a n d ,

w h a t i s m or e, i n b oth s ets Of tr a n s a c ti on s I a m ,
opp os ed to A
on ly as a b uy er an d to B on ly a s a s eller , t o th e on e on ly as

m on ey , to th e oth er on ly as com m od i ti es , a n d to n ei th er Of

th em as c api tal or a ca pi tali s t, or a s r epr es en ta t i ve Of a ny th i n g

th at i s m or e th an m on ey or c om m od i t i es , or th a t ca n r od u c e
p
an
y effec t b ey on d w h a t m on ey an d c omm od i ti es c an . F or m e
th e p ur c h a s e fr om A an d th e s a le to B ar e p a rt Of a s er i es .

But t h e c on n e i on x b etw een th e tw o a c ts e x i s ts for m e alon e .

A d oes n ot b
tr ou le hi m s elf a b out
B n or m y tr a n s a cti on w i th ,

d oes B ab ou t m y b us i n es s w i th A An d i f I O ffer ed to ex plai n .

to th em th e m er i tor i ou s n atur e Of m y a c ti on i n i n v er ti n g th e
or d er Of s u cc es s i on th ey w ou ld pr ob a b ly i n t out to m e th at
, p o

I w as m i s tak en as to th at or d er of s ucces s i on a n d th at th e ,

w h ole tr a n s a c ti on i n s tea d Of b eg i n n i n g w i th a pu r ch a s e a n d
,

en d i n g w i th a s ale b ega n on th e c on t a r y w i th a s ale a n d w a s

, ,
r ,

c on clu d ed w i th a
p u r c h as e In tr uth m
y fi r s t a c t th e
.
p u r ch a s e , , ,

w a s fr om th e s ta n d
p oi n t Of A ,
a s a le, a n d my s ec on d a c t, th e
s ale, w a s fr om th e s ta n d
p oi n t Of B ,
a
p u r ch a s e . Not c on ten t

w i th th at, A an d B w o uld d ecla r e th at th e w h ole s er i es w as

su
per fl uou s a n d n oth i n g b u t Hok u s F ok u s th at for th e futur e
A w ould b uy d i r ect fr om B ,
an d B s ell d i r ec t t o A . T h u s th e
w h ole tr an s ac ti on w ou ld b e r ed u c ed to a si n gle a c t for m i n g an

i s ola ted , n on c om plem en ted

-

p h a s e i n th e o r d i n a r
y c i r c u la ti on

Of c omm od i ti es , a m er e s ale fr om A s oi n t Of v i ew , an d fr om
’

p
B s , a m er e p u r c h a s e Th e i n v er s i on , th er efor e of th e or d er Of
’
.
,

s u c c es s i on , d oes n ot ta k e us ou ts i d e
p h th e
er e Of th e s i m le
s p
c i r c ula ti on Of c om m od i t i es , a n d we m us t r a th er look , w h eth er
th er e i s i n th i s si m le c i r c ula ti on an thi n g r m i tti n g an ex
p y p e

p a n s i on
“

of th e v a lue t ha t en ter s i n to ci r cu la ti on , a n d c on ,

se qu en tly ,
a c r ea ti on of s u r plu s -
va lue .

Let ta k e th e pr oces s of c i r c ula ti on i n a for m un d er w hi ch

us

i t pr es en ts i ts elf a s a s i m ple a n d d i r ec t ex c h an ge of c om m od i ti es .

Thi s i s a lw ay s th e c as e w h en tw o ow n er s Of comm od i ti es b uy
 Con lr a d i cl i ons i n llz e F or m ula f
o Cup i r a l ‘
. 1 35

fr om ea ch oth er , a n d on th e s ettli n g d a y th e a m oun ts m u t ually

ow i n g ar e e q ual an d c an c el eac h oth er Th e m on ey i n thi s
.

c as e i s m on ey Of ac c ou n t a n d s er v es to ex pr es s th e v alu e Of th e
c om m od i ti es b y t hei r p r i c es b ut i s n ot, i ts elf i n th e s h a e Of
,
p ,

h a r d c as h con fr on ted w i th th em, SO far a s r eg ar d s us e .

-
values ,

i t i s clear th at b oth pa r ti es m ay g ai n s om e a d v a n tag e . B oth

pa rt g ood s th a t a s u s e v a lu es ar e Of n o s er vi ce to th em
w i th ,
-
, ,

a n d r ec ei v e oth er s th a t th e a n m k u f A d t h m
y c a e s e o n er e a y .

a ls o b e a fur th er g a i n A w h o s ells w i n e a n d b uy s c or n
’

.
, ,

s s i bl r o d u c es m or e w i n e w i th g i v n l b t i m t h
p o
y p e a ou r e a n , ,

far m er B c ould a n d B on th e oth er h an d m or e cor n th an , , ,

w i n e gr ow er A c ou ld
-
A th er efor e m ay get for th e s am e .
, , ,

ex c h a n g e v a lu e m or e c or n an d B m or e w i n e th an each w ould
, , ,

r es p ec ti v el t w i th u t n x h n g e b r od uc i n g hi s ow n
y g e o a y e c a y p
-

c or n a n d w i n e W i th r efer en ce th er efor e to us e v alue th er e

.
, ,
-
,

i s g ood gr oun d for s ay i n g th a t ex ch an g e i s a tr a n s a c ti on b

y
w h i ch b oth s i d es gai n It i s oth er w i s e w i th ex ch an g e v a lue
” 1
-
. .

A m an w h o h as p len ty Of w in e a n d n o c or n tr eats w i th a m an
w h o h as plen ty Of c or n a n d n o w i n e a n e c h a n e ta es pla c e x g k
bet w een th em of c or n to th e a lu e of 5 0, for w i n e Of t h e s a m e v .

v alue . Th i s a ct
p ro d u c es no i n cr eas e Of e x ch a n g e value -
ei th er

for th e on e or th e oth er for ea c h of th em a lr ea d y

p os s es s ed ,

befor e th e ex ch an ge a v alu e equ al to th at w h i ch h e a cqui r ed ,

” 2
b y m ean s Of th at O p er a ti on Th e r es ult i s n ot a lter ed b y .

i n tr od uci n g m on ey a s a m ed i u m Of c i r cu lati on b etw een th e , ,

c om m od i ti es a n d m a k i n g th e s a le a n d th e ur c h a s e t w o d i s ti n c t
, p
a c ts Th e v alu e Of a c om m od i ty i s ex pr es s ed i n i ts p r i ce
.
3

b efor e i t goes i n to ci r culati on an d i s th er efor e a pr eced en t ,

c on di ti on of c i r c ulati on , n ot i ts r es u lt
4
.

A b s tr acted ly c on s i d er ed , th at i s , a
pa rt fr om c i r c u m s tan ces

n ot i m m ed i a tely fl ow i n g fr om th e la w s Of th e s i m ple c i r c u la ti on

of c om m od i ti es , th er e i s i n an e xch an ge n othi n g ( i f w e ex cept

1 “ L ech ng’
tr ns cti n dmir bl d ns l q ll l d x c ntr ct nts
a e es t un e a a o a a e a a ue e es eu o a a

g gn nt — t j rs
a e ( D t tt d
ou ou Tr cy Tr ité d l V l nté t d
es u ff ts e a a e a o o e e s es e e .
”

P ris 1 826 p
a ,
This w rk pp r d ft rw rds
, . Tr ité d l E P lit o a ea e a e a as a e
’
c on . o .
”

2M rci r d l Rivier l c p 544

e e e a e,
”
. . . .

Q u l n d d x
e v l rs
’
su it rg
e nt q
e c es ll s s i nt t
eu u t s d u x m a eu o a e ,
ou u e
’
e o e o e e ar .

d pl s i d i ffe M rci r lcp ” “ ”

ch di an ll is es u s u e t i (
es , r en d l eR i ié u n r en en s o . e e e a v r e, . . .

4C s nt p l c ntr ct nts q i p r n nc nt u l v l r ll t décidé

e ne o as es o a a u o o e s r a a eu e e es e

av nt l c nv nti n
a a L T o p e o .
”
e r os n e ,
”
.
 Cap i ta li s i P r od u cl i on .

th e l i g Of on e u s e v a lu e b h b m h i
p re
a c n
y a n o t er
) u t a etam or
p os s -
,

\ Ja m er e ch a n g e i n th e for m o f th e c om m od i ty Th e s a m e .

, e x ch an g e valu e i e th e s am e q uan ti ty Of i n cor por a ted s oci a l

,
. .
,

la b ou r r em a i n s th r oug h ou t i n th e h an d s Of th e ow n er of th e
,

c om m od i t
y fi r s t i n t h e s h a e Of h i s ow n c om m od i t
p
, y th e n i n ,

th e for m of th e m on ey for w h i c h h e ex c h a n g ed i t a n d la s tly , ,

i n th e s h a pe of th e comm odi ty h e b uy s w i th th at m on ey .

1‘ T hi s c h a ng e Of for m d oes n o t i m ply a ch an g e i n th e m ag n i tu d e c

Of th e v alu e But th e ch an g e w h i ch th e v alu e of th e

.
,

c om m o di ty u n d er g oes i n t hi s r oces s i s li m i ted to a c h a n g e i n

p ,

i ts m on ey for m T h i s for m exi s ts fi r s t as th e p r i ce Of th e c om

.

O ffer ed for s ale th en a s a n a c tual s u m of m on ey w hi c h , , ,

h ow ev er w as a lr ea d y ex p r es s ed i n th e pr i c e a n d las tly as th e
, , ,

\ i f q u i v l n t m m d i t T h i h g f f m n
p r c e O a n e a e co o
y s c a n e O o r o .

m or e i m pli es tak en a lon e a ch a n g e i n th e q u an ti ty of v alue

, , ,

th a n d oes th e c h an g e Of a £ 5 n ote i n to s ov er ei g n s h a lf s ov e ,

r ei gn s a n d s h i lli ng s SO fa r th er efor e a s th e c i r cu lati on of .

c om m odi ti es effects a c h an g e i n th e for m alon e of t h ei r v a lu es ,

a n d i s fr ee fr om d i s tu r b i n g i n fl u en ces i t m u s t b e t h e e x c h a n ge ,

Of equ i v a len ts L i ttle a s Vulg ar E c on om y k n ow s a b ou t th e

.
-

n a tu r e of v a lu e t w h n v i t w i s h es t o o n i d th
y e e e e r ,
c s er e

p h en om en a Of c i r c u la ti on i n th ei r
p u r i ty i t as s u m es th a t s u l
pp y ,

a n d d em a n d a r e eq u al, w h i c h a m oun ts t o th i s , th a t th ei r effec t

is nil . If th er efor e, as r e a r d s g th e us e valu es exch an ged b oth

-
,

buy er a n d s eller m ay pos s i bly g ai n s om e thi n g thi s i s n ot t h e ,

ca s e a s r eg a r d s th e ex c h an g e v alues . H er e w e m us t r at h er s a
y ,

“
W h er e equ ali ty ex i s ts th er e can be g ai n no .
” 1
It i s tr ue ,

c om m od i ti es m ay b e s old a t p r i ces d ev i a ti n g fr om th ei r va lu es ,

b u t th es e d ev i a ti on s ar e to be c on s i d er ed as i n fr ac ti on s of th e
la w s x ch an ge Of com m od i ti es w h i ch i n i ts n or m al
Of th e e ,

s ta te i s a n ex c h a n g e Of e q u i v a len ts con s equ en tl n m th d

y o e o , ,

for i n c r ea s i n g v alu e .
3

H en ce w e s ee th at b eh i n d a ll a tt em pts to r epr es en t th e
,

D v e gu li ta
1 “ o e l cr
e ( G li i
e D ll M n t in C ust di P rt
a n on u o
.
”
a an , e a o e a o , a e

M d rn t iv p
o e a,
”
. . .

L e h g d vi nt d é s v nt g ux p r l un d p rti s l rsq q lq ch s
2 “ ’
c an e e e a a a e ou
’
e es a e ,
o ue ue ue o e

ge vi nt dimin r x gér r l p rix l rs l ég lité t bl ss é m is l lé i O ’

ét r an re e ue ou e a e e a o a es e e, a a s n

p e
r ec d d c tt ces t de l ech g
e e L T
au e e l c p n on e
’
an e .
”
e r os n e ,
”
. . .

L ech ng t d n t r c ntr t d ég li té q i f it d v l r p r v l r
3 “
’
a e es e sa a u e nu o a
’
a u se a e a eu ou a eu

ég l Il n st d p
a e . m y nd ’
e i h i p isq
on e l d nn ut nt q l
as nu o e
’
e s en r c r, u ue
’
On o e a a ue
’
On

l c p “ ”
c it
re o ( L T
. e r os n e, . . .
1 3 8 Cap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

be c on s i d er ed a n a c t Of p r o d u c ti on . Bu t c om m od i ti es a r e n ot

p a i d for tw i c e o v er ,
value a n d
on c e on a c coun t Of t h ei r us e -
,

a g a i n on a cc ou n t Of th ei v alue An d th ough th e us e v alu e of r .

-

a c omm od i ty i s m or e s e v i c ea b le t o th e b u er th an t o th e
y r

s eller i ts m on e f or m 1 8 m or e s er v i ceab le to th e s eller W u ld

, y o .

h e oth er w i s e s ell i t ? W e m i gh t th er efor e j u s t a s w ell s ay

th a t th e buy er per for m s
”
s tr i c tly an a c t Of r od ucti on b y
p ,

con v er t i n g s toc k i n g s for ex am ple i n to m on ey , ,

.

If com m od i ti es or com m od i ti es a n d m on ey Of eq ual ex ch an ge

, ,

v alue an d c on s equ en tly equ i valents ar e ex ch a n ged i t i s plain

, , ,

th a t n o on e a b s tr a c ts m or e v alu e fr om th a n h e th r ow s i n to , ,

c i r c u la ti on T h er e i s n o c eati on Of s u r plu s v a lue An d i n

. r -
.
,

i ts n or m al for m th e ,
c i r c ula ti on of c omm od i ti es d em a n d s th e
e x ch an ge of e qui valen ts . Bu t i n a c tua l p r a c ti c e, th e pr oces s
d oes n ot r etai n i ts n or m al for m . Let us , th er efor e, a s s um e a n

e x ch an g e Of n on equi valen ts -
.

In a n y c a s e th e m a r k et for c om m od i ti es is on ly fr eq uen ted

by ow n er s Of c om m od i ti es , a n d th e p ow er w hi ch th es e p er s on s
e x er ci s e ov er ea c h oth er , is n o oth er th an th e ow er Of thei r

c om m odi ti es . Th e m a ter i al var i ety Of th es e c om m od i ti es is

th e m a ter i a l i n c en ti ve to th e ac t Of ex ch an ge an d m a k es,

b uy er s an d s eller s m utually d epen d en t, b ecaus e n on e of th em

p os s es s es th e O bj ect of h i s ow n w an ts , an d ea c h h old s i n hi s
h a n d th e o bj ect Of a n oth er s
’
w a n ts . B es i d es th es e m a ter i al
d i ff er en c es Of th ei r us e -
va lu es ,
th er e i s on ly on e oth er d i ffer en c e
b etw een c om m od i ti es , n a m ely , th a tb etw een th ei r b odi ly for m
an d th e for m i n to w h i ch th ey ar e con v er ted b y s ale th e d i ffe ,
r

en c e b etw een c om m odi ti es a n d m on ey . An d c on s eq u en tly th e

ow n er s Of c om m o di ti es a r e di s ti n g ui s h ab le on ly as s elle r s , th os e
w ho b u y er s th os e wh o ow n m on ey
ow n c om m o d i ti es , a n d ,
.

S uppos e th en th a t b y s om e i n expli cable pr i vi lege th e s eller

, ,

is en a b led t o s ell h i s c om m od i ti es a b ov e t h ei r v a lu e w h a t i s
’

w or th 1 00 for 1 1 0, i n w h i ch c as e th e p r i c e i s n om i n a lly r a i s ed
Th e s eller th er efor e p ock ets a s ur plus alu e of 1 0 v .

But a fter h e h as s old h e ec om es a b b uy er . A th i r d ow n er Of

c om m odi ti es com es to h i m n ow as s eller , w h o i n th is c a pa ci ty

a ls o j th e p i v i lege of s elli n g h i s c omm od i ti es 1 0%

en oy s r too
1 S P N wm n El m nts f P lit Ec n And v r d N w Y rk 1 835 p
. . e a : e e O o . o .
”
o e an e o , , . 1 75 .
 Con tr a d i cti on s i n t/z e F or m u la f
o Cap i ta l . 1 39

d ea r . Our fr i en d gai n ed 10 a s a s eller on ly t o los e i t a ga i n as

a b uy er .
1
Th e n ett r es ult i s , th a t all ow n er s of com m od i t i es

s ell th ei r g ood s to on e an oth er at 10 % b ov e th ei r v alu e

a ,
w hi ch
com es
p r ec i s el
y t o th e s a m e a s i f th ey s old th e m a t th ei r tr u e .

value . S uch a g en er al an d n om i n al r i s e of pr i ces h as th e s am e

effect as v alues h ad b een expr es s ed i n w ei gh t Of s ilv er
if th e
i n s tea d Of i n w ei gh t Of gold Th e n om i n al pr i ces Of com .

m od i ti es w ould r i s e b ut th e r eal r ela ti on b et w een th ei r v alues ,

w ould r em a i n u n ch an g ed .

Let u s m ak e th e O ppos i te a s s u m pti on th at th e b uy er h as ,

th e pr i v i leg e Of pu r ch as i n g c om m od i ti es u n d er th ei r v a lue .

In th i s c as e i t i s n o lon g er n ec es s ar y to b ear i n m i n d th a t h e
i n h i s tur n w ill b ecom e a s eller He w a s s o b efor e h e b ecam e .

b uy er ; h e h ad alr eady los t IOZ i n s elli n g b efor e h e ga i n ed

1 07 as b uy er ?
0
E v e y th i n g i s j us t a s i t w a s r .

Th e cr ea ti on Of s ur plu s v alue an d th er efor e th e c on v er s i on -

,

Of m on ey i n to ca i ta l can c on s equ en tl b x l i n ed n ei th e
p y e e p a ,
r

on th e a s s u m ti on th at com m od i ti es a r e s old a b ov e th ei r v a lue

p ,

n or th at th e
y a r e b o u g h t b elo w th ei r v a lu e
?

Th e p r ob lem i s i n n o w ay s i m pli fi ed b y i n tr od uci n g i r r ele

v an t m atter s after th e m ann er Of C ol T or r en s E ffectual .

d em an d c on s i s ts
i n th e po w er a n d i n cli n a ti on ( l), on th e pa r t Of
c on s um er s , to g i v e for c om m odi ti es , ei th er b i m m e d i a te or
y
c i r c ui tou s b a r ter , s om e gr ea ter r ti on Of i t l th n th ei r
p o ca p a a
” 4
r od u c ti on cos ts In r ela ti on to c i r c ula ti on , r o d u c er s an d
p .
p
c on s u m er s
y m eet on l as b uy er s a n d s eller s . To a s s er t t h a t th e
s u r lu s v alu e a c qu i r ed b th d u h i t i g i n i n th
p y e p r o cer a s s or e
-

fac t th a t c on s u m er s p ay for c om m od i ti es m or e th an th ei r v a lu e,

By th ugm nt ti n f th n min l v lu f th pr duc

1 “ e a s ll rs t
e a o o e o a a e O e o e e e no en .

rich d sinc wh t th y g in s ll rs th y p r cis ly xp nd in th q lity f

e e a e a as e e , e e e e e e ua O

buy rs Th Ess nti l Princip l s f th W lth f N ti ns &

e . e L nd n 1 797
e a e o e ea O a o ,
”
c. , o o , ,

p .

Si l
2 t f e d d nn r p ur 1 8 livr s u
’
on es qu n tité d t ll p r d cti n q i
or c e o e o e ne a e e e o u o u

en v l it 24 l q
a a m pl y mem rg nt a ch t r
,
or s r ég l m nt p r
’
u on e o er a c c e a e a e e , on au a a e e ou

1 8 1 cc q p y it 24 l c p ”
’
.l L T
ue On a a . e r os n e, . . .

Ch q v nd r p u t d nc p rv nir a r nch érir h bit ll m nt m rch n

3 a ue e eu ne e o a e e a ue e e s es a a

d is s q n s m tt nt ssi a p y r h bit ll m nt pl s ch r l m rch ndis s

’
e , u e se ou e a au a e a ue e e u e es a a e

d es tr s v nd u s ; t p l m em is n ch qu c ns mm t r p t p y r
au e e e r e ar a e ra o , a e o o a eu ne eu a e

h bit u ll m nt m ins ch r cc qu il ch et q n s u m tt nt s i a u d i mi u
a e e e o e
’
a e, u e
’
se o e a au s ne n

ti n s mbl bl u l prix d ch s s qu il v nd
o e a M rci r d l Rivier l c p
e s r e es o e
’
e .
”
e e e a e, . . .

R T rr ns An Ess y th Pr ducti n f W lth L nd 1 821 p 349

4 . o e
“
a on e o o o ea .
”
o on , , . .
1 4 0 C afi i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

i s on ly to s ay in oth er w or d s Th e ow n er Of c om m od i ti es p os

th e pr i i leg e Of s elli n g too d ear

s es s es , a s a s eller , Th e s eller v .

h a s h i m s elf pr od u c ed th e c omm od i ti es or r epr es en ts th ei r pr o

b
d u c er , b u t th e uy er h as to n o les s ex ten t pr o d u c ed th e c om
m od i ti es re
p r es en ted b y h i s m on ey , or re
p r es en ts th ei r pr o
d u cer . Th e d i s ti n cti on b etw een t h em i s , th a t on e b uy s an d

th e oth er s ells . Th e fa c t th a t th e ow n er Of th e c om m od i ti es ,

u n d er th e d es i g n ati on Of
p r od ucer , s ells th em o v er th ei r v alue ,

and u n d er th e d es i gn a ti on Of con s u m er , a
p y s to o m u ch for
th em , d oes p fu r th er
n ot ca r r y u s a s i n gle s te .
1

TO b e con s i s ten t th er efor e th e u ph old er s Of th e d elu s i on th at ,

s ur plu s v alu e h a s i ts O r i g i n i n a n om i n al r i s e Of p r i c es or i n th e
-

r i v i leg e w h i ch th e s eller h a s of s elli n g too d ear , m u s t a s s u m e

p
th e ex i s ten ce of a c la s s th at only b uy s a n d d oes n ot s ell, i e , . .

on l
y con s um es a n d d oes n ot p ro d u ce . Th e xi s ten ce of s u ch a
e

c la s s i s i n ex pli ca b le fr om th e s tan d poi n t w e h a v e s o fa r r eac h ed ,

v iz .
,
th a t of s i m p le ci r c ula ti on . But let us a nti c i pa te . The
mon ey w i th w hi ch s u c h a c la s s is con s tan tly m ak i n g pu r c h as es ,

m us t y con s ta n tl flow i n to th ei r pock ets , w i th ou t a n y ex ch a n g e ,

gr ati s , b y m i g ht or r i g h t, fr om th e p oc k ets Of th e c om m od i ty ~

o w n er s th em s elv es . TO s ell com m od i ti es a b ov e th ei r value to

s u ch a clas s , is on ly to cr ib b a ck ag ai n a p ar t Of th e m on ey

p re v i ou sly gi v en to i t ?
Th e tow n s Of A s i a M i n or th u s pa i d a

y e arl
y m on ey tr i b u te to a n c i en t R om e . Wi th th i s m on ey
R om e pur ch a s ed fr om th em c om m odi ti es , an d pu r ch as ed th em
too d ear Th e pr ovi n ci a ls ch eated th e Rom an s , an d th us got
.

b a ck fr om th ei r con qu er or s , i n th e cou r s e of tr a d e, a por ti on Of

th e tr i bute
Yet, for a ll th at, th e c on quer ed w er e th e r eally
.

ch ea ted T h ei r g ood s w er e s ti ll pai d for w i th th ei r ow n m on ey

. .

T h at i s n ot th e w ay to get r i c h or to cr eate s ur plus v a lue -

.

Let u s th er efor e k eep w i th i n th e b ou n d s Of ex ch a n g e w h er e

1 “ Th e id f pr fits b ing p id by th c ns um rs is ssur dly v ry bs rd W h
ea o o e a e o e , , a e ,
e a u . o

ar e th e c ns m rs ( G R ms y An Ess y th Distrib ti n f W lth Edin

o u e ?” . a a : a on e u o o ea .

burgh ,
1 83 6 , p .

Wh n m is in w nt f d m nd d s M M lthu s r c mm nd him t p y
2 e a an a O a e a , oe r . a e o e o a

s m th r p rs n t t k ff his g ds ? is q sti n put by

o e o e e o ngry di scipl f
o a e O oo
”
a ue o an a e o

Ric rd t M lthus wh lik his discipl P s n Ch lm rs c n mic lly gl i fi

a o o a , o, e e, ar o a e , e o o a or es

this cl ss f simpl b y rs c ns m rs ( S A Inq iry int th s p rincipl s

a o e u e or o u e . ee
“
n u o o e e re

s p cting th N t r f D m nd d th n c ssity f C ns mpti n l t ly dv c t d

e e a u e o e a an e e e o o u o , a e a o a e

by Mr M lth s & L nd 1 821 p

. a u ,
”
c . o .
, , .
 1 4 2 Cap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

The th er efor e pla i n w h y , i n a n a ly s i n

r eas on is n ow th e g “

s ta n d a r d for m Of ca i tal, th e for m u n d er w h i ch i t d eter m i n es

p
th e ec on om i c a l or ga ni s a ti on of m od er n s oci et
y ,
we en ti r ely

left ou t Of c on s i d er a ti o n i ts m os t p opula r , a n d , s o to s ay , a n te
d i lu v i an for m s
’
m er ch an ts capi tal a n d m on ey len d er s ca p i tal
’
-
, .

Th e c i r cui t M — C— ,
b u y i M
n g i n
’
or d er to s ell d ear er , i s s een

m os t clear ly i n gen u i n e m er ch an ts c api tal Bu t th e m ov em en t

’
.

ta k es place en ti r ely w i thi n th e s ph er e Of ci r c ula ti on i n ce, . S

v b
h ow e er , i t i s i m pos s i le, b y c i r cu la ti on a lon e, to a ccoun t for
th e v er s i on Of m on ey i nto ca pi tal for th e for m ati on Of
con ,

s u r lu s — v l h m r c h a n ts i l i
’

p a u e i t w ou ld a pp ea r ,
t a t e ca p ta s an ,

i m pos s i bi li ty s o lon g as eq ui valen ts ar e ex ch an g ed ; t hat th er e

,
1
,

for e i t ca n on ly h a v e i ts or ig i n i n th e t w ofold a d va n ta g e
,

gai n ed ov er b oth th e s elli n g a n d th e b u y i n g pr od uc er s b y th e

, ,

m er c h an t w h o par as i ti ca lly s h ov es hi m s elf i n b etw een t h em .

It i s i n thi s s en s e th a t Fr a n kli n s ay s w a r i s r obb er y , ,

”2
c om m er c e i s g en er a ll c h ea t i n g If t h e tr a n s for m a ti on Of
y .

m er ch an ts m on ey i n to ca pi tal i s to b e ex plai n ed oth er w i s e

’

th an b y th e p r od ucer s b ei n g s i m ply c h ea ted a lon g s er i es Of ,

i n ter m ed i a te p s te s w ould b e n eces s ar y , w h i ch , at p r es en t, w h en

th e s i m ple c i r c u la ti on Of c om m od i ti es for ms our on ly a s s um
p
t i on , a r e en ti r ely w an ti n g .

W h at w e ha ve s ai d w i th r efer en ce to m er ch an ts
’
c api tal

a ppli es s till ca pi tal In m er ch an ts

’
m or e to m on ey len d er s -
.

ca
p i t a l,
th e t w o xtr em es th e m on ey th at i s thr ow n u pon
e ,
th e
m ar k et a n d th e ,
a ugm en ted m on ey th a t i s w i th d r a w n fr om th e
m a r k et ,
ar e a t lea s t c on n ec ted by a p u r ch a s e an d a s ale, in
oth er w or d s b y th e m o v em en t Of th e c i r c u la ti on . In m on ey
len d er s
’
c a pi tal th e for m M M i s ed uced to th e tw o ex
— C— '
r

tr em es w i th ou t a m ea n ,
M M m on ey exch a n ged f m o e
— ~
’
,
or r

m on ey for m th at i s i n com a ti ble w i th th e n a tur e Of m on e ,

a
, p y
a n d th er efor e r em ai n s i n ex li ca b le fr om th e s ta n d oi n t of th e
p p
c i r c u lati on Of com m odi ti es . H en c e Ar i s totle “
s i n ce c h r em a

Und r th r ul f inv ri bl q iv l nts c mm rc w uld b imp ssibl ( G

1 e e e O a a e e u a e o e e o e o e . .

Opdyk A Tr tis P lit Ec n my N w Y rk 1 851 p 6 6

e:
“
ea e on Th di ff r nc
o . o o .
”
e o , , . e e e e

b tw n r l v l
e ee d xch ng v l
ea is b s d p n this f ct n m ly th t th
a ue a n e a e a ue a e u o a ,
a e , a e

v l f thing is di ff r nt fr m th
a ue O a c ll d q iv l nt giv n f it in tr d t
e e o e so -
a e e u a e e or a e, . e .
,

th t this q iv l nt is
a e u quiv l nt (F Eng ls l c p
a e no e a e .
”
. e , . . .

B nj min Fr nklin W rks V l II dit Sp rks in P siti ns t b x min d

2 e a a : o ,
o . . e . a o o o e e a e

conc rning N ti n l W lth p 3 76

e a o a
'

ea ,
”
. .
 Con tr a d i cti on s i n M e F or m u la f
o Cap i ta l . 1 43

ti s ti c i s a d ouble s ci en c e, on e p a rt b elon gi ng to c om m er c e, th e
o th er to econ om i c , b ei n g n eces s ar y an d pr ai s ew or thy
th e latter ,

th e for m er b a s ed on ci r c u lati on a n d w i th j u s ti c e d i s ap pr ov ed
f r i t i s n ot b as ed on N a tur e b ut on m u tu al ch eati n g ) th er e
( o , ,

for e th e u s ur er i s m os t r i gh tly h a ted b ec a us e m on ey i ts elf i s ,

th e s our ce of hi s g ai n a n d i s n ot u s ed for th e pu r p os es for ,

w hi ch i t w a s i n v en ted F or i t or i g i n a ted for th e ex c h a n g e of

.

c om m od i ti es b u t i n ter es t m a k es ou t Of m on ey
,
m or e m on ey , .

H en c e i ts n a m e ( am i n t er es t a n d O ffs pr i n g) F or th e b e
!
r .

ott en a r e li k e th os e w h o b eg et th em Bu t i n ter es t i s m on e
y
g .

Of m on e s o th at Of a ll m od es Of m a k i n g a li v i n g th i s i s th e
y , ,

”1
m os t c on tr ar y to n atur e .

In th e c ou r s e Of our i n v es ti gati on , w e s h a ll fi n d th at b oth

m er ch an ts n d i n ter es t b ear i n g c a pi tal a r e d er i va ti v e
’

pi ta l a ca -

for m s , an d a t th e s a m e ti m e i t w i ll b ecom e clear , w h y th es e

t w o for m s a pp ear i n th e c ou r s e Of hi s tor y b efor e th e m od er n
s tan d ar d for m Of ca i tal
p .

We h ave s h ow n th a t s ur pl u s v a lue can n ot b e

-
c r ea ted by
c i r c ula ti on, an d , th er efor e, th a t i n i ts for m a ti on , s om ethi n g

m u s t tak e pla ce i n th e b a ckg r ou n d , w hi ch i s n ot a ppar en t i n

t h e c i r c ula ti on i ts elf ?
Bu t c an s u r plus v a lue pos s i bly or i gi n a te -

a n y w h er e els e th an i n c i r c u la ti on , w h i ch i s th e su m total Of a ll
t h e m u tu a l r elati on s Of c om m od i ty ow n er s , a s -
far as th ey ar e

d eter m i n ed b y th ei r c om m odi ti es A par t fr om c i r c ula ti on ,

t h e c om m od i ty ow n er i s i n r elati on -
on ly w i th h i s ow n c om

m od i ty . SO fa r as reg ar d s v alu e ,
th a t r ela ti on i s li m i ted to
t h i s , th a t th e c om m od i t
y c on ta i n s a qu an ti ty Of h i s ow n lab our ,

t h at quan ti ty b ei n g m eas ur ed b y a d efi n i t e s oci al s tan d a r d .

T h i s qu an ti ty i s ex pr es s ed b y th e v alu e Of th e c om m od i ty an d ,

s i n ce th e v a lu e i s r ec k on ed i n m on e O f c oun t th i s q u a n ti t
y a c
y ,

i s als o ex pr es s ed b y th e p r i ce w hi ch w e w i ll s uppos e to b e £ 1 0 , .

But hi s lab ou r i s n ot r epr es en ted b oth b y th e v a lu e Of th e

c om m odi t
y a n d b y a s,u r
plu s ov er th a t v a lu e n ot b y a p r i c e Of ,

1 0 th at i s a ls O a pr i c e of 1 1 n ot b y a v alu e th a t i s gr ea ter th a n
‘

i ts elf . Th e c om m odi ty own er can b y hi s la b our cr ea te v alue , , ,

1
Arist tl l c c 1 0
o e, . . . .

2 “
Pr fit in th us l c nditi n f th m rk t is t m d by xch nging
o , e ua o o o e a e , no a e e a . Ha d
t xist d b f r n i th r c uld it ft r th t tr ns cti n ( R ms y l
”
i t no e e e o e, e e p o a e a a a o . a a , . c .
, . 1 84 .
1 44 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

b ut n ot s elf -
e x pa n d i n g value . He ca n i n c r eas e the v alue Of hi s
com m odi t
y ,
b y a d di n g fr es h la b ou r ,
an d th er efor e m or e v alue
to th e v alu e i n h an d ,
b y m a k i n g, for i n s tan c e leath er i n to ,

b oots . Th e s am e m a ter i al h as n ow m or e v alu e b ec au s e i t

,

c on ta i n s a g r eater quan ti ty Of lab our The . b oots h av e th er e

for e m or e v alu e th an th e lea th er b u t th e va lue of th e lea th er ,

r em a i n s w h a t i t w a s i t h a s n ot ex pan d ed i ts elf h as n ot , ,

d ur i n g th e m a k i n g of th e b oots an n ex ed s u r plus v alue It i s ,

.

th er efor e i m pos s i ble th at ou ts i d e th e Sph er e of c i r c ula ti on a ,

r od u c er Of c omm od i ti es c an w i th out c om i n g i n to con tac t w i th

p ,

oth er com m od i ty ow n er s ex a n d v a lu e a n d c on s equ en tl n

p y co , ,

v er t m on ey or comm od i ti es i n to capi ta l .

It i s th er efor e i m pos s i b le for ca pi ta l to b e pr od u c ed b y c i r

c ula ti on a n d i t i s equ ally i m p os s i b le for i t to or i g in ate a a r t
, p
fr om c i r c ulati on It m us t h a v e i ts or i g i n b oth i n ci r cula ti on
.

an d y et n ot in c i r c ula ti on .

W e h av e ,
th er efor e, got a d ou b le r es u lt .

Th e c on v er s i on Of m on ey i n to c api ta l h as to b e e x plai n ed on

th e b as i s of th e law s th at r egula te th e exch an ge Of com m od i ti es ,

i n s u ch a w ay th at th e s ta r ti n g p oi n t i s th e ex c h a n ge Of
e qu i v a len ts Our fr i en d M on ey b ag s w h o a s y et i s on ly a n
?
, ,

em b y o capi ta li s t m u s t b u y hi s c om m od i ti es a t th ei r v a lu e
r , ,

m us t s ell th em at th ei r v a lu e, a n d et at th e en d of th e pr o
y
c es s m u s t w i th d r a w m or e v a lu e fr om c i r c u la ti on th a n h e th r e w

Fr m th f r g ing inv stig ti th r d r wi ll th t this st t m nt nly m ns

1 o e o e o e a on , e ea e s ee a a e e o ea

th t th f rm ti n f c pit l m t b p ssibl v n th gh th pric d v l f

a e o a o o a a us e o e e e ou e e an a ue o a

c mm dity b th s m ; f its f rm ti n c nn t b ttribut d t y d vi ti n f

o o e e a e or o a o a o e a e o an e a o O

th fr m th
e on e th r If p ric s ct lly diff r fr m v l s w m st first f ll
o e o e . e a ua e o a ue ,
e u ,
O a ,

r d c th f rm r t th l tt r in th r w rds tr t th diff r nc
e u e e o e o ccid nt l in
e a e , o e o ,
ea e e e e as a e a

o rd r th t th ph n m m y b Obs rv d in th ir p rity d
e a e e Obs rv ti ns t
o en a a e e e e u , an ou r e a o no

i nt r f r d with by dist rbing circ umst nc s th t h v n thi g t d with th p r c ss

e e e u a e a a e o n o o e o e

i
n q sti n W kn w m r v r th t this r d cti n is m r sci ntific p r c ss
ue o . e o , o eo e ,
a e u o no e e e o e .

Th c ntin l scill ti ns in p ric s th i r rising

e o ua o d f lling c mp ns t
a ch th r
o e ,
e an a , o e a e ea o e ,

an d r d c th ms lv s t
e u e v r g p ric which is th ir hidd n r g l t r It f rms
e e e o an a e a e e, e e e u a o . o

th g uidi g st r f th m rch nt
e n th m n f ct r r in v ry nd rt king th t
a o e e a or e a u a u e e e u e a a re

q ir s tim H kn ws th t wh n l g p ri d f tim is t k n c mm diti s

u e e. e o a e a on e o O e a e ,
o o e ar e

s ld n ith r v r und r b t t th ir v r g pric If th r f r h th ght b ut

o e e o e n or e , u a e a e a e e. e e o e e ou a o

th m tt r t ll h w
e a ld f rm l t th p r bl m f th f rm ti n f c pit l
e a a , e ou o u a e e o e o e o a o O a a as

f ll ws H W
o o w cc nt f th rigin f c pit l th s pp siti n th t pric s
O ca n e a ou or e o o a a on e u o o a e

ar e r g l t d by th v r g pric i
e u a e ltim t ly by th v l f th c mm diti s
e a e a e e, . e.
,
u a e e a ue o e o o e ?

I y ltim t ly b c s v r g p ic s d t dir ctly c incid with th v l u s f

sa u a e ,
”
e au e a e a e r e o no e o e e a e o

c mm diti s Ad m Smith Ric rd

o o e , d th rs b li v
as a , a o, a n o e e e e.
1 4 o Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

But i n m on ey m ay b e a ble to fi n d
or d er th at our ow n er Of

lab our p ow er O ffer ed for s ale a s a c om m odi ty , v ar i ou s c on d i ti on s

-

m u s t fi r s t b e fulfi lled Th e ex ch a n g e Of c om m od i ti es Of i ts elf .

i m pli es no oth er r ela ti on s of d ep en d en c e th an th os e w h i c h

r es u lt fr om i ts ow n n atur e . On th i s as s um
pti on , la b ou r-
p ow er

ca n a
pp ea r u on
p y the m ar k et as a c om m od i t ,
on l
y i f,
an d so

far as , i ts p os s es s or , th e i n d i vi d u a l w h os e la b ou r pow er i t i s -
,

O ffer s i t for s ale or s ells i t, a s a com m od i ty In or d er th a t h e

,
.

m ay b e ab le to d o th i s h e m us t h a v e i t a t h i s d i s p os al, m u s t ,

b e th e un tr a m m elled ow n er Of hi s ca
p a c i ty for la b ou r , i . e, . Of

h i s p er s on He a n d th e ?
ow n er Of m on ey m eet i n th e m a r k et ,

an d d eal w i th ea ch oth er a s on th e bas i s of e qu a l ri gh ts ,

w i th
t hi s d i ffer en c e alon e, th at on e is b u y er ,
th e oth er s eller ; b oth ,

th er efor e, q
e u al i n th e ey es Of th e la w . Th e con ti n u an ce o f
th i s r ela ti on d em a n d s th a t th e ow n er of th e la b ou r pow e r -

s h ould s ell it on ly for d efi n i te p er i od for i f h e w er e to s ell i t

a ,

r um
p and s tu m
p , on c e for a ll, h e w ould b e s elli n g hi m s elf ,

c on ver ti n g h i m s elf fr om a fr ee m a n i n to a s la ve ,
fr om a n o w n er

of a c om m o di ty i n to a c omm od i ty . He m us t c on s ta n tl
y look

u pon h i s la b ou r pow er a s h i s ow n pr oper ty h i s ow n -

,
c omm od i ty ,

a n d th i s h e c a n on l
y d o b
yp l ac i n g i t a t th e d i s os al Of th e
p b uy er
tem p or a r i ly , for d efi n i te p er i od of tim e
a By th i s m ean s . alon e

he a v oi d r en o un c i n g hi s r i g h ts o f ow n er s hi v r it
?
c an
p o e
1In ncycl p di s f cl ssic l ntiq iti s w fi d s ch n ns n
e o ae a o a this—th t in
a a u e e n u o e s e as a

th nci nt w rld c p it l w fully d v l p d

e a e o a xc p t th t th fr
a lb rr d
as e e o e , e e a e ee a ou e an a

syst m f cr dit w w nting M mms n l in his H ist ry f R m c mmits

e o e as a .
”
o e a s o, o o o e,
”
o ,

in this r sp ct bl nd r ft r n th r
e e , on e u e a e a o e .

H nc l gisl ti n in v ri s c ntri s fix
2 e e e a o m ximum f l b r c ntr cts
a ou ou e es a a or a ou -
o a .

Wh r v r fr l b r is th r l th l ws r gul t th m d f t rmin ting this

e e e ee a ou e u e, e a e a e e o e o e a c on

tr ct In s m St t s p rtic l rly in M xic (b f r th Am ric n Civil W ls in

a . o e a e , a u a e o e o e e e a ar , a o

th t rrit ri s t k n fr m M xic
e e o e da ls e m tt r f f ct in th D n bi n
o e o, an a o, as a a e o a , e a u a

p r vinc
o s till t h er v l u ti n ff ct d by eK s e) sl
o v ry i hiddo n de r t h f rm f
e e u a ,
a e s e un e e o O

p eonag By m e ns
. f dv nc s r p y eabl in l b Our which a h nd ad d wn e ,
e a a e a o , ar e a e o

fr m g n r ti n t g n r ti n
o e e a o t l y th indi id
o e l l b r r b t h i f mi ly
e a o , no on e v ua a ou e , u s a ,

b c m
e o l f t th p r p rty f th r p rs ns n d th ir f mili s
e, o e a c o, e o e J r z b lish do o e e o a e a e . ua e a o e

p eonag T h e c .ll d Em p r r M
e so ximi l i-
n a st
e blish d it by d cr which
e o in a a r e- e a e a e e e, ,

th H e s f R pr s nt ti s t W shingt n w ptly d n nc d
ou e o e e e a ve d cr f th
a a o , as a e ou e as a e ee or e

r intr d cti n f sl v ry int M xic

e o u o O I m y m ka e r t n th r th o e o . a a e ov e o a o e e u s e,

f or alimit d tim f my p rticul r b dily d m nt l ptit d s d c p biliti s ;

e e, o a a o an e a a u e an a a e

b c s in c ns q nc f this r stricti n th y
e au e, o e ue imp r ss d with ch r ct r f
e O e o ,
e ar e e e a a a e o

a li n ti n with r g rd t m
e a o wh l B t by th li n ti n f ll my l b r
e a o e as a o e. u e a e a o o a a ou

t im d th wh l
e an f my w rk I sh ld b c nv rting th s bst nc its l f in th r
e o e o o ,
ou e o e e u a e e ,
o e

w rds my g n r l ctivity d r lity my p rs n int th p r p rt y f n th r

o ,
e e a a an ea , e o , o e o e O a o e .
”

( H g l
e e Phil s,p hi d R chts B
o o rlin 1 8 40 p 1 04
e es e .
”
e , , .
 Tne B uy i ng a n d Selli ng of L a oou r P ozoer -
. 1 47

Th e s ec on d es s en ti al con d i ti on to th e ow n er of m on ey
fin d i n g lab our p ow er i n th e m ar k et as a com m odi ty i s th i s
-

th a t th e lab our er i n s tea d of b ei n g i n th e pos i ti on t o s ell c om

m od i ti es i n w h i ch h i s lab ou r i s i n c or por a ted , m u s t b e o bli ged
to O ffer for s ale a s a com m od i t
y t h at v er y lab our p ow er , w hi ch
-

e x i s ts on ly i n h i s li vi n g s elf .

In or d er th at m an m ay b e a b le to s ell c om m od i ti es oth er
a

th a n la b ou r -

p ow er , h e m u s t Of c ou r s e h a v e th e m ea n s O f
p r od u c ti on , m a te
asr i al, i m lem en ts , &c
r aw
p N O b o ots c a n .

b e m a d e w i th out leath er He r equi r es als o th e m ean s Of

.

s ub s i s ten c e .
—
N ob od y n ot ev en a m u s i c i a n Of th e futu r e
c an li v e u on futur e r od u c ts , or u on u s e v alues i n a n u n
p p p
-

fini s h ed s tate an d e ver s i n ce fi r s t m om en t of hi s appear a n c e

th e
th e w or ld ge m an a lw ay s h a s b een a n d m us t s ti ll b e
’
on s s ta , ,

a con s u m er , b oth b efor e an d w h ile h e i s pr od u c i n g In a .

s oci et w h er e a ll r od u c ts as s um e th e for m of comm od i ti es ,

y p
th es e com m od i ti es m us t b e s old a fter th ey h a v e b een pr od uced
it is on ly after th ei r s ale th a t th ey can s er v e i n s ati s fy i n g th e

re qui r em en ts Of
th ei r pr od ucer Th e ti m e n eces s ar y for th ei r
.

s ale is s u per a d d ed to th at n eces s ar f r th ei r r o d u c ti on

y o p .

F or th e c on ver s i on of h i s m on ey i n to c a pi tal, th er efor e, th e

ow n er of m on ey m us t m eet i n th e m a r k et w i th th e fr ee
la b our er , fr ee i n th e d oub le s en s e th a t a s a fr ee m a n h e ca n ,

d i s p os e Of h i s lab our pow er -

as hi s ow n comm od i ty , an d t h at on

th e oth er h an d h e h a s n o oth er c om m od i ty for s ale, is s h or t

of e v er y thi n g n eces s a r y for th e r ea li s ati on of hi s la b our

p ow er .

Th e ques ti on w hy thi s fr ee la b our er c on fr on ts h i m i n th e

m ar k et, h as no i n ter es t for th e ow n er Of m on ey , w h o re g ar d s
th e la b our m ar k et as a b r an c h Of th e gen er al m ar k et for c om
m od i ti es . An d for th e pr es en t i t i n ter es ts us j us t a s li ttle .

We c li n g to th e fa ct th eor eti cally a s h e d oes pr ac ti cally ,

. On e
t hi n g h ow ev er , i s clear — n atur e d oes n ot r od u c e on th e on e
, p
s i d e ow n er s Of m on ey or comm od i ti es , an d on th e oth er m en
p os s es s i n g n othi n g b ut th ei r ow n lab our pow er -
T h i s r ela ti on
.

h as no n a tur a l b as i s n ei th er i s ,
i ts s oc i a l b a s i s on e th a t i s
co mm on to all hi s tor i cal p er i od s It i s clear ly th e . r es u lt Of a

t h i t r i cal d ev elo m en t th e r od uc t of m an ec on om i ca l
p as s o p p y ,
 1 4 8 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

re v olu ti on s ,
Of th e e xti n c ti on Of a w h ole s er i es Of Old er for m s
Of s oci al ro d uc ti on
p .

So too th e ec on om i cal
, ,
g or i es alr ead y d i s cu s s ed b y u s
ca te , ,

b ear th e s tam p Of h i s tor y D efin i te h i s tor i cal c on d i ti on s ar e

.

neces s ar y th at a p r od uc t m ay b ecom e a com m od i ty It m u s t .

n ot b e pr od u ced a s th e i m m ed i ate m ean s of s ub s i s ten ce Of th e

p r od u cer h i m s elf H a d w e g o.n e f u r th er , a n d i n qu i r ed u n d er

w h a t ci r cu m s tan ces all or ev en th e m aj or i ty of pr od ucts ta k e

,

th e for m Of c omm odi ti es w e s h ould h a v e fou n d th at th i s can

,

on ly h a pp en w i th p r od u c ti on Of a v er y s p ec i fi c ki n d ca pi tali s t ,

p r od u c ti on S uc h an. i n qu i r y h ow ev er w ou ld h a v e b een , ,

for ei g n to th e an aly s i s of c om m od i ti es P r od u c ti on an d .

c i r c u la ti on Of com m od i ti es ca n ta k e pla ce a lth ou gh th e gr ea t ,

m a s s Of th e O bj ects pr od uc ed a r e i n t en d ed for th e i m m edi ate

r eq ui r em en ts of th ei r r od u c er s ar e n ot tu r n ed i n to c omm od i
p ,

ti es a n d c on s eq uen tly s oc i al pr od u c ti on i s n ot y et b y a lon g

,

w ay d om i n a ted i n i ts len gth an d b r ea d th b y ex ch a n ge v a lu e -

.

Th e a ppear a n c e of p r od u c ts as com m od i ti es p r es uppos es s u ch a

d ev elopm en t Of th e s oci al di vi s i on of la b ou r th a t th e s epa r a ti on
,

Of usevalue fr om ex ch an ge value a s epar ati on w h i ch fir s t

- -
,

b egi n s w i th b ar ter m us t alr ead y h av e b een c om pleted But

,
.

s u ch a d eg ee Of d ev elo m en t i s com m on to m a ny for m s of

p r

s oc i et w hi ch i n oth er r es ec ts p r es en t th e m os t v a r i n
y , p y g

h i s tor i c al fea tu r es . On th e oth er h an d , i f w e c on s i d er m on ey ,

i ts x i s ten ce
e i m pli es a d efin i te s ta ge in th e e x ch a n ge Of

c om m od i ti es . Th e par ti c ular f un c ti on s of m on ey w h i ch i t
p er for m s , ei th er as th e m er e e qui v alen t Of com m od i ti es , or as

m ea n s Of c i r c ula ti on , or m ea n s of ay m en t, as h ea r d or as
p
un i ve m on ey , p oi n t, a c c or d i n g to th e ex ten t a n d r ela ti ve
r s al

p r ep on d er a n c e Of th e on e fu n c ti on or t h e oth er , t o v er y

d i ffer en t s ta ges
i n th e p r oc es s of s oc i al p r od u c t i on Yet w e .

kn ow b y ex per i en ce t h at a ci r cula ti on Of c om m odi ti es r ela ti vely

r i m i ti v e, s u ffi c es for th e pr od u c ti o n Of a ll th es e for m s O th er
p .

w i s e w i th ca pi tal . Th e h i s tor i cal con d i ti on s Of i ts e xi s ten ce

ar e by nogi v en w i th th e m er e c i r cula ti on Of m on ey a n d
m ean s
c om m od i ti es It ca n s pr i n g i n to li fe on ly w h en th e ow n er Of
.
,

th e m ean s Of pr od u c ti on a n d s ub s i s ten c e m eets i n th e m a r k et

w i th th e fr ee lab our er s elli ng hi s lab ou r pow er An d thi s on e -
.
1 50 Cap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

a la b our i n g i n d i vi d u al . Hi s n atur al w a n ts , s uch as food ,

clo th i n g ,
fu el, an d h ou s i n g , v ar y a c c or d i n g to th e cli m a ti c a n d

oth er h
p y s i ca l c on d i t i on s of h i s c ou n tr
y . On th e oth er h an d ,
th e n u m b er a n d ex t en t of h i s s e ca lled n ec es s ar w an ts , a s a ls o
y
-

th e m od es of s ati s f i n
y g th em ,
ar e th em s el v es th e pr od u c t of
h i s tor i c al d ev elopm en t ,
an d d epen d th er efor e to a r eat e ten t g x
on v
th e d egr ee of c i ili s ati on of a coun tr y , m or e pa r ti c ular ly on
th e c on di ti on s u n d er w hi ch , a n d con s eq uen tly on th e h a i ts an d b
d eg r ee of c om for t i n w h i ch , th e clas s of fr ee lab ou r er s h as b een
for m ed .
1
In c on tr a d i s ti n c ti on th er efor e to th e ca s e of oth er

c omm od i ti es , th er e en ter s i n to th e d eter m i n ati on of th e v a lu e

of lab our pow er a h i s tor i cal a n d m or a l elem en t
-
N ev er th eles s , .

in a g i v en c ou n t r y , at a g i v en p er i od , th e a v er ag e q ua n ti ty of

the m ea ns of su b s i s ten ce n eces s ar y for th e la b our er is

p r a c ti c all y kn ow n .

Th e ow n er of lab our pow er i s m or tal If th en h i s a ppear

-
.

ance i n th e m ar k et i s to b e con ti n uous , a n d th e c on ti n u ou s con

ve i
r s on o f m on ey i n to ca pi tal a s s um es th i s , th e s eller of la b our
p o w er m us t per petu ate h i m s elf, i n th e w ay th at ever y li v i n g “

i n d i vi d ual p er petuates h i m s elf, b y pr ocr eati on Th e lab ou r

”2
.

p ow er w i th d r aw n th e m a r k et b y w ea r
fr om an d tear an d

d ea th , m u s t b e c on ti n u ally r epla ced b y , at th e v er y leas t, an

e qual am ou n t of fr es h la b our p ow er H en ce th e s um of th e -
:

m ea n s of s ub s i s ten c e n ec es s ar y for th e pr od u c ti on of la b our

p o w er m u s t i n c lu d e th e m ea n s n ec es s ar
y for t h e l a b ou r er s
’

s ub s ti tu tes i e hi s ch i ld r en i n or d er th at th i s r a c e of u li a r
,
. .
, p e c ,

c om m odi t ow n er s m ay p er petu ate i ts a r an ce in th e

y p p ea
-

m a r k et ?

In or d er gani s m s o th at i t m ay ac
to m odi fy th e h um a n or ,

qui r e s k i ll an d h an d i n es s i n a gi ven b r an c h of i n d us tr y a n d ,

b ecom e lab our pow er of a s peci a l ki n d a s p eci al ed u cati on or

-
,

t r a i n i n g i s r equ i s i t e an d thi s on i ts p a r t cos t s a n e qu i v a len t

, , ,

C mp r W H Th rnt n Ov rp p l ti n d its R m dy L nd 1 846

1 o a e . . o o : e o u a o an e e ,
”
o .
, .

P tty
2 e .

Its (l b ur s ) n tur l pric

3 a o
’
c nsists in such qu ntity f n c s ri s
a a e . o a a o e e sa e

nd c m f rts f li f
o o fr m th n t r
o f th clim t
e, a s , d th h bits f t h c n
o e a u e o e a e, a n e a o e ou

r
y n,
c ss ry
ar e t s
e e p p rt t h lab u r d t o n bl himu t r r s och f mily e a o re , an o e a e o ea u a a

m y p r s rv in th m rk t u ndiminish d s pp ly f l b ( R T rr ns
”
as a e e e, e a e ,
an e u o a our . . o e :
“
An Ess y th xt rn l C rn Tr d
a on L nd 1 81 5 p
e e e Th w rd l b r is
a o a e.
”
o .
, , . e o a ou

h r wr gly u s d f l b ur p w r
e e on e or a o -
o e .
 Tne B uy i ng a nd Selli ng o f L a b ou r P ow er -
. 1 5 1

in c om m od i ti es of a gr eater or les s a m oun t . T hi s a m ou n t

v ar i es accor d i n g to th e m or e or les s com pli cated ch ar a cter of

th e la b our p ow er -
Th e ex pen s es of th i s ed ucati on ( ex c es s i v ely
.

s m all i n th e cas e of or d i n ar
y la b our
p ow er
) e n te r
pr o ta n to -
,

i n to th e total valu e s pen t i n i ts pr od u c ti on .

Th e v alue of lab our pow er r es olv es i ts elf i n to th e v alu e of a

-

d efi n i te qu an ti ty of th e m ean s of s ub s i s ten c e It th er efor e .

var es w i th th e valu e of th ese m ean s or w i th th e quan ti ty Of

i

lab our r equ i s i te for th ei r pr od u c ti on .

S om e of th e m ean s of s ub s i s ten ce s uch as food an d fuel ar e , ,

con s um ed d ail
y an d a fr es h
,
su l
pp y m u s t b e p r ov i d ed
d a i ly . O th er s s uch as c loth es an d fur n i tur e las t for
lon g er p er i od s an d r eq ul r e to b e r eplaced on ly a t lon g er i n
ter v a ls On e ar ti cle m u s t b e b ough t or pai d for d aily , a n oth er
.

w ee ly , k an oth er quar ter ly , and s o on Bu t i n w h atev er w ay

.

th e s um total of th es e ou tla y s m ay b e s pr ea d ov er t he y ear ,

th ey m u s t b e co v er ed b y th e a v er ag e i n com e ,
ta k i n g on e d ay
wi th a n oth er . If th e total of th e c omm od i ti es q
r e u i r ed d ai ly
for th e p of la b ou r p ow er =A, a n d th os e r eq ui r ed
ro d u cti on -

=
w eek ly B, a n d th os e r equ i r ed q ua r ter ly C a n d s o on , th e z
,

th at i n th i s m as s of c omm od i ti es r e ui s i te q for th e a v er age d ay

th er e b od i ed 6 h our s Of s oci al lab our th en th er e i s i n cor
ar e em ,

r a ted d aily i n lab our pow er h alf a d ay s a v er a g e s oc i a l la b ou r

’

p o -
,

i n oth er w or d s h a lf a d ay s la b ou r i s r equ i s i te for th e d ai ly

’

p r od uc ti on of la b ou r
p ow er T hi s qu an ti t
-

y of la b ou.r for m s

th e v alu e of a d ay s lab our p ow er or th e v alu e of th e lab our

’
-

alf a d ay s a v er a g e s oci a l la b our i s

’

p ow er da i ly r epr od u ced If h .

i n cor po a ted i n th r ee s h illi n g s th en th r ee s h i lli n g s i s th e p r i c e

r ,

cor r es pon d i n g to th e v alue of a d ay s lab ou r pow er

’
If i ts -
.

ow n er th er efor e O ffer s i t for s ale a t th r ee s h i lli n g s a d ay i ts ,

s elli n g p r i ce i s eq u al to i ts v alue an d a c c or d i n g to ou r s up ,

os i ti on ou r fr i en d M on ey b a g s w h o i s i n ten t u pon c on v er ti n g
p , ,

hi s th r ee s h i lli n g s i n t o capi tal pay s thi s v a lu e ,

.

Th e m i n i m u m li m i t of th e v alue of lab our p ow er i s d e -

t er m i n ed b y th e v alu e of t h e c omm odi ti es w i th ou t t h e d ai ly ,

s u pply of w hi ch th e la b our er can n ot r en ew hi s v i ta l en er gy ,

c on s eq u en tly b y th e v alu e of th es e m ean s of s u b s i s ten ce th a t

1 5 2 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

ar e h i c ally i n d i s p en s ab le If th e pr i c e of lab our p ow er fall

p y s -
.

to th i s m i n i m um , i t fa lls b elow i ts v a lu e, s i n ce u n d er s uch c i r

c u m s ta n ces it c an b e m ai n tai n ed and d e v eloped on ly in a

cr i ppled s tate . But th e value of ever y comm od i ty i s d eter

m i n ed b y th e lab our -
ti m e r equ i s i te to tur n i t ou t s o a s to b e of
n or m a l quali ty .

It i s a p v er y c h ea s or t of s en ti m en ta li t
y w hi c h d eclar es th i s
m eth od of d eter m i n i n g th e value of lab our p ow er , a m eth od -

p r es cr i b ed b y th e v er y n a tur e of th e cas e, to b e a b r utal

m eth od , an d w h i ch w ails w i th R os s i th at ,
“
To c om p r eh en d

c apa ci ty for lab our (p ui s s a n c e d e tr a v a i l) a t th e s am e ti m e

th at w e m ak e b s tr a cti on fr om th e m ean s of s u b s i s ten c e of the
a

lab ou r er s d ur i n g th e pr oc es s of pr od uc ti on i s to c om pr eh en d a ,

p h a n tom ( etr e d e r ai s on ) W h en w e s p ea k of la b ou r .or ,

ca a c i ty for la b our w e s p ea k at th e s a m e ti m e of th e la b ou r er
p ,

a n d h i s m ea n s of s u b s i s ten ce of la b our er an d w a ges W h en ”ll

.
,

w e s pea k of ca paci ty for la b ou r w e d o n ot s pea k of la b ou r a ny , ,

m or e th an w h en w e s pea k of ca pa ci ty for d i ges ti on w e s peak ,

of d i g es ti on Th e la tter pr oces s r equ i r es s om eth i n g m or e th an

.

a g ood s tom ac h W h en w e s pea k of capac i ty for lab our w e d o

.
,

n ot a b s tr a c t fr om th e n ec es s a r y m ean s of s ub s i s ten c e On th e .

c on tr a r y th ei r v a lu e i s ex p es s ed i n i ts v a lue
,
If h i s ca pac i ty r .

for lab ou r r em ai n s u n s old th e lab our er d e i v es n o b en efi t fr om

,
r

it ,
b ut r a th er h e w i ll feel i t t o b e a c ru el n a t ur e -
i m pos ed
n ec es s i ty th a t th i s c a pa c i ty h as for i ts pr od u cti on a d e
c os t

fi n i te a m oun t Of th e m ea n s o f s ub s i s ten ce a n d th a t i t w i ll c on

ti n u e to d o so for i ts re
p r od u c ti on . He w ill th en gr ee w i th
a

S i s m on d i : th at ca p a c i ty for lab ou r . is n othi n g u n les s i t

is
On e con s e u en c e of q th e p ec u li a r n atur e of lab our p ow er as a
-

c om m odi ty i s ,
th a t i ts u s e a lue d oes n ot, -
v on th e c on clusi on of
th e c on tr ac t b et w een th e buy er an d s eller , i m m ed i a tely pa s s
i n to th e h an d s of th e for m er . Its v alue ,
li k e th at of ev er y
oth er c om m od i t
y ,
i s a lr ea d y fixed b efor e it g oes i n to c i r c ula

ti on , s i n ce a d efi n i te qu an ti ty of s oci al lab our h as b een s pen t

u p on i t ; b u t i ts u s e v alu e con s i s ts i n th e s ub s equ en t ex er ci s e of
-

1 R ssi
o . C rs d E
ou
’
c on . P lit o Br x ll s u e e , 1 842, p 3 70 . .

2 Si s mon d 1 Nou v . Pr i n c . et c, t I p 112

. . . .
I 54 Cap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

pu r ch a s e or as a m ean s of
p y
a m en t,
thi s m a k es n o alter a ti on in
th e n a tu r e of th e e x ch a n ge of c omm od i ti es Th e pr i ce of the .

lab our pow er i s -

fixed b y th e con tr a ct alth ough i t i s n ot ,

r ea li s ed ti ll la ter , li k e th e r en t of a h ou s e Th e la b our pow er i s .

-

s old , a lth ou gh it is on ly
p i d f a
or la ter p er i od
at a . It w i ll,
t h er efor e, b e u s eful, for a clear c om r eh en s i on of th e
p r ela ti on

of th e par ti es , to as s um e pr o i s i on ally , th at th e p os s es s or of v
lab ou r p ow er , on th e oc cas i on of eac h sa le, i m m ed i a t ely r e
-

c ei v es th e pr i ce s ti pulated to b e p ai d for i t
W e n ow k n ow h ow th e alue pai d b y th e pur ch as er to th e v
p os s es s or of th i s
p ec uli a r c omm od i ty ,
la ou r
p o w er i s d e b -
,

t er m i n ed . Th e us e -
value w hi ch th e for m er g ets in e x chan ge ,

m a n i fes ts i ts elf on ly i n th e a c tual u s ufr uc t, i n th e con s u m p

ti on of th e la b o ur -
p o w er . Th e m on ey ow n er b uy s e ver y
t hi ng n ec es s ar y for th i s pur pos e s uch as r aw m ater i a l i n t he , ,

m a r k et a n d pay s for i t a t i ts full v a lu e

, Th e c on s um pti on of .

lab ou r p ow er i s a t on e a n d th e s a m e ti m e th e pr od uc ti on of
-

c omm od i ti es an d of s u r lu s v alu e T h e on s u m pti on of la b ou r

p c .

ow er i s c om leted as i n th e c as e of ev er oth er c o m m od i ty
p p y , ,

ou ts i d e th e li m i ts Of th e m ar k et or of th e s h er e of c i r c ula ti on
p .

A cc om pan i ed b y Mr M on ey b ags an d b y th e pos s es s or of la b our .

w r w e th er efor e ta k e lea v e for a ti m e of th i s n oi s h r e

p o e , y ps e ,

w h er e ev er y th i n g tak es place on th e s u r face an d i n v i ew of all

m en an d follow th em b oth i n to th e hi d d en ab od e of pr od u c ti on
,

for s l in this m nn r In m ny Engli sh d sti ll m r Sc tch gricult ur l dis

a e a e . a an o e o a a

t i t w g s
r c s, p id f rtnightly
a d v n m nthl y with s ch l ng int rv ls b tw n
e ar e a o an e e o u o e a e ee

th e p ym nts th a gric lt r l l b ur r i blig d t b uy cr dit

e , e a H u u a a o e s o e o on e . e

must p y high r pric s d is in f ct ti d t th sh p whi ch giv s him cr dit Th us

a e e ,
an a e o e o e e .

at H m i gh m in Wilts f
o x mpl wh r th w g s m nthly th s m fl ur
n a , or e a e, e e e a e ar e o , e a e o

th t h c uld b y ls wh r t l 1 0d p st n
a e o t him 2 4 d p st n
u e e Sixth e e a s er o e , cos s s er o e .

R p rt
e o P blic H lth by Th M dic l O ffi c r f th Privy C nci l
”
on
“
u ea
“
e e a e o e ou .

& c .
,p Th bl ck p rint rs f P isl y
. d Kilm rn ck n f rc d by e o e o a e an a o e o e ,

a strik f rtnightly inst d f m nthly p ym nt f w g s ( R p rts f th In

e, o , ea o o a e o a e .
“
e o o e

sp ct rs f F ct ri s f 3l t Oct
e o o p a As f rth r pr tty r s lt f th
o e or s .
, . a u e e e u o e

cr dit giv n by th w rkm n t th c pit list w m y r f r t th m th d curr nt in

e e e o e o e a a , e a e e o e e o e

m ny English c l min s wh r th l b r r is t p id till th d f th m nth

a oa e , e e e a ou e no a e en o e o ,

an d in th m ntim r c iv su ms e cc unt fr m th c pit list ft n in g ds f

ea e, e e es on a o o e a a , o e oo or

which th min r i blig d t p y m r th n th m rk t pric ( T ck syst m ) It i

e e s o e o a o e a e a e e ru -
e . s

a c mm n pr ctic with th c l m st rs t p y
o o a m nth nd dv nc c sh t
e e oa a e o a on c e a o , a a a e a o

th ir w rkm n t th d f ch int rm di t w k Th c sh is giv n in th sh p

e o e a e en o ea e e a e ee . e a e e o
”

th T mmy sh p which b l ngs t th m st r )

e o th m t k it o sid e o o e a e e en a e o n on e e

d l y it ut th r Childr n s Empl ym nt C mmissi n III R p rt ” ’ ”

an a th o on e o e . e o e o o . e o ,

L nd 1 864 p 38 n
o .
, .
, .
 Tne B uy i ng a nd Selli ng f
o L a oou r P ozoer -
. 1 55

on w h os e th r es h old th er e s ta r es u s i n th e face N o a d m i ttan ce

x c ept b us i n es s H er e
”
e on . we s h all s ee, n ot on ly h ow
p i tal ca

p r od u ces ,
b ut h owp i tal i sca
p r od u c ed . We s h all at las t for c e

th e s ec r et of r ofi t m a k i n g
p .

T hi s s ph er e tha t d es er ti n g , w i th i n w h os e b oun d ar i es
we ar e

th e s ale a n d p u r c h a s e of lab ou r w r g oes on , i s i n fac t a v er

p o e y
-

E d en of th e i n n ate r i gh ts of m an . T h er e a lon e r ule F r eed om ,

Equ ali ty P r oper ty an d B en th a m

,
. F r eed om ,
b ecaus e b oth b uy er
a n d s eller of a c omm od i t , s a
y y of la b our p ow er ,
-
a r e c on s tr a i n ed

on l
y yb th ei r ow n fr ee w il l T h ey c on tr a c t a s fr ee a g en ts , a n d
.

th e a gr eem en t th ey com e to, i s b u t th e for m i n w h i c h th ey gi v e

lega l ex pr es s i on to th ei r c om m on w i ll Equali ty , b ecau s e each .

en t er s i n to r elati on w i th th e oth er , a s w i th a sim

p le o w n er of

com m odi ti es , an d th ey e x ch a n ge q valen t

e ui for e qui valent .

Pr oper ty b ec aus e each d i s pos es on ly of w hat i s hi s ow n An d

,
.

Ben th am b ecaus e each look s on ly to h i m s elf Th e on ly for c e

,
.

th a t b r i n g s th em tog eth er a n d p u ts th em i n r elati on w i th ea ch

oth er i s th e s elfi s h n es s t h e g a i n a n d th e r i v a te i n ter es ts of
, , p
each .E ach look s to h i m s elf on ly an d n o on e tr oub les hi m s elf ,

a b ou t th e r es t a n d j u s t b ecau s e th e d o s o d o t h e l l i n
, y y a , ,

a c cor d an c e w i th th e r e es ta b li s h ed h a r m on of th i n g s
p y o r
-
,

un d er th e a u s pi c es of an all s h r ew d r ov i d en ce w or k tog eth er

p
-
,

to th ei r m utual a d van tag e for th e c om m on w eal a n d i n th e

,

i n ter es t of a ll .

On leav i n g thi s Sph er e of s i m ple c i r cula ti on or of exch an ge

of c om m od i ti es , w hi ch fu r n i s h es t he
“
F r ee tr ad er V ulg ar i s -

w i th h i s v i ew s an d i d eas , an d w i th th e s tan d a r d b y w h i ch h e
j ud ges a s oci ety bas ed on ca pi tal an d w ages w e thi n k w e can ,

r c ei v e a c h an g e i n th e h i g m f d m ti
p e
p y s o n o y o ou r r a a s
p er s on ae .

He w h o b efor e w as th e m on ey ow n er n ew s tr i d es i n fr on t as
, ,

ca pi tali s t th e pos s es s or of lab our p ow er follow s a s h i s lab ou r er

-
.

Th e on e w i th a n a i r of i m por tan ce s m i r k i n g i n ten t on b us i n es s ;

, ,

th e oth er ti m i d a n d h oldi n g b a ck li k e on e w h o i s b r i n gi n g h i s
, ,

o w n h i d e to m ar k et a n d h as n oth i n g to ex ec t b u t— a h i d i n g
p .
 PA RT I I I . .

THE PRO D U CTI ON O F AB S O LU TE S U RPLU S

V A LU E .

C HA P T ER VII .

T H E L ABOUR PROCESS AN D -
TH E PROCES S O F PRODUCI NG SUR
P L US VAL U E
-
.

SE C TI ON 1 .
—TH E LABOUR PR OC E SS -
on T H E PRO D UCTI ON OF USE -
VA UE S L .

THE ca pi ta li s t b uy s lab our pow er i n or d er to us e i t ; an d lab our

-

p o w e r i n u s e i s la b ou r i ts elf Th e p u r c h as er of la b ou r
.
po w er c on -

s um es i t b y s etti n g th e s eller of i t to w or k By w or ki n g th e .
,

la tter b ec om es a c tually w h a t b efo e h e on ly w as poten ti ally

,
r ,

la b ou r p ow er i n a c ti on a la b ou r er
-
,
In or d er th at h i s la b ou r m ay
.

ear i n a com m od i t h m u s t b efor e a ll t hi n g s ex en d i t

r ea
pp y e , p , ,

on s om eth i n g u s eful on s om eth i n g capa b le of s a ti s fy i n g a

,

w an t Of s om e s or t . H en ce ,
w h a t th e ca
p i ta li s t s et s th e lab
e u r er t o pr od u c e, i s a par ti c ula r u s e alu e, a -
v s
peci fi ed a r ti c le .

Th e fac t th a t th e pr od u c ti on of u s e alues , or -
v good s i s car r i ed ,

on u n d er th e c on tr ol of a ca
pi ta li s t a n d on h i s b eh alf d oes n ot ,

a lter th e gen er al ch ar ac ter of th at pr od uc ti on . We s h all,

th er efor e, i n th e fi r s t plac e ,
h a v e to c on s i d er th e la b our -
p r oces s

i n d ep en d en tly of th e par ti cular for m i t as s u m es u n d er gi ven

s oci a l c on d i ti on s .

L ab our i s i n th e fi r s t pla c e
, ,
a p r oc es s i n w hi ch b oth m an
a n d N atur e pa r ti c i a te a n d i n w h i ch m an of hi s ow n a ccor d
p ,

g
Sta r ts , r e u la t es , a n d c on tr ols th e m a ter i al r e- a c ti on s b etw een
h i m s elf an d N a tu r e . He Oppos es h i m s elf to N a tur e as on e of

h er ow n for c es , s etti n g i n m oti on ar ms an d legs , h ead an d

 1 5 8 Cap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

th e m ean s b s i s ten ce r ea dy to h an d exi s ts i n d epen d en tly

of s u ,

of hi m a n d i s th e u n i v er s al s ubj ect of h u m an lab ou r

, All .

th os e th i n g s w h i ch la b ou r m er ely s epar a tes f om i m m ed i ate r

c on n ec ti on w i th t h ei r en v i r on m en t a r e s u bj ects of la b ou r ,

s on tan eou s ly p r ov i d ed b y N a tu r e S u h fi h w hi h w
p c a r e s c e .

cat c h a n d ta k e fr om th ei r elem en t w a ter ti m b er w h i ch w e , ,

fell i n th e v i r gi n for es t an d or es w hi c h w e extr ac t fr om th ei r ,

v ei n s If on th e oth er h an d th e s u bj ect Of lab our h a s s o to

.
, , ,

say b een filter ed th r ough pr evi ous lab our w e call i t r a w

, ,

m ater i al ; s uc h i s or e a lr ea d y ex tr a cted a n d r ea d y for w as h

i ng All r a w m ater i al i s th e s ubj ect of lab our b u t n ot ev er y
.
,

s ubj ec t of lab ou r i s r a w m ater i al i t ca n only b ecom e s o a fter ,

i t h as u n d er g on e s om e alter a ti on b y m ea n s of la b our .

An i n s tr um en t of lab our i s a th i n g or a com plex of th i n gs , ,

w h i h th e la b our er i n ter pos es b etw een hi m s elf a n d th e s u bj ec t

c

of h i s la b ou r an d w h i ch s er v es as th e c on d u c tor of h i s a c ti v i ty
, .

He m ak es u s e of th e m ech ani c al phy s i ca l an d ch em i cal pr o , ,

r ti es of s om e s u b s tan ces i n or d er t o m a k e o th er s ub s tan ces

p e

s ub s er v i en t to h i s a i m s L ea vi n g ou t of con s i d er a ti on s u ch ?

r ea d y m a d e m ean s of s ub s i s ten ce as fr ui ts i n g ath er i n g w h i c h

-

a m a n s ow n li m b s s er v e a s th e i n s tr um en ts of h i s la b ou r th e
’

fi r s t thi n g Of w hi ch th e lab our er pos s es s es hi m s elf i s n ot th e

s ubj ec t of lab our b u t i ts i n s tr um en t T h us N a tur e b ecom es on e .

of th e or g a n s of hi s a c ti vi ty on e th a t h e a n n ex es to hi s ow n ,

b od i ly or gan s ad d i n g s tatur e to hi ms elf i n Spi te of th e B i ble

, .

As th e ear th i s h i s or i gi n al lar d er s o too i t i s h i s or i g i n a l tool ,

h ou s e It s u ppli es h i m for i n s tan c e w i th s ton es for th ow i n g

.
, ,
r ,

ri nd ing r es s i n g u tti n g & T h r th i ts elf i s a n i n s tr u

g p c ,
c e ea , ,
.

m en t of la b ou r b u t w h en u s ed as s u ch i n ag i c ultu r e i m pli es a
,
r

w h ole s er i es of oth e i n s t um en ts a n d a c om pa r a ti v ely h i gh r r

d ev elopm en t of lab ou r No s oon er d oes la b our un d er go th e ?

1 R s n is j st c un ing h is p w rf l H c nning c nsists princip lly in

ea o u as n as s e o e u . er u o a

h erm di ting ctivity which by c using bj cts t t d

e a a t ch th r i
, , a o e o ac an r e ac
-
on ea o e n

a cc rd nc with th ir w t r in this w y with t y dir ct int rf r nc in th

o a e e o n n a u e, a , ou an e e e e e e

p r c ss c rri s t r s n s int nti ns (H g l Erst r Th il Di ”

E ykl p ad i
’
o e , a e ou ea o e o . e e : nc o e, e e . e

L gik B rlin 1 840 p

o .
”
e , , .

In his th r wis mi s r bl w rk
2 o Thé ri d l E
e P lit P ris
e e a e o ,
o e e
’
c on . o .
’
a ,

G i lh nu m r t s in striking m nn r in pp siti n t th
an e e a e Physi cr ts th l ng
a a e o o o o e o a e o

s ri s f pr vi us pr c ss s n c ss ry b f r gricult r pr p rly c ll d
e e o e o o e me e e a e o e a u e o e so a e ca n c o

m nc e e.
 T/z e L a oou r P r oces s . 1 59

lea s t d ev elopm en t, than i t requi r es s peci ally pr epar ed i n s tr u

m en ts T h us i n th e old es t
. ca ves w e fi n d s ton e i m plem en ts a n d

w eap on s . In t h e ear li es t per i od of h um a n h i s tor y d om es ti c a ted

a n i m als , i . e , an i m a ls
. w h i ch h a ve b een br ed for th e pur pos e, an d
h a ve un d er g on e m od i fica ti on s b y m ean s b of la ou r , pla y th e

c h i ef
p a r t a s i n s tr um en ts of lab our a lon g w i th s p ec i ally pr e
p a r ed s ton es , w ood , b on es a n d s h ells ?
Th e u s e an d fa b r i ca ti on
,

of i n s tr um en ts of la b ou r ,
gh exi s ti n g i n th e g er m am on g a lth o u

c er ta i n s ec i es of a n i m als
p i s s p ec i fi c a l ly c h a r a c ter i s ti c of th e ,

h u m an lab our p r oc es s a n d F r a n k li n th er efor e d efi n es m a n as a

-
,

tool m ak i n g an i m al
-
R eli cs of b y g on e i n s tr um en ts of lab our
.
-

p o s s es s t h e s a m e i m p or ta n ce fo r t h e i n v es ti g a ti on o f e x ti n c t
e con om i cal for m s of s oci e t
y a s d o fos s i l b o n es for th e d eter m i n a ,

t i on of ex ti n c t s pec i es of an i m als It i s n ot th e a r ti cles m ad e .

,

b ut h ow th ey ar e m a d e an d b y w h at i n s tr um en ts th a t en a bles ,

u s to d i s ti n g ui s h d i ffer en t econ om i cal ep och s I ns tr um en ts of ?

lab ou r n ot on ly s u pply a s tan d ar d of th e d eg r ee of d ev elop

m en t to w hi ch h u m a n lab ou r h as a tta i n ed b u t th ey ar e a ls o ,

i n d i ca tor s of th e s oc i al con d i ti on s u n d er w h i c h th a t lab our i s

c ar r i ed on Am on g th e i n s tr um en ts of lab our th os e of a
.
,

m ech a n i cal n a tur e w h i ch tak en a s a w h ole w e m ay call th e , , ,

b on e an d m u s cles of p r od ucti on O ffer m uch m or e d eci d ed ,

c h a r a c ter i s ti c s of a gi v en e och of r od u c ti on th a n th os e w hi c h
p p , ,

li k e pi pes tu b s b a s k ets j ar s &c s er ve only to h old th e

, , , ,
.
,

m ater i als for lab our w h i ch la tter cla s s w e m ay i n a g en er al , ,

w a y call th e v a s cu lar s y s tem of p r od u c ti on

,
Th e la tter fi r s t .

b egi n s to play an i m por tan t par t i n th e ch em i cal i n d u s tr i es .

In a w i d er s en s e w e m ay i n clu d e am on g th e i n s tr um en ts of
la b our i n a d d i ti on to th es e thi n gs th at ar e u s ed for d i r ec tly
,

tr an s fer r i n g lab our to i ts s ubj ec t a n d w hi ch th er efor e i n on e , ,

1
T rg t in his R flxi
u o l F rm ti n t l Distrib ti n d e e on sRich ss ss ur a o a o e a u o es e e

( 1 7 66 )brings w ll i nt p r min nc th imp rt nc f d m stic t d im ls t rly

e o o e e e o a e o o e a e an a o ea

civilis ti n a o .

2 Th l st imp rt nt c mm diti s f ll f th t chn l gic l c mp ris n f

e ea o a o o e o a or e e o o a o a o o

di ff r nt p chs f pr d cti n
e e e o rticl s f lux ry in th strict m ning f th t rm
o o u o ar e a e o u , e ea o e e .

H w v r littl
o e writt n hist ri s up t this tim n tic th d v l p m nt f m t ri l
e e o ur e o e o e o e e e e o e o a e a

p r d cti n which is th b sis f ll s ci l li f

o u o , d th r f r f ll r l hist ry y t
e a o a o a e, an e e o e o a ea o , e

p re hist ric tim s h ov b n cl ssifi d in cc rd nc

e with at h r es lts t f
ee c ll d a e a o a e e e u , no o so a e

hist ric l b t f m t ri listic inv stig ti ns Th s p ri ds h v b n divid d t

o a ,
u o a e a e a o . e e e o a e ee e ,
o

c rr sp nd with th m t ri ls fr m which th ir i mpl m nts nd w p ns w r m d

o e o e a e a o e e e a ea o e e a e,

i
v z int th st n th br nz
.
,
o ed th i r n g s o e, e o e, a n e o a e .
 Cap z fa lz s t P m a ucflon
' '
’
1 60 .

w ay or a n oth er , s er ve a s c on d u c tor s of a c ti vi ty ,
all s u ch o bj ects
as ar e n eces s a r
y for c ar r y i n g on th e la b our -

p r oc es s . T h es e d o
n ot en ter d i r ec tly i n to th e p r oces s , b u t w i th ou t th em i t i s ei th er
i m p os s i ble for i t to ta k e pla c e a t a ll, or p os s i b le on ly to a
p ar ti a l e x ten t . O n c e m or e w e fin d t h e ear th to b e a un i v er s al
i n s tr um en t of th i s s or t , for i t fur n i s h es a locu s s ta n d i to t h e
lab our er an d a fi eld of em ploy m en t for h i s a c ti v i ty . Am on g
i n s tr u m en ts th at ar e th e r es u
p lt of r ev ou si la b ou r an d a ls o

b elon g t o thi s c la s s , we fin d w or k s h ops , can als , r oa d s , a n d so

for th .

In th e lab our pr oces s th er efor e, m an s a c ti v i ty , w i th th e h elp

’
-
,

o f th e i n s tr um en ts of la b our , effects a n a lter a ti on , d es i g n ed fr om

th e com m en cem en t, i n th e m a ter i al w or k ed u p on . Th e pr oces s

d i s a ppear s i n th e pr od u ct ; th e latter i s a u s e v alue, N a tur e s
’
-

m a ter i al a d a pted b y a c h an g e of for m t o th e w an ts of m an .

L a b our h as i n cor p or a ted i ts elf w i th i ts su bj ect : th e for m er i s

m a ter i ali s ed th e la tt er tr a n s for m ed
,
. T hat w h i ch i n th e lab ou r er
a
pp ea r ed as m ov em en t ,
n ow a p ea r s
p i n th e pr od uc t as a fix ed
qu a li ty w i th out m oti on . Th e bla ck s m i th for ges an d th e pr o
d uct i s a for gi n g .

If w e e x am i n e th e w h ole pr oces s fr om th e poi n t of i ew of v

i ts r es ult, th e p r od u c t, i t i s
p la i n t h a t oth th e i n s tr u m en ts a n d b
th e su bj ect of la b o ur , ar e m ean s of p r o d u c ti on ,
1
an d th a t th e
lab our i ts elf i s pr od uc ti v e la b our .
“

T h ough a u s e v alue i n th e for m -

,
of a
p r od u c t, i s s u es fr om
th e la b our pr oc es s , y et oth er u s e v alu es , pr od uc ts of p r e vi o us
- -

la b our , en ter in to i t as m ea n s of pr od ucti on Th e s a m e u s e .

va lue i s b oth th e pr od u c t of a p r ev i ou s pr oces s , a n d a m ea n s of

p r o d u c ti on i n a la ter pr oc es s P r od uc ts a r e th er efor e n ot on ly .

r es u lts , b ut a ls o es s en ti a l c on di ti on s of la b ou r .

W i th x c epti on of th e ex tr a c ti ve i n d us tr i es i n w hi ch
th e e ,

th e m a ter i al for la b our i s pr ov i d ed i m m edi a tely b y n a tu r e ,

s u ch a s m i n i n g h u n ti n g fi s h i n g a n d a g r i c u ltur e s o fa r a s th e
, ( , ,

It pp rs p r d xic l t ss rt th t nc ght fish f in t c

1
a ea a a o a m ns f
o a e ,
a u au , or s an e, a r e a ea o

p r d cti n in th fishi g ind ustry

o u o B t hith rt
e h disc v r d t h t f
n . u e o n o on e as o e e e ar o

c tchi g fish in w t rs th t c nt in n n
a n a e a o a o e .

This m th d f d t rmini g fr m th st ndp int f th l b ur pr c ss l n wh t

2 e o o e e n o e a o o e a o -
o e a o e, a

is pr d ctiv l b r is by m ns dir ctly pplic bl t th c s f th ec pit lis t

o u e a ou , no ea e a a e o e a e o a a

p r c ss f p r d cti n
o e o o u o .
 Caf z ad li s t P r oo uofz on
’ '
’
I 62 ‘
.

A pr od uct ,
th ou gh y for i m m edi ate c on s u m ti on , m a
r ea d
p y
y et s er ve a s r a w m a ter i a l for a fur th er
p r od u c t a s g r a es w h en
p ,

th ey b ecom e th e r aw m ater i al for w i n e . On th e oth er h an d ,

lab our m ay gi v e u s i ts pr od u ct i n s u ch a for m th a t w e ca n u s e

,

it on ly a s r aw m a ter i al ,
as i s th e c as e w i th c otton , th r ea d , an d

y ar n S
. u ch a r a w m a ter i al t h ough i ts elf a
p r o d u c t m a y h
, a v e ,

to go thr ou gh a w h ole s er i es of d i ffer en t pr oc es s es i n ea ch of

th es e i n tur n i t s er v es w i th c on s ta n tly v a y i n g for m a s a w
, ,
r ,
r

m a ter i al u n ti l th e las t pr oces s of th e s er i es lea v es i t a pe fec t

,
r

p r od u c t r ea d
y for
,
i n di vi d u a l con s u m p ti on or f or u s e a s a n i h ,

s tr um en t of la b our .

H en ce w e s ee that w h eth er a u s e v alu e i s to b e r egar d ed as

,
-

r a w m a ter i al as i n s tr u m en t of la b ou r or a s r od u c t th i s i s d ete
, p , ,
r

m i n ed en ti r ely b y i ts fun c ti on i n th e lab ou p oces s b y th e r r ,

p o s i ti on i t th er e oc cu i es
p a s th i s v a r i es s o d o es i ts c h a a c te r ,
r .

W h en ever th er efor e a pr od u ct en ter s a s a m ea n s of pr od u c

ti on i n to a n ew la b ou r pr oces s i t th er eb y los es i ts ch a r a c te of
-
,
r

p r od u c t a n d b ecom es a m er e fa c tor i n th e
, p r oce s s A s
pi n n e r .

tr ea ts s pi n d les on ly a s i m plem en ts for s pi nn i n g a n d fl ax on l

y ,

as th e m a ter i a l th a t h e s i n s O f cour s e i t i s i m pos s i b le to s pin

p .

w i th ou t m a ter i al a n d s pi n d les an d th er efor e th e fexi s ten c e of

th es e thi n g s p as r od u c ts , a t th e com m en c e m en t of th e s pi n n i n g
O per a ti on , m us t b e pr es u m ed b u t i n th e pr oc es s i ts elf th e fa c t ,

th a t t h ey a r e pr od u c ts of pr ev i ou s lab our , i s a m a tter of u tte r

i n d i ffer en c e j us t as i n th e d i ges ti v e pr oces s i t i s of n o i m por ,

ta n ce w h a tev er th a t b r ea d i s th e pr od u c e of th e p ev i ou s
,
r

la b our of th e fa r m er th e m i ller an d th e b a k er ,
On th e c on ,
.

tr a y i t i s g en er a lly b y th ei r i m p e fec ti on s as pr od uc ts th a t
r ,
r ,

th e m ea n s of p od uc ti on i n a n y p oces s as s er t th em s elv es i n
r r

th ei ch a a cter of p od u c ts
r r A b lun t k n ife or w ea k th ea d
r . r

for c i b ly r em i n d u s of Mr A th e c u tle or M B th e s pi n n er . .
,
r, r . .
, .

In th e fi n i s h ed pr od u ct th e lab our b y m ean s of w h i ch i t h as

a c q u i r ed i ts u s efu l qu ali ti es i s n ot palpa b le h a s a ppar en tly ,

v a n i s h ed .

A m ach i n e w h i ch d oes n ot s er v e th e ur os es of
p p lab ou r i s ,

us eles s . In a d d i ti on , i t fa lls p y a t o thre

e d es tr u c ti e i n fl u en ce v
of n a tur al for ces . Ir on r u s ts an d w ood r ots Y a r n w i th w hi ch .

we n ei th er w ea ve n or kni t ,
is cotton w a s ted . L i vi n g lab ou r
 Té e L a oou r P r oces s . I 63

mus t z e u pon th es e th i n gs an d r ous e th em fr om th ei r d ea th

s ei

s lee
p c
,
h a n g e t h e m fr om m er e
p o s s i b le u s e v a lu es i n to r ea l -

a n d effec ti v e on es Bath ed i n th e fi r e of lab our appr op i a ted

.
,
r

a s pa r t a n d a r c el of la b ou r s or g a n i s m a n d a s i t w er e m a d e
’

p , , ,

a li v e for th e e r for m an ce of th ei r fun c ti on s i n th e r oc es s th e

p p y ,

ar e in tr u th c on s um ed , b ut con s um ed w i th a u
p p
r os e, as

elem en tar
y c on s ti tu en ts v a lu es of nof
e w p n ew
r o d u c ts u s e- , ,

e ver r ea d y a s m ea n s of s ub s i s ten ce for i n d i v i d ual c on s um ti on

p ,

or a s m ea n s of d u c ti on f r s om e n ew la b ou r
p r o o p o c es s r
-
.

If th en on th e on e h a n d fi n i s h ed p od u cts a r e n ot only
, ,
r

r es ults b u t a ls o n ec es s ar on d i ti on s of th e la b ou r r oc es s on
y c
p
-
, , ,

th e o th er h an d , thei r as s um
p ti on i n to th a t r oc es s , th ei r
p c on ta c t

w i th li i n v g lab our , i s th e s ole m ea n s b y w h i c h th ey ca n be

m a d e to r eta i n th ei r c h a r ac ter of u s e -
v alues ,
an d be u tili s ed .

L ab ou r u s es up i ts m a ter i al fa c tor s , i ts su bj ec t an d i ts
i n s tr um en ts , c on s u m es th em , an d i s th er efor e a p r oc es s of c on

s um
pt i on u ch
.
p r od uSc ti e c on s u m ti on
p i s d i s ti n g u v
i s h ed
v
fr om i n d i i d u al con s u m pti on b y th i s , th a t th e latter us es u p
pr od u cts , a s b s i s ten ce for th e li v i ng i n d i v i d ual; th e
m ean s of s u

for m er a s m ean s w h er eby a lon e la b our th e la b our p ow er of

, , ,
-

th e li v i n g i n d i v i d ual i s en ab led to a ct ,
Th e pr od uct th er efor e .
, ,

of i n d i vi d ua l c on s u m ti on i s t h e c on s u m er h i m s elf ; th e r es ult
p ,

of r od u c ti v e c on s u m ti on i s a r od u c t d i s ti n c t fr om t h e con
p p p ,

s um er .

In so far th en , as i ts i n s tr um en ts an d s u bj ects ar e th em s elv es

p r od u c ts ,
la b our c on s u m es
p r od u c ts in or d er to cr ea te p r od u c ts ,

or in oth er w or d s , c on s u m es on e s et of p r od u c ts b y t ur n i n g
th em i n to m ean s of p r od u c ti on for a n oth er s et . But j us t a s i n
,

th e b egi n ni n g ,
th e on ly p a r ti c i p a t ors in th e lab our pr oces s -

w er e m an an d the ear th , w h i ch la tter ex i s ts i n d epen d en tly of

m an , so e v en n ow we s till em lo
p y i n th e p r oc es s m a n
y m ean s

of p r od u c ti on ,
p v i d e d d i r ec tl
ro b
y y n a tu r e th a t d o n ot r epr es en t ,

a n y c om b i n a ti on of n atur al s u b s tan ces w i th h u m a n la b ou r .

Th e lab our pr oces s r es olved a s a b ov e i n to i ts s i m ple

,

elem en ta y fa c tor s
r i s h um an a c ti on w i th a v i ew to th e pr o
,

d uc ti on of u s e v alues a ppr opr i a ti on of n a tu r al s ub s tan ces to

-
,

h u m a n r equ i r em en ts i t i s th e n eces s ar y con d i ti on for effec ti n g

ex c h a n g e o f m a tter b etw een m a n a n d N a tur e ; i t i s th e ev er
I 64 Cap i ece/[s f P r od ucti on .

las ti n g n atu r e -
i m p os ed con d i ti on of x i s ten c e a n d
h um a n e ,

th er efor e i s i n d ep en d en t of e ve r
y s oc i a l h a s e of th a t ex i s ten c e
p ,

or r a th er , is c om m on to e ver y s uc h
p h as e . It w a s th er efor e , ,

n ot n ec es s a r y to re
p r es en t ou r la b ou r er in con n e x i on w i th
oth er la b ou r er s ; m a n a n d h i s lab our on on e s i d e N a tur e an d ,

i ts m a ter i als on th e oth er , s u ffi c ed As th e tas te of th e p or r i d ge .

d oes n ot tell y ou w h o gr ew th e oats , n o m or e d oes th i s s i m ple

p r oc es s tell y ou of i ts elf w h a t a r e th e s oc i a l c on d i ti on s u n d er
w h i c h i t i s ta i n k g la c e, w h eth er u n d er th e s la v e
’

p
-
ow n er s

b r uta l las h , or th e an x i ous e

y e of
pith e
ta li s t, w h eth er
ca

Ci n ci nn a tu s car r i es i t on i n ti lli n g h i s m od es t far m or a s a va ge

i n k illi n g w ild a n i m als w i th s ton es
ll
.

Let u s n ow r etur n to ou r w ould b e -

ca pi tali s t . We left h i m
j u s t a fter h e h a d p ur ch as ed i n th e open m a k et a ll th e n ec es s ar y ,
r ,

fa c to s of th e lab ou r pr oces s ; i ts obj ec ti v e fa c tor s th e m ean s of

r -
,

p r o d uc ti on as w ell a s
,
i ts s u bj ec t i v e fa c to la b our
p ow e r -
r .

Wi th th e k een ey e of an ex per t h e h a s s elected th e m ea n s of ,

p r o d u c ti o n a n d t h e k i n d o f la b ou r
p o w e b es t a d a p ted to h i s -
r

a r ti c ular tr a d e b e i t s i n n i n g b ootm a k i n g or a n t h r ki n d
p p , y o e , ,
.

He th en pr oc eed s to con s um e th e comm od i ty th e la b our pow er ,

-

th a t h e h a s j u s t b ough t b y c a u s i n g th e la b ou r er th e i m pe s on a
, ,
r

ti on o f th at la b ou r po w er to c on s u m e th e m ean s of pr od uc ti on
-
,

b y h i s la b our Th e gen er a l ch ar a c ter of th e la b our pr oc es s i s

.
-

ev i d en tly n ot c h a ng ed b y th e fa c t th at th e la b ou e w o k s for ,
r r r

th e c a pi t ali s t i n s tea d of for h i m s elf ; m or eov er th e pa r ti c ular ,

m eth od s a n d oper a ti on s em ploy ed i n b ootm a k i n g or s pi n ni n g

ar e n ot i mm ed i a tely c h a n g ed b y th e i n ter v en ti on of th e
c ap i ta li s t He m us t b eg i n b y tak i n g th e la b our pow er a s h e
.
-

fin d s i t i n th e m a r k et a n d c on eq uen tly b e s ati s fied w i th ,

s

la b ou of s u c h
r a ki n d a w ould b e foun d i n th e per i od s

i m m ed i a tely p e c ed i n g th e r i s e of ca pi t li s ts
r C h an ges i n th e a .

m eth od s of pr od uc ti on b y th e s ub or d i n ati on of lab our to

ca p i ta l c a n ta k e pla c e on ly a t a la ter p er i od a n d th er efo e
, ,
r

w ill h a v e to b e t eated of i n a la ter ch a pter r .

By w nd r f l f t f l gic l c m n C l n l T rr ns h disc v r d in this

1 a o e u ea o o a a u e ,
o o e o e as o e e ,

st n f th s v g th rigin f c pit l
o e o e a a In th first st which h [th s v g ]
e e o o a a . e on e e e a a e

fii gn t t h wild nim l h p rs
s a e s in th first stick th t h s iz s t strik d wn
a a e u ue ,
e a e e e o e o

t h fr it which h ngs b v his r ch w

e u ath ppr pri ti n f
a o e rticl f th ea ,
e s ee e a o a o o on e a e or e

p rp s
u f iding in th
o e o cq isiti n f n th r d th s disc v r th rigin f
a e a u o o a o e , an u o e e o o

c pit l ( R T rr ns An Ess y th Pr d cti n f W lth & pp 7 0

a a . . o e a on e o u o o ea ,
”
c .
, .
 Cap z lo lz s c P r od zcccz on
' ' '

I66
‘
.

SE C TI ON 2 .
—
THE P R O D U T I ON C OF S U RPL U VAL U E S
-
.

Th e pr od u c t a ppr opr i ated b y th e c a pi ta li s t i s a u s e v alu e as -

a r n for ex a m ple, or b oots B u t, a lth ough b oots a r e, i n on e

y ,
.

s en s e, b as i s Of all s oci al p r ogr es s a n d ou r ca pi ta li s t i s a

th e ,
”
d eci d ed r og r es s i s t h d s n ot m a n u fa c tu r e b oots for
“
p y et e oe ,

th ei r ow n s a k e Us e v alue i s b y n o m ean s th e th i n g qu on
’
-
.
, ,

ai m e
p o ur lui mem e
i n th e pr od u cti on Of c om m od i ti es
-
Us e .

v alues ar e on ly pr od u ced b y ca pi tali s ts , b eca us e a n d i n s o far ,

as th ey a r e th e m a ter i al s u b s tr a tum , th e d epos i ta r i es Of

,

ex ch an ge v alue Our c a pi tali s t h as tw o O bj ec ts i n v i ew : i n

-
.

th e fi r s t pla ce h e w a n ts to pr od uc e a u s e v a lu e th a t h a s a
,
-

value i n exc han ge th at i s to s ay a n ar ti cle d es ti n ed to b e s old , , ,

a c om m od i ty ; a n d s econ d ly , h e d es i r es to pr od u ce a c omm od i ty
w h os e value s h all b e gr ea ter tha n th e s u m Of th e v alues Of t h e
c om m od i t i es u s ed i n i ts pr od u c ti on , th a t i s , of th e m ean s of
r od u c ti on a n d th e la b ou r p ow er , th a t h e pu r c h as ed w i th h i s
p
-

g ood m on ey i n th e op en m ar k e t Hi s a i m i s to pr od uc e n ot .

on ly a us e -
v alu e ,
b ut a com m od i ty a ls o ; n ot on ly u s e- v alue ,

b ut value n ot on ly value ,
b ut at th e s am e ti m e s ur
plu s

v alue .

It m us t b e b or n e i n m i n d , th a t w e a r e n ow d eali n g w i th th e
p r od u cti on Of c om m odi ti es , a n d th a t, to th i s p oi n t, w e h a e
up v
on ly c on s i d er ed on e a s pect Of th e p r oc es s . J
u s t as c om m od i ti es

ar e, a t th e v alu es a n d v alues s o th e p r oces s Of

s a m e ti m e, us e -
,

r od u c i n g t h em m u s t b e a la b our n d t t h e s am e
p pr ocess a a -
,

ti m e a p r oc es s Of c ea ti n g v alue
,
r .
1

Let u s n ow ex a m i n e pr od u c ti on as a c eati on Of v alue r .

W e k n ow th at th e valu e Of ea ch comm od i ty i s d ete m i n ed r

b y th e q ua n ti ty Of la b our ex pen d ed on a n d m a te i ali s ed i n i t r ,

th e wn rshi p f wh t h p r d c s (l c p
o e O Wh n th l b r rs r c iv
a e o u e . . . .
“
e e a ou e e e e

w g s f th ir l b ur
a e or th c p it list is th n th
e a
wn r t f th c p it l nly
o e a a e e o e no o e a a o
”

( h m ns th m ns f pr du cti n ) b ut f th l b r ls If wh t is p id wgs “
e ea e ea O o o O e a ou a o . a a as a e

is i cl d d
n it c mm nly is in th t rm c pit l it is bs rd t t lk f l b r
u e , as o o , e e a a , a u o a O a ou

s p r t ly fr m c pit l Th w rd c pit l th s mpl y d incl d s l b r d

e a a e o a a . e o a a as u e o e u e a ou an

c p it l b th ( J m s Mill El m nts f P l
a a o .
”
a& Ed 1 821 pp 7 0
e : e e O o . c. , .
, .
,

As h b n st t d in pr vi s n t th English l ng g h t w diff r nt
1 as ee a e a e ou o e, e a ua e as o e e

e xpr ssi ns f th s t w diff r nt sp cts f l b r in th Simpl L b ur p r c ss

e o or e e o e e a e O a ou e e a o -
o e ,

th p r c ss f p r du cing U
e o e V l s it is W k in th pr c ss f cr ti n f V l
O o s e- a ue , or e o e o ea o O a u e,

it is L b u t king th t rm in its strictly c n mic l s ns — Ed

a o r , a e e e o o a e e .
 T/z e [ . cz éozcr P r oces s . 1 67

b y th e w or k in g -
t i m e n e ces s ar y , u n d er g i v en s ocial c on d i ti ons ,

for i ts pr od uc ti on T hi s r ule als o . h old s g ood i n th e c as e Of

th e pr od u ct th at a c cr u ed to ou r capi ta li s t, as th e r es ult of th e
lab our p r oc es s c ar r i ed on for h i m
-
As s um i n g th i s p r od u ct to .

b e 1 0 lb s Of y a r n , our fi r s t s tep i s to calcula te th e q u an ti ty of

.

lab our r eali s ed in it .

F or s pi n n i n g th e y ar n , r a w m ater i al i s r equi r ed s uppos e i n

th i s ca s e 1 0 lb s Of cotton W e h av e n o n eed a t pr es en t to
. .

i nv es ti ga te th e va lu e Of thi s cotton , for our c api tali s t h a s , w e

w ill a s s u m e, b ou gh t i t at i ts full v a lu e s ay Of ten s h i lli n gs ,
.

In th i s pr i c e th e la b our r e q ui r ed for th e pr od u cti on Of th e

c otton i s a lr ea d x r es s ed i n t er m s Of th e a v er a g e la b ou r of
y e p
s oci et
y . We w i ll fur th er a s s um e th at th e w ear an d tear Of th e
s pi n d le, w h i ch for ou r r es en t u m ay re r es en t a ll o th er
, p p pr os e,
p
i n s tr u m en ts Of lab ou r va lu e Of 2s
em ploy ed ,
a m ou n ts to the .

If th en tw en ty fou r h ou r s la b our or t w o w or k i n g d ay s a r e
’
-
, , , ,

r equ i r ed to r od u c e th e qu an ti t of g old r e r es en ted b y tw elv e

p y p
s h i lli n g s w e h a v e h er e to b eg i n w i th tw o d ay s lab our a lr ea d y
’
.

, , ,

i n cor por ated i n th e y ar n .

We m us t n ot let our s elv es b e m i s led b y th e ci r cu m s tan c e

th a t th e cotton h as tak en a n ew s h a pe w h i le th e s u b s tan ce Of
t he s pi n d le h as to a c er tai n e x ten t b een u s ed up . By th e
g en er al law Of v alue ,
i f th e value Of 4 0 lb s . of y ar n th e v a lu e
Of 4 0 lb s . Of c otton + th e v alu e Of a w h ole s pi n d le, i . e,
. i f th e
s am e w or k i n g ti m e i s re qui r ed to pr od uc e th e c om m od i ti es on

ei th er side Of th i s e qu ati on ,
t h en 1 0 lb s Of y a r n a r e . an

e uiq v alen t for 1 0 lb s . of c otto n, t og eth er w i th on e -

four th Of a

s
p i n d le I n t. h e ca s e w e a r e con s i d er i n g th e s a m e w or king

ti m e i s m ater i ali s ed i n th e 1 0 lb s Of y a r n on th e on e h an d , .

"

and i n th e 1 0 lb s . Of cotton an d th e fr ac ti on of a s pi n dle

on th e oth er . T h er efor e ,
w h eth er v alue a ppear s in c otton , in
a s pi n d le, or i n y a r n m ak es ,
no d iffer en c e i n th e a m oun t Of

th at v alu e . Th e s pi n d le a n d c otton , i n s tea d Of r es ti n g qui etly

s id e by s i d e, j oi n to g eth er i n th e pr oc es s th ei r for m s a r e ,

a lter ed , an d th ey ar e tur n ed i n to y a r n ; b ut th ei r v a lue i s

no m or e b y th i s fa c t th a n i t w ould b e i f th ey h ad b een
a ffec ted

s i m ply ex c h a n g ed for th ei r eq u i v a len t i n y a r n .

Th e lab ou r r equ i r ed for th e pr od u c ti on Of th e c otton , th e

 Copi ed /i s t

r aw m ater i al Of th e y ar n , i s p ar t Of th e la ou r n eces s a r y to b
p r od u c e th e y a r n , a n d i s th er efor e con ta i n ed i n th e
y ar n Th e .

s am e a li s to th e la b our em b od i e d i n th e s i n d le, w i th ou t
pp e p
w h os e w ear a n d tea r th e c otton c ould n ot b e s pun .

H en ce i n d eter m i n i n g
,
th e v alue Of th e y a r n , or th e la our b
ti m e qui r ed for i ts pr od u c ti on
re , a ll th e s ec i al p r oces s es
p
ca r r i ed on a t v a r i ou s ti m es a n d i n d i ffer en t pla c es w h i ch w er e ,

n ec es s ar y fi r s t to r od u c e th e cotton a n d th e w a s ted r ti on of
p , p o

th e s pi n d le, a n d th en w i th th e c otton a n d s pi n d le to s pi n th e

y ar n ,
m a y t og eth er b e look ed on as d i ffer en t an d s uc c e s s i ve
p h a s es Of on e a n d th e s am e
p r oces s . Th e w h ole Of th e la b our
i n th e y a r n i s pas t lab our a n d i t i s a m a tter of n o i m por ta n ce
th a t th e o per ati on s n eces s ar y for th e pr od u c ti on Of i ts c on
s ti tu en t elem en ts w er e c ar r i ed on at ti m es w hi ch , r efer r ed to
th e pr es en t, ar e m or e r em ote th a n th e fin a l oper a ti on of

s
p i nni ng If . a d efi n i te quan ti ty Of la b ou r , s ay thi r ty d ay s ,
i s r equ i s i te to b uild a h ous e, th e tota l a m o u n t Of la b ou r i n cor
por a te d i n it is n ot a lter ed b y th e fa ct t ha t th e w or k Of th e
las t d ay i s d on e tw en ty n i n e d ay s later th a n th a t Of th e fi r s t
-
.

T h er efor e th e la b our c on tai n ed i n th e r aw m ater i al a n d th e

i n s tr u m en ts Of la b ou r c an j us t as i f i t w er e la b our
b e tr eated
e x pen d ed i n a n ea r li er s tag e Of th e s i n n i n g r oces s b efor e th e
p p ,

lab our of a c tua l s pi n n i n c omm en c ed g .

Th e v alu es Of th e m ean s Of pr od u c ti on i e th e cotton an d th e ,

. .
,

s i n dle
p ,
w h i c h v a lu es a r e ex r es s ed i n th e
p p r i c e Of tw elv e

s h i lli n gs a r e th er efor e c on s ti t uen t a r ts Of th e v alu e Of th e

, p
r n or i n oth er w or d s Of th e v a lu e Of th e r od u c t
y a , , , p .

Tw o con d i ti on s m us t n ev er th eles s b e fulfi lled F i r s t th e .

,

c otton and s pi n dle m us t c on c ur i n th e pr od u c ti on Of a us e

va lue ; th ey m u s t i n th e p r es en t c as e b ec om e
y a rn . Va lue i s
i n d epen d en t Of th e par ti c ular us e -
v alue b y
b or n e b u t w h i ch i t i s ,

i t m u s t b e em b od i ed i n a u s e v a lue Of s om e k i n d S ec on d ly
-
.
,

th e ti m e occ upi ed i n th e lab our Of pr od u cti on m us t n ot ex c eed

th e t i m e r ea lly n ec es s a r y u n d er th e gi v en s oc i al con d i ti on s Of
th e c a s e T h er efor e i f n o m or e th an 1 lb Of cotton b e r equi s i te
.
,
.

t o s pi n 1 lb Of y ar n ca r e m u s t b e ta k en t h a t n o m or e th an
.
,

th i s w ei g h t Of cotton i s c on s um ed i n th e pr od u c ti on Of 1 lb Of .

y a r n ; a n d s i m ila r l
y w i th r eg a d t o th e s
pi n dle T h oru g h th e .
I 70 Cap i ta li s c ‘

W h i le th e lab our er is at w or k ,
hi s la b ou r con s tan tly u n d er

goes a t r a n s for m a ti onb ei n g m oti on i t b ec om es an O bj ect

: fr om ,

w i th ou t m oti on fr om b ei n g th e la b our er w or ki n g i t b ecom es ,

t h e th i n g pr od u c ed At th e en d Of on e h our s s pi n n i n g th a t
’
.
,

a ct i s r ep es en ted b y a d efin i te qua n ti ty Of y a r n ; i n

r oth e r

w or d s a d efi n i te q uan ti ty Of la b our n a m ely th a t of on e h ou r

, , ,

h a s b ec om e em b od i ed i n th e c otton W e s ay lab our i e th e ex .

,
. .
,

n d i tu r e Of h i s vi ta l for ce b th s i nn er a n d n ot s i n n i n g
p e y e p p ,

lab ou r b eca u s e th e s pec i al w or k Of s pi n n i n g coun ts h er e on ly

, ,

s o fa r a s i t i s th e ex en d i tur e Of la b ou r w r i n g en er al a n d
p p o e -
,

n ot i n s o fa r as i t i s th e s peci fi c wor k Of th e s pi n n er .

In th e p oces s w e a r e n ow c on s i d er i n g i t i s of ex tr em e i m
r

r tan c e th a t n o m or e ti m e b e c on s u m ed i n th e w or k Of tr a n s
p o ,

for m i n g th e cotton i n to y a r n th an i s n eces s ar y u n d er th e g i v en

s oc i a l c on d i ti on s If un d er n or m al i e a v e age s oci al c on d i
.
, . .
,
r

t i on s Of pr od u c ti on un d Of c otton ough t to b e m a d e i n to
p o s ,
a

6 p ou n d s Of y a r n b y on e h our s la b ou r th en a d ay s lab our

’ ’

d oes n ot coun t a s 1 2 h our s lab our un les s 1 2 a pou n d s Of cotton

’

h a v e b een m ad e i n to 1 2 6 pou n d s Of y a r n ; for i n th e c r eati on

Of v alue th e ti m e th at i s s oc i a lly n ec es s ar y alon e cou n ts
,
.

Not on ly th e la b our b ut als o th e r a w m ater i a l an d th e pr o

,

d u c t n ow a ppear i n q ui te a n ew li g h t v er y d i ffer en t fr om th at ,

i n w h i ch w e vi ew ed th em i n th e lab our pr oces s pur e a n d -

s i m ple .Th e r a w m a ter i al s er v es n ow m er ely a s a n a b s or b en t

Of a d efi n i te qu a n ti ty of la bour By th i s a b s or pti on i t i s i n
.

fa ct ch an ged i n to y ar n b eca u s e i t i s s pun b eca u s e lab our pow er

, ,
-

i n th e for m Of s p i n n in g i s a d d ed to i t ; b ut th e pr od u c t th e ,

rn i n ow n oth i n g m r e th a n a m eas u e Of th e la b ou r
y a ,
s o r

a b s or b ed b y th e cotton If i n on e h ou r l é lb s Of c otton c an b e
. .

s un
p i nto 1 g lb s . Of
y a rn, th en 1 0 lb s . Of y a r n i n d i c a te t h e
a b s or pti on Of 6 h our s la b our D efin i te quan ti ti es Of p r od u ct
’
.
,

th es e q u a n ti ti es b ei n g d eter m i n ed b y ex per i en c e n ow r ep es en t ,
r

n oth i n g b ut d efi n i t e qua n ti ti es Of la b ou d efi ni te m a s s es Of r,

c r s talli z ed lab our ti m e

y T h ey
-
a r e n oth i n g m or e t h an
. t h e

m at er i ali s ati on of s o m a n y h our s or so m an y d ay s of s oc i al

la b our .

We ar e h er e no m or e c on c er n ed a b out th e fac ts , th at th e
lab ou r i s th e s p ec i fi c w or k of s pi n n i n g ,
t h at i t s su bj ect i s c otton
 T/z e L a oou r P r oces s . I 7I

an d i ts pr od uc t y a r n th a n w e ar e a b ou t th e fa c t th a t th e s ubj ec t
,

i ts elf i s a lr ea d y a p r od uc t a n d th er efor e r a w m a ter i al If th e .

Spi n n er , i n s tea d of s pi n n i n g ,
w er e w or k i ng in a coal m i n e th e,

su bj ec t Of hi s lab our th e coal w ould b e s uppli ed b y Na tur e ; , ,

n ev er th eles s a d efi n i te q ua n ti ty Of ex tr a c ted c oal a h un d r ed

, ,

w ei gh t for ex am ple w ould r epr es en t a d efi n i te qua n ti ty Of ,

a b s or b ed la b our .

W e as s u m ed on th e oc ca s i on of i ts s ale th at th e v alue of
, ,

a d ay s la b our i Sh illi n g s
’
d h i
’

p ow e s th ee -
a n t a t r
S x h ou rs r ,

lab our ar e i n cor p or a ted i n th a t s u m a n d con s equ en tly th at thi s

a m ou n t Of la b ou r i s r equ i s i te to r od u c e th e n ec es s a r i es Of life
p
d ai ly r eq ui r ed on an a v er a g e b y t h e lab our er If n ow ou r .

S i n n er b w r k i n g for on e h ou r c an c on v er t 1 g lb s of cotton
p y o ,
.

i n to 1 § lb s Of y a r n i t follow s t h at i n Si x h our s h e w i ll c on v er t
.
,
1

1 0 lb s of c otton i n to 1 0 lb s Of y ar n
. H en ce d ur i n g th e Spi n n . .
,

i n g pr oces s th e cotton a b s or b s Si x h our s lab our

’

,
Th e s am e .

qu a nti ty Of lab our i s als o em b od i ed i n a pi ece Of gold Of th e

value Of th r ee s hi lli ngs C on s eque n tly b y th e m er e lab our Of .

s pi n ni n g a v alu e Of th r ee s h illi n g s i s a dd e d to th e cotton

,
.

Let u s n ow c on s i d er th e total v alue Of th e p r od u c t th e 1 0 ,

lb s Of y ar n Tw o an d a h alf d ay s lab our h a v e b een em b od i ed

’
. .

i n i t, w h i ch t w o d ay s w er e con tai n ed i n th e cotton a n d i n

Of

th e b
s u s tan ce Of th e s pi n d le w or n a w ay , a n d h alf a d ay w a s

ab s or b ed d u r i n g the pr oces s Of Spi n n i n g T h i s tw o an d a h alf .

d ay s la b our i s als o r epr es en ted b y a p i ec e Of g old Of th e v alue

’

Of fi fteen s hilli n g s H en ce fi fteen s h i lli n gs i s a n a d equ ate pr i ce

.
,

for th e 1 0 lb s Of y a r n or th e pr i c e of on e poun d i s ei g h teen

.
,

en c e
p .

Our c a pi tali s t s tar es i n a s toni s h m en t v a lue Of th e pr o . Th e

d u c t i s ex actly equ al to th e v alu e Of th e c a i ta l a d va n ced
p T h e .

v alue s o a d van ced h as n ot ex pan d ed n o s ur plus v alue h as b een ,

-

c r ea ted a n d c on s eq uen tly m on ey h a s n ot b een c on v er ted i n to

,

c ap i tal Th e pr i c e of th e y ar n i s fi fteen s h i lli n gs a n d fi fteen

.
,

s h illi n g s w er e s p en t i n th e op en m a r k e t u p on t h e c on s ti tu en t

elem en ts Of th e p r od uc t or wh at a m oun ts to th e s a m e th i n g , , ,

u p on th e fac tors of t h e lab ou r pr oces s ten s h i lli n g s w er e pa i d -

for th e c otton tw o s h i lli n g s for th e s u b s tan ce Of th e Spi n d le

,

1 Th s fig r s e e u e ar e q it rbitr ry
u e a a .
 Cap i ca lz s c P r oa zccci orz
'
’ ‘
.

w or n a w ay , an d th r eé Sh i lli ngs for th e la b our -

p ow er . Th e
value of th e y a r n i s Of n o a vai l for i t i s m er ely th e
.

s w ollen ,

s u m of t h e v a lues for m er l x i ti n g i n t h tt n th i n d l e
y e s e c o o e s
p , ,

a n d th e la b ou r w r : o u t of s u ch a s i m le a dd i ti on of exi s ti n g
p o e
p
-

v alues n o s ur plus value can pos s i bly ar i s e T h es e s epar ate

,
-
.
1

values ar e n ow all c on c en tr ated i n on e th i n g b ut SO th ey w er e

a ls o i n th e s u m o f fi fteen s h i lli n g s b efor e i t w a s s li t u i n to
p p ,

th r ee p a r ts , b y t h e p ur c h a s e Of th e c om m od i ti es .

v
T h er e i s i n r eali ty n othi n g er y s tr a n g e i n th i s r es ult Th e .

v alue Of on e poun d Of y ar n b ei ng ei gh teen pen ce i f our capi talis t ,

b uy s 1 0 lb s Of y ar n i n th e m ar k et h e m us t pay fi fteen s h i lli n gs

.
,

for th em It i s c lear th at w h eth er a m an b uy s h i s h ou s e r ea d y

.
,

b ui lt or gets i t b ui lt for h i m i n n ei th er c a s e w i ll th e m od e of
, ,

a c q u i s i ti on i n cr eas e th e a m oun t Of m on ey la i d ou t on th e
h ous e .

Our pi ta li s t,
w h o i s a
ca t h om e i n h i s v u lg a r ec on om y,
ex clai m s :
“
Oh ! b ut I a d v an ced m y m on ey for th e ex pr es s
p u r
p os e Of Th e w ay to H ell i s pav ed
m ak i n g m or e m on ey .

w i th g ood i n ten ti on s a n d h e m i gh t j us t as ea s ily h av e i n ten d ed ,

t o m a k e m on ey , w i th out pr od u ci n g a t all
2
He thr ea ten s all .

s or ts Of t hi n g s He w on t b e c a ugh t n appi n g agai n . In

’
.

futur e h e w ill b uy th e c omm od i ti es i n th e m a r k et, i n s tea d Of

m a n u fa ctur i n g th em h i m s elf Bu t i f a ll h i s b r oth er ca pi ta li s ts .

w er e to d o th e s am e, w h er e w ould h e fin d hi s c om m od i t i es in
th e m ar k et ? An d h i s m on ey h e can n ot eat He tr i es per s ua .

s i on C on s i d er m y a b s ti n en ce ; I m i gh t h av e play ed d u ck s
.
“

a n d d r a k es w i th th e 1 5 s h illi n g s ; b u t i n s tea d Of th a t I c on

r o d u c ti v el
”
s u m ed i t n d m d r n w i th i t V e r y w ell
p y a a e y a ,
.
,

This is th f nd m nt l p r p siti n
1 which is b s d th d ctrin f th
e u a e a o o o on a e e o e O e

Physi cr ts t th npr ductiv n ss f ll l b r th t is t gric lt r it is

o a as o e u o e e O a a ou a no a u u e :

irr f t bl f th rth d x c n mist

e u a e C tt f c n d i mp ut a s l ch s
or e o o o e o o . e e a o
’
er une eu e o e

l v l ur d p l si rs
a a e tr s ( p x m pl u lin l c ns mm ti n d u ti s r nd )
e u eu au e ar e e e a a o o a o s e a ,

d ppli q u
’
a p r insi di r c ch c ch plusi urs v l rs u u s l f it
er , ou a e, ou e s ur ou e, e a eu s r ne eu e, a

que c ll ci gr ssit
e d u te t-
L t rm
o d d d i ti p int
’
traes bi n l an e e e
’
a on e -
e a

m nier d nt f rm l prix dcs vr g s d m in d uvr

a e o se o p rix n st q
e e t tl ou a e e a -
’
oe e ce
’
e u un
’
o a

d pl si rs v l rs c ns mm é s t dditi nné s ns mbl ; dditi nn r n st p ’

e u eu a eu o o e e a o e e e e or , a o e e as

m ltipli r
u M rci r d l Rivi er l p
e .
”
e e e a e,
”
. c .
, .

Thu s fr m 1 84 4 47 h withdr w p rt f his c pit l fr m pr d uctiv mpl ym nt

2 o -
e e a o a a o o e e o e ,

in rd r t thr w it w y in r il w y sp c l ti ns d ls d ring th Am ric n

o e o o a a a a e u a o an so a o, u e e a

Civil W h cl s d his f ct ry d t rn d his w rk p pl int th str ts in rd r

ar , e o e a o , an u e o -
eo e o e ee , o e

t g mbl
o a th L iv r p l c tt n xch
e on g e e oo o o e an e .
1 74 Ccap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

or b e it Of la b our .

1
x c h an g e
Bu t h er e w e ar e d eali n g w i th e

v alue The ca pi tali s t pai d to th e lab our er a v alu e Of 3 s h i lli n g s

.
,

a n d th e la b our er ga v e hi m b a c k a n ex ac t eq u i v alen t i n th e v a lue

Of 3 Sh i lli n g s a d d ed b
y hi m t o ,
t h e c ot to n : h e g a v e hi m v a lu e

for v alu e Our fr i en d u p to th i s ti m e SO p ur s e pr ou d s u d d en ly

.
,
-
,

a s s um es th e m od es t d em ea n ou r of h i s ow n w or k m a n an d ,

ex c la i m s : Ha v e I m y s elf n ot w or k ed
“
H av e I n ot per for m ed
t h e lab our Of s u per i n ten d en ce a n d of ov er look i n g th e s pi n n er ?
An d d oes n ot thi s lab our too c r ea te v alue ? Hi s over look er , ,
”

a n d hi s m an a g er tr
y to h i d e t h ei r s m i les M ean w hile a fter a .
,

h ear ty la ug h h e r e a s s um es h i s u s ual m i en
,
T h ough h e
-
.

c h a n ted to us th e w h ole c r eed Of th e ec on om i s ts , in r eali t h e

y ,

sa
y ,
s h e w ou ld n ot gi ve a b r a s s far thi n g for i t He . lea v es thi s
an d a ll s uch li k e s u b ter fu g es a n d j uggli n g tr i c k s t o th e

p r ofes s or s of
p oli ti ca l ec on om y , who ar e p a i d for i t . He hi m
s elf i s a r a c ti ca l m a n ; a n d th oug h h e d oes n ot a lw a s c on s i d er
p y
w h a t h e s ay s ou ts i d e hi s b u s i n es s , y et i n h i s b us i n es s h e k n ow s
w ha t h e i s b ou t
a .

Let us ex a m i n e th e m a tter m or e c los el

y . Th e v alue Of a

la b our p ow er a m oun ts to 3 s h i lli n gs , b ec a u s e on our

’
d ay s -

a s s u m ti on h a lf a d a s la b ou r i s em b odi ed i n th a t q ua n ti ty Of
’

p y
la b ou r pow er , i e , b ecau s e th e m ea n s Of s u b s i s ten c e th a t a r e d a ily
-
. .

r eq ui r ed for th e r od u c ti on Of la b our
’
w r , c os t h alf a d a
p p o e y s -

la b ou r . Bu t th e pas t labou r th a t i s em b od i e d i n th e lab our

p ow er ,
a n d th e li v i n g la b our th a t i t can ca ll i n to a c ti on ; th e
d ai ly c os t Of m a i n ta i n i n g i t, a nd i ts d ai ly e xpen d i tu r e i n w or k ,

ar e tw o tota lly d i ffer en t thi n g s Th e for m er d eter m i n es th e

.

e x ch a n g e v alue -
Of th e la b ou r -

p ow er th e la tter i s i ts u s e v a lu e
,
-
.

Th e fa c t th at h alf a d ay
’
s la b our i s n ec es s ar y to k eep th e
lab our er v e d u i n g 2 4 h ou r s d oes n ot i n a n y w ay pr ev en t
ali r ,

h i m fr om w o k i n g a w h ole d ay T h e efor e th e v a lu e Of la b our

r . r ,

w er an d th e v alu e w hi ch th at lab ou r w r c r ea tes i n th e

p o p o e -
,

lab our pr oc es s ar e tw o en ti r ely d i ffer en t m agn i tud es a n d th i s

,

d i ffer en ce Of th e tw o v alu es w a s w h a t th e p i t
ca
ali s t h ad i n

vi ew w h en h e w as
, p ur c h as i n g th e la b our -

p ow er T h e u s eful .

q uali ti es th a t lab ou r-
p ow er
p os s es s es , a n d by vi r tu e Of w h i ch i t
1In Z u K itik d P l O k p 1 4 I m k th f ll wi g r m rk
“
r r er this o . e .
, .
, a e e o o n e a on

point — It is t di ffic lt t und rst nd wh t s rvic th c t g ry s rvic m st

J no u o e a a e e e a e o
‘
e e u

r nd r t cl ss f c n mists lik J B S y d F B ti t
e e o a a O e o o e . . a an . as a .
”
 Tue L a bou r P r oces s . 1 75

m ak es y ar n or b oots w er e to h i m n oth i n g m or e th an a con d i ti o

,

Si n e q u a n on ; for i n or d er to c r ea te v a lu e la b our m u s t b e ,

ex p en d ed i n a u s eful m a n n er Wh at r eally i n fl uen ced hi m w a s .

th e s p ec i fic us e -
value w h i ch thi s comm od i ty p os s es s es Of b ei n g
a s ou r ce n ot on l
y o f v a lue, b ut o
f m or e v a lue tha n i t ha s i ts elf
T hi s i s th e s pec i a l s er vi ce t h a t th e c a pi tali s t x pects
e fr om
lab ou r p ow er , an d i n thi s tr a n s ac ti on h e a c ts i n a c c or d a n c e
-

w i th th e eter n al la w s Of th e ex ch a n g e Of c om m od i ti es Th e
“
.

s eller of lab ou r pow er , li k e th e s eller Of a n y oth er c om m od i ty ,

-

r eali s es i ts ex ch a n g e v a lu e, a n d
p ar ts w i th i ts u s e v a lue
-
H e -
.

c an n ot tak e th e on e w i th o u t g i v i n g th e oth er Th e u s e valu e .

-

Of lab our pow er , or i n oth er w or d s la b our b elon g s

-
, ,
j us t as li ttle
to i ts s eller , as th e u s e v a lu e Of Oil a fter it h a s b een
-
s old b elon g s

t o th e d ealer w h o h a s Sold it . Th e ow n er Of th e m on ey h as

pa i d th e v alue Of a d ay s lab our p ow er ; h i s , t h er efor e, i s th e

’
-

u s e Of i t for d ay ; a d a y s la b our b elon g s to hi m Th e c i r

’
a .

c um s tan ce, th a t on th e on e h a n d th e d aily s u s ten a n ce Of lab our

on ly h alf d ay la b ou r w hi le th e oth er h an d
’
w er cos ts on
p o a s ,

th e v er y s a m e lab our pow er can w or k d u i n g a w h ole d ay th at

-
r ,

con s equen tly th e v alue w h i c h i ts u s e d ur i n g on e d ay c r ea tes i s ,

d ou b le w h at h e p ay s for th a t u s e th i s c i r c u m s tan ce i s w i th ou t , ,

d ou b t a pi ec e Of g ood lu ck for th e b uy er b ut b y n o m ean s an

, ,

i nj ur y to th e s eller .

Our capi tali s t for es aw th i s s ta te Of th i n g s an d th at w a s th e ,

c a u s e of hi s la ugh ter Th e lab our er th er efo e fi n d s i n th e

. r ,

w or k s h op th e m ea n s of pr od u c ti on n ec es s ar y fo w or ki n g n ot
,
r ,

on ly d u r i n g s i x b u t d u r i n g tw elv e h our s
,
J us t a s d ur i n g th e .

r oces s our 1 0 lb s Of c otton a b s or b ed Si x h our s la b ou r

’ ’
s i x h ou r s
p .
,

a n d b eca m e 1 0 lb s Of a r n SO n ow 2 0 lb s Of c o tton w i ll a b s o b 1 2
y .
, ,
. r

h ou r s la b our an d b e ch an g ed i n to 2 0 lb s of y a r n
’
Let u s n ow . .

ex a m i n e th e pr od uc t Of th i s
p r olon g ed
pr oc es s T h er e i s n ow .

m ate i ali s ed i n thi s 2 0 lb s of y a r n th e lab our Of fi e d ay S Of w hi ch

r . v ,

four d ay s a r e d ue to th e cotton a n d th e los t s teel Of th e s pi n d le,

th e r em a i n i n g d ay h a v i n g b een a b s or b ed b y th e cotton d ur i n g
th e s
p i n ni n g
p r oc es s . Expr es s ed in g old ,
th e la b our Of fiv e
d ay s i s thi r ty Shi lli n gs . Thi s i s t h er efor e th e pr i c e Of th e
2 0 lb s . of y a r n, g i vi n g ,
asb efor e ,
ei gh teen pen ce as th e pr i c e Of a

und But th e sum of th e v a lu es of th e c om m od i ti es th a t

p o .
I 7 6 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

en ter ed i n to th e pr oc es s a m ou n ts t o 2 7 Sh i lli n g s Th e v alue .

Of th e y a r n i s 3 0 s h i lli n gs T h er efor e th e v alu e of th e pr od u c t

.

i s g g r ea ter th an th e v a lue a d va n c ed for i ts p r od ucti on ; 2 7

s h i lli n g s h a v e b een tr a n s for m ed i n to 3 0 s hilli n g s ; a s ur plus

value Of 3 s h illi n gs h as b een c r ea ted . Th e tr i c k h a s at la s t

s u c c eed ed m on ey h as b een con v er ted i n to ca pi ta l .

E v er y c on d i ti on Of th e pr oblem i s s ati s fied w h i le th e law s ,

th a t r egu late th e ex ch a n g e Of com m od i ti es h a v e b een i n n o w ay ,

v i olated Equi valen t h a s b een ex ch a ng ed for equi valen t F or

. .

th e c a pi tali s t as b uy er pa i d for ea c h c omm od i ty for th e c ot ton , ,

th e s pi n dle a n d th e la b our pow er i ts full v alue He th en d i d

-
,
.

w h at i s d on e b y ever y pur c h a s er Of c om m od i ti es ; h e c on s u m ed
th ei r u s e v alue -
Th e c on s u m pti on Of th e lab our p ow er w hi c h
.
-
,

w a s a ls o th e pr oces s Of pr od u ci n g com m od i ti es r es ulted i n 2 0 ,

lb s Of y a r n h a vi n g a v a lu e Of 3 0 s hi lli n g s
.
,
The ca pi ta li s t .
,

for m e r ly a b uy er n ow r etur n s to m a r k et as a s eller o f c om

, ,

m o di ti es . He
h i s y a r n a t ei gh teen pen ce a p oun d , w h i ch i s
s ells

i ts ex a c t v alu e Y et for all tha t h e w i thd r a w s 3 s hilli n gs m or e

.

fr om c i r c ula ti on th an h e or i gi n ally th r e w i n to i t T hi s .

m etam or ph os i s , thi s c on v er s i on Of m on ey i n to ca pi ta l, ta k es
lac e b oth w i th i n th e s h er e Of c i r c ula ti on a n d a ls o ou ts i d e i t ;
p p
w i thi n th e c i r c ula ti on , b eca us e c on d i ti on ed b y th e p u r ch as e Of
th e la b ou p r- ow er i n th e m ar k et ; outs i d e th e c i r cu lati on , b e
caus e w h at i s d on e w i thi n i t i s on ly a s tep pi n g s ton e to th e -

p ro d uc ti on Of s ur
plus -
va lue ,
a p r oc es s w h i ch i s en ti r ely con fi n ed
to th e ph er e Of pr od u c ti on
s T h us to u t e s t p ou r le .
“
m i eu x
d an s le m ei lleur d es m on d es pos s i bles .

By t ur n i n g hi s m on ey i n to c om m od i ti es th at s er v e as th e
m at er i al elem en ts Of a n ew
p r od u ct, a n d as fa c tor s i n th e la b ou r
p r oces s , b y i n cor p or ati n g li vi n g la b ou r w i th th ei r d ea d s ub

s ta n ce, th e ca
p i ta li s t at th e s am e ti m e v er ts v alu e t e pas t
c on , . .
, ,

m a ter i ali s ed , an d d ea d la b our i n to c a pi tal i n to v alu e b i g w i th

,

valu e ,
a li v e m on s ter th a t i s fr ui tful an d m ulti pli es .

If w e n o w c om
p ar e th e tw o pr oces s es of pr od u ci n alu e a n d gv
of c r ea ti n g s u r plu s -
v a lu e, w e s ee th a t th e la tter i s n oth i n b ut g
th e con ti n ua ti on Of d efi n i te p oi n t
th e for m er b ev on d
If on a .

th e on e h a n d t h e pr oc es s b e n ot c ar r i ed b ey on d th e p oi n t .
,

w h er e th e v alu e pai d b y th e c a p i tali s t for th e lab our pow er i s -

 I 78 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

i t m us t pos s es s t h e a ver a g e s k i ll h a n d i n es s a n d q u i c k n es s pr e ,

v a len t i n th a t t r a d e, a n d ou r c a i ta li s t took g ood c a r e t o b u

p y
la b our p o w er Of s u c h n or m a l g o od n es s
-
T h i s po w er m us t b e .

li d w i th t h e a v e r a g e a m o un t Of e x er ti on a n d w i th th e
a
pp e

u s ua l d eg r e e o f i n ten s i ty ; a n d th e c a i ta li s t i s a s ca r eful to
p
s ee th a t t h i s i s d o n e, as th a t h i s w o r k m en a r e n ot i d le fo r a

sin gle m om en t . He h as b ough t th e u s e of t h e la b ou r -

p o w er

for ad efi n i te per i od , and h e i ns i s ts u

pon hi s r ig h ts . He h as
no i n te n ti on of b ei n g r ob b ed . L a s tly ,
for th i s p u r pos e o u r
an d

fr i en d h a s p a en a l c od e Of his ow n, a ll w a s te ful c on s u m ti on o f
p
r a w m a ter i al or i n s t r u m en ts of la b our i s s tr i c tly for b id d en b e ,

c a us e w ha t i s so w a s ted , re
p r es en ts la b ou r su
p er fluo us ly ex

p en d ed , la b our tha t d oes n o t c o un t i n th e pr od uc t or e n te r i n to

i ts va lue .
1

We n o w s ee, tha t th e d i ffer en c e b etw een la b our , c on s i d er ed

on th e on e h an d as
p r od u c i n g u tili ti es , a n d o n th e o th e r han d ,

This is
1 circ mst nc s th t m k s pr d cti n by sl v l b r s ch
on e Of th e u a e a a e o u o a e a ou u a

c stly pr c ss
o Th l b o er h r is t . stri king xpr ssi n f th nci nts dis
e a o ur e e e , o us e a e e o O ea e ,

ti g i h b l
n u s nly instr m n m v c l fr m
a e o asnim l instr m ntum s mi
u e tu o a e, o an a a as u e e

v clo a e, a n d fr m im pl m nt instr m nt m m t m B t h hims l f t k s c r

o an e e as u e u u u . u e e a e a e

t l t b th b st
o e od im pl m nt f l th t h is n n
ea an f th m b t is m H
e e ee a e o e O e , u a an . e c on

vinc s hims l f with imm ns tis f cti n th t h is d i ff r nt b ing by tr ting

e e e e sa a o , a e a e e e ,
ea

th nm rci f lly d d m ging th th r

e on e u e u m r H nc th princi pl
an ai a e o e c on a o e. e e e e, u n

v er s ally ppli d in this m th d f pr d ucti n

a e ly t mpl y th r d st d h vi t e o o o o , on o e o e u e an ea es

impl m nts d uche e di ffic lt t d m g wing t th ir sh r clumsin ss In

an s a s ar e u o a a e o o e ee e .

t h sl v st t s b rd r i ng
e a e -
th G l f f M xic
a e od wn t th d t f t h civil w
e on e u o e o, o o e a e O e ar ,

pl ghs c nstr uct d

ou Old Chin s m d ls which t rn d p th il lik h g
o e on e e o e ,
u e u e so e a o or a

m l inst d f m king f rr ws w r l n t b f nd C n f J C C ir s
o e, ea O a u o , e e a o e o e ou . o . . . a n .

Th S l v P w r L nd n 1 86 2 p 4 6 49 In his S B rd Sl v St t s
e a e o e ,
”
o o , , .
-
. ea oa a e a e ,
”

Olmst d t lls u e I m h r sh wn t ls th t m in his s ns s with w ld

e s a e e o oo a no an e e , us , ou

a ll w l b r r f wh m h w p ing w g s t b nc mb r d with
o a a ou e , or o d th e as ay a e , o e e u e e an e

e xc ssiv w ight d cl msin ss f which I w ld j dg w ld m k w rk t l st

e e e an u e o ,
ou u e, ou a e o a ea

t enp c nt gr t r th n with th s rdin rily s d with u A d I m ss r d th t

er e ea e a o e o a u e s. n a a u e a ,

i th c r l ss
n e d cl msy w y th y m st b
a e e s d by th sl v s nything light r
an u a e u e u e e a e , a e or

l ss r d c ld t b f rnish d th m with g d c n my d th t s ch t ls w
e u e ou no e u e e oo e o o , an a u oo as e

c nst ntly giv u l b ur rs d find

o a p r fit in giving th m w
e o r a old t l st t
e an o ur o e , ou no a ou a

d y in
a Virgini a fi ld —m ch light r d m r fra fr m st n s th gh it b
cor n e u e an o e ee o o e ou e

th n rs S t wh n I k why m l s
a ou . O, oo,niv rs ll y s bstit t d f h rs s
e as u e ar e s o u e a u u e or o e

on th f rm th first r s n g i v n
e a ,
d c n f ss dly th m st c ncl siv
e ea o is th t e , an o e e e o o u e on e, a

h rs s c nn t b r th tr tm nt th t th y lw ys m st g t fr m n gr s h rs s
o e a o ea e ea e a e a a u e o e oe o e ar e

a lw ys s n f nd r d crippl d by th m whil m l s will b r c udg lling l s

a oo ou e e or e e , e u e ea e , or o e

a m l t w w d th n d t b m t ri lly inj r d d th y d t t k c ld
ea or o no an e ,
an no e a e a u e , an e o no a e o or

g t sick i f n gl ct d
e ,
v rw rk d B t I de e t n d t g f rth r th n t
e or o e th o e . u o no ee o o u e a o e

wind w f th r m in w hich I m w i ti g t
o O e oo t lm st y tim tr tm nt f a r n , o s ee a a o an e, ea e o

c ttl th t w ld n r th imm di t disch rg f th driv r by lm st y f rm r

a e a ou e su e e e a e a e O e e a o an a e

o w ing th m in th N rth
n e e o .
”
 T/ze La bour P r oces s . 1 79

as c r ea ti n g v alue d i ffer en ce w h i ch w e d i s cov er ed b y o ur

, a

a n al s i s of a c om m o d i t r es o lv es i ts elf i n to a d i s ti n c ti on b e
y y ,

t w een t w o a s pec ts Of th e pr oces s Of p r od uc ti on .

The p r oces s o f pr od uc ti on , c on s i d er e d on t h e on e hand as

th e u n i ty p Of th e la b o ur -
r oc es s an d th e p r oc e s s of c r ea ti n g
v a lue, i s pr od u cti on of c om m od i ti es ; c on s i d er ed on th e oth er
h a n d a s th e u n i ty Of th e la b ou r p r o ces s a n d th e pr oc es s of pr o -

d u c in g s ur
plu s -
va lue ,
i t i s the c a pi ta li s t p r o c es s o f
p r o d uc ti on ,

or c a i ta li s t r od u c ti on Of c o m m od i ti es
p p .

W e s ta ted ,
on a p p re vi ous a ge ,
th a t i n th e c r ea ti on of s u r
plus

va lue i t d oes n ot i n th e leas t m a t te r , w h eth er th e la b ou r ap

p ro
pr a ted i by th e p
cai ta li s t b e s i m le u n s k i lled
p la b ou r o f

a v er age q uali ty or m or e c om pli c a ted s k i lled la b our All la b ou r .

Of a h i g h er or m or e c om pli c a ted c h a r a c ter th a n a v e a g e la b ou r r

i s ex pen di tur e Of la b our po w er Of a m or e c os tly k i n d la b ou r -

,

w w h d u ti n h a s c os t m or e t i m e a n d la b ou r a n d
p o er os e p r o c o ,

w h i c h th er e for e h a s a h i gh er v a lue t h a n un s k i lled or s i m ple ,

la b ou r pow er -
T h i s pow er b ei n g Of h i gh er v a lue i ts c on s um p
.
,

ti on i s la b our Of a h i gh er c la s s la b our th a t c r ea tes i n equ al ti m es ,

p pr o or ti on a ll
y h i g h e r v a lues t h an u n s k illed l a b o u r d oes .

W hatev er d i ffer en c e i n s ki ll th er e m ay b e b etw een th e la b ou r

Of a s pi n n er a n d th a t of a j ew elle th e p or ti on Of h i s la b ou r r,

b y w h i c h th e j e w eller m e ely r epla ces th e v alue Of h i s ow n r

lab our p ow er d oes n ot i n a n y w a y d i ffer i n q ua li ty fr om th e

-

a d d i ti on a l p or ti on b
y w hi c h h e c r ea tes s u
p lu s v a lue In th e r -
.

m ak i n g Of j ew elle y j us t a s i n Spi n n i n g th e s ur plu s va lue e

r , ,
-
r

s ults on ly fr om a q u a n ti ta ti v e ex c es s of la b ou r fr om a len gth en ,

i n g o ut Of on e a n d th e s a m e la b ou r pr oces i n th e on e ca s e of
- -
s, ,

th e pr oces s Of m ak i n g j e w els i n t h e oth er of th e pr oc es s of ,

m ak i n g y a r n .
l

1 distincti n b tw n skill d n d unskill d l b r r sts in p rt pur ill

Th e o e ee e a e a ou e a on e u

si no t
, y th l st
or , distincti ns th t h v l ng sinc c s d t b r l d
o sa e ea , on o a a e o e ea e o e ea , an

th t s rviv nly by virt f tr diti n l c nv nti n in p rt th h lpl ss

a u e o ue o a a o a o e o a on e e e c on

diti n f s m gr ps f th w rking cl ss c nditi n th t p r v nts th m fr m

o O o e ou O e o -
a , a o o a e e e o

ex cting q lly with th r st th v l f th ir l b r p w r Accid nt l cir

a e ua e e e a ue O e a ou -
o e . e a

cu m t h r pl y gr t p rt th t th s t w f rms f l b s m tim s
s a n c es e e a so ea a a , a e e o o o a our o e e

ch g pl c s Wh r f inst nc th phy siq

an e a e . f th w rking cl ss h
e e, d t i or a e, e ue o e o -
a as e er o

r t d d is r l tiv ly s p ki g xh st d which is th c s in ll c ntri s with

a e , an ,
e a e ea n , e au e , e a e a ou e a

w ll d v l p d c pit list pr d cti n th l w r f rms f l b ur which d m nd gr t

e e e o e a a o u o , e o e o O a o , e a ea

exp dit r f muscl

en in g n r l c nsid r d skill d c m p r d with much
u e o e , ar e e e a o e e as e , o a e

m r d lic t f rms f l b ur th l tt r sink d wn t th l v l f unskill d l b ur

o e e a e o O a o e a e o o e e e O e a o
 1 80 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

Bu t on th e o th er h an d i n e ve Of c r ea ti n g v alue
, r
y p r o c es s .

th e r ed uc ti on Of s v e age s oc i al la b our eg
k i lled
‘

la b ou r to a r
, .
,

on e d ay of s k i lled to s i x d ay s Of un s k illed la b ou i s un r,

a voi d a ble .
1
lVe th er efor e s a v e ou elv es a s u
p fl uou s
p era rs er o

ti on , an d Si m li
p y f o ur a nal i b t h a s s um ti t h t t h
y s s , y e p on ,
a e
la b our of th e w o r k m an em lo ed b th i ta li s t i s k illed
p y y e ca
p un s
a ver age lab our .

CHA P TE R VIII .

CON STAN T C APITA L AND VARIAB LE CAPITA L .

TH E v a ri ous fa c tor s Of th e la b ou r -

p r oces s
play d i ffer en t
p a r ts

i n for m i n g th e v a lu e Of th e p od uc t r .

Th e l b our er a d d s fr es h v a lue to t he s ubj ec t of hi s la b ou

a r

b y expen d i n g u pon i t a g i ven a m ou n t of a d d i ti on a l la b our n o ,

m atter w h a t th e s pec i fi c c h ar a c ter a n d u ti li ty of t ha t la b ou r

m ay b e On th e oth e h a n d the va lues of th e m ean s Of pr o
. r ,

d u c ti on u s ed u p i n th e p r oces s a e p es e v ed a n d pr es en t r r r ,

t h em s elv es a fr e h a s c on s ti tu en t a r ts o f th v a lue Of th e r o
p s
p e

Tk a x mpl th l b r f brickl y r which in Engl nd cc pi s m ch

e a s an e a e e a ou O a a e ,
a o u e a u

high r l v l th n th t f d m sk w v r Ag in lth gh th l b r f f sti n

e e e a a o a a a -
ea e . a ,
a ou e a ou O a u a

c tt r d m nds gr t b dily x rti n d is t t h s m tim nh lthy y t it

u e e a ea o e e o , an a e a e e u ea ,
e

c nts nly
ou nskill d l b r And th w m st t f rg t th t th
o as u e c ll d
a ou . en , e u no o e ,
a e so -
a e

skill d l b r d O t cc py l rg sp c in th fi ld f n ti n l l b r L ing
e a ou es n o o u a a e a e e e O a o a a ou . a

e stim t s th t in Engl nd ( d W l s ) th liv lih d f

a e a p pl d p nds
a an a e e e oo O eo e e e

on u nskill d l b r If fr m th t t l p p l ti n f
e a ou . livi g t th tim o e o a o u a o o n a e e

wh n h wr t w d d ct
e e f th
o e, g nt l p p l ti
e e d u or e
“
e ee o u a on ,
”
an

for p p rs
au v gr nts crimi
e ls p r,
tit t s &a d a w h
,
c mp s t h na ,
os u e , c .
, an o o o e e

m iddl cl ss th r r m in t h
e -
a b v m nti n d
, e e B t in his middl cl ss
e a e a o e e o e u e -
a

h incl d s p pl th t liv
e u e th int r st f sm ll inv stm nts O ffici ls m
eo e a f
e on e e e o a e e , a , en o

l tt rs rtists sch lm st rs d th lik

e e , a d in r d r t sw ll th n mb r h
,
oo a lse an e e, a n o e o e e u e e a o

i ncl d s in th s
u e th b tt r p id p rti n f t h f ct ry O p
e e tiv s Th e e e a o o O e a o er a e e

brickl y rs t fig r m g st th m ( S L i g N ti n l Distr s & L nd n

a e , oo, u ea on e . . a n : a o a es ,
”
c .
,
o o ,

Th gr t cl ss w h h v n thi g t giv fe f d b t rdi

ea a ry l b r o a e o n o e or oo u o na a ou , ar e

t h gr t b lk f th p pl ( J m s Mill in t C l y S ppl m nt t th ”
e ea u O e eo e. a e ,
ar o on ,
u e e o e

E y l p Brit
uc c o . .

1 Wh r r f r c is m d t l b r
e e m s r f v l it n c ss rily im pli s
e e en e a e o a ou as a ea u e O a ue , e e a e

lb r f
a ou p rtic l r kind
O on e th pr p ti n which th
a th r kinds b r t it
u a e o or o e o e ea o

b ing ea sily sc rt in d
e O tlin s f P l
a e L nd 1 832 pp 22 d
a e . u e O o . o .
, , . an
 '

Cap i fa lz s f P r od zc
’

1 82 z mz .

s u m ed a r t i cle, for m s a
p or ti on of th e qu an ti ty of lab ou r
n eces sa r y to p a lue
r od u c e t h e n ew u s e
th is por ti on i s th er e -
v
b
for e la our tr a n s fer r ed fr om th e m ea n s of p r od uc ti on to t he
n ew
p r od uc t H en ce, th e la b ou r er pr es er v es th e
. a lu es of th e v
c on s u m ed m ea n s ofp ro d uc ti on ,
or tr a n s fer s th em as
p or ti on s of

i ts v a lue to th e p r od u c t ,
n ot by v i r tu e of his a d di ti on a l la bo ur ,

a b s tr a c ted ly b u t b y v i r tu e o f t h e par ti c ula r u s e ful

c on s i d er ed ,

c h a r a c ter of t h a t lab o ur b y v i r tue of i ts s peci al pr od uc ti v e

,

for m . In so far th en as lab our i s s u ch s

p ec ifi c
p r od u c ti ve a c ti v
i ty , i n so fa r as it is s
p i n n i n g w ea v i n g , ,
or for g i n g i t ,
r a i s es , by
m er e c on ta c t, p t he m ea n s of ro d uc ti on fr om t h e d ea d m ak es ,

v
th em li i ng fa c tor s of th e la b o ur pr oc es s -
,
an d co m b i n es w i th
th em to for m th e n ew pr od u c ts .

If th e
p p s v e a b our o f th e w or k m a n w er e n ot
ec i a l
l r od u c ti

s i nn i n g h e c ould n ot c on v er t th e c ott n i n to a r n a n d t h er e
p , y o ,

for e c ould n ot tr a n s fer t he v a lues of th e c ot ton and s

p i n d le to

t h e y ar n S
u ppos e th e s a m e w or m a n w er e to
. k ch a n g e h i s

j
oc c upa ti on to t h a t of a oi n er , h e w ou ld s till b y a d ay s la our
’
b
a dd v
a lue to th e m a t e r i a l h e w or k s u pon C on s e uen tly , w e . q
s ee, fi r s t th at th e
,
a dd i ti on of n ew v a lue ta k es pla ce n ot b y
v i r tue of h i s la b our b ei n g s
p i n n i ng i n
p a r ti c ular , or oi n er i n g j
i n p a r ti c u lar b u t b eca us e i t i s la b our i n th e a b s tr a c t, a p or ti on
,

of t h e tota l la b ou r of s oc i ety ; a n d w e s ee n ex t, t ha t th e v a lue

a d d ed is o f a g i v en d efi n i te a m oun t, n ot b ec a u s e hi s la b our
h as a
p
s ec i a l u t i li ty , x b ut b ec a u s e
er te d for a d efi n i te i t is e

ti m e . On th e on e h an d th en i t i s b y v i r tue of i ts g en er al, ,

c ha r a c ter a s b ei n g ex p en d i tur e of h u m a n la b our pow er i n th e

,
-

a b s tr a c t th at s pi n n i n g a d d s n e w v a lu e to th e v a lu es of th e
,

c ot ton a n d th e Sp i n d le a n d on th e oth er h a n d i t i s b y v i r t ue ,

of i ts s pec i al ch a r a c ter a s b ei n g a con c ete u s efu l pr oc es s t h a t

,
r , ,

th e s a m e la b our of s pi n n i n g b o th tr a n s fer s th e v a lu es of t h e
m ea n s of p d
rou c ti on t o th e pr od uc t a n d p r es er v es th e m i n th e ,

p ro duct . H en ce at on e a n d th e s a m e ti m e th er e i s p r od uc ed a
t w ofold r es u lt .

By th e si m ple a d d i ti on of a c er ta i n q u an ti t
y of la b our ,
n ew value i s a d d ed a n d ,
by th e qu a li ty of th i s a d d ed

la b our , th e or i g i n al v alu es of th e m ea n s of
p ro d u c ti on
are p res er v ed i n th e pr d uct o . T h i s tw ofold effec t, r es ulti n g
 Con s ta n t Cap i to l Vo r z a ote Cap i ta l
’

a nd . 1 83

fr om th e t w ofold c h a r a c ter of la b our m ay b e tr a c ed i n

,
v ar i ous
p h en om en a .

Let us a s s u m e , th a t s om e i n v en ti on
bles th e s pi nn er to
en a

s pi n a s m uch c otton in 6 h our s a s h e w a s a b le to s pi n b efor e i n

36 h ou r s . Hi s lab ou r i s n o w s i x ti m es as e ffec ti ve a s i t
w a s , for the p ur p os es o f us eful pr od u c ti on Th e pr od u c t . of 6
’
k
h our s w or h a s i n c r ea s ed s i fold , fr o m 6 lb s t o 36 lb s But x . . n ow

th e 3 6 lb s . of c ot ton a bs o br o n ly th e s a m e a m o un t of lab our as

for m er ly d i d th e 6 lb s x th as m u c h n ew lab ou r i s a bs or bed

. O e si
n -

b y ea c h poun d of c otton a n d c on s eq uen tly th e v alu e a d d ed b y

, ,

t h e la b ou r to ea c h po u n d i s on ly on e s i x th of w h at i t fo r m er ly -

w as . On th e oth er ha n d , i n t he p r od u c t, i n th e 3 6 lb s of y ar n .
,

th e v a lue t r a n s fer r ed fr om th e c otton i s s i x ti m es a s gr ea t a s

b efor e By th e 6 h ou r s s pi n n i n g t he v a lue o f t he r a w
.
’

m a ter i al pr es er v ed a n d t r a n s fer r ed to th e p r od uc t i s s i x t i m es
as g r ea t a s b efor e a lth ou g h t h e,
n e w v a lu e a d d e d b y t h e

la b ou r of th e s pi n n er to ea c h p oun d o f th e ve y r s am e r aw

m a ter i a l i s xth w h a t i t w a s for m e r ly

on e s i
-
. T hi s s h ow s th a t th e
tw o p r o pe r ti es of la b our b y v i r tue of w h i ch i t i s e n a b led i n
,

on e ca s e to r es er v e v a lu e a n d i n th e oth er to c r ea te v a lu e a r e
p , ,

e s s en ti a lly d i ffer en t On the on e h an d th e lon ger t h e ti m e

‘

.
,

n ec es s a r y to s i n a g i v e n we ig h t of c otto n i n to arn t h
p y e ,

g r ea te r i s the n e w v a lue a d d ed t o t h e m a ter i al ; on th e oth er

h a n d th e g r eater th e w ei gh t of th e c otton s p u n i n a gi en ti m e
,
v ,

t h e g r ea ter i s t he v a lu e pr es er v ed b y b ei n g tr a n s fer r e d fr om i t ,

t o th e pr od uc t .

Let u s n e w a s s u m e th a t t h e pr o d u cti en es s of th e s pi n n er s
,
v ’

la our , i n s tea d o
b v
f a r y i n g , r em a i n s c on s ta n t, th a t h e th er efor e
r eq ui r es th e s am e ti m e as h e for m er ly d i d ,
to c on v er t on e

p o un d of c otton i n to y a r n , b ut th a t th e ex ch an ge v a lue of th e
c ot ton v a r i es , ei th er b y r i s i n g to s i x t i m es i ts for m er v a lue or fall
i n g to on e s i
-
x th of th a t v a lu e . In b oth thes e c a s es
,
th e s
p i nn e r

p u ts th e same
q u a nti t
y o f la b ou r i n to a
p ou n d o f c o tton , an d

th er efor e ad d s a s m u ch v alue ,
as he d i db efor e t h e c h a n ge i n
th e v a lue : he a ls o
p r od u c es a gi v en w ei g h t of
y a r n i n th e

s am e ti m e as he d i d b ef or e . N ever th eles s th e v a lue th a t h e

,

t r a n s fer s fr om th e c otto n to th e y a r n i s ei th er on e -
s 1 xt 1 o f w ha t
i t w as b efor e the v a r i a ti on , or , a s th e c a s e m a
y e,
b si x ti m es as
1 84 Cap i ta li s t s oo n ot z on
’
.

m uch as b efor e . Th e s a m e r es ult oc c ur s w h en th e v alue of th e

i n s tr um en ts of la b ou r i
r s es or fa lls w h ile th ei r
,
u s ef ul effi ca cy

i n th e pr oces s r em a i n s u n a lter ed .

Aga i n i f th e tec h n i c a l c on d i ti on s
,
of th e s
p i nn i ng
p r oc es s r e

m ai n . u n cha n g ed ,
and no c h an ge of va lu e ta k es pla c e i n th e
m ea n s of
p r o d u c ti o n , p ithe
n n er s c on t i n u es to c on s u m e in
equal w or k i n g ti m es -
e q u a l qu a n t i ti es
of r a w m a ter i a l a n d e qu a l ,

q ua n ti ti es of m a c hin er y of u n va r y i n g v a lu e Th e v alue t ha t .

h e pr es er v es i n t h e p r od uc t i s d i r ec tly pr opor ti on al t o th e n ew
value tha t h e a d d s t o the pr od uct In t w o w eeks h e i n cor .

e r a tes tw i ce as m uch la b ou r n d t h r efor e t w i ce as m u ch

p a e , .

va lue a s i n on e w eek a n d d ur i n g th e s a m e ti m e h e con s u m es

, ,

tw ice as m uc h m a ter i a l ,
a nd w ea r s o ut tw i c e as m uch
m a c h i n er y , of v a lue i n ea ch c a s e ; h e ther efo e p e
d o ub le t h e r r

s er v es i n th e r od u c t o f t w o w eek s t w i c e a s m u c h v a lu e a s i n
, p ,

th e p r od uc t of o n e w eek So lon g as th e c on d i ti on s of pr od uc .

ti on r e m a i n t h e sa m e th e m or e v a lue th e la b our er a d d s b y
,

fr es h la b our th e m or e v a lue h e t a n s fe s a n d pr es er v es b ut h e
,
r r

d oes s o m er ely b ec a us e th i s a d d i ti on o f n ew va lu e tak es p lac e

u n d er c on d i ti on s th a t h a v e n ot v a i ed a n d a r e i n d e pen d en t of r

h i s ow n la b our Of c ou r s e i t m ay b e s a i d i n on e s en s e th a t
.
, ,

t h e la b o ur e pr es er v es o ld v a lue a lw a y s i n p opor ti on to t h e
r r

q ua n ti ty of n ew v alue tha t h e a dd s W h et h er th e va lue of .

c ot ton r i s e f o m o n e s h i lli n g to tw o s h i lli n gs o r fa ll t o s i x

r ,

en c e t he w o k m a n n va r i a b ly r es er v es i n th e r o d u c t of on e
p ,
r
p i
p
h o ur on ly on e h alf a s m u ch v a lue a s h e pr es er v es i n t w o h our s .

In li k e m a n n er i f th e pr od u c ti v en es s of h i s o w n lab ou v ar i es
,
r

b y r i s i n g or fa lli n g h e w i ll i n on e h o u r s pi n ei th er m r e or les s
,
o

c o tton as th e c a e m a y b e t h a n h e d i d b e fo e a n d w i ll con
,
s ,
r ,

s equ en tly p r es er v e i n th e p o d u c t o f o n e h ou m o e or les s r r, r

v a lue of c otton ; b u t a ll th e s a m e h e w i ll p es e v e b y t w o
, ,
r r

h ou r s la b our t w i c e a s m u c h va lu e a s h e w i ll b y on e
’
.

Va lue ex i s ts on ly i n a ti cles of u ti li t y l n obj ec ts : w e lea v e

.
r ,

o u t of c on s i d er a ti on i ts p ur ely s y m b oli ca l r epr es en ta t i on b y

tok en s ( Ma n. hi m s e lf v i e w ed as t h e i m p e r s on a ti,
o n o f la b ou r

ow er i s a n a tur a l obj ec t a t h i n g a lth ou g h a li v i n g c on s c i ous

p , , ,

t h in g a n d la bou r i s t h e m a n i fes ta ti on o f t hi s po w er r e i d i n g i n
,
s

hi m ). If th er efor e an a r t i c le los es i ts u ti li t
y, i t a ls o los es i ts
 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

gr a d ually tr a n s fer r ed to th e p r odu c t o f th e 1 0 y ea r s Th e li fe .

tim e of a n b
i n s tr u m en t o f la o ur , ther efor e, i s s pen t i n th e
r e peti ti on of a g r ea ter or les s n um be r of s i m i la r o
p er a ti on s .

Its li fe m ay b e c o m pa r ed w i th th a t of a h u m a n b ei n g E v er y .

d ay b r i ng s a m a n 2 4 h ou r s n ear er to h i s g r a v e : b ut h ow m an y
d a y s h e h as s ti ll to t r a v el on th a t r oa d n o m a n c a n t ell ,

a c c u r a t ely b y m er ely look i n g a t h i m T hi s d i ffi c ulty h o w ev er .

, ,

d oes pn ot re v en t li fe fr om d r a w i n g b
i n s u r a n ce of ces
y m ea n s fi ,

o f t h e th eor y of a v er a g es , v er y a cc ur a te a n d a t th e s a m e ti m e ,

v er y p r ofi table c on clus i on s So i t i s w i th th e i ns tr um en ts of
.

lab ou r . It i s k n ow n by e x per i en c e h o w lon g on th e a v er age a

m a chi n e of a
p a r ti c ula r kin d w i ll la s t . S u ppos e i ts u s e v a lu e
-

i n th e la b our pr oc es s to las t on ly s i x d ay s
-
. T h en ,
on the
a v er a g e i t lo s es ea ch d ay on e s i x th of i ts u s e
,
- -
v alu e ,
an d t h er e
for e p ar ts w i th on e s i x th o f i ts v a lu e to th e d a i ly p r od uc t The
-
.

w ea r a n d t ea r of a ll i n s tr u m en ts , t h ei r d a i ly los s o f u s e v a lue -
,

a n d th e c or r es pon d i n g q ua n ti ty o f v a lu e th ey a r t w i th to t h e
p
p g ly ca lcula ted u pon th i s b as i s
r od u c t, a r e a c c or d i n .

It i s th us s tr i k i n g ly c lea r th a t m ea n s of pr od uc ti on n ev er
,

tr a n s fer m or e v a lue t o th e p r od uc t t h a n th ey t h em s elv es los e

d ur i n g th e la b ou r pr oces s b y th e d es tr uc ti on of thei r ow n u s e
-

v a lue . If s u ch a n i n s tr u m en t h as n o v a lue t o los e, i f, i n o th er

w or d s , i t i s n ot th e pr od u c t of h um a n la b our i t t a n s fe s n o
,
r r

v a lue to th e
p r od uc t I t h el s to c r ea te us e
p .
-
va lu e w i th out c on
b
tr i uti n g to th e for m a ti on of e x ch a ng e v a lue . In t hi s c la s s a r e

i n c lu d ed a ll m ea n s of
p pp l
r od uc ti on s u
i ed b
y N a t ur e w i th ou t

h u m an as s i s ta n c e, s u c h as la n d w i n d w a ter , m eta ls i n s i tu , a n d
, ,

ti m b er in v i r gi n for es ts .

Yet a n oth er i n ter es ti n g ph en om en on h er e pr es en ts i ts elf .

S u ppos e a m a chi n e to b e w or th £ 1 000 an d to w ear ou t i n 1 000 ,

d ay s . T hen th ou s a n d th pa r t of t h e a lu e of th e m a c h i n e
on e v
i s d a i ly t r a n s fer r ed to th e d ay s pr od u c t At th e s am e ti m e
’
.
,

t hough w i t h d i m i n i s h i n g v i ta li ty , th e m a c h i n e as a w h ole c on
ti n n es t o ta p ke
i n t h e la b o ur
ar t
pr oc es s T h u s i t a
pp ea r s -
.
,

th a t on e fa c tor of th e la b our pr oc es s , a m ea n s o f p r od u c ti on ,
-

c on ti n u all
y en t er s a s a w h ole i n to t h a t
p r o ces s w h i l e i t en te r s ,

i n to th e p r oc es s of th e for m a ti on of v a lu e b y fr a c ti on s on ly -
.

Th e d i ffer en c e b etw een th e tw o pr oces s es i s h er e r efl ec ted i n -

 Cons ta n t Cap i ta l a n d Va r i a oto Cap i ta l . 1 87

th ei r m a ter i al fa c tor s , b y th e s a m e i n s tr u m en t of pr od u c ti on
tak i n g pa r t a s a w h ole i n th e la b ou r p r oc es s , w h ile a t th e s a m e -

ti m e a s a n elem e n t i n th e for m a ti on of v a lu e, i t en ter s on ly b y

fr a c ti on s .
1

On th e oth er h an d m ea n s of m t ak er od u c ti on
ar t a s a
,
a p a
y p
w h ole i n t h e for m a ti on of v a lu e w h i le i nto th e la b ou r pr o c es s
,
-

it en ter s on l
y b i t b y b it . S u ppos e th a t i n s p i n n i n g c o tton , th e
w a s te for ev er y 1 1 5 lb s . u s ed a m o un ts to 1 5 lb s ,
w h i ch i s c on

d ev i l s d u s t N ow a lth ou g h
’
v er ted , n ot i n to y ar n b u t i n to ,
.
,

th i s 1 5 lb s . of co tton n ev er b ec om es a c on s ti tu en t elem en t of

th e y a r n , y et a s s u m i n g t h i s a m ou n t of w as te to b e n or m a l a n d
v b
i n e i ta le u n d er a er ag e c on di ti on s of s pi nn i n g i ts a lu e i sv ,
v
j us t a s s ur ely tr a n s fer r ed to th e v alue of th e y a r n as i s th e ,

v a lue of th e 1 00 lb s th at fo m th e u b s tan c e of th e y a r n Th e . r s .

u s e v a lu e of 1 5 lb s of c otton m u s t v a n i s h i n to d us t b ef r e 1 00
-
.
,
o

lb s of y a r n can b e m a d e
. The d es tr u c ti on of t hi s c otton i s .

th e r e for e i n th e pr od u c ti on of th e y a r n
a n ec es s a r y c on d i ti on .

An d b ecau s e i t i s a n ec es s ar y c on d i ti on a n d for n o oth er r ea s on , ,

t h e v alu e of t ha t c otton i s tr a n s fer r ed to th e pr od u c t Th e s a m e .

h old s good for e v er y k i nd of r e fus e r es u lti n g fr om a la b ou r

p r oces s , s o fa r at leas t a s s u c h r ef us e c a n n ot b e fur th er em lo ed
p y
as a m ea n s i n th e pr od u cti on of n e w a n d i n d epen d en t u s e -
v a lues .

1 subj ct f r p irs f th impl m nts f l b r d s t c c rn h r A

Th e e o e a o e e e o a ou oe no on e us e e.

m chin th t is nd rg ing r p ir
a e al ng r pl ys th p rt f instr um nt b t
u e o e a , no o e a e a o an e ,
u

th t f s ubj ct f l b r W rk is l ng r d n with it b t p n it It is q it
a o a e o a ou . o no o e o e , u u o . u e

p rmissibl f
e pu rp s t ss m th t th l b r xp nd d th r p irs f i
e or o ur o e o a u e, a e a ou e e e on e e a o n

t u m t is incl d d in th l b
s r en s r n c ss ry f th ir rigi l p r d cti n B t in
u e e a ou e e a or e o na o u o . u

th t xt w d l w ith th t w r
e e ed t r whichea d ct r c r d which littl
a ea an ea , no o o can u e, a n e

by littl brings b t d th with th t kind f w r which c nn t b r p ir d fr m

e a ou ea , a o ea a o e e a e o

tim t tim e d which in th c s

o f kni f w ld ultim t ly r d c it t
e, a n st t, e a e o a e, ou a e e u e o a a e

in which th c tl r w ld y f it it is t w rth
e u w bl d
e W h v h w in
ou sa o , no o a ne a e . e a e s o n

th t xt th t
e m chin t k s p rt in v ry l b r p r c ss
e , a a aint gr l m ch in b ut
e a e a e e a ou -
o e a s an e a a e,

th t i t th sim lt n s pr c ss f cr ti g v l it nt rs nly hi t by bit H w

a n o e u a eou o e o ea n a ue e e o . o

gr t th n is th c nf si n f id s xhibit d in th f ll wi g xtr ct
ea e e o u Mr Ric rd
o o ea e e e o o n e a . a o

s ys p rti n f th l b r f th
a a o gin r in m king [st cking] m chin s is
o o e a ou o e en ee a o a e

c nt in d f x m pl in th v l f p ir f st ckings
o a e or e a Y t th t t l l b u r
e e a ue o a a o o .
“
e e o a a o ,

th t p r d c d ch singl p ir f st ckings
a o u e ea includ s th wh l l b r f e a o o e e o e a ou o

th ngi n r t p rti n ; f
e e m chin m k s m ny p irs
ee , n o a d o n f th s
o or on e a e a e a a , an no e o o e

p irs c ld h v b n d n wi th t y p rt f th m chin Obs c rt in v rb l ”

a ou a e ee o e ou an a o e a e . . on e a e a

d i pu t i P l Ec n p ti l ly l ti g t
s es n o lu
.
p Tho th. u nc mm nly
ar cu a r re a n ov a e,
”
. e au or , an o o

se l f ti fi d wis cr is right in his c n fusi n d th r f r in his c nt nti n t this

-
sa s e ea e, o o an e e o e o e o , o

ext nt nly th t ith r Ric rd

e o y th r c n mist b f r
a ne sinc him h
e a o n or a n o e e o o , e o e or e , as

acc ur t ly disting uish d th t w sp cts f l b r d still l ss th r f r th p rt

a e e e o a e o a ou , an e , e e o e, e a

p l y d by it u nd r
a e ch f th s s p cts in th f rm ti n f v l
e ea o e e a e e o a o o a ue .
 ’
Cap i ta li s t P r oa notz on
’

1 88 .

S uch an em ploy m en t of r efus e m ay b e s een i n th e lar g e m ach i n e

w or ks a t M a n ch es te w h er e m oun tai n s of i r on tu r n i n g s a r e r,

c a r ted a w a y to th e fou n d y i n t h e ev en i n g i n o d er th e n ex t r ,
r

m orn i n g to r e a p pea r i n th e w o k s h ops as s oli d m as s es of

-
r

i r on .

We h ave s een th a t th e m ea n s of
p r od u c ti on tr a n s fer v alue to
th e n ew p ro d uc t ,
so fa r y on l as d u r i n g t h e lab ou r p r oc es s t h ey -

los e v a lu e i n th e s h ape of t h ei r o ld u s e v a lu e Th e m ax i m u m
-
.

los s of v a lu e th a t th ey ca n s u ffer i n th e pr oces s i s pla i n ly ,

li m i ted b y th e a m o un t of th e or i g i n a l v a lue w i th w h i c h t h e
y
ca m e i n to th e
p r oc es s or i n o th er w or d s , b
y th e la b ou r ti m e ,
-

n ec es s ar y for th ei r
p r od u c ti on T h e r efor e, th e m e an s of
p ro .

d u c ti on ca n n ever a d d m or e v a lu e to th e pr od uc t th a n th ey
th em s el v es p os s es s i n d epen d en tly of th e pr oc es s i n w h i c h th ey
ass is t . H o w ev er us eful a g i ve n k i n d of r a w m a ter i a l or a ,

m ach i n e ,
or oth er m ea n s of p r od u c ti on m ay b e, th oug h i t m ay
c os t £ 1 5 0, 5 00 d a y s la ou r or , s ay , ,
’
b , y e t i t c a n n ot u n d e r a n
y
c i r c u m s ta n ces , a d d to t h e a lu e of th e
p r o d u c t m o r e th a n £ 1 5 0 v .

Its v alu e i s d e ter mi n ed n ot b y th e la our pr oc es s i n to w h i c h i t b -

en ter s a s a m ea n s of r o d uc ti on , b u t b y t h a t ou t of w hi ch i t h as
p
i ss u ed as a p r od u c t In t h e lab o ur pr oc es s i t .
-
on ly s er ves as a

m er e u e
s -
v a lue a thi ng w i th u s eful p r oper ti es
, ,
a n d c ou ld n ot
,

th er efor e, tr a n s fer an
y v a lu e to th e p ro d u c t, u n les s i t pos s es s ed
s u ch v a lue p ev i ous ly r .
l

1Fr m this w m y j dg f th bs rdity f J B S y w h pr t ends t cc nt

o e a u e o e a u o . . a , o e o a ou

for s urpl s v l ( Int r st Pr fit R nt ) by th s rvic s pr d cti fs which th

u -
a ue e e ,
o , e , e
“
e e o u
”
e

m s f pr d cti n s il instr m nts d w m t ri l r nd r in th l b r pr c ss

ea n o o u o ,
o , u e an ra a e a e e e a ou -
o e

by m ns f th ir v l s M “ m R h w h s ld m l s s
, ,

ea o e us e cc si n f
-
a ue . r.
T
. os c er o e o o e an o a o o re

g i t i g in bl ck d whit ing ni s p g ti f nci s r c rds th f ll wing

.

’
s er n , a an e, e ou a o o e c a e , e o e o o

sp cim n
e J B S y ( Tr it é t 1 ch 4 ) v ry tr ly r m rks th v l pr d c d
e . . a a , . . . e u e a : e a ue o u e

by i l m ill
an o ft r d d cti n f ll c s t is s m thi g
, a w s m thing q i t di ff r nt
e e u o o a o s, o e n ne , o e u e e e

fr m th l b r by w h ich t h
o e a i l mill its l f w
ou r ct d ( 1 p 82 n t ) V ry e o e as e e e .
”
. c .
, .
, o e . e

tr Mr Pr f s r th i l pr d c d by th i l mill is i d d s m thing v ry di ff r nt
ue, . o es o eo o u e eo n ee o e e e e

fr m th l b
o r xp nd d in c n tr cting th mill ! By v l Mr B ch nd r
e a ou e e e o s u e a ue , os et u e

st nds s ch st ff
a uil b c s il h v l n t withst nding th t N t r p
u as o ,
”
e au e o as a ue , o a a a u e ro

d c s p tr l m th gh r l tiv ly in sm ll q ntiti s f ct t which h s ms t

u e e o eu ,
ou e a e a ua e ,
”
a a o e ee o

f r in his f rth r bs rv ti n
re e It (Nat r ) pr d c s sc rc ly y xch ang v l
u e o e a o u e o u e a e an e e -
a ue .
”

Mr B sch r s N t
. o d th
e
’
xch ng v l it pr d c s
“
r th r lik th
a ur e
”
an e e a e- a ue o u e ar e a e e e

f lish virgin wh
oo dmitt d ind d th t h h d h d child b t it w s ch littl
o a e ee a s e a a a , u
“
as u a e

on e . This s vant séri x in c ntinu ti n r m rks Ric rd s sch l is in th

” “
a eu
”
o a o e a : a o
’
oo e

h bit f incl ding c pit l

a o ccum lat d l b r und r th h d f l b r This is
u a a as a u e a ou e e ea o a ou .

u nsk il f l w rk b c s ind d th wn r f c p it l aft r ll d s s m thi g m r

u o ,
e au e , ee , e o e o a a ,
e a ,
oe o e n o e

th n th m r ly cr ting d pr s rvi g f th e s m n m ly th bst ti n fr m

a e e e ea an e e n o a e : a e , e a en o o
I 90 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

r es ults i n th e pr od u c t T h er e i s n o c on s um pti on of th ei r va lu e .
,
‘

a n d i t w o uld t h er efor e b e i n a c c ur a te t o s a th t i t i r e r o d u ced

y a s p .

It i s r a th er
p r es e r ved n ot by r ea s on o f an
y O per a ti on it u n d er

g oes i ts elf i n th e p r oc es s ; b ut b ec a us e th e a r ti c le in w hi c h i t
or i g i n a lly ex i s ts v a n i s h es i t i s t r u e, b u t v a n i s h es i n to s om e
, ,

o th er a r ti c le . H en c e ,
i n th e v a lue of t h e pr od uc t, ther e i s a
r e- a
pp v
ea r a n c ea lue of th e of th e m ea n s of p r od uc ti on , b u t
th e e i s s tr i c tly s pea k i n g n o r e pr od uc ti on of th a t v a lue
r ,
T ha t , .

w h i c h i s pr od uced i s a n e w us e v a lue i n w hi c h th e old ex c ha n g e -

v a lue r e a ppea s -
r .
2

It i s ot h er w i s e w i th th e s ubj ec ti ve fa c tor of th e lab ou r pr o -

c es s w i th la b ou r p o w er i n a c ti on
, W hile th e la b ou r e b y
-
. r,

v i r tue of h i s la b ou r b ei n g of a pec i li s ed k i n d tha t h a s a s a

s ec i a l obj ec t es er v es a n d t r a n s fer s to th e d uc t th e v a lu e
p p , p r ro

of th e m ea n s of
p ro d u c ti on h e ,
at t he sa m e ti m e, b y th e m er e
a c t of w or k in g ,
c r ea te s ea c h i n s ta n t an a dd i ti on a l or n e w a lue v .

S uppos e th e pr oces s of pr od uc ti on to b e s topped j us t w h en the

w o k m a n h a s pr od u c ed a n eq u i va le n t for th e v a lue of h i s o w n
r

la b our po wer w h en for ex a m ple b y s i x h ou r s lab our h e h as

’
-
, , , ,

a d d ed a v a lue of th r ee s h i lli n gs T h i s v alue i s th e s ur plus of .

,

t he tota l v a lu e of th e pr od u c t ov er th e p or ti on of i ts a lue ,
v

th a t i s d u e to the m ea n s of p r od uc ti on It i s t h e on ly or i g i n a l .

b i t of v alu e for m ed d ur i n g th i s pr oces s t h e on ly po ti on of th e ,

r

v a lue of th e pr o d uc t c r ea ted b y th i s pr oc es s . Of c ou r s e, we

P d ctiv c ns m pti n
1 “ ro u wh r th c ns m pti n f m m d i ty i p t f
e o u o e e e o u o o a co o s a ar o

th pr ss f pr d cti n In th s inst nc s th r is c ns mp ti n f v l ”
e oc e o o u o . e e a e e e no o u o o a ue .

( S P N wm n 1 c p
. . e a , . . .

In Am ric n c mp ndi m th t h g n thr ugh p rh p s 20 diti ns this

2 an e a o e u a as o e o , e a , e o ,

p ss g cc rs It m tt rs t in wh t f rm c pit l p p rs ; th n ft r
“
a a e o u a e no a o a a te a -
ea e a e a

l ngthy n m r ti n f ll th p ssibl ingr di nt f p r d cti n wh s v l

e e u e a o o a e o e e e s o o u o o e a ue t e

a pp rs in t h
ea p r d ct th p ss g c ncl d s th s Th v ri s kinds f f d
e o u , e a a e o u e u e a ou o oo ,

cl thi g d sh lt r n c ss ry f th xist nc d c mf rt f th h m n b ing

o n ,
an e e ,
e e a or e e e e an o o o e u a e ,

ar e als ch g d Th y c ns m d fr m tim t tim

o an e . d th ir v l
e pp rs
ar e o u e o e o e, a n e a ue r e a -
ea

in th t w vig r imp rt d t his b dy d mind f rmi g fr sh c pit l t b m

a ne ou a e o o an ,
o n e a a , o e e

p l yo d ge in in t haw rk fap r d cti n ( F W yl nd l

e p p 3 1
o 3 2 With t
o o u o .
”
. a a , . 0 . .
, ou

n ticing y th r dditi s it s ffic s t bs rv th t wh t

o an o e o pp rs in th fr sh
e , u e o o e e, a a r e- a ea e e

vig r is t th br d s pric b t its bl d f rmi g s bst nc s Wh t

ou , no e ea
’
th e, u oo -
o n u a e . a ,
on e

o th r h nd
e pp rs in th v lu
a ,
f th t vig r is
r e- a eat th m ns f s bsist nc e a e o a ou , no e ea o u e e,

b t th ir v l
u e Th s m n c ss ri s f li f
a ue . t h l f th p ic e w ld f rm j st
a e e e a e o e, a a e r e, ou o u as

m ch m scl d b n j st m ch vig r b t t vig r f th s m v l

u u e an o e, u This as u ou , u no ou o e a e a u e.

c nf si n f v l
o u o d vig r c pl d with u th r s ph ris ic l i d fi i t
o a ue
”
an ou ou e o r au o
’
a a a n e n e

n ss m rk
e , tt mp t f til f ll th t t thr sh ut
a an a e xpl n ti n f s rpl
, u e or a a , o a o an e a a o o u us

v lu fr m m r
a e o pp r nc fp
a xisting v l s
e e re
i -a ea a e o re e-
a ue .
 Cons ta n t Cap z fa / a n a Va r i a b le Cap z z a l ’
' '
‘
. 1 9 1

do n ot for g et th a t thi s y p la ces t h e m on e

n ew
y valu e on l re
“

a d v a n c ed b t h i t li t i n th u r c ha s e o f th e la b ou r w
y e c a
p a s e
p p o e r -
,

a n d S en t b
p y t h e la b o u r er o n th e n ec es s a r i es of li fe W i th .

r eg a r d to t h e m on e s en t t h e n ew v a lue i s m er el
y p y,
a r e
p r o

d uc ti on ; b ut, n ev er th eles s i t i s an a c tua l a n d n o t, a s i n t h e , ,

c a s e o f th e v a lu e of th e m ea n s of r o d u c ti on , on l a n a p a r en t
p y p ,

r e r od uc ti on
p T h e. s u b s t i tu ti on o f o n e v a lu e f or a n ot h er ,
i s

h er e e ffec ted b y th e c r ea ti on of n e w va lu e .

W e kn ow , h o w ev er ,
fr om w h a t h a s gon e b efor e ,
th a t th e
lab ou r p r oc es s m ay c on ti n u e b ey on d th e ti m e n ec es s ar y t o r e
-

r od uc e a n d i n c or or a te i n th e d u t m r e eq ui v a len t for
p p p r o c a e

t he va lue of th e la b our p o w er I n s tea d of th e s i x h o ur s t ha t

-
.

a r e s u ffi c i en t for th e la tter u r pos e, t h e p r oces s m ay c on ti n ue

p
for t w elv e h ou r s Th e a c ti on of lab our po w er th er efo r e n ot
.
-
, ,

on l
y p re ro v
d uc es i ts
a lu e b u t p r o d ucow n
es v a lue ov er a n d ,

a b ove i t T h i s s u plu s v a lu e i s th e d i ffer en c e b etw een th e

. r -

v alue of th e pr od uc t a n d th e v alue of t he elem en ts c on s u m ed

i n th e for m a ti on of th a t pr od u c t, i n oth er w or d s , of th e m ea n s
of
pr od uc ti on a n d
p th e la b ou r -
ow er .

By ou r ex plan a ti on o f th e d i ffer en t pa r ts play ed b y th e v a r i

o us fa c tor s of t h e lab our r oc es s i n t h e for m a ti on of t h e ro
p p
-

d uc t s
’
v a lu e, w e ha ve ,
i n fa c t d i s clos ed th e
, c h a r a c ter s of th e
d i ffer en t fun c ti on s a llo tted to th e d i ffer en t elem en ts o f c a pi ta l

i n th e pr oces s of ex pan d i n g i ts o w n v alu e . The s u r plus of th e

tota l v a lue of t h e pr od u c t, ov er th e s u m of t he v a lu es of i ts
c on s ti tu en t fa c tor s i s th e,
s u r plus of th e e x pa n d ed c a pi ta l 0

th e ca
p i talg i n a lly a d va n ced The m ea n s of pr od uc ti on on
or i .

th e on e h a n d la b ou r pow er on th e oth er a r e m er ely th e differ

,
-
,

en t m od es of ex i s ten c e w h i c h th e v a lu e of th e or i g i n a l ca pi ta l

a s s u m ed w h en fr om b ei n g m on ey i t w a s tr a n s for m ed i n to th e

v a r i ous fa c tor s of th e la b ou r pr oces s T hat pa r t of ca pi tal -

.

th en , w hi c h i s r es en te d b y t h e m ea n s of r od u c ti on , b y t he
p re p
la b ou r ,
'

r a w m a ter i a l, a u xi li a r y m a ter i a l a n d th e i n s t r u m en ts of

d oes i n t h e pr oces s of pr od u c ti on u n d er g o a n y q ua n ti ta ti v e
n o t, ,

a lter a ti on of v a lu e I ther efor e ca ll i t th e c on s ta n t pa r t of

.

c a pi ta l, or , m o r e s h or tly , c on s ta n t c ap i ta l .

On th e oth er han d th a t p a r t of c a pi tal, r es en te d by

,
re
p
la b our po w er , d oes , i n th e p r o c es s
-
of
p r od uc ti on , u n d er g o an
f92 Capi ta li s z P r od ucti on ‘
.

a lter a ti on of v alue . It b oth re

p ro d u c es th e e
q u i v a len t of it
own v a lue p ,
a n d a ls o ro d uc es a n exc es s , a s ur
p lus -
v a lu e, w h i ch
m a y i ts elf v a r y , m ay b e m or e or les s a ccor di n
g to c i r c u m s ta n ces .

T h i s par t of c a pi ta l i s c on ti n u a lly b ei n g t a n s fo m ed fr om a r r

c on s ta n t i n to a va ria ble m a g n i tu d e I ther efo e c a ll i t the

. r

va r a i b le pa p i a l or s h or tl , v a r i a b le ca i ta l
r t o f ca
t y , p
, Th e sa m e .

elem en ts o f c a i ta l w h i c h , fr om t h i n t of v i e w of th e
p e
p o

la b ou r pr oc es s , pr es en t th e m s elv es
-
r es
p ec ti vely as th e bj ecti ve
o

a n d s u bj ec t i v e factor s a s m ea n s of d u c ti on a n d la b ou r
, p ro

p o w er,
p v es f o m t h e
r es e n t th em s el o f v i e w of th e
p
,
ro r
p oi n t

ce s of c r ea ti n g s u plu s v a lu e as c on s ta n t a n d v a r i a b le c a pi ta l
s r -
, .

Th e d efi n i ti on of c on s ta n t ca pi ta l g i v en a b ov e b y n o m ea n s
ex clu d es th e p os s i b i li ty of a c h a n g e of v a lu e i n i ts elem en ts .

S uppos e th e pr i c e of c otton to b e on e d a y s i x pen c e a p oun d ,

a n d th e n ex t d ay i n co n s eq ue n c e o f a fa i lu e o f th e c otto n c r o
, p r ,

a s hi lli n g a ou n d E a ch ou n d of th e c otton b oug h t a t s i x

p p .

en ce a n d w or k ed u a fter t h e r i s e i n v a lu e t a n s fer s t o th e
p , p ,
r

o d u c t a v alu e of on e s hi lli n g ; a n d th e c o tton a lr ea dy S un

p r
p
b e fo e th e r i s e an d pe rh a ps c i r c ula ti n g i n th e m a r k et as y ar n
r , ,

li k ew i s e tr a n s fer s to th e pr d u c t t w i ce i ts or i g i n a l va lu e It o .

i s p la i n h o w ev er th a t th e e c h an g es of v a lue a r e i n d epen d en t
, ,
s

o f th e i n c r em en t o r s u r plu s v a lu e a d d ed to t h e v a lue of th e -

c ot ton b t h e s i n n i n g i t elf If t h e old c o tton h a d n ev er

y p s .

b een s p un i t c ould a fter th e r i s b e r es old a t a s hi lli ng a

, ,
e,

p oun d i n s tea d of a t s i x pen ce F u r th e th e fe w e r t he

pr o ces s es . r ,

t h e c ot to n h a s g on e t h o ugh th e m o e ce ta i n i s th i s r es u ltr ,
r r .

W e th e efor e fi nd th a t s pec u la tor s m ak e i t a r ule w h en s uc h

r

s u d d en ch a n g es i n v a lu e oc c u r to s ec u la te i n th a t m a te i a l on
p ,
r

w h i c h th e lea s t p s s i b le qu a n ti ty o f la b ou h a s b ee n s pen t : t o
o r

ec ula t e,
th r efor e, i n n r a th er th a n i n c lo th , i n co tto n i t
s
p e y a r

s elf, r a th er th a n i n
y ar n T h e c h a n e of a lu e i n th e c as e w e
.
~

g v
h a v e b een c on s i d er i n g, or i gi n a tes ,
n oti n th e p r oc es s i n w h i c h th e
c o tton l
p ya s th e
p a r t of a m e a n s of
p r od u c ti on , a n d i n w h i ch i t

th er efor e fu n c ti on s a s c on s ta n t c a pi ta l, b ut i n t h e p r o ces s i n
w hi c h th e c otton i ts elf i s pr od u c ed . The valu e of a c o m m od i ty ,

i t i s tr u e , i s d eter m i n ed b y t h e q u a n ti ty of la b ou r c on ta i n ed in
i t b u t th i s
, q ua n ti ty
i s i ts elf li m i ted b y s oc i a l con d i ti on s If .

th e ti m e s oc i a ll
y n eces s a r y for th e pr od uc ti on of a n
y c om
1 94 Cap i ta /i s t P r od ucti on .

v ar a i ble capi tal ,

or th e pr opor ti on s i n w h i ch th e tota l c api tal
is Spli t u
p i n to i ts con s ta n t a n d _
v
a r i a le c on s ti tu en ts b
i t h as
n ot in th e leas t d eg r ee affec te d th e es s en ti al d i ffer en ce b etween
th e tw o .

C HA P T ER IX .

THE R AT E OF SURP L U S VA L U E -
.

SECTION 1 .
—THE D E G REE or Ee o r m r r on or L AB OUR POW E R -
.

THE s u r plus v alue gen er a ted i n th e pr oc es s o f pr od uc ti on b y C

-
,

th e ca pi ta l a d va n c ed or i n oth er w or d s th e s e lf expa n s i on o f
, ,
-

t h e v a lue o f th e c a pi ta l C p r es en ts i ts elf fo r our c on s i d er a ti on

, ,

i n th e fi r s t plac e as a s ur plus as th e a m un t b y w hi c h the

, ,
o

v a lue of th e r od uc t ex c eed s t h e v a lu e o f i ts c on s ti tuen t

p
elem en ts .

The ca pi tal 0 i s m ad e u p of tw o c om
p on en ts , on e, th e s um

of m o n ey 0 la i d ou t upon th e m ean s of
pr od uc ti on , an d th e
oth er th e,
s um of m on ey v ex p en d ed u pon t h e la b ou r pow er ; -

r e r es en ts th e r ti on th a t h as b ec om e c on s ta n t c a i ta l, a n d
0
p p o p
v th e por ti on th a t ha s b ecom e v ar i a ble ca pi ta l At fir s t th en .
,

C=c + v z for e xam ple ,

i f £ 5 00 i s t he c api ta l a d va n ced i ts c om ,

p on en ts m ay b e s uch th a t th e v ar .

W hen th e pr oces s of p ro d uc ti on i s fin i s h ed ,
w e get a c om

m od i ty w hos e w h er e s i s th e pls ur
u s v a lu e -

or ta k i n g ou r for m er fi g u r es t h e ,
v a lue of th i s c om m od i ty m ay

l T
s ur h r i gi n a l ca i ta l
p e o .
p
h as n ow c h a n g ed fr om C to C ’
fr om £ 5 00 to £ 5 9 0 The d i ffer .

en ce i s s or a s ur
plus v alue of £ 9 0 S i n ce th e value of th e
.

c on s ti tuen t ele m en ts th e pr od u ct i s e ual to t he v a lu e of

of q
v
th e a d an ced ca pi ta l, i t i s m er e ta utolo y to s ay , th a t th e ex g
c es s of th e v
alue of th e pr od u c t o v er th e a lue of i ts c on s ti tu v
en t elemen ts , qual to t he ex pan s i on
is e of th e ca
p i ta l a d v a n c ed

or to th e s u r plu s v alu e pr od u ced -

.

N ev er t h eles s w e m u s t exam i n e th i s
,
ta u tology a li ttle m or e
 T/l c Ra te ’
of Su rplus -
va lue . 1 95

c los ely . Th e tw o thi n g s c om pa r ed ar e, th e v alue of th e p r o

d uc t ,
and the v alue of i ts c on s ti tu en ts c on s u m ed i n th e pr oc es s
of
p ro d uc ti on . Now w e ha ve s een h o w th a t p or ti on of th e
c o n s ta n t ca
p i ta l w h i ch c on s i s ts of th e i n s tr u m en ts of la b our ,
tr a n s fer s to th e pr od uc t on l
y a fr ac ti on of i ts v alue ,
W h ile th e
r em a i n d e r of th at va lue c on ti n u es to r es i d e i n th os e i n s tr u
m en ts . S i n ce thi s r em a i n d er l
p y
a s no
p ar t i n th e for m a ti on of

va lue ,
w e m ay at
p r es en t lea v e i t on on e s i d e . To i n tr od uc e i t
i n to th e ca lc ula ti on w ou ld m a ke no d i ffer en c e . F or i n s ta n ce,
ta k i n g our for m er e x a m ple ,
s u ppos e thi s s um to c on

s is t £ 3 1 2 v a lue of r a w
of m a ter i a l, £ 4 4 va lue of au x ili ar y
m a ter i al a n d £ 5 4 v a lue of,
th e m a c hi n er y w or n a w ay i n th e
p r oc es s ; a n d s u
ppos e th at th e total v alue of th e m ac hi n er y
e m ploy ed is Out of thi s la tter sum, th en , w e r ec k on
for th e pu r pos e of tu r n i n g out th e pr od u c t, th e
a s a d v a n c ed

s u m of £ 5 4 a lon e, w hi c h th e m ac h i ner los es b w r an d

y y ea

tea r i n th e pr oces s for th i s i s all i t par ts w i th to th e pr od uc t .

No w i f w e als o r eck on th e r em ai n i n g w h i ch s till con

ti n ues i n th e m ach i n er y , as tr an s fer r ed to th e pr od uc t, w e
ough t als o to r eck on i t a s p a r t of th e v
a lue a d a n ced , a n d th us v
m ak e i t a ppea r on b oth s i d es of our ca lc ula ti on .
l
We s h ould ,

i n thi s w ay , get on on e s i d e a n d on th e oth er .

Th e d i ffer en ce of th es e tw o s um s , or th e s ur plus - value ,

w ou ld
s ti ll b e £ 90 . T h r ough out thi s B ook th er efor e, b y con s ta n t
ca pi ta l a d van ced for the pr od uc ti on of v a lu e, w e a lw a s m ea n ,
y
un les s th e c on tex t i s r e ugn an t th er eto, th e
p v alu e of th e m ea n s
o f pr od uc ti on a c tu ally c ons u m ed in th e p r oces s a n d th a t v alu e ,

a lon e .

T hi s b ei n g s o, let us r etur n to th e for m u la O=c + v , wh i ch

we saw w as tr a n s for m ed i n to C b ecom i ng C
'
.

W e k n ow th a t th e v alue of the con s tan t pi tal i s tr an s fer r ed

ca

to, d m er ely r e a ppear s m th e

an -
pr od u c t Th e n e w . v a lu e

a c tually c r ea ted i n th e
p r oc es s , th e v alue pr od uced or va lue ,

r od uc t i s th er efor e n ot th e s am e a s th e v a lue of th e r od u c t ;
p , p
i t i s n ot as i t w ould a t fi r s t s i gh t a ppea r
, or £ 1 1 0

1 r ck n th v lu f th fix d c pit l mpl y d
If w e e o e a e o e e a a e o e as a pa o f th e rt a d nc
va es ,

w m st r ck n th r m ining v l
e u e f s uch c pit l t th
o e e a a ue o a a a e en d o f t h e ea y r as a pa t r
of th nnual r tur s ( M l t h s P i
e a f P l Ec n 2 d
e n .
”
a u , r nc . o o . o . n cd . , L nd o .
,
1 836 , p .
(
1 9 6 Cap i tali s t P r od uct i on .

l
s ur
p ; b ut v + s or
. £ 9 0 s u r
pl .

n ot £ 5 9 0 b ut £ 1 8 0 . If e o or i n ot h er w or d s , i f th er e w er e
z
,

b r a n c h es of i n d us tr y i n w h i ch th e ca
p i ta li s t c ou ld d i s pen s e
wi th all m ean s of pr od u c ti on m a d e b y pr ev i ous la b our ,
w h eth er
t h ey b e raw m a ter i a l ,
au x ili a r y m a ter i a l ,
or i n s tr u m en ts of

lab our lo i ng o
p y ,
nl
em y m a te r i a ls s u
pp li la b our po w er a n d
ed -

b y N a tur e i n th a t ca s e, th er e w ou ld b e n o c on s ta n t c a pi ta l to
,

tr a n s fer to th e pr od uc t T hi s c om pon en t of the v alu e of th e .

p r od u c t, i . e, . th e £ 4 1 0 i n ou r ex a m ple ,
w o uld b e eli m i n a ted ,

b u t th e s um of £ 1 8 0, the a m ou n t of n e w v a lue cr ea ted , or th e

v alue p r od u ced ,
w hi ch c on ta i n s £ 90 of plu s v a lu e, w o uld
s ur -

r em a n j us t a s gr ea t as i f c
i r e r es en ted th e h i h es t v a lue
p g
i m ag i n able W e s h ould h v e O t h e ex pa n d ed
'
. a or

ca i ta l=v + s th er efor e O C = s a s befor e On th e oth er

'
and
p
-
.

h a n d , i f s 0, or i n oth er w or d s , i f th e la b ou r pow er , w h os e
z -

v a lue i s a d va n ced i n th e for m of v ar ia ble ca pi ta l, w er e t o pr o

q ui valen t ha v e C =c + v C ’
d u ce on ly i ts e ,
we s h ou ld or th e
v alue of th e O=O The ca pi ta l a d va n ced
’
or .

w ould i n th i s ca s e n ot h a v e ex pa n d ed i ts v a lue
, ,
.

F r om w h a t h as g on e b efor e w e k n ow th at s ur plus v alue i s -

u r ely th e r es ult o f a va r i a ti on i n th e v a lue of v of th a t p or ti on

p ,

of th e ca i ta l w h i c h i s tr a n s for m ed i n to la b o ur po w er ; c o n
p
-

'
s equ en tly , v v or v lus a n i n c r e m en t of v B u t th e
s v
p r .
.

fac t th a t i t i s v a lon e th at va r i es a n d th e c on d i ti on s of th a t ,

va r i a ti on b s cur ed b y th e c ir cum s tan ce th a t i n con s eq uence

,
ar e o

of th e i n cr eas e i n t h e v a r i a b le c om on en t of th e ca pi ta l th er e
p ,

is a ls o a n i n cr eas e i n th e s um tota l of th e a d v a n ced ca pi ta l . It

w as g i n ally £ 5 00 a n d b ecom es £ 5 90 T h er efor e i n or d er
or i .

t h at our i n v es ti g a ti on m a y lea d to ac c ur a te r es ults w e m us t

.

m ak e a b s tr a c ti on fr omth a t por ti on of th e va lue of th e pr o

,

d uct i n w h i ch con s ta n t capi ta l a lon e a ppear s a n d c on s eq uen tly

, ,

m u s t eq uate th e c on s tan t c a pi ta l to z er o or m ak e c 0 T hi s .

i s m er ely an a
pp li ca ti on of a m a th em a ti cal r ule, em ploy ed

w h en e v er we O per a te w i th con s ta n t a n d v ar i able m ag n i tud es ,

r ela ted to ea ch oth er b y th e s
y m b ols of a d d i ti on an d s ub

t r ac ti on on ly .

A fur th er d i ffi culty i s c aus ed b y th e or i gi n a l ,

for m of th e
b le x C = £ 4 1 0 con s t
'

v ar i a cap i tal . In our e am ple, . £ 90 v a r

1 9 8 Capzta ti s t P r od ucti on .

o th er v es s els ,
a r e n ec es s ar y to a c h em i c a l
p r oc es s , d oes n ot

c om el th e c h em i s t to n oti ce t h em i n th e r es u lt of hi s a n aly s i s
p
If w e look at th e m ean s of
p r od u c ti on , i n th ei r r ela ti on to th e
c r ea ti on of v alue ,
and t o th e va r i a t oni i n the q uan ti ty of value ,

a
p ar t fr om a n y th i n g els e, th ey pp a ea r s i m
pyl a s t h e m a teri al

i n w h i ch la b ou r p ow er , t h e -
v a lue c r eator , i n cor por a tes i ts elf
-
.

N ei th er th e n a tu r e n or th e v a lue ,
of th i s m a ter i al i s of a n y

i m por ta n ce y q u i s i te i s th a t t h er e b e a s uffi ci e n t
. Th e on l re

su
pp yl t o a b s or b th e la bo u r ex en d ed i n th e
p p r oces s of
p ro

d u cti on T ha t s u pply on c e gi ven th e m a ter i al m ay r i s e or

.
,

fa ll i n v a lu e or e v en b e a s la n d a n d th e s ea w i th ou t a n y v a lu e
, , ,

i n i ts elf ; b ut thi s w i ll h av e n o i n fluen c e on th e c r eati on of v alue

or on th e v a r i a ti on i n th e q u a n ti t of v a lue
1
y .

In th e fi r t plac e th en w e eq ua te th e c on s tan t c ap i tal to z er o

s .

The ca pi tal a d v an c ed i s con s eq uen tly r ed uce d fr om c +v to v ,

a n d i n s tea d of th e v alue of th e p r od u c t w e h a v e n ow
t h e v a lue p r od u c ed Gi v en th e n e w v a lu e pr od uc ed
£ 1 8 0 w h i ch s u m c on s equ en tly r epr es en ts th e w h ole la bou r ex
,

en d ed d u r i n g th e r oces s th en s u b tr a c ti n g f r om i t £ 9 0 t he
p p ,

v alue of th e v ar i a b le c a pi tal w e h av e r em a i n i ng £ 90 th e , ,

a m o un t of th e s ur lus v alue
p T h i s s u m o f £ 9 0 or s ex pr es s es
-
.

t he a b s olu te q u a n ti ty of s ur plu s v alu e p r od uc ed Th e r ela ti v e -

.

quan ti ty pr od u ced or th e i n c r eas e per cen t of th e v a r i a b le

,

ca
pi ta l,
i s d e t er m i n e d ,
i t i s
pla i n ,
b y t h e r a ti o of t h e s u r
plus

v alue to th e v a r i a b le c a pi tal or i s ex pr es s ed b y In o ur ,

ex a m le
p thi s r a ti o i s 38, w h i c h g i v es a n i n c r eas e o f 1 00
Z .

T hi s r ela ti ve i n cr ea s e i n th e va lue of th e v a r i a b le c a
pi ta l or ,

th e r ela ti v e m ag n i tud e of th e sur

p lus -
v alu e I ,
c all ,
“
The r a te
”
of s u r lu s alue
p v -
.

W e h av e s een th a t th e lab ou r er , d ur i n g on e
p or ti on of th e
lab ou r pr o c es s p r o d u ces on ly t h e v alu e of h i s lab our po w er
-
,
-
,

t h a t: i s , th e v a lu e o f h is m ea n s of s u b s i s ten c e Now s i n ce hi s .

What Lucr ti s s y is s lf vid nt nil p ss r ri d nihil

1 e u a t f n thing
s e -
e e o e e sa e o,
”
ou o o ,

n thing
o b cr t d C r ti n f v l
c an is tr sf rm ti n f l b ur p w r int
e ea e . ea o o a ue an o a o o a o -
o e o

l b r L b r p w r its lf i n rgy tr sf rr d t h um n rg nism by m ns f

a ou . a ou -
o e e s e e an e e o a a o a ea o

no urishing m tt r a e .

In th s m w y th t th English u th t rms r t f pr fit r t f i
2 e a e a a e se e e a e o o ,
”
a e o n1

t t
er es W sh ll
. in B k III th t th r t f pr fit is myst ry s n
e a s ee, oo .
, a e a e o o no e , so oo as

w kn w th
e ol ws f s rpl s v l u If w r v r th pr ss w c nn t c m pr
e a o u u -
a e . e e e se e oc e , e a o o e ~

h nd i t h r th
e e th th r
e e on e or e o e .
 Y/i o R a te f
o Su rp lus -
v a lue . 1 99

w or for m s p ar t o f a s y s tem, b a s ed on th e s oc i al d i v i s i on of
k
la b ou r , h e d oes n ot d i r e c tly p r od uc e th e a c tua l n ec es s ar i es
w h i c h h e hi m s elf con s um es ; h e pr od uc es i n s t ea d a p a r ti c ula r
c om m od i t
y y ,
ar n for e x a m ple ,
w h os e v a lue is e q ual to t h e
va lue of t h os e n ec es s a r i e s or o
f t h e m on ey w i th w h i ch t h ey
c an be b ough t Th e p or ti on of h i s d ay s lab our d evoted t o
.
’

t h i s p ur pos e, w i ll b e g r ea ter or les s i n p r e por ti on t o th e v a lue ,

o f th e n ec es s a r i es th a t h e d ai l
y v er a ge or re q ui r es on an a , ,

w h at a m oun ts to t h s a m e th i n g i n p r opo ti on to t h e la b o ur e ,
r

ti m e r eq u i r ed on a n a v er a g e to pr o d uc e th em If t h e v a lu e .

o f th os e n ec es s a r i es r e r es en t on a n a v er a g e th e ex en d i tu r e
p p
of s i x h ou r s la b our t he w o k m a n m u s t on a n a v er a g e w or k
’

,
r

for s i x h ou s to p od uc e th a t v alue r If i n s tea d of w or k i n g for

r .

t h e c ap i ta li s t h e w or k ed i n d e pen d en tly on h i s o w n a cc ou n t h e
, ,

w ould oth e thi n g s b ei n g equ a l s till b e ob li g e d to lab our for

,
r ,

t h e s a m e n u m b er of h o u s i n or d er to pr od uce th e v alue of r ,

h i s lab our po w er a n d th e eby t o ga i n the m ea n s of s ub s i s ten c e

-
,
r

n eces s a r
y f o r hi s c on s er v a ti on or c on ti n u ed r e r od uc ti on
p Bu t .

h a v e s een d ur i n g th a t por ti on o f h i s d ay s la b our i n

’
as we ,

w h i c h h e pr od uc es th e v a lue of hi s la b our pow er , s ay th r ee -

s h i lli n gs h e p r od uc es
, on ly a n e qu i v a len t for th e v a lu e of hi s

la b our -

p o w er a lr ea d
y a d v a n c ed by t he ca pi ta li s t ; th e n ew

v a lue c r ea ted on l
y p la c es th e v ar i a b le c a pi tal
re ad v a n c ed . It
is o wi n g to th i s fa c t, t ha t th e p r od uc ti on of t h e n e w v a lue of

t hr ee s h i lli n gs t ak es t h e s em bla n ce of a m er e p re r od u c ti on .

T h a t por ti on k i n g d ay t hen d u r i n g
of th e w orre , , w hi c h t hi s
r od uc ti on ta k e a c e I c a ll a b our ti m e a n d th e
”
p p l n eces s a
y l ,
“
r -
,

la b our ex pe n d ed d ur i n g th a t ti m e I c a ll n eces s a y
;
la b our r .
l

N ec es s ar y a s r egar d s th e la b our er b eca us e i n d epen d en t of t h e

, ,

r ti c ula r s oc i a l for m of h i s la b our ; g r ds

p a n ec es s a r
y a s r e a ,

c a i ta l a n d th e w or ld o f c a i ta li s ts b eca u s e on t h e c o n ti n ued
p , p ,

ex i s ten c e of th e la b ou r er d e en d s th ei r e x i s ten ce a ls o
p .

D ur i n g th e s econ d per i od o f t h e lab our pr oc es s t ha t i n -

,

In this w rk w h v up t w m pl y d th t rm n c ss ry l b r tim e t
1 o , e a e, o no , e o e e e e e a a ou -

,
”
o

d sig t th tim n c ss ry und r gi n s ci l c nditi ns f

e na e e e t h p r d ucti n f
e e y a e ve o a o o or e o o o an

co mm dity H nc f rw rd w u it t d sign t ls th tim n c ss ry f th

o . e e o a e se o e a e a o e e e e a or e

p r d cti n f th p rtic l r c mm dity l b

o u o o r p w r Th u f
e a d th s m u a o o a ou o e e se o on e a n e a e
-
.

t chnic l t rm i di ff r nt s ns s is inc nv ni nt b ut in
e a e n sci nc it be e e e o e e , no e e ca n e

alt g th r id d C mp r f inst nc th high r w ith th l w r br nch s f

o e e a vo e . o a e, or a e, e e e o e a e o

m th m tics
a e a .
2 00 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

w hi ch h i s la b our i s n o lon ger n eces s ar y lab our th e w or k m an , ,

i t i s tr ue la b ou r s exp en d s la b our po w er ; b ut hi s la b our b ei n g

, ,
-
,

n o lon g er n ece s s a r la b our h e c ea tes n o v a lu e for h i m s elf

y ,
r .

He c r ea tes s u r plus va lue w hi c h for th e ca pi tali s t h as all th e

-
, ,
;

c h a m s of a c r ea ti on ou t of n oth i n g
r T hi s po ti on of th e . r

w or k i n g d ay I n a m e s ur plus la bou r ti m e a n d to th e la b ou r
,
-
,

ex en d ed d ur i n g th a t t i m e I gi v e th e n a m e of s u r lu s la b our
p p
-
.
,

It i s ev er y b i t as i m por ta n t for a c or ec t u n d er s ta n d i n g of ,
r

s u r plus v a lu e to c on cei v e i t as a m er e con g ela ti on of s u plus

-
,
r

la b our ti m e a s n oth i n g b u t m a ter i ali s ed s ur plus lab our as i t

-
,
-
,

i s for a pr oper c om pr eh en s i on of va lu e to con cei v e i t as a m er e

, ,

c on g ela t i on o f s o m a n
y h o u r s o f l a b ou r a s n o thi n g b ut m a ,

t er i ali s ed lab ou r Th e es s en ti a l d i ffer en c e b etw een th e v ar i ou s

.

ec on om i c for m s of s oc i ety betw een for i n s ta n ce a s oci ety , , ,

b a s ed on s la ve lab our an d on e b as ed on w a ge lab our li es on ly , ,

i n th e m od e i n w hi c h th i s s u r plus lab ou r i s i n ea ch cas e ex -

tr ac ted f om th e a c tua l pr od uc er th e la b our er

r , .
l

S in ce on the on e h an d th e v alues of th e v ar i able ca pi ta l

, ,

an d of th e la b our o w er u r c h a s ed b t h t i t l r e eq ua l
p p y a ca p a a
-
,

a n d th e v a lu e of t h i s la b our w r d eter m i n es th e n ec es sa r y
p o e -

p or t i on of th e w or k i n g d a
y a n d s i n ce o n t h e o th e r h a n d t h e , ,

s u r lus v a lue i s d t m i n d b t h u lu ti n f t h e
p e e r e
y e s r
p s p o r o o
-

w or k i n g d ay i t follow s th a t s ur plus v a lue b ea r s th e sa m e r a ti o

,
-

to Va r i a b le ca pi ta l th a t s u r plus la bo ur d oes to n ec es sa r y la b ou r
,
-
,

'
v n eces s ar y la b our
m
B oth r a ti os 3 a n d ,
3 m
n eces safi
13 W "
'

la b ou r ’
e -
x pr es s th e s am e th i n g 1 1] d i ffer en t
w ay s i n th e on e ca s e by r efer en c e to m a ter i ali s ed , i n c or por a ted
la b our i n t he ,
oth er by r efer en c e v g fl uent la b ou r
to li i n ,
.

Th e r a te of s u r
plu s -
v alue is th er efor e a n exa c t ex pr es s i on

1 H rr Wilh lm Th cyd id s R
e e nd m r s n st H h m d th
u e os c h er h a s fou a a e
’
e . e as a e e

imp rt nt disc v ry th t i f
o a th o e h nd th f rm ti n f s r pl s v l
a ,
on e on e a , e o a o o u u -
a ue, or

s rpl s p r d uc
u u -
d th c ns q nt cc m l ti n f c p it l is
o e, a n we d ys d to e ue a u u a o o a a ,
no -
a -
a ue o

th thri ft f th c p it list
e oth th r h nd in th l w st st g s f civilis ti n it is
e a a ,
on e o e a , e o e a e o a o

th str ng w h c m p l th w k t
e o o n mis ( l c p
o e T c n mis wh t e ea o eco o e . . . o e o o e a ?

L b r Or s p rfl s w lth th t d s t xist Wh t is it th t m k s s ch
a ou ? u e uou ea a oe no e ? a a a e u

m en a sB sch cc nt f th rigin f s rpl us v lu by m r r ech ffe f th

o et a ou or e o o u -
a e, a e e au o e

m r l ss pl sibl xc s s by th c pit list f hi ppr pri ti n f s rpl s v l

o e or e au e e u e e a a , or s a o a o o u u -
a ue ?

It i b sid s th ir r l ign r nc th ir p l g tic dr d f sci ntific n lysis f

s, e e e ea o a e, e a o o e ea o a e a a o

l d s r pl s
v a ue a n l d f bt ining
u ur sult p s ibly t lt g th r p l t bl
-
va u e, an o o a a. e ,
o s no a o e e a a a e

t th p w rs th t b
o e o e a e.
20 2 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

T h ough th e m eth od i s s o s i m le,

p y e t i t m ay n o t b e a m i s s , b y
m ea n s of a fe w e x a m ples ,
to e x er c i s e th e r ea d er i n th e a ppli ca
ti on of th e n ov el p i r nc i ples u n d er ly i n g it .

Fi r s t w e w i ll ta ke th e ca s e of a s
p i n n i n g m i ll c on ta i n i n g
m u le s pi n d les , i n n i n g No 3 2 r n fr om A m er i c a n
s
p y a .

c ot to n , and p r o d uc i n g 1 lb o f y a r n w eek ly per s pi n d le

. We .

as s um e th e w a s te to b e 6 7 0
: u n d er t h es e c i r c um s ta n ces

lb s . of c otton ar e c on s um ed w ee ly , k of
w h i c h 6 00 lb s go to .

w a s te . Th e pr i ce of the c o tton in A pr i l, 1 8 7 1 , w a s 7 £d per .

lb ; th e
. r aw mate ri al th er efo r
e c os ts in r ou n d n um be rs £3 42 .

Th e i n d les , i n c lu d i n g r e a r a ti on m a ch in er y , a n d
p s
p p
-

mo ti v e p o w e r , c os t w e w i ll a s s u m e, £ 1
p
,
e r s i n d le a m ou n ti ng
p ,

to a tota l of Th e w ea r and tea r w e put at 10Z ,

or

£ 1 000 y ea r ly £ 2 0 w ee ly Th e k . r e n t of th e b uild i n g we
su
pp os e to b e £ 300 a y ea r , or £ 6 a w ee k . Coal c on s u m ed
( for

1 00 h or s e po w er i n d i c a ted , a t 4 lb s
-
. of c oal
p h o rse
p ow erer
p er -

g
h o ur d u r i n 6 0 h ou r s , a n d i n clus i e v o f t h a t c o n s u m ed i n h ea ti n g

th e m i ll), 1 1 ton s a w ee k a t 8s . 6d . a ton , a m o un ts to a b ou t £ 491

a w ee k : ga s , £1 a w ee k ,
a w ee k . Tota lc os t of th e a b ov e
a u xi li a r y m a te r i a ls £ 1 0 w eek ly ,
. T her efor e th e c on s ta n t p or ti on
of th e v a lue of p th e w eek
’
s ro d uc t i s £ 37 8 . Wag es a m o un t

to £ 5 2 a w ee k Th e pr i ce o f t he y a r n i s 1 2i d p er lb , w hi ch
. . .

g i v es for th e v a lu e o f lb s th e s um of £ 5 1 0 Th e s ur plus . .

v a lue i s ther efor e i n th i s c as e £ 5 1 0 £ 4 3 0 £ 8 0 W e pu t .

th e c on s ta n t
p a r t of th e v alue of t h e p r od u c t 0 as i t play s ,

no p ar t i n t he c r ea ti on of v alu e . T her e r em a i n s £ 1 3 2 as th e
w ee ly k v alue c r ea ted , w h ic h £ 52 v ar . £ 80 s ur
p l . Th e
r a te of s u r plus - value i s th er e for e gg 1 5 3 11; X . In a w or ki ng
d ay of 1 0 h ou r s w i th a ve age r la b ou r th e r es u lt is : n ec es s a r
y
lab ou r 3 tt h our s , an d s ur
p lu s la b ou r -

On e m or e ex a m ple Ja c ob g i v es the follow i n g c alc ula ti on for

.

th e y ea r 1 8 1 5 . O w i n g to th e p ev i ous a dj us tm en t of s ev e a l r r

i tem s i t i s er y v i m pe fec t ; n ev er th e l
r for ou r p ur pos e i t i s es s

s u ffi c i en t . In i t h e a s s u m es th e pr i c e of w h ea t to b e 8 s . a

q uar ter ,
an d th e a v er a g e y i eld p er a c r e to b e 2 2 u s h els b .

1 b v d t which m y b r li d up n w r giv n m by M nch st r s pinn r

Th e a o e a a, a e e e o , e e e e a a e e e .

I Engl nd t h h rs p w r f
n a ngin w f rm rly c lc l t d fr m th di m t r
e o e -
o e o an e e as o e a u a e o e a e e

of its cylind r w th ctu l h rs p w r sh wn by th indic t r is t k n

e , no e a a o e- o e o e a o a e .
 7 7 mR a te of Su rplus -
v a lue . 20 3

V ALU E P RODUC ED PER A C RE .

9 0 Ti th es R a tes , ,
an d

10 0 T a x es ,

10 0 R en t ,

F a r m er Pr ofi t a n d
’
s

I nter es t ,
1 2 0

T o ta l ,
£7 9 0 T o tal ,
£3 1 1 0

A s s um i n g t h a t th e p r i ce of
th e pr od uc t i s th e s am e a s i ts
v alue, w e h er e fi n d th e s u r plus v
a lue d i s tr i u ted
-
b u n d er th e
v ar i ous h ea d s of
p ro fit ,
i n ter es t, r en t, &c . W e h a ve n oth i n g to
d o w i th thes e ln d eta i l ; w e s i m ply ad d th em tog eth er , an d th e
s um is a s ur plu s -
va lu e of £ 3 1ls . 0d . Th e s um of £ 3 1 9 s 0d . .
,

p a i d for s eed a n d m an u r e i s ,
c on s tan t ca
p i tal, an d w e p ut i t
e qual to z er o T her e i s left th e s um of £ 3 1 0s
. . 0d , w hi ch i s
.

th e v a r i a b le ca pi tal a d va n c ed an d w e s ee th a t a n e w v alu e of

£ 3 1 0s 0d £ 3 1 l s 0d h a s b een pr od u c ed i n i ts plac e
. . .
,

T h er efor e { f 33 g i v i n g a r a te of s u r lus v a lu e of m or e
f p ,
-

t ha n 1 00 Z Th e la b ou r er em ploy s m or e th an on e h alf of h i s
.

w or k i n g d ay i n pr od u c i n g th e s u r plus v alue w h i ch d i ffe r en t -

,

er s on s u n d er di ffer en t r etex ts s h a r e a m on g s t th em s elv es

ll
p , p ,
.

S E C TI ON 2 —T HE RE P R E SE N T ATI ON OF T H E CO M P ON E N TS OF TH E VA L UE OF
.

TH E PR OD U CT BY C ORRE SP ON D I NG P R OP ORTI ONAL PA R TS OF T H E PR O

DU CT IT SE L F .

Let us n ow r etu r n to th e e xa m ple b y w h i ch w e w er e s h ow n

h ow t h e c a pi ta li s t con ver ts m on ey i n to c api tal .

Th e pr od uc t of a b
2 0 lbw or k i n g d ay of 1 2 h our s i s
s of
y ar n .
,

h av i ng a v a lue of 3 os No les s tha n —th s of thi s value, or 24s

. .

i s d u e to m e r e r e a ppear an c e i n i t of e v alu e of th e m ea n s of
-
, th
r od u c ti on 20 lb s of c otton , v a lu e 2 0s , a n d s i n d le w or n a w a
p ( p .
y ,

4s ) : i t i s th er efor e c on s t an t ca
p i ta l T h e r e m a i n i n g — th.s or

6 s i s th e
. n ew v a lu e c r ea ted d ur i n g th e s p i n n i n g pr oc es s : of

1 c lc ul ti ns giv n in th t xt int nd d m r ly illustr ti s W h v

Th e a a o e e e ar e e e e e as a on . e a e

i f ct ss m d th t p ric s
n a a u v lu s W sh ll h w r
e a in B k III th t
e a e . e a , o ev e , s ee , oo .
, a

ev n in th c s f v r g pric s th s ump ti n c nn t b m d in this v y simpl

e e a e o a e a e e e as o a o e a e er e

m nn r
a e .
 Capi ta tz s t P r od u cti on .

th i s l s th e va lue Of th e d a
h alf b ’
on e re l u w r or th e
p ace
y s a o r
p o e -
,

va r i able ca pi tal th e r em a i n i n g h alf c on s ti tutes a s u r plu s value

,

of 3 s The total valu e t hen of th e 20 lb s Of y a r n i s m a d e u p

. .

as follow s :

3 0s . value Of y ar n 2 4s . c on s t . 3s . v ar . 3é . s ur pl .

S i n c e t he w h ole Of thi s value is c on ta i n ed i n th e 2 0 lb s . Of

y a rn
p r o d uc ed , i t follow s th a t th e var i ou s com pon en t par ts Of
th i s v a lue ,
c an be l e r es en ted
p as bei n g con tai n ed r es pec ti vely
in c or r es
p on di n g p a r ts o f th e pr od uc t .

If th e va lue o f 3 03 i s — th s
. c on ta i n ed 1 11 2 0 lb s . of y ar n , th en f0
Of th i s v alue ,
or th e 2 4 s . th a t for m i ts con s ta n t p a r t, is con

tai n ed i n fa th s of th e p ro d uc t or i n 1 6 lb s . of y a r n . Of th e
la tter 1 3 1, lb s . re
p r es en t th e va lue Of th e m a ter i al, th e 2 0s
r aw .

w or th of cotton s
pu n, a n d 2 3 lb s
: . r e r es en t th e 4s
p w or th of .

s p i n d le,
&c , w or n a w ay i n th e pr oc es s .

H en ce th e w h ole Of th e cotton u s ed up in s pi nn i n g th e 2 0
lb s . Of
ypa r n, is re
y r es en ted b y 1 3 1 lb s . of ar n . T h i s la tter
w ei g h t of y a r n con ta i n s i t i s tr ue, b y w ei g h t, n o m or e t h an 1 3 11;
,

lb s Of c otton w or th 1 3 1; s h illi n gs b ut the 6 3 s hilli n gs a d di ti on a l

.
,

v alu e c on ta i n ed i n i t a r e th e equi valen t for th e cotton con s um ed

,

i n s pi n ni n g the r em a i n i ng 6 § lb s of y a r n The effec t i s th e . .

s a m e as i f th es e 6 3 lb s . Of y a r n co n ta i n ed n o c otton a t a ll, a n d

th e w h ole 20 lb s . of c otton w er e con c en tr a ted i n th e 1 3 g

, lb s . of

y ar n . The latter w ei g h t ,
on th e oth er h an d d oes ,
n ot c on ta i n

a n a to m ei th er of th e va lue of th e a uxi liar y m a ter i a ls a n d i m ple

m en ts , or of th e v alue n ewly c r ea ted i n th e pr oces s .

In th e s am e w ay , the 2 glb s of a r n i n w h i c h th e 4s th e
.
y , ,
re

m a i n d er Of th e c on s ta n t c a pi ta l, is em bodi ed , p re r es en ts n oth i n g
b u t th e v alue of th e a uxili a r y m a ter i als a n d i n s tr um en ts Of

lab ou r con s u m ed i n p r od u c i n g t h e 20 lb s of y ar n . .

W e h av e, th er efor e, a rr i ved a t th i s r es u lt : alth ough ei gh t

“

ten th s th e pr od u ct
Of 1 6 lb s of r n, i s i n i ts ch a r ac ter f
or .
y a ,
o

m u ch th e fa br i c
’
an ar ti c le of u ti li ty , j u s t as Of th e s i nn er
p s

lab our , as th e r em a i n d er Of th e p sa m e r o d u c t,
y et w h en vi ew ed
i n thi s x i on i t d oes
con n e a n d h a s n ot
,
n ot con ta i n ,
a bs or b ed

any la b our ex pen d ed d ur i n g th e pr oc es s of s pi n n i n g . It i s j us t

a s i f th e c ot ton h a d c on v er t ed i ts elf i n to y a r n w i th ou t h elp ; ,

as i f th e s h a pe i t h a d as s umed w a s m er e tr i c k er y a n d d ecei t
 Capz ta /i s t P r od uct i on
’

2 06 .

lab our xpen d ed d ur i n g th e s am e l

th e s v alue ;
‘

u s ur
e p r oce s s , or
p
-

to d o th i s , i s , as w i ll b e s een la ter on fr om i ts a ppli c a ti on to

c om
pli c a ted a n d h i th er to v
u n s ol ed
p ro blem s ,
no les s i m por
ta n t th a n i t i s s i m ple .

In th e pr eced i n g i n ves ti ga ti on w e h a v e tr ea ted th e tota l

r od uct as th e fi n al r es ult r ea d f u f w k i n g d f
p y or s e o a o r a
y o , ,

1 2 h our s . We ca n h ow ev er follow th i s tota l pr od uc t th r ough

all th e s ta ges of i ts p r od uc ti on ; a n d i n th i s w ay w e s h all

ar r i ve at th e s a m e r es u lt as b efor e ,
if we re
p r es en t th e pa r ti a l

p r od u c ts , g i v en o ff at th e d i ffer en t s ta ges ,
as fun c ti on ally
d i ffer en t pa r ts of th e fi n al or tota l p r od uc t .

Th e s pi n n er pr od uces i n 1 2 h our s 20 lb s . of y ar n , or in 1
h ou r 1 3 lb s quen tly h e pr od uces i n 8 h ou r s 1 3 § lb s or
. c on s e ,

a a r ti a l pr od uc t eq ua l i n v a lue t o a ll t h e c otton th a t i s s pu n
p
i n a w h ole d ay In li k e m an n er th e pa r ti al pr od uc t of th e
.

n ex t er i od of 1 h our a n d 3 6 m i n u tes i s as lb s of y a r n : thi s

p ,
.

r e r es en ts th e v a lue of th e i n s tr um en ts o f la b our th a t a r e c on
p
s u m ed i n 1 2 h our s . In th e follow i n g h our an d 1 2 m i n u te s ,
th e i n n er r od uces 2 lb s f a r n w or th 3 s h illi ng s , a v alue
p s
p o y .

e qual t o th e w h ole v alu e h e c r ea tes i n hi s 6 h our s n eces s a r

‘

y
la b our . F i n ally i n the la s t h our
,
an d 1 2 m i n u tes h e pr od uces
a n oth er 2 lb s
y v a.lu of
e ar n , w h os e i s equal to th e s u r plu s
v alue cr eated b y h i s s ur plus lab our d ur in g h alf a d ay T hi s
,
-
.

me th od of calc ula ti on s er ves th e E n gli s h ma n ufa c tur er f or

ev er y d ay u s e ; i t s how s h e w i ll sa th a t i n th e fi r s t 8 h ours
y , , ,

o g of th e w or k i n
r
g d a
y h e g ets b a c k th e v alu e of h i s cotton ;
,

an d so on for th e r em a i n i ng h our s . It i s a ls o a p er fec tl

y
c or r ec t m eth od : bei ng i n fac t th e fi rs t m eth od gi ven a b ov e
w i th thi s d i ffer en ce, t h a t i n s tead of b ei n g a ppli ed to s ace i n
p ,

w h i c h th e d i ffe r en t pa r ts of th e c om pleted p r od uc t li e s i d e b y
s i d e, i t d ea ls w i th t i m e, i n w hi ch th os e pa r ts a r e s uc ces s i el
y v
p r od u c e d . But i t ca n als o be ac c om pa n i ed by v er y b a r b a r i a n
n oti on s , m or e i n th e h ea d s of t h os e w h o
ec i a ll a r e as m un I1
es
p y
i n ter es ted , pr ac ti ca ll , i n th e
y p r oces s of m a k i n g va lue b eg et
v a lu e, a s i n m i s un d e1 s ta n d i n g th a t pr oc es s th eor eti
th ey are ~

ca lly S uc h people m ay get th e n oti on i n to thei r h ead s , tha t

.

o ur s i n n er , for ex a m le, r od u ces or r e la c es i n th e fi r s t 8

p p p p
h our s of h i s w or k i n g d ay t he va lue of th e cotton ; i n t h e
 Too Ra te f
o Su rp lus v a lue
-
. 207

follow i ng h our and 3 6 m i n utes th e v a lu e of th e i n s tr um en ts of

la b our w or n a w ay ; i n th e n ex t h ou r a n d 1 2 m i n u tes th e v a lu e

of th e w a g es a n d th a t h e d ev otes to th e pr od u c ti on of s u r plus
”
a t w ell k n ow n
“
v a lue for the m an u fac tu r er , on l th la s t h our
y .

In t hi s w ay th e poor s pi n n er i s m a d e to p er for m th e tw o fold -

m i r acle n ot on ly of pr od uc i n g c otton , s p i n dles , s tea m en gi n e -

,

c oa l, oil, &c , a t th e s a m e ti m e th a t h e s pi n s w i th th em , b u t
.

als o of tur n i n g on e w or k i ng d ay i n to fi v e for i n th e

,
e xa m ple
w e a r e c ons i d er i n g ,
th e p r od uc ti on of th e r a w m a ter i al an d i n s tr u
m en ts la b our d em a n d s four w or k i n g d ay s of t w elv e h our s
of

ea c h , an d th ei r con v er s i on i n to y a r n r e q u i r es a n oth er s u c h d a
y .

T hat th e lov e of lucr e i n d u c es a n ea s y b eli ef i n s u ch m i r acles ,

an d th a t s
y co
p h an t d oc tr i n a i r es ar e n e v er to pr ov e
w a n ti n g
t hem , i s v ouch ed for b y t he follo w i n g i n c i d en t of hi s tor i cal
l
ce e b r i ty .

E CT I ON 3 —SE N I OR S LA ST H OUR ”
’
S . .

On e fi n e m or n i n g i n th e y ear 1 8 3 6 N as s au W S en i or , w h o
, ,
.

m ay b e called th e b el es pr i t of E n gli s h econ om i s ts w ell k n ow n ,

-
,

a li k e for hi s econ om i c a l a n d for b i s b ea uti f ul s t le,

”
s c i en c e
“
, y ,

w a s s u mm on ed fr om O x for d to M a n ch es ter , to lear n i n th e

la tter plac e t he poli ti ca l ec on om y t h a t h e ta ug h t i n th e fo r m er
, .

Th e m a n ufa c tur er s elec ted h i m as thei r c h a mpi on n ot on ly ,

a ga i n s t th e n ew ly as s ed F a c tor A t b u t g i n t th ti ll
p ~,
y c a a s e s ,

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.

a cuten es s th ey h a d foun d out th a t th e lea r n ed P r ofes s or

,

w a n ted a g ood d ea l of fi n i s hi n g ; i t w a s thi s d i s cov er y th a t

cau s ed t h em to w r i te for hi m O1 1 h i s s i d e th e P r ofes s or h a s
.

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.
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2 08 C P r od ucti on .

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t ur n ed on c e a y ear , an d g r os s pr ofi ts to b e 1 5
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—
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r s r .

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y q u sti n c r cy f his fig r s L n rd H rn r h sh wn in A “
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L tt r t Mr S ni r & L nd n 1 83 7 th t th y w r th m r th n th
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c ll d An lysis L n rd H
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’
2 10 C P r od ucti on .

p ro fit i n th e other v a lu e o f th e
5 % h ou r s . Aga i n ,
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y a n p ro d u c ed i n 2
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la s t w or k i n g h ou r b ut on e i s li k e th e fi s t a n o di n a r y w or k i n g ,
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b y 5 2 w o k i n g h ou r s of w hi c h 4 g w er e w i th ou t a n y a s s i s ta n c e
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.
pr od uc ed

i n 5 } h ou r s 4
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’
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b y his 5 5
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t h e pr o d u c t s pun i n on e hou r Y ou a r e a ltog e th er on th e .

w r on g tr a ck i f y ou thi n k th a t h e los es a s i n g le m om en t of h i s
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b ec au s e h e s pi n s tha t th e valu es of the c otton a n d s pi n d les go

,

o v er to t h e y a r n o f th ei r o wn a c c or d T hi s r es ult i s o w i n g to .

th e qua li ty o f hi s la b our n ot to i ts q u a n ti ty It i s t r ue h e , .
,

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an

c aus e in on e h ou r h e s i ns u
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.
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t h ey ar e t he 2 fir s t or th e 2 la s t h ou r s of th e w or ki ng d ay , i n
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An d m y a s s er ti on th a t, i n th e fi r s t 5 2 h ou r s
’
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h e pr od uces h i s w ag es a n d i n t h e las t 5 2 h ou rs y ou r n et pr ofi t , ,

a m o u n ts on ly to thi s th a t u h i m f or th e for m er b u t n ot
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,

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s ur lus la b our t h en th e latter w i ll b e i nc r ea s ed fr om 5 % h ou r s

’

p
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’

c a r r i e d i n th e ur s e— ou ta k e too p es s i m i s t a v i e w w h en y ou
p y ,

fea r th a t w i th a r ed u c ti on of th e h ou r s of la b ou r fr om 1 1 ; to
,

1 0 t h e w h ole of y ou r n et p r ofi t w i ll go to th e d og s
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g i v es a v er y pr ofi table r ate of s u r plu s v a lu e n am ely 8 2; -

Bu t th i s d r ea d ful la s t h ou r a b ou t w hi c h y ou h a ve i n v en t ed ,

m or e s tor i es th a n h a v e th e m i llen ar i an s a b ou t th e d ay of
j ud g m en t i s a ll b os h If i t goes i t w ill c os t n ei th er y ou
, .
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, ,

o ur n et r o fi t n or th e b o s a n d g i r ls w h o m u m l t h i
y p y , y o e p yo e r ,

p u r it
y o f m i n d W V h en ev e r
y ou r las t h o u r
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s t r i k es i n
“ ”

1 If, h nd S ni r p r v d th t th t p r fit f th m n f ct r r
on th e on e a , e o o e a e ne o o e a u a u e ,

th xist nc f th E glish c tt n ind stry d Engl nd s c mm nd f th m rk ts

ee e e o e n o o u ,
an a
’
o a o e a e

of th w rld d p nd
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o , th
e e th r h nd Dr Andr w
on e a o o ,
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U sh w d th t i f childr n
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, a e an oun e o e ea o a e, ea o e

k p t th f ll 1 2 h rs in th w rm d p r m r l tm sph r f th f ct ry
e e u ou e a an u e o a a o e e o e a o , ar e

t rn d t h r s n r int th h rtl ss d fri v l us ut r w rld th y w ill b

u e ou an ou oo e o e ea e an o o o e o , e e

d priv d by idl n ss d vic f ll h p f s lv ti n f th ir s uls Sinc 1 848 th

e e , e e an e, o a o e o a a o or e o . e , e

f ct ry i s p ct rs h v n v r tir d f twitti g th m st rs with this

a o n e o a l st this
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f t lha a r Th s Mr H w ll in h i r p rt f th 3l t M y 1 855 H d th f ll w
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ing ing ni s c lc l ti n (h q t s S ni ) b n c rr ct v ry c tt n f ct ry in th
e ou a u a o e uo e e or ee o e , e e o o a o e

Unit d Kingd m w uld h v b n w rking t l ss sinc th y r

e o o ( R p rts a e ee o a a o e e ea e o
 Cap z mlzs c P r od ucti on
' '

ea r n es t, t hi n k on th e O x for d P r ofes s or An d n ow g en tlem a n .

, ,

fa r ew ell ,
an d m ay w e m eet a g a i n i n y on d er b etter w or ld b ut -

n ot b efor e .
”

S en i or i n v en ted th e ba ttle c r y of th e
“
las t h our in
of th e Ins p
F t f th h l f y r nding 30th Ap ril 1 855 pp 1 9
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or e a -
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S m rs t f ist d p titi n g inst th bill t th sh ld rs f f w f th ir w rk

o e e ,
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childr n th n th rwis b li ving th t idl n ss is th p nt f vic

e a o e On this th e, e e a e e e are o e . e

f ct ry r p rt f 3 l t Oct 1 8 48 s ys Th
a o e o tm ph r f th fi x mills in which th
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es e e o o e an e a o re e e ou

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a e , a e o e ne o o e a a e o o e a ou o e

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e o ne o a o o o e u , e sa , a e e e o n

e y s wh n it w finds th t th ri gi n l dis v ry f th virt s f th l t h r

e , e no , a e o a co e o e ue o e as ou
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a u a u e , o e , e ar c es , e a o , e ea , an e a s ca

t i ns th y m d u f in rd r first t c m p l f w d f nc l ss w rkm n t sign

o , e a e se o , o e , ,
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p titi ns f such
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o a , an e o o e e o a a e as e e o

o f wh l br nch f ind stry

a o e wh l c ntry It is highly ch r ct istic f th
a o u , or a o e ou . a a er o e

p r s nt st t s f
e e c ll d c n mic l sci n th t n ith r S ni r hims lf w h t
a u o so a e e o o a e ce , a e e e o e , o, a a

l t r p ri d t his h n ur b it s id n rg tic lly s pp rt d th f ct ry l gisl ti n

a e e o ,
o o o e a , e e e a u o e e a o e a o ,

n or his pp n nts fr m first t l st h v v r b n bl t xpl in th f ls

o o e , o o a ,
a e e e ee a e o e a e a e c on

l si ns f th
e u o rigin l disc v ry Th y pp l t ct l xp ri nc b ut th why
o e o a o e .
”
e a ea o a ua e e e e, e

a d wh r f r r m ins
n myst ry
e e o e e a a e .

1 N v rth l ss t h l
e e rn d pr f ss r w
e e t with t s m b n fit fr m h i j rn y
e ea e o e o as no ou o e e e o s ou e
,

t M nch st r In th L tt rs th F ct ry A ct h m k s th wh l t g i s ”
o a e e . e e e on e a o , e a e e o e ne a n

incl ding pr fit
u d int r st d v n som thing m r d p nd p n singl
o an e e ,
”
an e e e o e,
”
e e u o a e

u np id h r s w rk f th l b r r O y r p r vi sly in his O tlin s f P litic l

’
a ou o o e a ou e . ne ea e ou , u e o o a

Ec n my writt n f th instr cti n f Oxf rd st d nt d c ltiv t d Philistin s

o o ,
”
e or e u o o o u e s an u a e e ,

h h d ls disc v r d in Op p siti n t Ri rd s d t rminati n f v l by l b r ’

e a a o o e e , o o o ca o e e o o a ue a ou ,

t t p r fit is d riv d fr m th l b ur f th c p it list d int r st fr m hi sc ticism

ha o e e o e a o o e a a , an e e o s a e ,
 Capz mlz s t P r od ucfi on
' '

C HA P T ER X .

T H E WORKI NG DAY .

SE CTI ON 1 .
—THE LIM IT S or T HE W O RK I NG DAY .

WE
‘

s ta r ted w i th th e su
pp os i ti o n th a t la b ou r p o w er i s b oug h t -

a n d s old a t i ts v alue . Its v a lue ,

lik e t h a t o f a ll oth er com m o
d i ti es , i s d eter m i n ed b y th e w or k i n g ti m e n ec es s a r y to i ts
p r od u c ti on I f t h e pr od
. uc ti on of th e a v er a g e d a i ly m ea n s o f
su b s i s ten ce of th e lab our er tak es up 6 h ur s h e m us t w o k on o ,
r ,

th e a v er a g e (5 h ou r s ev er y d ay to pr od u ce h i s d a i ly la b ou
, ,
r

o w er o t r e r od u c e th e v a lu e r ecei v e d a s th e r es ult of i t
p o , pr s

s ale . The n eces s a r y pa r t of h i s w or k i n g d ay a m ou n ts to 6 .

h ou s a n d i s th er efor e c oetems p a r i b us a g i v en q uan ti ty Bu t

’

r , , , , .

w i th thi s t h e ex ten t of th e w or k i n g d ay i ts elf i s n ot y et

,

g iv en .

Let u s a s um e th a t th e li ne A B r epr es en ts th e len g th of th e

s

n eces s a r y w or k i n g t i m e s a 6 h ou r s I f th l b r be
‘

y e a ou
, p o . r

lon g ed 1 3 or 6 h ou s b ey on d A B w e h av e 3 oth er li n es
, ,
r ,

W or ki n g d ay I W or k i n g d ay II
. W or k i ng d ay III . .

A — B — C A B . O A —B O . .

es en ti n g 3 d i ffe e n t w or k i ng d a s of 7 9 a n d 1 2 h ou r s
re
pr
y r , ,
.

Th e ex ten s i on B O of th e li n e A B r ep es en ts th e len g th of r

th e s ur plus la b ou As th e w or k i n g d ay i s A B+ B O or
r .

A C i t v a i es w i th t h e v a r i ab le q uan ti ty 8 0 S i n c e A B
,
r .

i s con s ta n t th e r a ti o of B O to A B c an a lw a y s b e c alc u la te d
, ,

In w or k i g d ay I i i i k i g d 1 1 — i n w o ki n g d a
n t s n w o r n . a
y z y ,
r

n ec es sa r y wo

m i n es t h e r a te o f th e s ur
plu s -
v a lu e ,
th e la tter i s g i v en b y th e
r a ti o of B U to A B . It a m o u n ts i n th e 3 d i ffer en t w or k i ng
d ay s r es
pec ti v ely to 1 6 2
,
5 0 a n d 1 00 per cen t On th e oth e r .

han d , the r a te o f s urlus v a lu e alon e w ould n ot g i e u s th e v

p
-

ex ten t of th e w or k i n g d ay . If th i s r ate, eg
. .
,
w er e 1 00 per
c en t ,
th e w or king d ay m i gh t b e of 8 , 1 0, 1 2, or m or e h o ur s .

It w ould i n d i c a te th at th e 2 c on s ti tuen t p a r ts of th e w or i n k g
 Té e lVor é z ng D ay
'

/
. 2 I5
d ay la b ou r a n d s u r lus la b ou r t i m e, w er e eq ua l i n ex
n ec es s ar
y p
- -
,

ten t b ut n ot h ow lon g ea c h of th es e tw o c on s ti tu en t pa r ts w a s
, .

Th e w or k i n g d ay i s th u s n ot a c on s tan t, b ut a va r i a b le
q u a n ti t
y O n e o f i ts
p.a r ts ,
c er tai n ly , i s d eter m i n ed b y th e
w or ki n g ti m e q ui r ed for the
re r e r od u c ti on o f th e la b ou r
p
p o w er of th e lab our er h i m s elf . Bu t i ts total a m oun t v a r i es
w i th th e d u r a ti on of th e s ur
p l us -
la b our Th e w or k i n g d ay i s ,
.

th er efor e , d ete r m i n a le, b b ut i s , p er s e, i n d eter m i n a te .

1

Alth ough th e w o ki n g
r d ay is fix ed b u t a fl uen t
n ot a ,

q uan ti ty ,
it c an on th e o th e r h a n d on ly v a r y w i th i n cer ta i n
,

li m i ts . Th e m i n i m um li m i t i s h ow ev er n ot d eter m i n ab le ;
, ,

o f c ou r s e , i f w e m ak e th e e x ten s i on li n e B0 or th e p lus s ur

la b our : 0, w e h a ve a m i n i m u m li m l t, t e , th e . .
p a r t of th e d a
y
w h i c h t h e la b our er m ust n ec es s a r i l
y w o r for h i s o w n m a i n k
t en a n c e . On th e b a s i s of ca pi ta li s t
pr od u c ti on , h ow e er , th i s v
n eces s a r y la b ou r c an for m a
p a r t on ly t h e w or k i n g d a y
of th e
w or ki ng ver b e
d ay i ts elf ca n n e On red u c ed to th i s m i n i m u m .

t h e oth er h an d t h e w or k i n g d ay h as a m a x i m u m li m i t
,
It .

ca n n ot b e
p r olon g ed b e on d a c er ta i n
y p oi n t T h i s m a x i m um .

li m i t i s c on d i ti on ed b y t w o th i n gs F i r t b y th e ph y s i ca l . s ,

b oun d s of lab our pow er W i thi n th e 24 h ou s of th e n a tu r al d ay

-
. r

a m an can ex en d on ly a d efi n i te q ua n ti ty of h i s v i ta l for ce
p A .

h o s e i n li k e m an n er can on ly w o k f om d ay to d ay 8 h ou r s
r , ,
r r ,
.

D ur i n g pa r t of th e d ay th i s for c e m u s t r es t s leep ; d ur i n g ,

a n ot h er t th e m a n h a s to s a ti s fy oth er h i c l n e d t
p ar p y s a e s o ,

feed w as h , ,
an d c loth e hi m s elf . B es i d es th es e p u r ely ph y s i ca l
li m i ta ti on s , x ten s i on of th e w or ki ng d ay en cou n ter s
th e e

m or a l on es Th e lab ou r er n eed s ti m e for s ati s fy i ng h i s i n tellec

.

t ual a n d s oc i al w a n ts th e ex ten t a n d n u m b er of w h i c h ar e,

c on d i ti on ed b y t h e g en e r a l s t a te o f s oc i a l a d v a n c em en t Th e .

v a r i a ti on of th e w or ki n g d ay fl uctuates th er efor e w i thi n , ,

h s i c a l a n d s oc i a l b ou n d s B u t b oth th es e li m i ti n g c on d i ti on s
p y .

a r e of a v er y ela s ti c n a tu r e a n d a llo w t h e g r ea tes t la ti t u d e ,

.

So w e fi n d w or k i n g d ay s of 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 h our s t e o f , , , , , ,
. .
,

th e m os t d i ffe r en t len g th s .

Th e c a pi ta li s t h as b ough t th e la b ou r po w er a t i ts d ay r a te - -
.

A d y s l b ur
1 a
’
a o i s v g it m
a ue , ay be l g on or sh rto An ss y
.
”
e a on Tr d a e and

C mm rc c t ini
o e e, on a ng o bs rv ti ns
e a o on L nd n 1 7 70 p
o o , , .
2 I6 C

To h i m i ts u s e v alu e b elon g s d u r i n g on e w or k i n g d ay He
-
.

h as t hu s a c qu i r ed th e r i gh t to m ak e th e la b ou r er w or k for h i m
d u r i n g on e d a y Bu t w h a t i s a w or k i n g d ay .
,

At a ll ev en ts , les s th a n a n a tu r a l d ay . By h ow m uch ?
Th e ca pi ta li s t v i ew s o f th i s h as h i s ow n u lti m a Thu le th e ,

n ece s a r li m i t of th e w or k i n g d a A i t li t h i n l
y s
y s ca p a s e s o y .
,

ca pi ta l
p e r s on i fi ed H i s s ou l i s th e s oul of c a i tal
p . B u t .

c a p i ta l h a s on e s i n gle li fe i m u ls e t h e t en d en c t o c r eate
p y ,

v a lu e a n d s ur plu s v a lue to m ak e i ts c on s tan t fac tor th e m ean s -

, ,

of r od uc ti on a b s or b t h e gr ea tes t i b l m u n t f s ur lu s
p p os s, e a o o p
la b ou r .
2

C a pi tal i s d ea d lab our th a t v a m pi r e li k e on ly li v es b y , ,

-
,

s u ck i n g li v i n g la b ou r a n d li v es th e m or e th e m or e la b o u r i t , ,

s u c ks Th e ti m e d ur i n g w hi c h th e la b our er w o ks i s t h e ti m e
. r ,

d u r i n g w h i ch th e ca pi tali s t c on s um es th e la b ou r p ow er h e h a s -

p h d f h i m 3
u r c a s e o .

If th e lab ou er con s um es h i s d i s posab le ti m e for hi ms elf h e

r ,

r ob s th e c a i ta li t
p s .

Th e ca pi ta li s t th en tak es h i s s ta n d on th e la w of t he ex
c h an g e of com m od i ti es He li k e a ll oth er b uy er s s eek s to get .
, ,

th e gr ea tes t pos s i b le b en efi t ou t of th e u s e v a lue of hi s com m o -

d i ty S u d d en ly th e v oi ce of the lab our er w h i ch h ad b een

.
,

s ti fled i n th e s tor m and s tr es s of th e pr oc es s of r od u c ti on ,

p
r i s es

Th e c om m odi t
y t h a t 1 h a v e s old to y ou d i ffer s fr om th e

c r o w d of oth er c omm od i ti es , i n th a t i ts u s e c r ea tes alue, a n d v

1 This qu sti n is f m r imp rt nt th n th c l br t d q sti n f Sir R b rt
e o ar o e o a a e e e a e ue o o o e

P l t th Birmingh m Ch mb r f C mm rc Wh t is p d A q sti n
ee o e a a e o o e e : a a ou n ? ue o

th t c ld nly h v b n p r p s d b c u s P l w
a ou o a m ch in th d rk t th
e ee o o e , e a e ee as a s u e a as o e

n t r fm n y littl shilling m f Bi mingh m

“
a u e o th o e as e e en o r a .

2
It is th i m f th c pit list t bt in with hi xp d d c pit l th gr t st
e a o e a a o o a s e en e a a e ea e

p ssibl q ntity f l b r ( d b t i d u c pit l d ép nsé l p l f rt s mm d ’

o e ua o a ou o en r a a e a us o e o e e

tr v il p ssibl ) J G C rc ll S il Tr ité th é riqu t pr tiq d ntr

a a o e. . . ou e e -
en eu . a o e e a ue es e e

pris s ind stri ll s

e 2 d du P ris 1 857 p 63
e e . n e . a , , . .

3 An h ur s l b r l st in d y is p r d igi s i nj ury t c mm rci l St t

o
’
a ou o a a a o ou o a o e a a e.

Th r is v ry gr t c nsump ti n f luxuri s m ng th l b ring p r f this

e e a e ea o o o e a o e a ou oo o

ki gd m p rtic l rly m g th m n f ct ring p p l c by which th y ls

n o : a u a a on e a u a u o u a e, e a o

c s m th ir tim th m st f t l f c nsump ti ns An Ess y

on u e e e, Tr d d e o a a o o o .
”
a on a e an

C mm rc & p 47 d 1 53
o e e, c .
, . an .

Si l m n vri r libr pr nd inst nt d p l é m i rdid q ui l s it ’

4 e a ou e e e nu a e re os , con o e so e e u

des y x v c inq ié t d p et d q il l v l
eu a e N Li gu t The ri d l ix
u u e, r en u
’
a o e .
"
. n e .
“
o e es o

civil s & L nd n
e ,
c. 1 II p 4 6 6 o o , 5
. .
, . .
 2 I8 P r od ucti on .

w or k i ng d ay b eca u s e I ,
li k e e v er y o th er s el er , l d em a n d t h e
va lue of m y c om m od i t
y .
1

We s ee t h en , th a t, a
p ar t fr om e x tr em ely elas ti c b ou n d s ,
th e
n a tur e of th e e x ch a n ge o f com m o di ti es i ts elf i m pos es no lim i t to
t h e w or k i n g d ay n o li m i t to s ur plus la b ou r The ca pi ta li s t m a i n
,
-
.

ta i ns hi s r i g h ts a s a pu r ch as er w h en h e tr i es to m a k e t he w or k
i n g d ay a s lon g a s p os s i b le a n d to m a k e w h en ev er p os s i b le tw o , , ,

w or k i n g d a ys ou t of on e On th e oth er h a n d th e pec uli a r .

,

n a tur e of th e c omm o d i ty s old i m pli es a li m i t to i ts c on s u m p

t i on b y th e p u r c h as er , a n d t h e la our e r m a i n ta i n s h i s r i h t b g
a s s eller w h en h e w i s h es t o r ed u c e t h e w or i n d a y t o o n e of k g
d e fi n i te n or m al d u r a ti on . T h er e i s h er e ,
t her efor e, an a n ti

n om g a i n s t r i gh t b oth eq u ally b ea r i n g th e s ea l o f t h e
r i gh t a
y , ,

la w of ex c h a n g e s B et w een eq ua l r i gh ts for c e d ec i d es H enc e

. .

i s i t th a t i n th e h i s tor y
.
o f ca
p i t a li s t
p r od u c ti on , th e d eter m i n

a ti on of w h at i s ki ng a w or d ay , pr es en ts i ts elf as th e r es ult of
a s tr u ggle ,
a s tr ugg le b etw een c ollec ti v e ca p i ta l t e th e c las s ,
. .
, of

ca i t li s ts , a n d collec ti v e la b ou r t e th e w or k i n g c la s s
p a . .
,
.

S E CTI ON 2 .
— THE G REE D F OR SUR P L US L AB OU R MANUFA CTURE R AN D BOY ARD -
. .

C api ta l h as n ot i n v en ted s u r plu s -

la b ou r . W h e ever p r a ar t

o f s oc i ety p th e m on op oly of th e m ea n s of r od uc ti on th e
os s es s es
p ,

lab o ur er , fr ee or n ot fr ee m us t ,
add to th e w or k i n g ti m e
n ec es s a r y for hi s own m a i n ten a n ce an e x tr a w or k i ng ti m e i n
o r d erto p r od uc e t h e m ea n s of s u s i s ten ce for th e o w n er s of th e b
m ea n s of p r od u c ti on w h eth er th i s pr opr i etor b e th e Ath en i a n
2
,

m 5 . E tr us ca n th eocr a t c i v i s R om an us N or m an b ar on
x ac y a
’
fl
és , , , ,

A m er i c a n s la v e ow n er Wa lla ch i a n Boy a r d m od e r n lan d lor d or , ,

c a pi ta li s t It i s h ow ev er c lea r th a t i n a ny g i v en ec on om i c
.
3
, ,

D ring th gr t strik f th L nd n b ild rs 1 8 60 6 1 f th r d cti n f t h

1 u e ea e o e o o u e ,
-
, or e e u o o e

w rki g d y t 9 h rs th ir C mmitt p blish d m ni f st th t c nt in d t

o n a o ou ,
e o ee u e a a e o a o a e , o

s m xt nt th pl f
o e e w rk r Th m ni f st
e ll d s t with t ir ny t
, e ea o ou r o e . e a e o a u e ,
no ou o ,
o

th f ct t h t th gr t st p fi t m ng r m gst th b ilding m st rs
e a , a c rt in
e ea e ro -
o e a on e u a e , a e a

Si M P tr w in th d r f s nctity (This s m P t ft r 1 86 7 c m t
. e o, as e o ou o a . a e e o, a e , a e o an

en d a la Str ou s b er g .
)
2 “ Th s
lb r o ein r lity f d b th th p nsi n rs
w ho [c ll d
a ou ea ee o e e o e a e

th e rich]
d th ms lv s ( Edm nd B urk 1
an p e e e . u e, . c .
, .

Ni b h in his R m n H ist ry s ys v ry n iv ly It is vid nt th t w rks

3 e u r o a o a e a e e e a o

lik t h Etr sc n whi ch in th ir r ins st nd pr s pp s in littl s t t s l rds

e e u a , e u a ou us , e u o e e a e o

d v ss ls Sism ndi s ys f m r t th p rp s th t Br ss ls l c p
” “
an a a . o a ar o e o e u o e a u e a e re

s pp s s w g l rds d w g sl v s
u o e a e- o an a e -
a e .
 Tfie Wor k i ng D ay . 2 1 9

for m a ti on of s oc i et x c h a n g e v a lue b u t t h e
w h er e n ot th e e
y
-
,

u e v a lu e o f th e r od u c t r ed om i n a tes s ur lus la b ou r w i ll b e
s
p p p
- -
,

li m i ted b y a gi v en s et of w an ts w h i c h m ay b e g r ea ter or les s ,

a nd t h a t h er e n o b ou n d les s th i r s t for s u r plus la b ou r a r i s es fr om -

th e n a tu r e o f th e pr od u c ti on i ts elf H en ce i n a n ti q ui ty ov er .

w or k b ec om es hor r i ble on ly w h en th e obj ec t i s t o ob ta i n e x

c h a n g e v a lu e i n i ts s ec i fi c i n d ep n d en t m on ey for m ; l n t h e
p e
- -

od u c ti on o f g old a n d s i lv er C om p ul s or w o r k i n g t o d ea th
p r
y .

i s h er e t h e r ecog n i s ed for m of o v er w o k O n ly r ea d Di od or u s -
r .

Si c ulus S ti ll th es e ar e ex c epti on s i n a n t i qu i ty But a s s oon

.
1
.

eople w h os e r o d u c ti on s ti ll m ov es w i th i n th e low er for m s

as
p p ,

of s la v e la b ou r cor v é e la b ou r &c a r e d r a w n i n to th e w h i r l ool

p
- -
.
, , ,

o f a n i n ter n a ti on al m a r k et d o m i n a ted b th e ca i ta li s ti c m od e
y p
of r o d u c ti on th e s a le of th ei r r od u c ts for e x or t b ec om i n g
p , p p
th ei r pr i n ci pal i n ter es t t h e c i v i li z ed h or r or s of ov er w or k a r e
,
-

g r a fted on th e b ar b ar i c h or r or s of s la v er y s er fd om 85 0 H en c e , ,
.

th e n eg r o la b ou r i n th e S ou th er n S ta tes of th e A m er i ca n U n i o n
r es er v ed s om eth i n g of a a tr i a r c h a l ch a r a c ter s o lon g a s pr o
p p ,

d uc ti on w as ch i efly d i r ec ted t o i m m ed i a te loc a l c on s um

p ti on .

But i n p r opor ti on b eca m e of v i ta l

,
as th e e x por t of c otton

i n ter es t to th es e s ta tes th e ov er w o k i n g of t h e n g r o a n d s om e
,
-
r e

t i m es th e u s i n g u p of h i s li fe i n 7 y ea r s of la b ou r b ec a m e a
fa c to i n a calcula ted a n d c alcu la ti n g s y s tem
r It w a s n o lon g er .

a q u es ti on of ob ta i n i n g f m hi m a cer ta i n q uan ti ty of us eful ro

r d u c ts I t w a s n o w a q u es ti on of r od uc ti on of s u lu
p o .

p p s r

lab our i ts elf So w a s i t a ls o w i th th e c or v é e e g i n th e

.
,
. .
,

D a n ub i a n P r i n ci pali ti es ( n ow R oum an i a) .

The com par i s on of th e g r eed for s ur plu s la b our i n t h e -

D an ub i a n P i n c i pali ti es w i th t h e s a m e gr eed i n E ngli s h fa c tor i es

r

h as a s peci al i n ter es t b ec a u s e s u r plu s la b our i n th e c or v é e h a s

,
-

a n i n d epen d en t a n d pa l a b le for m
p .

S u ppos e th e w or ki n g d ay c on s i s ts of 6 hour s of n ec es s a y r

lab our a n d 6 h our s of s ur plu s —

,
la b ou r T h en th e f ee la b ou er . r r

1 On e c nn t
th s un f rt n t s (in th g ld min s b tw n Egyp t Ethi pi
a o s ee e e o u a e e o e e ee , o a,

an d Ar bi ) w h c nn t v n h v t h ir b di s cl n
a a o a th ir k dn ss cl th d
o e e a e e o e ea ,
or e na e e o e ,

with t pitying th ir mis r bl l t Th r is ind lg nc

ou e f rb r nc f
e a the o . e e no u e e, no o ea a e or e

sick th f bl th g ed f w m n s w kn ss All m st f rc d by bl ws w rk
,
e ee e, e a , or o a
’
ea e . u ,
o e o ,
o

u ntil d th p ts d t th ir s ff i ngs d th ir distr ss D i d Sic Bibl ”

on ea u a n en o e u er an e e . o . . .

H ist lib 3 c
. .
, .
 Capz la li s t P ’
h bn
'

2 2o r orcu c .

g i v es th e c a pi tali s t e v er y w ee k 6 x 6 or 3 6 h our s of s ur
plus “

la b our . It i s th e s am e as i f h e w or k ed 3 d ay s i n th e w eek for

hi m s elf, 3 d ay s i n an d th e w eek gr a ti s for th e ca pi ta li s t But .

thi s i s n ot ev i d en t on t h e s ur fa c e . Su p lu s la b ou r a n d n eces s a r y
r -

la b our g li d e on e i n to th e o th er . I ca n th er efor e ex pr ess th e

, ,

s a m e r ela ti on s h i b
p y sa
y i n g , ge . .
,
th a t th e la b ou r er in e v er y
mi n ute w or k s 3 0 s ec on d s for hi m s elf, an d 3 0 for th e c a pi tali s t,
etc . It i s ot h e r w i s e w i th th e c or v ée . Th e n ec es s ar y la b o ur
w hi c h th e Wa lla chi an p ea s a n t d oes for h i s ow n m a i n ten a n ce i s
d i s ti n c tly m a r k ed off fr om hi s s ur lus la b ou r on b eh a lf of th e
p
-

Boy a r d The on e h e d oes on

. h i s ow n fi eld , t he oth er on th e
s ei g n or i a l es ta te B oth par ts of . th e la b our -
ti m e e xi s t , th er e
for e, i n d epen d en tly ,
s ide by s i d e on e w i th th e oth er . In th e
c or vée pl u s la b ou r i s a c c ur a tely m ar k ed o ff fr om th e
th e sur -

n ec es s a r y la b our T hi s , h ow ev er , ca n m ak e n o d i ffer en ce w i th
.

r eg a r d to th e q u an ti ta ti v e r ela ti o n o f s u r lus la b our to n ec es s ar

p y
-

la b ou r T hr ee d ay s b ou r i n th e w eek r em ai n th r ee
’
.
p l
s ur
u s la -

d ay s th a t y i eld n o eq ui v a len t to th e la b o ur er hi m s elf w h eth er ,

i t b e c alled c or v é e or w a ge la b our -
. But i n th e ca p i tali s t th e
g r eed l u s la b ou r a
for s ur ar s i n th e s tr a i n i n g a fter an nu
p pp e -

li m i ted ex ten s i on of th e w or k i n g d ay , i n th e B oy ar d m or e
s i m ply i n a d i r ec t h u n ti n g a fter d ay s of cor v ée
l
.

In th e D a n u b i an v ée w a s m i x ed up w i th
Pr in ci pali ti es th e cor

r en ts i n k i n d a n d oth er a u r ten an c es o f b on d ag e b u t i t for m ed

pp ,

th e m os t i m p or tan t tr i b u te pai d to th e r u li n g c lass W her e .

th i s w a s th e cas e th e cor v ée r ar ely a r os e fr om s er fd om s er fd om

,

m u c h m or e fr eq uen tly on th e oth er h an d took or i gi n fr om the

c or v é e T h i s i s w h a t took pla c e i n th e R ou m an i a n p r ovi n c es
2
. .

Th t which f ll ws r f rs t th sit ti n in th R um ni n pr vinc s b f r th

1 a o o e e o e ua o e o a a o e e o e e

ch ng ff ct d sinc th Crim n w
a e e e e e e ea ar .

This h ld lik wis f G rm ny d sp ci lly f Pr ss i

2 o s e e t f th Elb In
or e a , an e e a or u a eas o e e.

th 1 5 th c nt ury th G rm n p s nt w
e e n rly v rywh r m w h whilst
e e a ea a as ea e e e e a an , o,

s ubj ct t c rt in r nts p id in p r d c
e o e a d l b ur w e th r wis t l st a o u e an a o as o e e a ea

p r ctic
a ll y f
ar Th G rm n c l nists in Br nd nburg P m r ni
ee. e Sil si
e nd a o o a e , o e a a, e a, a

E st rn Pru ssi w r v n l g lly ckn wl dg d fr m

a e a, e e e Th vict ry f the e a a o e e as ee en . e o o e

n bility in th p s nts w put n d t t h t N t nly w r th c nq r d S th

o e ea a
’
ar a en o a . o o e e e o ue e ou

G rm n p s nts g in nsl v d Fr m th middl f th l 6 th c ntury th p nts

e a ea a a a e a e . o e e o e e e ea sa

o f E st rn Pr ssi
a e Br nd nb urg P m r ni
u d Sil si
a, d s n ft r th fr
a e , o e a a, an e a, an oo a e e ee

p s nts
ea a f Schl swig H lst in w r d gr d d t th c nditi n f s rfs
o e ( M ur r
o e e e e a e o e o o o e a e
-

B d n d pr ussisch en Sta t —H ns n
.
,

F h of
r on iv e l — M itz n d. vo e e , er o e es e a s. a e ,

L ib ig nsch ft in Schl swig H lst in — ED )

e e e a e -
o e . .
 ' '
’
22 2 Cczp z Z a /i s l P r oa ucfz on .

T h us th e pr es cr i b ed v é e a m oun ts to 5 6 w or k i ng clay s y ea ly
cor r .

Bu t th e a g i c ultu al y ea i n Wa lla c h i a n u m b er i n c on s eq uen ce

r r r s

of th e s ev er e c li m ate on ly 2 1 0 d ay s o f w h i c h 4 0 f S u n d ay s ,
or

a n d h oli d ay s 3 0 on a n a v e a g e for b a d w ea th e tog eth e 7 0

,
r r, r

d ay s d o n ot c ou n t
,
1 10 w or k i n g d ay s em a i n
.
-
Th e a ti o of r . r

th e c or v é e to t h e n ec es s a y la b ou 2 31 or 6 6 g i v es a m u ch
r r
7

s m a lle r a te o f s u r lus v a lu e th a n th a t w h i c h eg u la t es th e
r
p r
-

la b our of th e E n g li s h a g i c ultu r a l o fa c to y la b o u e r T his r r r r .

i s h ow e e on ly t h e leg ally pr es c i b ed co v é e An d i n a s pi i t
,
v r, r r . r

m li b e al h h E n gli s h F a c tor y A c ts th e R é l
“
y e t o e r t n t e r a
g e ,

m en t or ga n i q u e h a s k n ow n h o w to fa c i li ta te i ts ow n ev a s i on .

A fter i t h as m a d e 5 6 d ay s ou t o f 1 2 t h e n om i n a l d ay s w or k of ,

e a c h of th e 5 6 c or v é e d a y s i s a ga i n s o a r r a n g ed t h a t a po ti on r

of i t m u s t fa ll on th e en s u i n g d ay In n e d ay m us t b e . o ,

w eed ed a n ex ten t of la n d w h i c h for thi s w or k es pe c i a lly i n , , ,

m a i z e pla n ta ti on s n eed s t w i c e a s m uch ti m e Th e leg a l d ay s

’
.
,

w o k for s om e k i n d s of a g r i c ultu r a l la b our i s i n ter pr eta b le i n

r

s uc h a w a t h t t h e d ay b eg i n s i n M n d e n d s i n O c tob er
y a a
y a .

In M old a v i a con d i ti on s a r e s till h a r d er Th e 1 2 c or v é e d ay s .

of th e R eglem en t or gan i que c r i ed a B oy a r d d r un k w i th

‘

v i c tor y a m oun t to 3 6 5 d ay s i n th e y ea r
,
.

If th e R eglem n t o ga n i q u e of th e D a n ub i an pr ov i n c es was
e r

a p os i ti v e ex pr es s i on of t he g r eed for s u plus lab our w h i ch r -

ev e y r
p a agr a h leg a li s ed
p r th e E n g li s h F a c to r
y A c t a r,e t h e s

n eg ati v e ex r es s i on of th e s a m e gr eed
p T h es e a c ts c u b t h e . r

a s s i on of ca i ta l for a li m i tles s d a i n i n g o f la b our p o w er b

p p y r -
,

fo c i b ly li m i ti n g th e w or k i n g d ay b y s ta te r eg ula ti on s m a d e
r ,

by a s ta te tha t i s r u led by c a p i ta li s t a n d la n d lor d . A pa r t fr om

th e w or k i n g cla s s m ovem en t th a t d a ily g r ew m or e thr ea ten i n g
-

th e li m i ti n g of fa c tor y la b our w a s d i c ta te d b y th e s a m e n ec es s i ty
w h i c h s r ea d g uan o ov er th e E n gli s h fi eld s T h s a m e b li n d
p e .

eag er n es s for lu n d er th a t i n th e on e ca s e ex h a u s ted th e s oil

p ,

h a d i n th e oth er tor n u p b y th e r oots th e li vi n g for c e o f th e

, ,

n a ti on P er i od i cal epi d em ics s pea k on th i s poi n t a s c lea r ly as

.

th e d i m i n i s hi n g m i li ta r y s ta n d a r d i n G er m a n y a n d F r a n c e .
2

F rth r d t ils t b f nd in E R gn lt Hist ir p litiq t s ci l d

1 u e e a ar e o e ou . e au
'

s o e o ue e o a e es

Princip utés D b i a P is 1 85 5 an u enn es at ,

2In g n r l d within c rt in limits xc ding th m di m siz f th ir kind is
e e a an e a ,
e ee e e u e o e ,

evid nc f th pr sp rity f rg nic b ings As t m his b dily h ight l s ns i f

e e o e o e o o a e . o an, o e es e
 Woz / z ag D ay
'

7 726 J
. 2 2 3

Th e F a c tor y Ac t of 1 8 5 0 n o w i n for c e ( 6 7)
1 8 a llow s for th e
a v er a g e w o k i n g r -
d ay 1 0 h ou r s i , . e, . for th e fir s t 5 d ay s 1 2 h our s
fr om 6 a m to 6 p m , i n clu d i n g
. a n h ou r. b . for r eak fa s t, a n d

an h ou r for d i n n er , an d th u s lea v i n g 1 0 w or k i n g h our s

1
,
a nd

8 h ou r s for S a tu r d a y fr om 6 a m to 2 pm of w hi c h l am h our
f
, 2
. . .
,

i s s u b t a c ted fo b r ea k fa s t
r r . 6 0 w or k i n g h ou r s ar e le t l 0g for ,

each of t h e fi s t 5 d a s
y r ,
for th e la s t .
Jl
C er ta i n g ua r d i an s of

th es e la w s pp I
ar e a n s ec tors d i r ec tl
p y u n d e th e
oi n te d , F a c tor y ,
r

H om e S e cr eta y w h os e r epo ts a e pu b li s h ed half y ear ly b y

r ,
r r -

o d er of P a li a m en t
r T h ey g i v e r eg ula r a n d offi ci a l s ta ti s ti c s of
r .

th e c a pi tali s ti c g r eed for s u plu s la b ou r r -

.

Let us li s ten for a m om en t to th e F a c tor y I ns p ec tor s , ,

- 3

Th e f a u d u len t m i llo w n er b eg i n s w or k a q u a r te of a n h ou r
r r

( s om e ti m es m o r e s o m e ti m e s les s
) b e for e 6 a m a n d lea v e
,
off ,
s

a q u a te of a n h ou s om eti m es m o e s om eti m es les s

( ) a fter
‘

r r r r ,

6 pm He ta k es 5 m i n u tes f om th e b egi n n i n g a n d f om th e
. r r

l is d gr wth is int r f r d with ith r by ph ysic l s ci l c nditi ns In ll

ue o e e e , e e a or o a o o . a

E r p n c ntri s in which th c nscripti h lds sinc its intr d cti n th m di m

u o ea ou e e o on o ,
e o u o ,
e e u

h ight f d lt m
e o ad g n r lly th ir fitn ss f
u milit ry s r ic h d iminish d
en , a n e e a e e or a e v e, as e .

B f r th r v l ti n
e o e e th minim m f
e o u th in f ntry in Fr nc w
o 1 6 5 c nti e u or e a a e as e

m tr s ; i
e e 1 81 8 ( l w f M rch l 0th ) 1 57 ; by th l w f 1 852 1 5 6 c m
n a o ath ,
e a o , . . on e

a v r g in Fr nc m r th n h lf r j ct d
e a e a e cc nt f d fici nt h i ght b dily
o e a a ar e e e e on a ou o e e e or o

w kn ss Th m i lit ry st nd rd in S x ny w in 1 7 80 1 7 8 c m It is w 1 55
ea e . e a a a a o as , . . no .

In Pr ssi it is 1 57 Acc rding t th st t m nt f Dr M y r in th B v ri n

u a . o o e a e e o . e e e a a a

G z tt M y 9th 1 86 2 th r s lt f v r g f 9 y rs is th t in Pr ssi t f
a e e, a , , e e u o an a e a e o ea , a u a ou o

1 000 c scri pts 7 1 6 w r nfit f milit ry s rvic 3 1 7 b c s f d fici ncy in h ight

on e e u or a e e, e au eo e e e ,

an d 3 99 b c s f b dily d f cts
e au B rlin in 1 858 c ld t pr vi d i t
e o o e e . e ou no o e s con

ti g nt f r cr its ; it w 1 56 m sh rt J
n e o e u L i big D i Ch mi in ihr r
as en o . . v on e e e e e

A w nd ng f Agrik lt r d Physi l gi
n e u au 7 th Ed l u pp 1 1 7 1 1 8
u un o o e, .
, vo . .
, .

Th hist ry f th F ct ry Act f 1 8 5 0 will b f nd in th c

1 e o o e rs f this ch p t r
a o o e ou e ou e o a e .

I nly t ch h r d th r
2 o ou th p ri d fr m th b ginning f m d rn ind stry
e e an e e on e e o o e e o o e u

in Engl nd t 1 845 F this p ri d I r f r th r d r t Di L g d

a o . or b i e o e e e ea e o
“
e a e er a r e

t nd n Kl ss in Engl nd
e e a Fri d ich Eng ls L i pzig 1 845 H w c mpl t ly
e a , v on e e ,
e , . o o e e

Eng ls nd rst d th n tur f th c pit list m d f pr d cti n is sh wn by th

e u e oo e a e o e a a o e o o u o o e

F ct ry R p rts R p rts
a o e Min s & th t h v pp r d sinc 1 845 d h w
o ,
e o on e ,
c .
, a a e a ea e e , an o

w nd rf lly h p int d th circ mst nc s in d t il is s n th m st s p rfici l

o e u e a e e u a e e a ee on e o u e a

c mp ri s n f his w rk with th ffi ci l r p rts f th Childr n s Empl ym nt C m

o a o o o e o a e o o e e
’
o e o

missi n p blish d 1 8 t 1 0 y rs l t r ( 1 8 6 3
o , u e Jb s d l s p ci lly with th
o 7 ea a e
'
e e ea e e a e

br nch s f ind stry in which th F ct ry Acts h d t p t

a e o u b n intr d c d e a o a no , u o ee o u e ,

in f ct a t y t intr d c d
ar e no H r th littl e lt r ti n h d b n n f rc d
o u e . e e, en , e or n o a e a o a ee e o e ,

by th rity in th c nditi ns p int d by E g ls I b rr w m y x m pl s chi fly

au o , e o o a e n e . o o e a e e

fr m th fr
o tr d p r i d ft r 1 848 th t g f p r dis f which th c mm rci l
e ee a e e o a e , a a e o a a e, o e o e a

t ll
r av e f th gr t firm f fr
er s or tr d bl t nt ig r nt t ll ch f b l s t l s
e ea o ee a e, a a as no a ,
e su a u ou a e .

F th r st Engl
or e ed fig r s h r in th f r gr nd b c s h is th cl ssic p
an u e e e e o e ou e au e s e e a re re

t ti
s en a f c pit list p r d cti n
v e o d h
a ln h a c ntin s t f ffi ci l o u o ,
an s e a o e as a o u ou se o o a
st tistics f th things w
a o c nsid ring
e e ar e o e .
2 2 4 Cap i ta li s t P r od uct i on .

en d of th e h alf hou r n om i n all

y a llo w e d for b r ea k fas t ,
an d 10
m i nu tes b egi nn i n g a n d en d of th e h our n om in ally a llo w ed
at th e
for d i n n e He w o ks for a q ua ter of a n h u ( s om eti m es
r . r r o r

m or e s om eti m es les s ) a fter 2 p m on S a tur d ay

,
T h us hi s g ai n . .

B efor e 6
Af ter 6 p m , . .

At b r ea k fa s t ti m e ,

At d i n n er t i m e ,

Fi v e d ay s — 3 00 m i n u tes .

On S atu r d ay b efo re 6 a m .

At b r ea k fa s t ti m e ,

A fter 2 p m

4 0 m i n u tes .

T ota l w eek ly ,
3 4 0 m i n utes .

Or 5 h our s and 4 0 m i n utes w eek ly , w h i ch m ulti p li ed b y 5 0

'

w or ki ng w ee ks i n th e y ea r ( a llow i n g tw o for h oli d ay s an d

”1
oc ca s i on a l s top pa g es ) i s eq ual to 27 w or k i ng d ay s .

F i v e m i n u tes a d ay
’
s i n c r eas ed w or k m ulti pli e d
,
b y w eek s ,

”2
ar e e q ual to tw o a n d p d uc e i n th e y ea r a h alf d ay s of ro .

An a dd i ti on al h our a d ay ga in ed b y s m all i n s ta lm en ts b efor e

6 a m a fter 6 p m a n d a t t h e b eg i n n i n g a n d en d of th e ti m es
, . .
,

n om i n a ll
y fix ed for m eals , i s n ear ly e u i q va len t to w or k in g 13
”3
m on th s i n th e y ear .

C r i s es d u r i n g w h i c h pr od uc ti on i s i n ter r u p ted a n d th e fa c
t or i es w or k i e for only a par t of th e w eek
”
s h or t ti m e ,
. .
, ,

n a tu r a ll
y d o n ot a ff e c t th e te n d e n cy to e x ten d th e w or ki n g

d ay Th e les s b us i n es s th er e i s , th e m or e pr ofi t h a s to b e m ad e
.

on th e b us i n es s d o n e Th e les s ti m e s p en t i n w or k , t h e m or e
.

of tha t ti m e h a s t o b e tur n ed i n to s ur lus la b ou r t i m e

p
-
.

1 gg sti ns & by Mr L H rn r Insp ct r

Su e o ,
c . . . o e ,
e o ofF ct ri s in F ct ry R g l
a o e , : a o e u a

ti ns A ct Ord r d by th H us f C mm ns t
o . e e e o e o o o o b p rint d 9 t h Aug ust 1 85 9 p
e e , , , .

4, 5 .

2 R ep o r ts of th e Insp ct r e o of F ct ri s f
a o e or th e h lf y r Oct b r
a ea ,
o e , 1 8 56 , p 3 5. .

3 R epo rts ,
&c .
, 3oth A p ril ,
1 8 58 , p 9 . .
2 2 6 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

Th e pr ofit to b e gai n ed b y i t ( ov er w or ki n g i n v i ola ti on of -

the Ac t) a pp ear s to b e to m an y a gr ea ter tem pta ti on th an t h ey , ,

c a n r es i s t
; t h e
y ca lc u la te u p on th e c h a n ce of n o t ei n fo u n d b g
o u t ; a n d w h en th e s ee th e s m a ll a m oun t of n lt d s ts ,
y p e a y a n c o

w h i c h th os e w h o h a e een c on i c ted h a e h a d to a , th ey
p y v b v v
fi n d t ha t i f th ey s h ould b e d e tec te d th er e w i ll s till b e a c on
s i d er a b le b a la n c e of g a i n In ca s es w h er e th e a d d i ti on al .

ti m e i s gai n ed by a m ulti pli cati on of s m a ll t h efts i n th e c our s e

of th e d ay th er e , ar e i n s u per a b le di ffi c ulti es to th e i n s pector s

m a k i n g ou t a c a s e
”2
.

T h es e s m a ll th eft s of c a i tal
p fr om th e la b our er
’
s m eal and

r ec r ea ti on ti m e, th e fa c tor y i n s pec tor s a ls o d es i g n a te as p e t ty

r i n gs g
”3 ”4
p i lfe of m i n u tes , “
s n a tch in a fe w m i n u tes , or , as th e
lab ou r er s tec h n i ca lly ca lled th em ,
“
ni bbli n g and cr i bbli n g at
” 5
m ea l ti m es .

vi d en t th at i n th i s a tm os ph er e th e fo m a ti on of s u plus
It i s e r r

v a lue b y s ur lus lab ou

”
i s n o s e c et If u llow m e s aid
p y o a r, r
-
,

a hi g h l r es ec ta b le m a s t er to m e t w r k on l t en m i n u tes
y p o o y ,

i n th e d ay ov er ti m e y ou p u t on e th ous a n d a y ear i n m y
”
-
,

M
”
p o c k e t om en ts a
. r e t6
h e e le m en ts of p o fi t r .
” 7

N o thi n g i s f om thi s poi n t o f v i ew m or e c h a r a c te i s ti c th a n

r r

th e d es ig n a ti on of th e w or k er s w h o w o k fu ll ti m e a s full r
"
ti m er s , and th e c h ild r en u n d er 1 3 w ho ar e on ly a llo w e d to
w or k 6 h ou r s as h alf t i m er s -
.
”
Th e w or k er i s h er e n o th i n g
m or e th a n p er s on ifi ed la b o u r ti m e All i n d i v i d u a l d i s ti n c ti on s -
.

a r e m er g ed i n th os e o f
” 8
“
f ull ti m er s and h alf ti m er s - -
.

sh ddy h l
o th h l is c ll d in which th w ll n r gs
-
o e,
”
as p ll d in p i c s
e o e a e , e oo e a ar e u e e e ,

an d wh r d ns tm sph r f d st shr ds & f rc s v n t h d lt w rkm n t

e e a e e a o e e o u , e ,
c .
, o e e e e a u o a o

c v r his m th c ntin lly with h ndk rchi fs f th p r t cti n f his l gs Th

o e ou o ua a e e or e o e o o un e

a cc s d g ntl m n ffi rm in li f t king
u e e e th — q k rs th y w r t
e a p eu o a a n oa as ua e e e e oo s cr u u

l
ou s ly r ligi s t tk e th— th t th y h d in th ir gr t c mp ssi n f th
ou o a e an oa a e a , e ea o a o or e

u nh pp y ch ildr n ll w d th m f r h rs f sl p b t th bstin t childr n

a e , a o e e ou ou or ee , u e o a e e

a bs l t ly w ld t g t b d Th q k r g ntl m n w r m lct d in £20 Dry

o u e ou no o o e e ua e e e e e e u e .

d en anticip t d th s g ntry a e e e e

F x f ll fr ght in s mi g s nctity o u au ee n a ,

Th t f r d th b t li k th d vil w ld li a ea e a n oa ,
u e e e ou e,

Th t l k d lik L nt d h d th h ly l r a oo
’
e e , an a e o ee ,

And d rst t sin b f r h s id his p r y r u no e o e e a a e

R p 3 l t Oct 1 856 p 3 4
1 e .
,
s l p 48 1.
p 48
, , . .
3 . c , . . .
5 . c .
, . .

l 2
p 35 .
‘

o, . . 1 p 48 l p 48 4 . c .
, . .
6 . c .
, . .

7 R
p rt f th Insp &
e o 30t h Ap ril 1 860 p 5 6
o e . c .
, , , . .

This is th ffici l xpr ssi n b th in th f ct ri s d in th r p rts

8 e o a e e o o e a o e an e e o .
 Tao Wh i ni ng D ay . 2 2 7

SE C TI ON 3 .
-
B RANC H E S OF E NG L I SH I N D U STRY W ITHOU T LE GA L L I M ITS TO
E X PL OITATI ON .

We h av e hi th er to c on s i d er ed th e t en d en cy to th e xten s i on of
e

th e w or k i n g d ay , th e w er e w olf s h un g er for s u r lu s la b our i n

’

p
- -

a d epa r tm en t w h er e th e m on s tr ou s ex a cti on s , n ot s ur pas s ed ,

s ay s an E n gli s h b ou rg eoi s ec on om i s t, b y th e c r u elti es of th e

S pan i ar d s to th e A m er i can c a u s ed c a pi ta l a t las t t o —
r ed s ki n s }
l

b e b ou n d b y th e ch ai n of legal r eg ula ti on s Now let u s c a s t s .

,

a gla n c e a t c e tai n b r a n ch es of r od u c ti on i n w h i ch th e ex loi ta

p r
p
t i on of la b ou r i s ei th er fr ee fr om fetter s to thi s d ay or w a s s o ,

s ter d a
y e y .

M B r . r ou
g h t on C h a r lton c o un ty m a g i s tr a te, d ecla r ed , a s ,

ch ai r m a n of a m eeti n g h eld a t th e A s s em b ly R oom s , N otti n g h a m ,

on th e 1 4 th J a n uar y ,
1 8 6 0,
“
th at th er e w a s an a m ou n t of

p ri va ti on a n d s u ffer i n g a m on g th a t p or ti on of th e popula ti on
c onn ec ted w i th th e la c e tr a d e, u n k n ow n i n oth er a r ts of th e
p
k i n gd om ,
i n d eed , i n th e ci v i li z ed w or ld C h i ld r en of

n i n e or ten y ea r s ar e d r a gg ed fr om th ei r s quali d b ed s at t w o,
th r ee, or four o c loc
’
k i n t h e m or n i n g a n d c om p elled to w or k for
a b a r e s ub s i s ten ce un ti l ten elev en o t w elv e a t n i gh t th ei r , ,
r ,

li m b s w ea i n g a w ay th ei r f a m es d w i n d li n g t h ei r fa c es w h i ten
r ,
r ,

i n g a n d th ei r h u m a n i ty a b s olu t ely s i n k i n g i n to a s ton e li k e

,
-

t or p o u t ter l
y h or r i b le t o c on tem la te
r,
p W e a r e n ot

s u p i s ed th a t M
r r r M allett or an
y o t h er m a n u fa c tu er s h ou ld
.
,
r ,

s tan d for w a r d a n d p ote t a ga i n s t d i s c u s s i on Th e r s

s y s tem a s th e Rev ,
M on ta gu Va lpy d es c i b es i t i s on e of . r ,

u n m i ti g a ted a n d s pi i tua lly r .

W ha t c an b e th ough t of a tow n w hi ch h old s a pu b li c

m eeti n g to p eti ti on th a t th e p er i od of la b ou r for m en s h a ll b e
d i m i n i s h ed to ei gh teen h ou s a d ay W e d ecla i m r

a g a i n s t th e V i r gi n i an a n d C a r oli n i a n c otton l n te s I s th ei r
p a r
-
.

1
c pidity f mill w r wh s cr lti s in th p rs it f g in h v h rdly
Th e u o -
o ne s o e ue e e u u o a a e a

b n xc d d by th s p rp tr t d by t h Sp ni rds th c q st f Am ric i
ee e ee e o e e e a e e a a on e on ue o e a n

th p rs it f g ld J h W d H ist ry f th Middl d “f rking Cl ss s 3 d

’
e u u o o . o n a e, o o e e an o a e r
,

Ed L nd n 1 835 p 1 1 4 Th th r tic l p rt f this b k kind f h nd b k f

. o o , , . . e eo e a a o oo ,
a o a -
oo o

P litic l Ec n my is c nsid ring th tim f its p blic ti n rigin l in s m p rts

o a o o , ,
o e e e o u a o , o a o e a ,

e g. c mm rci l cris s Th hist ric l p rt is t gr t xt nt a sh m l ss

.
,
on o e a e . e o a a ,
o a ea e e , a e e

p l g i rism f Sir F M Ed n s H ist ry f th P r L nd n 1 799 ’ ”

a a o . . e o o e oo o o .
, ,
 2 2 8 Cap i ta li s t Pr od u cti on .

b lac k -
m a r k et, th ei r las h , an d th ei r ba r ter of h u man fl es h m or e
d etes ta b le th a n t h i s s lo w s ac r i fi ce of h u m an i ty w h i ch tak es
p lace i n or d er th a t v eils an d c o lla r s m ay b e fa b r i c a ted for th e
b en efi t of ca pi ta li s ts ” 1

The pot te i es of S ta ffo d s h i r e h a v e d u r i n g th e las t 22 y ea s

r r ,
r ,

b een th e s u bj ec t of th r ee pa r li am en ta r y i n qui r i es The es u lt i s . r

em b od i ed i n M r S cr i v en s R e o t of 1 8 4 1 t o th e C ’
h i ld “
’
en s r
p . r

E m ploy m en t C om m i s s i on er s i n th e r epo t of Dr G een h ow ,

”
r . r

of 1 8 6 0
pu b li s h ed b
y o r d e o f th e m ed i c a l o ffi ce of th e P i y r r r v

C ou n ci l ( P ubli c H ealth 3 d Repor t 1 1 2 la s tly i n t h e ,

r , ,

r e o t of M L n g f 1 8 6 2 i n th F i s t R e or t of th e
p r o e o r . e p r

C hild en s E m ploy m en t C om m i s i on of th e 1 3 th J un e
r
’
s , ,

F or m y pur pos e i t i s en o ug h to tak e f om th e ep o ts of 1 8 6 0 ,

r r r

a n d 1 8 6 3 s om e d e o i ti on s o f th e ex loi ted c hild r en th m s elv es

p , p s e .

F r om th e c hild r en w e m a y for m a n opi n i on a s to th e a d u lts ,

es pec i a lly th e g i r ls a n d w o m en , a n d th a t i n a r a n ch of i n d us tr y b
b y th e s i d e of w hi c h c otton s -

p i nn ing a
pp ear s a n a g r eeab le a n d
h ea lth ful oc c u pa ti on .
2

W i lli a m W ood 9 y ea s old w a s 7 y ear s a n d 1 0 m on th s w h en

,
r ,

h e b eg a n to w or k He
”
a n m ou ld s
( c a r r i ed r ea d
.
y m ould ed
“
r -

a r ti c les i n to t h e d i ng oom a fte r w a r d s b r i ng i n g b a c k t h e

r
y r ,

e m p ty m o uld ) f o m th e b eg i n n i n g He c a m e to w o k ev r y d y
r . r e a

i n th e w eek a t 6 a m a n d left off a b o u t 9 p m I w o k till

. .
,
. . r

9 o c lock a t n i gh t s i x d ay s i n th e w eek
’
I hav e d on e s o s ev en .

o ei g h t w eek s
r F i fteen h ou r s of lab our for a c h i ld 7 y ea
.
”
rs

old J M ur r ay 1 2 y ea r s of age s ay s I tu n j i gge a n d r un

.
, ,
: r r,

m ould s I com e a t 6 S om eti m es I c om e a t 4 I w or k ed a ll

. . .

n i g h t la s t n i g h t till 6 o c loc k th i s m o n i n g ,
I h av e n ot b een ’
r .

i n b ed s i n c e t he n i gh t b efo e l t T h e e w e e ei gh t or n i n e r as . r r

o th e b oy s w o k i n g la s t n i gh t All b u t on e h a v e com e th i
r r . s

m or n i n g I get 3 s hi lli n gs a n d s i x pen ce I d o n ot get a n y m o e

. . r

for w or k in g a t n i gh t I w or k ed t w o n i gh ts la s t w eek F ern y . .

”

h oug h a b oy of ten :
,
I h av e n ot a lw ay s a n h ou ( fo d i n n e ) r r r .

I ha v e on ly h a lf a n h ou s om eti m es on T h ur s d ay F i d ay a n d r ,
r ,

S a tu d y r a .

1 D ily T l gr ph 1 7 th J n ry 1 860
a e e a ,
”
a ua , .

2 C f F En g ls L g
’
t p 24 9 5 1
e a e, e c -
. . .
.
, .

3 Childr n s Empl ym t C mmissi

e
’
First r o en o on . ep o rt ,
etc .
, 1 86 3 . Evid nc e e, p 1 6, .

1 9, 1 8 .
 2 3 0 Cafi i i a li s i Pr oa uct i on ’
.

s ta ti s ti cal d ata b u t ,
I
h es i ta te to a s s er t th a t m y i n d i g n a
do n ot

ti on has b een a r o u s ed a ga i n a n d a g a i n a t th e s i g h t of
p oo r

c h i ld r e n w h os e h ea lth h a s b een s a c i fi c ed r to g r ati fy th e a v ar i c e

of e i th er
p a r en ts or em lo er s
p y .
”
He en u m er a tes th e c a u s es

of th e d i s ea s es of th e p otter s , a n d s u m s th em up i n th e p h r a s e,
lon g h ou r s Th e r epor t of th e C om m i s s i on tr u s ts th a t
“ ” “
. a

m an ufa c tur e w h i ch h a s as s u m ed s o p r om i n en t
p
a l a ce i n th e

w h ole w or ld , w ill n ot lon g b e su bj ec t to th e r em a r k th a t i ts

g r eat s u cc es s i s a c com pan i ed w i th th e ph y s i ca l d eter i or a ti on ,

w i d e s pr ea d b od i ly s u ffe r i n g a n d ear ly d ea th of th e w or k p eople

-

b y w h os e la b ou r a n d s k i ll s u c h gr ea t r es ults h a v e b een
a c h i ev ed An d all th a t h old s of th e p otter i es i n E n gla n d i s
” 1
.

tr ue of th os e i n S c otla n d .

Th e m a n u fa c tu r e of luc i fer m a tch es d a tes fr om 1 8 3 3 , fr om

th e d i s co ve r
y of th e m e th od o f a p ply i n g ph os h or us t o th e
p
m a tc h i ts elf . S i nce 1 8 4 5 th i s m a n u fa c tu r e h a s r a pi d ly d ev el
O ped i n E n gla n d a n d h as ex ten d ed es pec i ally a m on gs t the
,

th i ck ly p opu la ted pa r ts of L on d on as w ell a s i n M a n c h es ter ,

B i r m i n gh am L i v er pool B r i s tol N or w i c h N e w c a s tle an d G las

, , , ,

g ow . W i th i t h a s s r ea d th e fo r m of loc kj a w w h i c h a Vi en n a
p ,

h s i c i an i n 1 8 4 5 d i s c ov er ed to be a d i s ea s e
p ec u li a r to
p y
luc i fer m a tc h m a k er s
-
H a lf t he w or k er s a r e c h i ld r en u n d er
.

thi r t een a n d y ou n g p er s on s u n d er ei g h teen Th e m a n ufac tu r e

,
.

is on a cc ou n t of i ts u n h ea lth i n es s p lea s a n tn es s i n s uc h
and un

b ad od ou r th a t on l
y t h e m os t m i s er a b le part of th e lab ou r i n g
c la s s , h a lf s ta r v
-
ed w i d ow s
p an d so for th ,
d e li v er u th ei r
th e r a gg ed , h a lf—
s ta r v ed u n ta ugh t c h i ld r e n
”3
ch i ld r en to i t,
“
.
,

Of th e w i tn es s es th a t C o m m i s s i on er W hi te ex a m i n ed
2 7 0 w er e un d er 1 8 , 50 u n d er 1 0, 1 0 on ly 8 , an d 5 on ly 6 y ea r s
old . A r an ge of th e w or ki n g d a y fr om 1 2 to 1 4 or 1 5 h our s ,
ni gh t la b ou i r r eg ular m eal ti m es m ea ls for th e m os t par t
-
r, ,

ta k en i n th e v er y w or k r oom s th a t a r e p es ti len t w i th p h os

p h or us D a n te w ou ld h av e foun d th e w or s t h or r or s of h i s
.

I n fer n o s ur pa s s ed i n thi s m a n u fa c tur e .

In th e m an uf c tur e of p ap er h an gi n gs th e c oa r s er s or ts a r e
a -

r i n ted b y m a c h i n e ; th e fi n er b y h a n d ( b lo c k p r i n t i n g Th
p ) -
,
e

1 Childr n s Empl ym nt C mmissi n

e
’
o e o o , p 22,
. and xi .

2 1 c p xlvii
. . . .

p liv . .
 7 ko Wor ki ng D ay .
2 3 I

m os t a c ti v e b u s i n es s m on th s ar e fr om th e b egi nn i n g of O c tob er
t o th e en d of Apr i l . D ur i n g th i s ti m e th e w or k g oes on fa s t
and fu r i ou s w i th ou t i n ter m i s s i on fr om 6 a . m to 1 0 p m
.
. . or

fu r th er i n to th e ni gh t .

J . L ea ch d epos es :
“
L as t w i n ter six out of n i n eteen gi r ls
w er e fr om i ll h ealth a t on e t i m e fr om ov
aw a w or k er I h av e
y
- -
.

t o b a w l a t th em to k eep th em a w ak e
”
W D uffy : “
. . I hav e
s een w h en th e c h i ld r en c ou ld n on e o f th em k eep th ei r ey es

J L b
”
o en for t h e w or k ; i n d eed , n on e of u s c ou ld i gh t ou r n e
p . .

Am 1 3 We w or k ed las t w i n ter till 9 ( even i n g) a n d th e ,

w i n ter b efor e ti ll 1 0 . I u s ed to cr y w i th s or e feet ev er y n i ght

las t w i n ter . G Aps d en
. :
“
T h a t b oy of m ine w h en h e
w as 7 year s old I u s ed to y h
car ri m on m y b a c k t o a n d fr o

t hr ou h th e g s n ow , an d he u s ed t o h a v e 1 6 h o ur s a d ay I
h a v e often k n elt d ow n t o feed h i m as he s tood b y th e m a c hi n e,
lea v e i t S m i th th e m an a i n g g
”
for he c ould n ot or s top .
,

p ar tn er o f a M a n ch e s ter fac tor y W e ( he m ean s h i s b an d s

w h o w or k for us w or k on , w i th n o s topp a ge for m eals ,
so

th at th e d a y s w or k of 1 05 h our s i s fi n i s h ed b y m and
’

p . .
,

v
a ll a fter th a t i s o er ti m e
” 1
( D o es t h i s r m i M S
th t ak e n o . .

m eals h i m s elf d u r i n g 1 0; h our s ? ) W e ( th i s s a m e S m i th ) s el

d om leav e off w or k i n g b efo e 6 p m (h e m ean s lea v e off th e r . .

c on s u m ti on of
p ou r la b ou r
p o w e r m a c h i n es )
‘
s o th a t w e
’
-
,

( i ter um C i s i n u s
p ) a r e r ea rlly w or k i n g ov e r ti m e th e w h ole y ea r

r o un d F or a ll th es e c hi ld r en a n d a d ults ali k e ( 1 5 2 ,
'

c h i ld en a n d ou n g on s a n d 1 4 0 a d ults ) th e a v e a g e w or k r
r
y p e s r ,

for th e la s t 1 8 m on th s h as b een a t th e v er y leas t 7 d ay s 5 ,

h our s o 7 8 5 h ou r s a w eek
,
r F or th e s i x w eek s en di n g May
»
.

2 n d th i s y ea r th e a v er a g e w a s h i g h er — 8 d ay s or 8 4
h ou s a w eek
r S ti ll thi s s am e M S m i th w h o i s s o ex tr em ely
. r .
,

d ev oted to th e p lu a li s m aj es ta ti a d d s w i th a s m i le r M a ch i n e s, ,

w or k i s n ot g ea t So th e em ploy er s i n th e b lock pr i n ti n g
”
r .
-

1T is is t t b t k n in th s m s ns
h no u su rp l s l b
o e a e e a e e e as o r u -
a our tim Th s e . e e

g ntl m n c nsid r
e e h rs f l b r th n rm l w rking d y
e o e ou o a ou as e o a o a , which incl d s u e

o fc rs th n rm l s rpl s l b r A ft r this b gins v rtim

ou e e o a u u -
a ou . e e o e e which is p id a a

littl b tt r It will b s n l t r th t th l b r xp d d d ri
e e e . e ee a e a e a ou e en e u n g th c ll d
e s o- a e

n rm l d y is p id b l w its v l
o a a th t th v rtim is sim ply
a e o a ue , s o a e o e e a c pit list trick
a a

in rd r t xt rt m r s rpl s l b r which it w ld still b v

o e o e o o e u u -
a ou , ou e, e e n i f th l b r e a ou

p w r x p nd d d r ing th n rm l w rki g d y w r p r p rly p id

o e e e e u e o a o n a e e o e a .
2 3 2 Capi i a li s t P r oa n oi i on ’
.

s ay : H a n d lab our i s m or e h ea lthy th a n m a ch i n e w or k -

. On
th e w h ole, m a n u fa c tu r er s d ec la r e wi th i n d i g n a ti on a ga i n s t th e
r o os a l
p p
“
t o s to
p th e m a c h i n e s a t lea s t d u r i n g m ea l t i m e s
’
.

A c la u s e, s a
y s Mr . O t ley m a n ag er , of a w a ll p a per fa c tor y i n
-

the B or ough, “
w h i ch a llow ed w or kb et w een , s ay 6 a m an d 9 .

p m . . w ould s u i t us ve y w r
ell b u t t h e fa c tor
y h ou r s, 6
,

a . m p. m to 6
a r e n ot b . .
,
s u i ta le Our m a c h i n e i s a lw a y s
.

s to p ed for d i n n er
p ( W h a t g e n e r o s i ty )! T h er e i s n. o w a s t e

a er a n d c olou r t o s ea k of
”
of B u t h d d m th t i
p p p e a s s
y p a e .
,

c a ll
y
“
I c a n u n d
, e r s t a n d t h e lo s s o f t i m e n o t b e i n g li k e d
’
.

Th e re
p or t of th eC om m i s s i on e pi n es w i th n ai v ete tha t th e
fea r o f s om e
“
lea d i n g fi r m s of los i n
g ti m e , i . e,
. th e t i m e for
a
pp ro
p i r at n i g th e lab our of oth er s , an d th en ce los i n g p ro fit
is n ot a s u ffi c i en t r ea s on for a llow i n g c h ild r en u n d er 1 3, an d

y ou n
p g er s on sk i n g 1 2 t ou n d er
1 6 h o u rs
p er d a
y t1 8 , w or
o ,

los e t h ei r d i n n er n or fo r gi v i n g i t to th em a s c oa l a n d w a ter
,

ar e s u li e d t o th e s tea m en g i n e t w o ol oi l to t h e
pp s oa
p o -

, ,

w h eel— a s m er ely a u x i li a r y m a ter i a l to th e i n s tr um en ts of

la b ou r d u r i n g th e pr oc es s of pr od uc ti on i ts elf
,
.
1

No b r a n c h of i n d us tr y i n E n glan d ( w e d o n ot tak e i n to
a c c o un t t h e m a k i n g o f b r ea d b m ac h i n er y r ece n tly i n tr o
y
d u c ed ) h a s pr es er v ed u p to th e pr es en t d ay a m ethod of p r o
—
d u c t on s o a r c h a i c s o as w e s ee fr om th e poets of th e R om a n
i ,

E m pi r e— p e c hr i s ti a n a s b a k i n g But c a pi ta l as w a s s a i d
r -

,
.
,

ea r li e i s a t fi r s t i n d i ffer en t a s to th e tec h n i ca l c h a r a c ter of th e

r,

lab ou r pr oc es s i t b egi n s b y ta ki n g i t j u s t as i t fi n d s i t
-
.

Th e i n c r ed i b le a d ulter a ti on f b r ea d es p ec i a lly i n L on d on o , ,

w a s fi r s t r ev ea led b y th e H o us e of C om m on s C om m i ttee on
”
th e a d u lter a ti on of a r ti c les of food ( 1 8 5 5 an d Dr .

Ha s s a ll s ’
w or A d u lter a ti on s d etec ted
k ,
“
Th e c on s equ en c e .

of th es e r ev ela ti on s w a s th e Ac t of A u g u s t 6 th 1 8 6 0
“
for , ,

p g
r e v en ti nt h e a d u lter a ti on of a r ti c les of food a n d d r i n k a n ,

i n per a ti v e la w a s i t n a tu r ally s h ow s th e ten d er es t c on s i d e r

o ,

a ti on for ev er fr ee tr a d er w h o d eter m i n es b th b u i n g o
y y e y r -

s elli n g of a d u lter a ted c omm o d i t i es

”
to t ur n a n h on es t pen n y .

1 1 . 0 . Evid nc p 1 23 1 24 1 25 1 40 d 54
e e, .
, , , , an .

2 Al u m fin ly p wd r d mix d with s lt is n rm l rticl

e o e e , or e a , a o a a e o f c mm rc b r
o e e ea

ing th e signific nt n m f b k rs st ff
a a e o a e
’
u .
”

3 Sc o t is w ll kn wn d v ry n rg tic f rm f c rb n
a e -
o an e e e e o o a o , an d fo rms a m an u e r
 '
Cap i z a /i s t Pr oa noz i on
‘ ‘
2 34 .

of th e ( C
S ta te
los e o f t h e P a r li a m en ta r
i n s pec tor s y s es s i on of

an d b t h e s a m e Ac t o f P a r li a m en t w o r k fr om 9 i n th e
y ,

e v en i n g to 5 i n th e m or n i n g w a s for b i d d en fo r j ou r n ey m en

b a ker s u n d er 1 8 Th e la s t cla u s e s pea ks v olu m es a s to th e .

ov er w or k i n th i s old fa s h i on ed h om el li n e of b u s i n es s
y
- -
.
,

Th e w or k of a L on d on j ou r n ey m an b a k er b eg i n s a s a r u le ,

a t a b ou t elev en a t n i g h t At th at h ou r h e m ak es th e d ough ‘
,
.

la b or i ou s pr oces s w h i c h la s ts fr om h a lf a n h our to thr ee

a ,
- -

q uar ter s of a n h ou r , a c c or d i n g to th e s i z e of th e b a tc h or th e
lab ou r p b es tow ed u on it . He th en li es d ow n u pon th e k n ea d
i n g—
b oa r d w h i ch i s ,
v er i n g of th e tr ou gh i n w h i c h
a ls o th e co

th e d ou gh i s m a d e a n d w i th a s a c k u n d e h i m a n d a n oth er r ,

r olled u i ll w h e s lee s for a b ou t a ou le o f h ou r s

p as a
p o p p ,
c .

He i s th en en gag ed i n a r a pi d a n d c on ti n u ou s la b ou fo a b ou t r r

h
fi v e ou s — th o w i n g ou t th e d ou gh
r rs c ali n g i t o ff m ou ld i n g
’
, ,

i t pu tti n g i t i n to th e ov en p epa r i n g a n d b a k i n g r olls a n d

, ,
r

fa n cy b ea d tak i n g th e b a tc h b r ea d ou t of th e o v en a n d u p
r , ,

i n to th e s h op & c &c Th e tem pe a tu e of a b ak eh ous e r a n g es

,
.
,
. r r

f om a b ou t 7 5 to u p w ar d s of 9 0 d eg r ees a n d i n th e s m a ller
r ,

b ak eh ous es a ppr ox i m a tes u s u ally to th e h i gh er r a th er th a n to

th e low er d eg ee of h ea t W h en th e b us i n es s of m ak i ng th e
r .

b ea d r olls & c i s ov e th a t of i ts d i s tr i b uti on b egi n s an d a

r , ,
.
,
r, ,

c on s i d e a b le p r o po ti on of t h e j o u n ey m en i n th e t a d e a fter
r r r r ,

w o k i n g h a r d i n th e m a n n e d e c r i b ed d ur i n g th e n i g h t ar e
r r s ,

u pon th ei leg s for m an y h ou r s d u i n g t h e d a y ca

r
y i n g b k e ts r ,
rr as ,

or w h eeli n g h a n d ca ts a n d s om eti m es a ga i n i n th e b a k eh o us e
-
r , ,

lea i n g off w or k a t v a i ou s h ou r s b etw een 1 a n d 6 p m

v r . .

a cc o d i n g to th e s ea s on o f th e y ea
r or th e a m ou n t a n d n a t u e r, r

m a s te s b us i n es s ; w hi le oth e s ar e a g i n en gag ed i n
’
of th ei r r r a

th e b ak eh ou s e i n b i n g i n g ou t m o e b tc h es u n ti l la te i n th e
’
r r a

a fte n o on r D u in g w h a t i s called th e Lon d on s ea s on th e

.
1
r
‘
,
’

O pe a ti v es b elon gi n g t o th e full p i ced ba k e s a t th e Wes t

r
‘
-
r r

En d of t h e to w n gen er a lly b eg i n w o k a t 1 1 p m a n d a r e eu
,
r . .
,

gaged i n m a ki n g th e b ea d w i th on e or tw o s h or t ( s om eti m es r ,

v er s h or t i n te va ls of es t u p to 8 o clo ck th e n ex t m or n i n g
)
’
r r
y , .

T h y a r e th en en g ag ed a ll d ay lon g u p to 4 5 6 a n d a s la te
e , , , ,

as 7 o c loc k i n th e ev en i n g c a i n g ou t b r ea d or s om e ti m es i n
’

y rr ,

1
. 0. First R ep o rt , &c .
, p . vi .
 Tko Wor ki ng D ay . 2 35

th e a fter n o on i n th e ba k ehou s e a gai n ,

a s s i s ti n g i n th e bi s c u i t
b ak i n g . T h ey m ay h a ve a fter th ey ,
h a v e d on e th ei r w o k r ,

s om eti m es s i x, s om eti m es on ly
’
fiv e or fou r or fi v e h ou r s s le e
p
b efo re b egi n agai n On F r i d a y s th ey alw ay s b egi n
th ey .

s om e a b ou t t en o clock a n d c on ti n u e i n s om e ca s es a t
’
s oon e r, , ,

w or k ei th er i n m ak i n g o d eli v e i n g th e b ea d u p to 8 p m on
,
r r r . .

S a tur d ay n i gh t b u t m o e gen er ally u p t o 4 o 5 o clock ,

r r
’

S u n d ay m o n i n g On S u n d a y s th e m en m u s t a tten d t w i c e or
r .

th ee ti m es d u i n g th e d ay fo a n h ou r or tw o to m ak e p e
r r .
r r

p a a ti
r on s fo th e n e x t d a
y s b ea d r T h e m en e m l
p yo e d
’
r

b y th e un d e s elli n g m a s ter s ( w h o s ell th ei r b r ea d un d er th e

r

full pr i ce, a n d w h o, a s alr ea d y p oi n ted

’
rise th r ee
‘
ou t, c om
p
fou r th s of th e L on d on b a k er s ) h a v e n ot on l
y t o w or k on th e
a v er a ge lon ge h ou s b ut th ei r w o k i s alm os t en ti r ely c on fi n ed
r r ,
r

t o th e b a k eh ou s e Th e u n d e s elli n g m as te s g en er a lly ell t h ei r

. r r s

b r ea d i n th e s h op If th ey s en d i t ou t w h i ch i s n ot c om m on
. .
, ,

ex cep t a s s u p l i n g c h a n d ler s s h o s th e
’
u s u a ll m l t h
p y p y y e
p o y o e r ,

b a n d s for th a t p u p os e It i s n ot t h ei r p a c ti c e to d eli v er
r . r

b ea d fr om h ous e to h ous e T ow a r d th e en d of th e w eek

r . s

t h e m en b egi n on T h u r s d ay n i g h t a t 1 0 o c loc k a n d c on ti n u e on
’

w i th on ly s li gh t i n te m i s s i on u n ti l la te on S a tu r d ay e v en i n g
” 1
r .

E v en th e b ou g eoi s i n tellect u n d e s ta n d s th e p os i ti on of th e
r r

u n d er s elli n g m a te s Th e u n p ai d la b our of th e m en w a s r . s

n a d e th e s ou ce w h e eb
”z
t h e c om p e ti ti on w a s ca i ed c u
y r r rr .

An d th e full p r i c ed b a k er ( len ou n c es h i s un d e s elli n g com

-
r

p et i to s t o th
r e C om m i s s i on o f I n qu i y a s t h i e v es o f f or e i g n r

la b our a n d a d ulte a tor s T h ey on ly ex i s t n ow b y fi s t d e

r .
“
r

fr a u d i n g th e pu b li c a n d n ex t g ett i n g 1 8 h ou r s w o k ou t of
’

,
r

th ei r m en for 1 2 h ou r s w a g es
’
.

Th e a d ulte a ti on of b ea d an d th e for m a ti on of a c la s s of
r r

b ak e s th a t s ells th e br ea d b elow th e full p i c e d a te f om th e

r r ,
r

b egi nn i n g of th e 1 8 th c en tu y fr om th e ti m e w h en t h e r ,

c or por a te c h a r a c ter of th e tr a d e w a s los t, an d th e c a pi ta li s t in

th e for m of th e m i ller or flou r fa c tor -
,
r i s es b ehi n d th e n om i n a l

m a s ter b ak e r .
4
T h us w a s la i d th e fou n d a ti on of c a i ta li s ti c
p
1 l c p lxxi
. . . .
2 G rg R deo e ea Th e ,
Hist ry f B king L nd n
o o a , o o ,
1 848, p 1 6 . .

3 R p rt ( Firs t ) 8
e o 50. Evid nc ell pric d b k r Ch s m n
e of th e fu -
e a e ee e a , p .1 08 .

4 G rg R d 1
eo e ea , . 0 . At th d f th 1 7 h d th b gi ni g f th 1 8th c nt ri s
e en o e t an e e n n o e e u e

th e f ct rs ( g nts ) th
a o a e a t cr wd d int v ry p ssibl tr d w r still d n nc d
o e o e e o e a e e e e ou e as
 2 3 6 Caj fii ta /i s t P r od ucti on .

p r od u c ti on i n th i s t r a d e ,
o f the u n li m i ted e x ten s i on of th e
w or ki n g d ay an d of n i gh t lab orrr ,
a lth ou gh th e la tter on l
y
s i n ce 1 8 24 g a i n ed a s er ou s i footi n g, e v en in L o nd on .
1

After w h at h a s j u s t b een s ai d , i t w i ll b e u n d er s tood th a t th e

R epor t of th e C om m i s s i on
j ou r n ey m en b ak er a m on g c la s s es s

th e s h or t li v ed la b ou e s w h o h a v i n g b y g ood lu c k es ca ped th e
-
r r , ,

n or m al d ec i m a t i on of th e c h i ld r en f th e w o k i n g —la s s a ely o r c ,
r r

r ea ch th e a e of 4 2
g N ev e th eles s th e b a k i n g t a d e
. i s a lw a
y s r ,
r

ov e w h elm e d w i th a ppli c an ts
r Th e s ou c es of th e s u pply of . r

th es e la b our pow e s to L on d on a e S c otla n d th e w es ter n ag i

-
r r ,
r

c u ltu r a l d i s t i c ts Of E n g la n d a n d G e m a n
r
y ,
r .

In th e y ea 1 8 5 8 6 0 th e j ou n ey m en b a k e s i n I ela n d
rs -
,
r r r

o g a n i s ed a t th ei r
r ow n ex e n s e g ea t m eeti ng s t g i t te
p o a a r

a g i n s t n i gh t a n d
a S un d ay w o k The p u b li c a t th e r .

D u b li n m eeti n g i n May 1 8 6 0— took th ei r pa t w i th I i s h ,

r r

w a m th
r As es ult of t h i s m ov em ent d a y la b ou a lon e w a s
. r ,
r

s u cc es s fullv es ta b li s h ed i n W ex for d Ki lk en n
y C lon m e l W a t e r , , ,

for d &c ,
In Li m er i ck w h er e th e gr i ev an ces of th e j ou n ey
.
,
r

m en a r e d em on s tr a ted to b e ex ces s i v e th e m ov em en t h as b een ,

d efea ted b y th e O ppos i ti on of th e m a s ter b ak er s th e m i ller ,

b a k e s b ei n g the gr ea tes t oppon en ts The ex am ple of Li m e i c k

r . r

led to a r et og es s i on i n E n n i s a n d T i pp e a y
r r In C o k w h er e r r . r ,

th e s t on ges t p os s i b le d em on s t a ti on o f fe eli n g took pla c e th e

r r ,

m as te s b y ex e c i s i n g th ei pow er of t u n i n g th e m en ou t of
r ,
r r r

em pl y m en t o h a v e d efea ted th e m ov em en t
,
In D ub li n th e .
,

m a s ter b ak e s h a ve O ffe e d the m os t d ete m i n ed o ppos i t i on to

r r r

th e m ov em en t a n d b v d i s cou n ten a n ci n g as m u h a s po s i b le
,
c s

th e j ou n ey m en pr om oti n g i t h a v e s u c ceed e d i n lea d i n g th e

r ,

m en i n to a c qu i es c en c e i n S un d a y w o k a n d n i gh t w o k c on r r ,

tr a y t th e c on v i c ti on s Of th e m en
”2
r o .

Th e C om m i t tee of th e E n gli s h Gov e n m en t w h i ch G ov er n r ,

m en t i n I r ela n d i s a r m ed to th e teeth a n d g en e a lly k n ow s

, , ,
r

h o w to s h ow i t r em on s t a tes i n m i ld t h ou gh fun e ea l t on es
,
r ,
r ,

p blic n is nc s Th s th Gr nd J y t th q rt r s ssi n f th J stic s f

”
u u a e . u e a ur a e ua e e o o e u e o

th P c f
e ea th C e nty f S m rs t ddr ss d p r s ntm nt t th L w r H s
or e ou o o e e ,
a e e a e e e o e o e ou e

which m ng th r things st t s th t th s f ct rs f Bl ck w ll H ll
, a o o e ,
a eP blic ,
a e e a o o a e a ar e a u

N is nc d Pr j dic t th Cl thing Tr d
u a e an e u d ght t b p t d wn
e o e o a e, an ou o e u o a s a.

N is nc Th c s f English W l & L nd n 1 6 85 p 6 7
u a e.
”
e a e o our oo ,
c .
,
o o , , .
, .

1 First R p rt 8 e o , 50 .

2 R p rt f C mmitt
e o o o ee on th e B ki g Tr d in Ir l nd f
a n a e e a or 1 86 1 .
2 3 8 Cap i ta li s t Pr od ucti on .

m i s for tu n e . T hey d ec la r e
v oi c e b efor e th e j ur y th at w i th on e

ten or tw elv e y ea s b ef e th ei la b ou on ly las ted ei gh t h ou s r or ,

r r r

a d ay
-
D ur i n g th e las t fiv e o s i x y ear s i t h a d b een s c r e w e d
. r

u p to 1 4 1 8 a n d 2 0 h ou s a n d u n d er a s pec i a lly s ev er e pr es
, ,
r ,

s u e O f h oli d a y m a k e s a t ti m es of ex c u
r i on t a i n s i t often
-
r ,
rs r ,

la s ted fo 4 0 o 5 0 h ou s w i th ou t a b r eak
r T h ey w e e or d i n a y
r r . r r

m en n ot Cy clops ,
At a c er ta i n p i n t th ei r lab ou p ow e fa i led . o r -
r .

T or p or s ei z ed th em T hei r b r a i n c eas ed to th i n k th ei ey es to .
,
r

s ee Th e th o ough ly r es pec tab le B i ti s h j u y m en a n s w e ed

. r r r r

b y a v e d i c t th a t s en t th em to th e n ex t a s s i z es on a c h a g e of
r r

m a n s la ug h t e a n d i n a g en tle to th ei r v e d i t e x
”
i d er r, ,
“
r r c ,

r es s ed t h e i ou s h O e th a t th e ca pi ta li s ti c m a gn a tes of th e r a i l
p p p
w a y s w ould i n fu tu e b e m o e ex t a va g a n t i n th e p u r c h a s e o f a
,
r ,
r r

s u ffic i en t q ua n ti ty of la b ou b ”
a n d m or e i “
p ow e a s t e m ou s r -
r, ,

m o e s elf d en y i n g m or e i n th e d r a i n i n g of pai d
” ”
th r i fty
“ “
r -

, ,

la b ou pow e r- r .

F om th e m otley c r o w d of la b our e s of a ll c a lli n g s a g es

r r , ,

s ex es th a t p es s on u s m or e b u s ily th a n th e s ouls of t h e s la i n
,
r

n U l s e s o n w h om — w i th o ut r efe r i n g to th e b lu e b ook s
o y s ,
r

u n d er t e h i r a r m s — w e s ee a t a gla n c e th e m a r k o f o v er w o k -
r ,

l t u s ta k e t w o m o e fig u es w h os e s t i k i n g c on t
e t p ov es r r r r as r

t h a t b efo e ca pi tal a ll m e n a e a li ke— a m i lli n er a n d a b lac k

r r

s m i th .

R yn lds N wsp p r J n ry 1 86 6 — Ev ry w k thi s s m p p r h

1
e o
’
e a e , a ua , . e ee a e a e as ,

u nd r th s ns ti n l h d i ngs F r f l d f t l ccid nts App lling tr g di s ” ”

e e e a o a ea , ea u an a a a e , a a e e ,

& c wh l list f fr sh r ilw y c t str ph s On th s

.
, a o e m pl yé th N rth
o e a a a a o e . e e an e o on e o

St ff rdshir lin c mm nts

a o Ev ry n kn ws th c ns q nc s th t m y cc r i f
e e o e e o e o e o e ue e a a o u

th driv r
e d fir m n f l c m tiv ngin
e an t c ntin lly th l k t
e a o a o o o e e e ar e n o o ua on e oo -
ou .

H w o th t b xp ct d fr m m w h h b n t s ch w rk f 2 9 30 h rs
ca n a e e e e o a an o as ee a u o or or ou ,

e xp s d t th w th r d with t r st Th f ll wing is
o e o e x m pl which is f
ea e , an ou e . e o o an e a e o

v ry fr q nt cc rr nc — O fir m n c mm nc d w rk th M nd y m rning
e e ue o u e e ne e a o e e o on e o a o

a t v ry rly h r Wh n h h d finish d wh t is c ll d d y s w rk h h d
a e ea ou . e e a e a a e a a
’
o , e a

b n d ty 1 4 h rs 50 min t s B f r h h d tim t g t his t h w g in

ee on u ou u e . e o e e a e o e ea , e as a a

c ll d f d ty
a e on Th n xt tim h finish d h h d b n
or u d ty 1 4 h rs
. e e e e e e a ee on u ou

2 5 min t s m king t t l f 29 h rs 1 5 min t s with t int rmissi n Th r st

u e , a a o a o ou u e ou e o . e e

f th w k s w rk w m d up f ll ws — W dn sd y 1 5 h rs Th rsd y 1 5
’
O e ee o as a e as o o e e a , ou u a ,

h rs 3 5 min t s ; Frid y 1 41 h rs ; S t rd y 1 4 h rs 1 0 min t s m king

ou u e a , ou a u a , ou u e , a a
t t l f th w k f 88 h rs 40 min t s N w sir f ncy his st nishm nt
o a or e ee o ou u e . o , , a a o e on

b ing p id 6 } d ys f th wh l Thinking it w mist k h ppli d t th tim

e a a or e o e . as a a e, e a e o e e

k pree d inq ir d wh t th y c nsid r d

e , d y s w rk d w t ld 1 3 h rs
an u e a e o e e a a
’
o , an as o ou

for a g ds m 78 h rs )
oo H th n sk d f wh t h h d m d
an vr ou . e e a e or a e a a e o e

an d b v th 7 8 h urs p
a o w k b t w
e r f s d H w v r h w t l st t ld
e o er ee , u as e u e . o e e , e as a a o

th y w ld giv him n th r q rt r t 1 0d 1 4th F br ry 1 86 6

e ou e a o e ua e , . e .
, .
”
. c. , e ua , .
 Wor k i ng
'

Tko D ay . 2 39

In th e la s t w eek of Ju n e ,
1 8 6 3, a ll L on d on d ai ly pa per s
th e

p u bli s h ed a par ag a ph w i th th e r s en s a ti on a l
”
h ea d i n g “
D ea th ,

f om s i m ple ov er w o k
”
r It d ealt w i th th e d e a th Of th e -
r .

m i lli n er M a y A n n e Wa lkley 2 0 y ea s of a ge em ploy ed i n a

,
r ,
r ,

hi gh ly es p ec ta b le d r es s m a ki n g es tab li s h m en t ex ploi ted b y a

-
r ,

la d y w i th th e plea s an t n a m e Of E li s e Th e Old O ften told .

,
-

s tor
y w a s o n c,e m
1
o e r ec u n ted T h i s g i l w o k ed o n a n r o . r r ,

a v e a g e 1 6 } h o u r s d u i n g th e s ea s on O ften 3 0 h ou s w i th o ut a
r ,
7
,
r r ,

b r ea k w hi ls t h er fa ili n g lab ou r pow e w a s ev i ed b y occas i on al

,
-
r r v

s u p li es of s h e r t or c offee I t w a s j us t n o w t h e h ei gh t
p y p o rr , ,
.

Of th e s ea s on It w a s n ec es s ar y to c onj u e up i n th e t w i n k li n g
. r

Of a n e e th e g or g eou s d es s es for t h e n ob le la d i es h i d d en to
y r

th e b a ll i n h on ou r O f th e n e w ly i m por ted Pr i n ces s Of W a les -

.

M a y An n e W a lkley h a d w o k ed w i th ou t i n te m i s s i o n for 2 6 %
r r r

h our s w i th 6 0 oth er gi ls 3 0 i n on e r oom t h at on ly a ffo d ed

,
r , ,
r

of t h e c u b i c feet of a i r eq ui r ed for t h em At n i g h t th ey s lep t r .

,

i n p a i s i n on e Of th e s ti fl i n g h oles i n to w hi c h th e b ed oom w a s
r r

d i v i d ed b y p a ti ti on s of b oar d An d th i s w a s on e of th e b es t
r .
2

m i lli n e y es ta b li s h m en ts i n L on d on
r M a r y An n e Wa lkley fell .

i ll on th e F i d ay d i ed on S un d ay w i th ou t to th e a s ton i s h
r , , ,

m en t of M a d a m e E li s e h a v i n g p r ev i o us ly c om pleted th e w o k ,
r

i n h an d Th e d oc to M Key s c alled too late to th e d eath

. r, r .
,

1 F Eng ls l pp 253 254

Cf . . e . . c., .
, .

Dr L th b y C ns lting Physici n f th B rd f H lth d cl r d Th mini

2
. e e , o u a o e oa o ea , e a e e

m m f i f
u Och d lt ght t b in sl ping r m 300 d in d w lling r m
a r or ea a u ou o e a ee oo , an a e oo

5 00 c bic f t Dr Rich rds S ni r Physici n t L nd n H spit ls

”
u ee . f th . a on , e o a o on e o e o o o a
“
With n dl w m n f ll kinds incl ding millin rs dr ssm k rs d rdin ry
ee e o e o a ,
u e , e a e ,
an o a

s m pstr ss s th r
e thr mis ri s— v r w rk d fici nt i
e e , e e ar e d ith r d fici nt ee e e o e -
o ,
e e a r, an e e e e

f d
oo d fici nt dig sti n
or e N dl w rk in th m in
e is infinit ly
e o . ee e o , e a , e

b tt r d p t d t w m n th n t m
e e a a B t t h mischi fs f th tr d in th
e o o e a o en . u e e o e a e, e

m tr p lis sp ci lly
e o o th t it is m n p lis d by s m tw nty six c pit lists w h
e e a , ar e a o o o e o e e -
a a ,
o,

u nd r th dv nt g s t h t spring fr m c pit l
e e a bring in c p it l t f rc c n my
a a e a o a a , can a a o o e e o o

ou t fl b o r This p w r t lls thr gh t th wh l cl ss If dr ssm k r

a ou . o e e ou ou e o e a . a e a e ca n

g t e littl circl f c st m rs s ch is th c mp titi n th t in h h m h m st

a e e o u o e , u e o e o a , er o e, s e u

w rk t th d
o th t h ld t g th r d this s m v r w rk h m st f c s ity
o e ea o o o e e , an a e o e -
o s e u O ne e s

inflict y w h m y ssist h
on a n If h f il d t try ind p nd ntly h m st
o a a er . s e a , or o no e e e ,
s e u

j in
o st blishm nt wh r h l b r is t l ss b t wh r h m n y is s f
an e a e , e e er a ou no e ,
u e e er o e a e.

Pl c d th s h b c m s m r sl v t ss d b t w ith t h v ri ti ns f s ci ty
a e u , s e e o e a e e a e, o e a ou e a a o o o e .

N w t h m in
o a r m st rving n r t it th n ng g d 1 5 1 6 y v n 1 8
o e, on e oo , a , or ea o , e e a e , , a e, e e

h rs t f th 24 in
ou ou i th t is sc rc ly t l r bl
o e d f d which
,
v i f it an a r a a e o e a e, a n on oo , e en

b g d c n t b dig st d in t h
e oo , a bs nc f pur i On th s victims
no e mp
e e e a e e O e a r. e e ,
c on s u

ti n which is p r ly dis s f b d i f ds Dr Rich rds n W rk d

o ,
u e a ea e o a a r, ee .
”
. a o
“
o an

Ov rw rk in S ci l Sci nc R vi w 1 8th July 1 863

e o ,
o a e e e e , , .
2 4 0 Cap i ta li s t Pr od u cti on .

b ed d uly , b o e w i tn es b efo e th e c o on e s j ur y th at Ma y
r s r r r
’
r

An n e W alkley h a d d i ed f m lon h ou r s of w o k i n a n ov e ro
g
r r ,

c ow d e d w o k oom a n d a too s m a ll a n d b a d l
r v e r
n ti la te drb e d
y
-
,

In o d e to g i v e th e d oc to a les s on i n g ood m a n n e s
”
r oom . r r r r ,

th e c o on e s j u y th e e u pon b ou g h t i n a v e d i c t th a t
’ “
r r th e r r r r

d ec ea s ed h a d di ed of a poplexy b u t th e e w a s ea s on to fea ,
r r r

th a t h e d ea th h a d b een a c cele a ted b y ov e w o k i n a n ov e

r r r- r r

w o k oom la v es
”
c ow d e d
r Ou w h i te r c i ed th e
r , r s r
,

M o n i n g S ta t h e o g a n of th e f ee t a d er s C ob d en a n d
“ ”
r r, r r -
r ,

B i g h t our w h i te s la v es w h o a r e toi led i n to th e g a v e fo

r , ,
r ,
r
”
th e m os t pa r t s i len tly p i n e a n d d i e .

It i s n ot i n d r es s m a k er s r oom s th a t w or k i n g to d ea th i s
“ ’

th e o r d er of th e d ay , b u t i n a th ou s a n d oth er p la ces in e ve r
y
p lac e I h a d a lm os t s a i d , w h er e a th r i i n u s i n es s v g b h a s to be
d on e . We w ill ta ke th e b la ck s m i th as a ty pe . If
th e p oets w er e tr u e, th er e i s n o m a n s o h ea r ty , s o m er r y , a s
th e b k
la c s m i th ; h e r i s es ea r ly a n d s tr i es h i s s pa r s e for e k k b
th e s un ; he c a ts and d r i n ks an d s lee
p s as no oth er m an .

W or ki n g i n m od er a ti on , h e i s i n fa c t i n , ,
on e of th e b es t of

h u m a n pos i ti on s , ph y s i c ally s pea k i n g But w e follow hi m i n to .

th e c i ty or tow n , a n d w e s ee th e s tr es s of w or k on th a t s tr on g
man ,
and w h a t th en i s h i s p os i ti on i n th e d ea th r a te of h i s -

co un tr
y . In M a r y leb on e ,
bla ck s m i ths d i e a t th e r a te of 3 1 per
th ou s a n d p er a n n u m , o r 1 1 a o b v e th e m ea n of th e m ale a d ults

of t h e c ou n tr i n i t n ti t Th e occ u a t i on , i n s ti n c ti v e
y s e r e
y .
p
1
M rni g St r 23 d J n 1 86 3 — Th Tim s m d
o n f th circ mst nc
a , r u e, e e a e us e o e u a e

t d f nd th Am ric n sl v
o e e wn rs g inst Bright &e V ry m ny f think
e a a e o e a a , 0 . e a o us ,
”

s ys l d r f J ly 2 d 1 86 3 th t whil w w rk
a a ea e o w y ng w m n t
u n , , a ,
e e o our o n ou o e o

d th si g t h sc rg f t rv ti inst d f th cr ck f th whip th i t
ea ,
u n e ou e o s a a on , ea o e a o e ,
as e ns ru

m nt f c mp lsi w h v sc rc ly right t h nd fi
e O o u d sl ght r g inst
on , e a e a e a o ou on r e an au e a a

f mili s w h w r b rn sl
a e wn rs d wh t l st f d th ir sl v s w ll d
o e e o av e o e , an o, a ea ,
ee e a e e ,
an

w rk th m lightly In th s m m nn r th St nd rd
o e T ry rg n f ll f l
.
”
e a e a e , e a a ,
”
a o o a ,
e ou

O f th R N wm n H ll H xc mm nic t d th sl v wn rs b t p r ys wit h
e ev . e a a e e o u a e e a e o e ,
u a

th fi e f lk w h
ne with t r m rs m k th mni b s driv rs d c nd ct rs f
o o, ou e o e, a e e o u e an o u o o

L nd n & w rk 1 6 h rs d y f th w g s f d g Fin lly sp k th r cl

o o , c .
,
o ou a -
a or e a e o a o . a ,
a e e o a e,

Th m s C rlyl f wh m I wr t in 1 850 Z m T f l ist d G ni s d K lt s

o a a e, o o o e, , u eu e er e u , er u u

ist g bli b n In sh rt p r bl h r d c s th
e e e . gr t v nt f c nt m p r ry
a o a a e, e e u e e on e ea e e O o e o a

hist ry t h Am ric n civil w t this l v l th t th P t r f th N rth w nts t

o ,
e e a ar , o e e ,
a e e e O e o a o

br k th h d f th P l f th S th with ll his might b c s th P t r f th

ea e ea O e au O e ou a , e au e e e e o e

N rth hir s his l b r by th d y d th P l f th S th hir s his by th lif

o e a ou e a , an e au o e ou e e e .

M cmill n s M g zin Ili s A m ric n in n c A g st Th s t h

.

’
a a a a e . a e a a u e . u u ,
u , e

b bbl f T ry symp thy f th rb n w rk r —b y

u e o o m ns f th r r l— h a or e u a o e s no ea or e u a as

burst t l st Th m f ll is— sl v ry
a a . e su o a a e
2 4 2 Capi ta li s t P r o
d ucti on .

th at at th e pr es en t ti m e i t s ti ll fl our i s h es , a m ong oth er s , i n th e

s i n ni n g of th e M os co w di s tr i c t T h i s 2 4 h ou r s
’
c otton p p r oces s .

of
p r od uc ti on e x i s ts to d ay -
as a s y s tem i n m an y of th e
br an ch es of i n d us tr y of G r eat Br i tai n th at ar e s ti ll fr ee i n “
,

th e b las t fur n a ces for g es pla te r olli n g m i lls a n d oth er m etal

-
, ,
-
,

lur gi c al es ta bli s h m en ts i n E ngla n d W a les a n d S c otlan d The , ,

.

w or k i ng ti m e h er e i n clu d es b es i d es th e 2 4 h our s of th e 6 ,

w or k i n g d ay s a g r ea t pa r t als o o f th e 24 h ou r s Of S un d ay
,
.

Th e w or k er s con s i s t of m en a n d w om en a d ults an d ch i ld r en ,

of b oth s ex es Th e ages of th e c hi ld r en a n d y ou ng per s on s r u n

.

t h r ough a ll i n ter m ed i ate g r a d es fr om 8 ( i n s om e ca s es fr om 6 ) ,

to
In br an ch es of i nd us tr y th e gi r ls a n d w om en w or k
s om e ,

th r ough th e n i g h t tog eth er w i th th e m ales .

P laci ng on on e s id e th e gen er ally i nj ur i ou s i n fl uen ce of n i gh t

lab our th e d ur a ti on of th e pr oc es s Of pr od uc ti on un b r ok en d u r
,
3
,

Childr n s Empl ym nt C mmissi n Third R p rt L nd n 1 864 p iv

1 e
’
o vi e o o . e o . o o , , . . v., .

2 B th in St ff rdshir d in S th W l s y ng gi rl d w m n
“
o a m pl y d
o e an ou a e ou s an o e ar e e o e

on th pi t b nkse d th c k h p s t O nly b y d y b t ls by n ight This

a an on e o e ea , no a u a o .

p r ctic h b n ft n n tic d in R p rts pr s nt d t P rli m nt b ing tt nd d

a e as ee o e o e e o e e e o a a e , as e a e e

W ith gr t d n t ri us vils Th s f m l s mpl y d with th m h rdly dis

ea an o o o e . e e e a e e o e e en , a

ti g i h d fr m th m in th ir dr ss
n u s e d b grim d with dirt
o d sm k
e xp s d e e , an e e an o e, a r e e o e

t th d t ri r ti n f ch r ct r
o e e e i sing fr m th l ss
o a f s l f r sp ct which
o o a a e , ar o e o o e -
e e , ca n

h rdly f il t f ll w fr m th ir un f minin c p ti n ( l c
a a o o o p xxvi C f o e e e o cu a o .
”
. . . . .

F rth R p rt
ou 6 1 p xiii ) It is th s m in gl ss w rks
e o , . . e a e a -
o .

A st l m n f ct r r w h mpl ys childr n in night l b r r m rk d It

3 ee a u a u e o e o e -
a ou e a e

s ms b t n t r l th t b ys w h w rk t night c nn t sl p d g t pr p r r st by
ee u a u a a o o o a a o ee an e o e e

d y b t will b r nning b u t
a ,
u (1 c F rth R p rt 6 3 p xiii ) On t h imp rt
e u a o .
”
. . ou e o , , . . e o

a nc f s unli ght f th m int n nc d gr wth f th b dy physici n writ s

e o or e a e a e an o o e o , a a e

Light ls cts up n th tissu s f th b dy dir ctly in h rd ning th m d s pp rting

a oa o e e O e o e a e e an u o

th ir l sticity Th m scl s f nim ls wh n th y d priv d f pr p r m nt

e e a . e u e o a a , e e ar e e e o a o e a ou

o f light b c m s ft d in l stic t h n rv s p w r l s s its t n fr m d f cti

, e o e o an e a , e e ou o e o e o e o e e ve

stim ul ti n d th l b r ti n f ll gr wth s ms t b p rv rt d
a o , an e In
e a o a o o a o ee o e e e e

th c s e f childr n c nst nt cc ss t pl nty f light d ring t h d y

a e O e , d t th o a a e o e o u e a ,
an o e

dir ct r ys f th
e f a p rt f it is m st ss nti l t h lth
o e s un Light sists in thor a a o , o e e a o ea . as e

l b r ti n f g d pl sti c bl d d h d ns th fibr ft r it h b n l id d wn
e a o a o o oo a oo , an ar e e e a e as ee a o .

It ls cts
a stim l s u p n th rg ns f sight d by this m ns brings b t
o a as a u u o e o a o , an ea a ou

m r ctivity in th v ri us c r br l f ncti ns Dr W Str ng S ni r Physici n

o e a e a o e e a u o . . . a e, e o a

O f th W rc st r G n r l H s pit l fr m wh s
e o e w rk e H lth (1 864) this
e e a o a , o o e o on ea

p ss g is t k n writ s in
a a e l tt r t Mr Whit
a e f th c mmissi n rs
, eIh v a e e o . e, o n e O e o o e a e

h d O pp rt niti s f rm rly wh n in L nc shir

a o u f bs rvi g th
e ff cts f night w rk
o e , e a a e, O o e n e e e o -
o

u p n childr n
o d I h v h sit ti n in s ying c ntr ry t wh t m mpl y rs
e , an a e no e a o a ,
o a o a so ee o e

w r f nd f ss rting th s childr n w h w r s bj ct d t it s n s ff r d in th ir
e e o o a e , o e e o e e u e e o oo u e e e

w lth ( l c 2 84 p Th t s ch q sti n sh ld f nish th m t i l f

”
ea . . .
, . a u a ue o ou ur e a er a o

se ri s c ntr v rsy sh w s pl inly h w c pit li st pr ducti n cts

ou o o e , th br in o a o a a o o a on e a

functi ns f c pit lists nd th ir r et in rs

o o a a a e a e .
 T/zc Wor k i ng D a y . 2 40
°

i n g th e 2 4 h our s , O ffer s v er y w elc om e oppor tun i ti es of ex ceed i n g

th e li m i ts Of th e n or m al w or i n k g d ay , eg
. .
,
i n th e b r a n c h es of
i n d us tr y a lr ea d y m en ti on ed , w h i ch ar e of an ex c eed i n gly

fa ti gu i n g n a tu r e ; th e O fl
i cial w or k i ng d ay m ea n s for each

w or k er u s ua lly 1 2 h ou r s b y n i gh t or d ay . But th e ov er -
w or k
b ey on d thi s a m ou n t i s i n m an y c as es , to
u s e th e w or d s of th e

E ngli s h O ffic i al r epor t t1 u ly fear ful , .

”1

It i s i mp os s i b le th e r ep or t con ti n ues
“ ”
for a n y m i n d to
, ,

r eali s e th e a m ou n t of w or k d es c i b ed i n th e follow i n g s s ag es
p a r

a s b ei n g r for m ed b
y b o s Of f m 9 t 1 2 ar s of a e
p e y o o y e g r

w i th ou t c om i n g i r r es i s ti b ly to th e con clu s i on th at s uc h a b us es
of th e w r of a r en ts a n d of em lo er s c an n o lon g er b e
p o e p p y
allow ed to ex i s t .

The pr a c ti ce of b oy s w or k i n g at all b y d ay an d n i gh t
“

tur n s ei th er i n th e u s u al cour s e of th i n g s or a t p r es s i n g ti m es , ,

s eem s i n ev i ta b l t o O en th e d oor to th ei r n ot un fr eq u en tl
y p y
w or k i n g un d uly lon g h our s T h es e h our s ar e i n d eed i n s om e .
, ,

cas es n ot on ly c r uelly b u t ev en i n cr ed i b ly lon g for ch ild r en

,
.

A m on gs t a n u m b er of b oy s i t w i ll of c ou s e n ot u n fr equ en tly ,
r ,

h a ppen th a t on e or m or e a r e fr om s om e cau s e a b s en t W h en .

t h i s h a ppen s th ei r pla ce i s m a d e u p b y on e or m or e b oy s
, ,

w h o w or k i n th e oth er tu r n T h a t th i s i s a w ell un d er s tood .

s s tem i s lai n f om th e a n s w er of th e m an a g er of
y p r

s om e lar g e r olli n g m i lls w h o w h en I a s k ed h i m h ow th e

-
, ,

lac e of t h e b oy s a b s en t fr om t h ei r t ur n w a s m a d e u p I ‘

p ,

d ar es ay s ir y ou k n ow th a t a s w ell a s I d o a n d a d m i tted th e
’
, , ,
”3
fa ct .

“
At a r olli n g m i ll w h er e th e pr oper h ou r s w er e fr om 6 u m
-
.
.

to 5 5 p m , a . . b oy w or k ed a b ou t four n i g h ts ev er y w eek till

8 4 p m a t leas t
. . and th i s for six m on th s . An oth er ,
at 9
y ea rs o ld , s om eti m es m a d e th r ee 1 2 h our -
s hi fts r u n ni ng ,
an d ,

w h en 1 0, h as m a d e tw o d ay s a n d tw o n i gh ts A r un n i n g .
”

thi r d , w or k ed fr om 6 a m ti ll 1 2 p m th r ee
“
n ow 1 0 . .

n i g h ts a n d ti ll 9 , p m th e o th er n i gh ts
"
A n oth er , n e w 1 3 , . . .

w or k ed fr om 6 p m ti ll 1 2 n oon n ex t d ay , for . . a w ee k
tog eth er , an d s om eti m es for th r ee s hi fts tog eth er , fr om
M on d ay m or n i n g ti ll T u es d ay A n oth er
”
ni gh t .
,
n ew 1 2, h as
1 l c . . 57 , p xn . .
2 l . 0
. F urth R
o epo rt 58, p xn . .
3 1
. c .
2 44 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

w or k ed in an i r on foun d r y at S ta v ely fr om 6 a . m ti ll 1 2 p m
. . .

for a for tn i gh t on en d c ou ld n ot do it an y m or e . G eor g e

Alli n s w or th , ag e 9 cam e h er e a s ,
cellar b oy las t F r i d ay ; n ex t
-

m or n i n g w e h a d to b egi n a t 3 , s o I s to
pp ed h er e all n i gh t .

L i v e fi v e m i les off S lept on th e fl oor of th e fu r n ac e, o v er

h ea d , w i th an a
p r on un d er me , an d a b it of a j ack et ov er me .

Th e tw o oth er d ay s I h av e b een h e r e at 6 a . m . Ay e i t i s h ot
i n h er e B efor e I cam e . n ear ly a y ea r a t th e s a m e h er e I w as
w o k a t s om e w o k s i n th e c ou n tr y
r B egan th er e too a t 3 on r .
, ,

—
S a tu r d ay m or n i n g a lw ay s d i d b ut wa s v er y gai n [n ear ] h om e ,
,

a n d c ould s lee a t h om e O th er d a s I b egan a t 6 i n th e m or n

p y .

i ng an d g i en ov er a t 6 or 7 i n th e ev en i n g &c
’ ” 1
.
, ,

1 l
p xiii
. cTh d gr.
, f c lt ur. f th s l b ur p w rs m st n tur lly b
. e e ee o u e O e e a o -
o e u a a e

s uch pp rs in th f ll wing di l g
as a s with
ea f t h c mmissi n rs J r mi he o o a o ue one o e o o e e e a

H yn s g 1 2— F ur tim s f r is 8 4 f rs 1 6 A king is him th t h ll th

a e , a e
“
o e ou ou ar e . a as a e

m n y d g ld W h v Ki g ( t ld it is Q n ) th y c ll h th Princ ss
o e an o . e a e a n o a u ee ,
e a er e e

Al x ndr T ld th t h m rri d th Q n s Th Q n s is th Pri c ss ’ ’

e a a . o a s e a e e u ee s on . e uee s on e n e

A l x ndr A Princ ss is m
e a a . W illi m T rn r g 1 2 D n t liv in Eng
e a an. a u e ,
a e o
’
e

l nd Think it i c ntry b t didn t kn w b f r

a . J hn M rris g 1 4
s a ou ,
u
’
o e o e .
”
o o ,
a e
“
H v h rd y th t G d m d th w rld d th t ll th p pl w dr wnd d
a e ea sa a o a e e o , an a a e eo e as o e

; h rd y th t littl bird lVi lli m Smit h

”
b t u on e w ea sa g 15 G d
a one as a e . a ,
a e o

m d m m m d w m n Edw rd T yl r g 1 5 D
a e an , an a t kn w f Le o a .
”
a a o ,
a e o no o o on

d on H nry M tth w m g 1 7 H d b n t ch p l b t miss d g d m y

.
”
e a e an , a e a ee o a e , u e a oo an

tim s l t ly O n m th t th y pr ch d b t w J s s Christ b t I c nn t
e a e . ne a e a e ea e a ou as e u , u a o

sa y y th rs
an d I c nn t t ll nything b
o e t him H w
, an t kill d b t di d
a o e a a ou . e as no e ,
u e

lik th r p pl H w
e o e t th s m eo th r p pl in s m w ys b c s h
e. e as no e a e as o e eo e o e a , e au e e

w as li gi in s m w ys d th rs i n t (I c p xv ) Th d vil is g d
re on s o e a , an o e s
’
.
”
. . . . e e a oo

p rs n I d n t kn w wh r h liv s Christ w wick d m This girl sp lt

’ ” ”
e o . o o e e e e . as a e an . e

d did t kn w th n m f th q n Ch Em pl ym nt C mm ”
G d o d g as o , an no o e a e o e u ee . . o e o .

V R p rt 1 86 6 p 55 n
. e o Th s m syst m bt ins in th gl ss
, , . d p p r, . e a e e o a e a an a e

w rks in th m t ll rgic l lr dy cit d In th p p r f ct ri s wh r th p p r

o as e e a u a ,
a ea e . e a e a o e , e e e a e

is m d by m chin ry night w rk is th r l f ll pr c ss s xc p t g s rt ing

a e a e ,
-
o e u e or a o e e ,
e e ra -
o .

In s m c s night w rk by r l ys is c ri d inc ss ntly thr gh th wh l w k

o e as e -
o ,
e a , ar e on e a ou e o e ee ,

u s ually fr m S nd y night ntil midnight f th f ll wing S t rd y Th s w h

o u a u o e o o a u a . o e o ar e

on d y w rk w rk 5 d ys f 1 2
a -
o d 1 d y f 1 8 h rs th s
o night w rk 5 nights f
a o , an a o ou o e on -
o o

12 d 1 f 6 h rs in
, an ch w k In th r c s s ch t w rks 24 h rs
O ou u
ea ee . o e a e ea se o ou c on s ec

t i ly
ve lt rn t d ys
on a t w rki g 6 h e rs M nd y d 1 8
a e a S t rd y , on e s e o n ou on o a , an on a u a

t m k up th 24 h
o a e rs In th r c s s int rm di t syst m pr v il by which
e ou . o e a e an e e a e e e a s,

a ll m pl y d
e th p p r m king m chin ry w r k 1 5
o e on 1 6 h rs v ry d y in t h
e a e -
a a e o or ou e e a e

w k This syst m s ys C mmissi n r L rd s ms t c mbin ll th vi ls f

ee . e , a o o e o ,
“
ee o o e a e e o

b th th 1 2 h rs d th 24 h rs r l ys Child n und r 1 3 y ng p rs ns nd r
o e ou
’
an e ou
’
e a .
”
re e ,
ou e o u e

d w m n w rk und thi s night syst m S m tim s nd r th 1 2 h rs ’

18 , an o e , o er e . o e e u e e ou

syst m th y e blig d cc nt f th
e pp r nc
ar e o f th s th t ght te , on a ou O e n on a -
ea a e o o e a ou o

r li v th m t W rk d bl t rn f 24 h rs Th vid nc pr v s th t b ys
e e e e , o o a. ou e u o ou . e e e e o e a o

an d girls v ry ft n w rk v r tim which e t f q

o tlye xt d t 24 v n 36
o o e -
e, , no un r e u en ,
e en s o or e e

h urs f unint rr pt d t il In th c ntin s d nv rying pr c ss f gl zi g

.

o o e u e o . e o u ou an u a o e o a n ar e

found girls f 1 2 w h w rk th wh l m nth 1 4 h urs d y

o with ut y r g ul r
o o e o e o o a a , o an e a
 Cap i m/i s t P r od ucti on .

p ro
pos ed a lter a ti on of th e la w , M E lli s
r sa
y s
“
I do n ot thi n k
i t w ould b e v er y obj ec ti on ab le to r equi r e th at n o per s on un d er
th e age of 1 8 s h ould w or k m or e th a n 1 2 h our s i n th e 2 4 But .

w e d o n ot th i n k t ha t a n y li n e could b e d r a w n ov er th e a e of g

1 2 a t w h i ch b oy s cou ld b e d i s pen s ed w i th for n i gh t w or k

,
But .

w e w ould s oon er b e pr ev en ted fr om em ploy i n g b oy s u n d er th e

age of 1 3 or ev en s o hi g h a s 1 4 a t a ll t h a n n ot b e a llow ed to
,
5, ,

em ploy b oy s th a t w e d o h a v e a t n i g h t T h os e b oy s w h o .

w or k i n th e d ay s e ts m u s t ta k e th ei r tur n i n th e n i g h t s ets a ls o ,

b ecaus e th e m en c ould n ot w or k i n the n i g h t s ets on ly ; i t

w ould r ui n th ei r h ealth We thi n k h ow ev e th a t
.
,
r,

n i g h t w or k i n a lter n a te w eek s i s n o h a r m ( M e s s r s N a lor

y . .

Vi c k er s on th e oth er h a n d i n c on for m i ty w i th th e i n te es t of
, ,
r

th ei r b us i n es s con s i d er ed th a t per i od i ca lly c ha n g ed n i gh t lab ur

,
-
o

m i g h t pos s i b ly d o m or e h ar m th a n con ti n u al ni g h t la b our ) W e -

.

fi n d th e m en w h o d o i t, as w ell as th e oth er s w ho do oth er

w or k on ly b y d ay . Our o bj ec ti on s to n ot

allow i n g b oy s un d er 1 8 to w or k at ni gh t ,
w ould b e on a c c oun t

of th e i n cr ea s e of e x pens e
b u t th i s i s th e on ly r eas on ( W h at
,
.

c n i c al n ai v e té !)
y W e th i n k th a t th e i n cr eas e w ould b e m or e

th an th e tr a d e w i th d ue r ega r d to i ts b ei n g s u cces s fully ca r r i ed

,

ou t, could fa i r ly ( W h a t m ea ly m o u th eb ear
d p h r as eolog
.
y )I -

L ab our i s s ca r c e h er e a n d m i gh t fa ll s h or t i f th er e w er e s uch
,

a r eg ula ti on E lli s B o wn 86 Co m i gh t fall i n to the fatal

.
”
r .

p p
e r le x i ty of b ei n g ob li g ed to
p y
a la b our
p o w er i ts f u ll v a lu e ) -
.
1

Th e Cy clops S teel an d I r on W or k s of M es s r s C a m m ell 8a

”
.
,

Co a r e c on d uc ted on th e s am e lar g e s cale a s th os e of th e a b ov e

.
,

m en ti on ed J ohn B r ow n 8b Co Th e m an agi n g d i r ec tor h a d .

h an d ed i n hi s evi d en c e to th e G ov er n m en t C om m i s s i on er Mr ,
.

Whi te i n w r i ti n g L ater h e foun d i t con v en i en t to s uppr es s

,
.

th e M S w h en i t h a d b een r etur n ed to h i m for r ev i s i on

. Mr . .

Wh i te h ow ev er h as a good m em or y He r em em b er ed qu i te
, , .

clea r ly th a t for th e M es s r s Cy clops th e fo b id d i n g of th e n i gh t . r

la b our of c hi ld r en a n d y oun g per s on s w ould b e i m pos s i ble i t ,

w ou ld b e tan ta m oun t to s toppi n g th ei r w or k s a n d y et th ei r ,

b u s i n es s em ploy s li ttle m or e than 6 / of b oy s un d er 1 8 and °

o ,

les s than 1 / u n d er
°

1 l . c . 8 0, p xvi . .
2 l . c . 82, p xv u
. .
 Tfie Wonéz flg D ay
'

. 2 47

On th e s am e s u bj ect Mr E . . F . S an d er s on ,
of th e fi r m of

S an d er s on ,
8
,7 C B r os
o s teel r olli n g m ills
. a n d for g es A tter cli ffe
.
,
-
, ,

sa
y s : G r ea t d i ffi culty w ould b e cau s ed b y p r ev en ti n g b oy s
un d er 1 8 fr om w or k i n g a t n i gh t Th e c h i ef w ould b e th e i n .

c r eas e of c os t fr om em lo i n g m en i n s tea d of b o s I a n n t
p y y c o .

sa
y w h a t th i s w ould b e,
b u t p r o a ly i t w o u ld n o t b e e n ou h b b g
b
to en a le th e ma n ufa c t ur er s to r a i s e th e pr i c e of s teel, a n d c on
q
s e u en tl
y i t w ould fa ll on th em , a s of c ou r s e th e m en
( w h a t
q u eer -
h ea d ed folk w ould r efus e to pay i t
”
r . M . Sa n
d er s on d oes k n ow h ow m u ch h e pay s th e chi ld r en
n ot ,
b ut
r h a s th e u n g r bo s t f r om 4 s to 5 s a w eek
p e p y o e y g e . . .

Th e b oy s w or k i s of a k i n d for w h i ch th e s tr en g th of th e b oy s
’

i s g en er ally g en er a lly of c ou r s e n ot alw ay s ) q ui te s u ffi ci en t ’

, ,

a n d c on s eq u en tl th r e w ould b e n o g a i n i n th e gr ea ter s tr en g th
y e

o f th e m en to coun ter b a la n c e th e los s or i t w ould b e on ly i n ,

th e few ca s es i n w hi ch th e m etal i s h eav y Th e m en w ould .

n ot li k e s o w ell n ot to h a v e b o s u n d er th em a s m en w ould b e
y ,

les s ob edi en t B es i d es b oy s m u s t b egi n y oun g to lear n th e

.
,

tr a d e L eav i n g d ay w or k alon e open to b oy s w ould n ot a n s w er

.

thi s p ur pos e An d w hy n ot . W hy c ould n ot b oy s lear n

”

th ei r h an d i cr a ft i n th e d ay ti m e Your r eas on ? O w i n g to -

th e m en w or k i n g d ay s a n d n i gh ts i n a lter n ate w eek s the m en ,

w ould b e s epa r a ted h a lf th e ti m e fr om th ei r b oy s a n d w ould ,

los e h alf th e pr ofi t w h i ch th ey m a k e fr om th em Th e tr a i n i n g .

w hi ch th ey g i v e to a n a ppr en ti c e i s c on s i d er ed as p a r t of th e
r etur n for th e b o s lab ou r an d th us en a b les th e m en t o
’

y g e t i t ,

a t a c h ea er r a te
p E ac h m an w ould w a n t h alf of th i s pr ofi t
. .

In oth er w or d s Mes s r s S a n d er s on w ould h a v e to pay pa r t of

, .

th e w ag es of th e a d ult m en ou t of th ei r o w n poc k ets i n s tea d of

b y th e n i gh t w or k of th e b oy s M es s r s S an d er s on s pr ofi t . .
’

w ould th us fall to s om e ex ten t an d th i s i s th e g ood San d er s on i a n ,

r eas on w h
y b o y s ca nn ot lea r n th ei r h a n d i c r a ft i n t h e d a
y In .
1

a ddi ti on t o th i s i t w ould th r ow n i g h t lab our on th os e w ho

,

w or k ed i n s tea d of th e b oy s w h i c h th ey w ould n ot b e a b le to ,

In u r fl cting d r s ni g g m n is t w rth m uch w h c nn t giv

1 o r e e an ea o n a e a a no o o a o e a

g d r n f v rything
oo eas o m tt r h w b d h w cr zy Ev rything in th
or e e , no a e o a or o a . e e

w rld th t h b n d n wr ng h b n d wr ng f th v ry b st f r s ns
o a as ee o e o as ee on e o or e e e o ea o .

(H g l l
e e p
, . c .
, .
24 8 Cop i folzlst P r od ucti on .

s tan d Th e d i ffi culti es i n fac t w ould b e s o gr ea t th at th ey

.

w ould v er y li k ely lea d to th e g i vin g u p of n i g h t w or k altog eth er ,

a s fa r a s th e w or k i ts elf i s c on c er n ed , s ay s E F S an d er
”
an d . .

s on , th i s w o uld s u i t a s w ell, b ut But M es s r s Sa n d er s on .

h a v e s om eth i n g els e to m ak e b es i d es s teel S teel m aki n g i s .

-

sim l
py
a p xt for s ur plus value m ak i n g The s m elti n g
r ete -
.

fu r n a c es r olli n g m i lls &c th e b ui ld i n g s m ac h i n er y i r on c oal

,
-
,
.
, , , , ,

&c h a v e s om eth i n g m or e to d o th an tr an s for m th em s elv es i n to

.
,

s teel T h ey ar e t h er e to ab s or b s ur plus lab our an d n a tur ally

.
-
,

a b s or b m or e i n 2 4 h our s th an i n 1 2 In fa c t th ey g i v e b y .
,

g r a ce of God a n d law th e S an d er s on s a ch eque on th e w or k i ng ,

ti m e of a cer ta i n n u m b er of h an d s for a ll th e 2 4 h our s of th e

d ay , an d th ey los e th ei r ch a r a c ter a s ca i tal, a r e
p th er efor e a

p ure los s for th e S an d er s on s ,

as s oon as th ei r fun c ti on of

a b s or b i ng lab our i s i n ter r u pted

But then th er e w ould b e “

th e los s fr om s o m uc h ex pen s i v e m a c hi n er y , ly i n g i d le h alf th e

ti m e, a n d to get th r o ugh th e a m oun t of w or k w h i ch w e ar e ab le
to d o on th e p r es en t s y s tem w e s h ould ha v e to d oub le our ,

r em i s es a n
d l n t, w hi ch w ould d oub le th e ou tla But w hy
p p a y .

s h ould th es e S a n d e r s on s r eten d to a r i v i leg e n ot en oy edj by

p p
t he oth er ca i t li s ts w h o on l w r k d ur i n g t h e d a , a n d w h os e
p a y o y
b u ild i ngs ,
m a ch i n er y , r aw m a ter i a l, th er efor e li e i d le d ur i n g
“

t h e n i g h t ? E F S an d er s on a n s w er s i n th e n a m e of all th e
. .

S an d er s on s It i s tr u e th a t th er e i s th i s los s fr om m ach i n er y
ly i ng i d le i n th os e m a n u fa c tor i es i n w h i ch w or k on ly g oes on
b y d ay Bu t th e us e of fur n ac es w ould i n volv e a fur th er los s
.

i n our cas e If th ey w er e k ept u p th er e w ould b e a w as te of

.

fuel ( i n s tea d of as n ow a w as te of th e li v i n g s ub s ta n ce of th e
, ,

w or k e s ) a n d i f th ey W er e n ot th e e w ould b e los s of ti m e i n
r , ,
r

lay i n g th e fi r es a n d getti n g th e h ea t u p ( w hi ls t th e los s of

s lee i n g ti m e
p ev en to c h ild r en of 8 i s a ga i n of w or k i n g
,

ti m e for th e Sa n d er s on tr i b e) an d th e fur n a c es th em s elv es ,

w ou ld s uffer fr om th e ch ang es of tem per a tur e ( Wh i ls t th os e .

”

s a m e fu r na c es s u ffer n oth i n g fr om th e d a a n d n igh t ch an g e of

y
lab ou r ) .
1

l c 85 p x u T simi l r t nd r scrupl f th gl m nuf ctu r r th t r gul r

1 . .
, . v . o a e e es o e as s a a e s a e a

m l tim s f th childr n imp ssib l b c us

ea e c n qu nc c rt in q u ntity
or e e ar e o e e a e as a o se e e a e a a

f h t r di t d by th furn c w ld b p ur l s w st d C m “ ”
o ea , a a e e a es , ou e a e o s or a e , o

missi n r Whit m k s nsw r His n w r is unlik th t f U S ni r &

o e e a d
e a e . a s e e a o r e, e o , c .
, an
2 50 Cap i tcz /i s t P r od ucti on .

c ou n tr of S abb a ta r i a n s — m oon s h i n e But i n i ts b li n d

y
u n r es tr a i n a b le pas s i on ,
i ts w er e w olf h un ger for -
s ur
pl us -
la b our ,

ca i ta l ov er s te s n ot on ly th e m or a l b u t ev en t he m er ely
p p ,

h i c a l m ax i m u m b oun d s of th e w or k i n g d ay It u s ur ps th e
p y s .

t i m e for g r ow th ,
d ev elopm en t, an d h ealthy m ai n t en a n c e of

th e b od y .
’

It s tea ls th e ti m e qu i r ed for th e c on s u m pti on of

re

fr es h gh t It
a i r an d s u n li . h i gg les ov er a m ea l ti m e i n c or por -
,

a ti n g i t w h er e s i b le w i th th e r oces s of d u t i i t lf
p os
p p r o c on s e s o ,

t h at food i s g i v en t o th e lab ou r er a s to a m er e m ea n s of pr o
d uc ti on a s coal i s s uppli ed to th e b oiler g r eas e a n d oi l to th e
, ,

m a ch i n er y . It r ed u c es th e s ou n d s leep n eed ed for th e r es to

r a ti on , r e
pa r ati on , r efr es h m en t of b od i ly pow er s to j us t s o
th e
m a n y h o ur s of tor por as th e r ev i v al of a n or g a n i s m a b s olu tely ,

e x h au s ted r en d er s es s en ti a l It i s n ot th e n or m al m ai n ten an ce
,
.

of th e lab ou r p o w er w h i c h i s to d eter m i n e th e li m i ts of th e
-

w or k i n g d ay ; i t i s th e gr ea tes t pos s i b le d ai ly ex pen d i tu r e of

la b ou r pow er n o m a t ter h ow di s ea s ed com p uls or y a n d pa i n fu l
-
, , ,

i t m ay b e w hi ch i s to d eter m i n e th e li m i ts of the lab our er s

’

p er i od o f r e os e
p C a
p i ta l ca r es n oth i n g for th e len g th of life
.

of la b ou r ow er All t h a t c on cer n s i t i s s i m pl a n d s olely th e

p y
-
.

m ax i m u m of lab our pow er th at c a n b e r en d er ed fl uen t i n a -

,

w o r k i n g d ay It a ttai n s thi s en d b y s h or ten i n g th e ex ten t of

.

t h e lab our er s li fe a s a gr eed y far m er s n a tch es i n cr eas ed pr o

’

d uc e fr om th e s oil b y r ob b i n g i t of i ts fer ti li ty .

Th e c a pi ta li s ti c m od e of pr od uc ti on ( es s en ti ally th e pr o
d u c ti on of s u r plus v a lue, th e a b s or pti on of s u r plu s la b ou r ) - -
,

p ro d u c es thu s w i th t h e ,
x ten s i on of t h e w or k i n g d ay n ot on ly
e ,

th e d eter i or a ti on of h um an lab our pow er b y r obb in g i t of i ts -

1 Engl nd v n w cc si lly in ru l districts l b ur r is c nd mn d t

In a e e no o a on a ra a a o e o e e o

impris nm nt f d s cr ting th S bb th by w rking in his fr nt g rd n Th s m

o e or e e a e a a , o o a e . e a e

l b r r is p nish d f br ch f c ntr ct i f h r m ins w y fr m his m t l p p r

a ou e u e or ea o o a e e a a a o e a , a e ,

or gl ss w rks th S nd y v i f it b fr m r ligi s whim Th rth d x

a o on e u a , e en e o a e ou . e o o o

P rli m nt wi ll h r n thi g f S bb th br ki g i f it cc rs in th p r ss f x
a a e ea o n o a a -
ea n o u e oc e o e

p nding c pit l
a A m m ri l ( A gu st
a a in which th L nd n d y l b r rs i e o a u e o o a a ou e n
-
.

fish d p ultry sh p s sk d f th b liti n f S nd y l b ur st t s th t th ir w rk

an o o a e or ea o o o u a a o , a e a e o

l st f th first 6 d ys f th w k
a s or e v r g 1 5 h urs — d y d
a S nd y o e ee on an a e a e o a a , an on u a

8 1 0 h rs Fr m this s m m m ri l w l rn ls th t th d lic t g urm nd

ou . o a e e o a e ea a o a e e a e o a s

a m ng th rist cr tic hyp crit s f Ex t r H ll sp ci lly nc ur g this Sund y

o e a o a o e o e e a , e e a e o a e a

l b r Th s h ly n s
a ou . z l s i ut
e e d sh w th ir Christi nity by
o o e ,
”
so ea ou n c e cu r a n a, o e a

t h humility with which th y b r th

e v rw rk th priv ti ns d th h ung r f e ea e o e o , e a o , an e e o

o th rs Ob q ui um ent i t ti ( the l b u ) p n i i i us t
e . se v r s a s a o r er s er c os es .
 T/ce Wowni ng D ay . 2 5 1

n or m al, m or a l an d h
p y s i cal, con d i ti on s of d ev elopm en t an d

fun c ti on . It pr od uc es als oth e pr em a tu r e ex h au s ti on a n d d ea th

of th i s la b our pow er It ex ten d s th e la our er s ti m e of b
’
-
i ts elf 1
.

p r od u c ti on d u r i n g a g i v en p er i od by s h or ten i n g hi s ac tu a l li fe
ti m e .

But th e v alu e of th e lab our pow er i n clud es th e v alue of th e -

c omm od i ti es n eces s a r y for th e r epr od uc ti on of th e w or k er , or

for th e k eepi n g up of th e w or k i n g c las s If th en th e u n n a tu r al .

ex ten s i on of th e w or k i n g d ay t h a t c a p i ta l n ec es s ar i ly s tr i v es ,

a fter i n i ts un m eas u r ed p a s s i on for s elf e -

x pan s i on ,
s h or ten s th e
len g th of li fe of th e i n d i vi d ual lab ou r er , an d th er efor e th e
d ur a ti on of h i s la b our p o w er th e for c es us ed u p h a v e to b e r e
-
,

p la c ed at a m or e r a pi d r a te a n d th e s um of th e ex pen s es for
th e r e r od u c ti on of la b our pow er w ill b e g r eater j us t a s i n a
p
-

m ach i n e th e r t of i ts v a lu e to b e r epr o d u c ed ev er y d a y i s
p a

gr eater th e m or e i
p y d
ra l th e m a ch i n e i s w or n ou t I t w ou ld .

s eem th er efor e th a t th e i n ter es t of capi ta l i ts elf p oi n ts i n th e

d i r ecti on of a n or m al w or ki n g d ay .

Th e s lav e -
ow n er b uy s h i s lab our er as he b uy s h i s h or s e . If
h e los es hi s s la ve ,
h e los es ca
p i tal th at ca n on ly b e r es tor ed by
n ew ou tlay i n th e s la v e -
m ar t Bu t th e r i c e
.
-
gr oun d s of

Geor g i a, or th e s w a m ps of th e M i s s i s s i ppi m ay b e fatally i n

j ur i ons to the h um an c on s ti tu ti on ; b u t t h e w a s t e o f h um a n

li fe w h i ch th e c ulti vati on of th es e d i s tr i c ts n ec es s i ta tes i s n ot ,

so g r ea t th at i t cann ot b e r epai r ed fr om th e teem i n g pr es er ves

of Vi r gi n i a an d Ken tu c ky Con s i d er a ti on s of ec on om y m or e
.
,

ov er ,
w h i ch u n d er a n a tu r al s y s tem a ffor d s om e s ec ur i ty for
, ,

h u m an e tr ea tm en t b y i d en ti fy i n g th e m as ter s i n ter es t w i th
’

th e s la v e s pr es er v a ti on w h en on ce tr a d i n g i n s lav es i s pr a c ti s ed
’

, ,

b ecom e r eas on s for r a ck i ng to th e utter m os t the tc il of th e

s lav e for w h en h i s pla c e can a t on ce b e s uppli ed fr om for ei g n
,

r es er v es th e d ur a ti on of h i s life b ecom es a m atter o f les s

p ,

m om en t th an i ts pr od uc ti ven es s w h i le i t las ts It i s a c cor d .

i ngly a m a x i m of s la v e m a n a g em en t i n s la v e i m por ti n g ,
-

coun tr i es th a t th e m os t effec ti v e econ om i s th at w h i ch ta k e s

, y

1 “ h v gi n in u pr vi us r p rts th st t m nts f s v r l xp ri nc d
We a e ve o r e o e o e a e e o e e a e e e e

m n f ct r rs t th ff ct th t v r h rs
a u a u e o c rt inly t nd pr m tur ly t x
e e e a o e -
ou . e a e e a e o e

h ust th w rki g p w r f the m

a e o ( 1 c 6 4 p xiii )
n o e o en .
”
. .
, . .
2 5 2 Cap i ta ti s t P r od ucti on .

o ut o f th e h u m an c h attel i n th e s h or tes t s
p a c e of ti me th e
u tm os t a m ou n t of e er ti on ble of putti ng for th It
x it is c apa .

i s i n tr opi ca l c ultur e w h er e a nn ual pr ofi ts often equ al th e ,

w h ole ca pi tal of plan ta ti on s th at n eg r o life i s m os t r eck les s ly ,

s ac r i fi ced It i s th e a g r i c ultur e of t he W es t I n di es w h i ch h as
.
,

b een for cen tur i es pr oli fi c of fab ulou s w ealth th a t h as eng ulfed ,

m illi on s of th e Afr i can r a ce It i s i n C ub a a t thi s d ay w h os e .

, ,

r ev en ues a r e r eck on ed b y m illi on s an d w h os e plan ter s a r e ,

p r i n ces , th at w e s ee i n th e s er v i le c las s , th e coar s es t fa r e, the

m os t e x h aus ti ng an d u n r em i tti n g toi l, an d e v en th e a b s olute
d es tr u c ti on of a p or ti on of i ts n um b er s e v er y y ear .

Mu t a to n om i n e d o to f a bu la n a r r a tu r . F or s la v e tr ad e
-

r ead lab our m a r k et, for Ken tucky

-
and Vi r g i n i a, I r elan d a n d
th e a g r i cultur a l E nglan d S cotlan d
d i s tr i c ts of ,
an d W ales ,

for Afr i ca G er m an y ,
W e h ear d h ow ov er w or k thi nn ed th e
.
-

r an k s of th e b ak er s i n L on d on N ev er th eles s th e L on d on .
,

lab our m ar k et i s alw ay s ov er s toc k ed w i th Ger m an an d oth er

- -

c a n d i d a tes for d ea th i n th e b a k er i es P otter y as w e sa w i s .

, ,

on e of th e s h or tes t li v ed i n d us tr i es Is th er e a ny w an t th er e
-
.

for e of potter s ? J os i ah W ed g w ood th e i n v en tor of m od er n ,

tt h i m s elf or i g i n all m m n w k m n s ai d i n 1 7 8 5
p o e r
y , y a co o o r a ,

b efor e th e H ous e of C om m on s th at th e w h ole tr a d e em ploy ed

fr om to p p
eo le In th e y ear 1 8 6 1 th e popula ti on
.
2

a lon e of th e tow n c en tr es of thi s i n d us tr i n Gr ea t B r i ta i n

y
n um b er ed The c otton tr a d e h as e x i s ted for n i n et
y
y ears . x i s ted for thr ee g ener a ti on s of th e
It h as e E n gli s h
r a c e an d I b eli ev e I m a a fel sa th a t d ur i n g th a t per i od i t
, y s y y
”
h a s d es t r oy ed ni n e g en er a ti on s of fac tory op er a ti v es .

No d oub t i n cer ta i n epoc h s of fev er i s h a cti vi ty th e lab our

m a r k et s h ow s s ign i fi ca n t g a ps In 1 8 3 4 Bu t th en th e .
,

m a n u fa c tur er s p r opos ed to th e P oor Law C omm i s s i on er s th a t

th ey s h ould s en d th e s ur plus p op ula ti on of t h e a gr i c ultu r al -

d i s tr i c ts t o th e n or th w i th th e ex pla n ati on th a t th e m an u
,

factur er s w ould a b s or b an d us e i t up Agen ts wer e a p .

”4 “

oi n ted w i th th e c on s en t of th e P oor Law C omm i s s i on er s

p .

1 C irn s Th Sl v P w r p 1 1 0 1 1 1
a e , e a e o e ,
”
.
, .

2 J hn W rd
o H ist ry f th B r gh f St k up n Tr nt L nd n
a o o e o ou o o e- o -
e , o o , 1 843 , p 42 . .

3 F rr nd s Sp ch in th H s f C mm ns 27 th April 1 86 3
e a
’
ee e ou e o o o , , .

4 Th s w r th v ry w rds us d by th c tt n m nuf ctur s 1

o e e e e e o e e o o a a er ,
”
. c.
2 54 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

Wh at ex per i enc e s h ow s to th e capi ta li s t gen er ally i s a con

s tan t e x c es s of o u l ti n i e n x i l ti t th
p p a o a e c es s n r e a o n o e ,
. .
,

m om en ta r y r equ i emen ts of s ur plus la b our a b s or b i n g c api ta l r - -

,

a lth ough t hi s ex c es s i s m a d e u of g en er a ti on s of h um an b ei n g s
p
s tun ted s h or t li ved s w iftly r e laci n g ea ch oth er lu k d
p p c e s o
-
, , , ,

t o s ay b efor e m atur i ty , An d i n d eed ex per i en c e s h ow s to th e .

Jl
, ,

i n telligen t ob s er v er w i th w h at s w iftn es s a n d g i p th e ca pi tali s t r

m od e of pr od uc ti on d a ti n g h i s tor i ca lly s p eak i n g on ly fr om , , ,

y es ter da
y h as s ei z ed t h e vi ta l p o w er of th e p eople b y th e v er
, y
r oot— s h ow s h ow th e d eg en er a ti on of th e i n d us tr i al o ula ti on
p p
i s on ly r etar d ed b y th e con s tan t a b s or pti on of pr i m i ti v e a n d
h
p y s i c all
y un c or r u pted elem en ts fr om th e cou n tr y — s h ow s h ow
e v en the coun t y la b ou r er s , i n s i te of fr es h a i r a n d th e
p r
p r i n c i le
p
of n a tu r al s elec ti on th a t w or k s s o ow e r full a m n g t th m
p y o s e , ,

th e English c tt n tr d th y r 1 860st nds un p r ll l d d th t b sid s w g s

o o a e, e ea a a a e e , an a ,
e e , a e

w r xc p ti n lly high F this xtr rdin ry d m nd f w rk h d t c nt nd

e e e e o a . or e ao a e a or o a o o e

with th d p pul ti n f Ir l nd with un x mpl d migr ti n fr m th Engli sh d

e e o a o o e a , e a e e a o o e an

Sc tch gric ltu l districts t A str l i d Am ric with

o a u ra ct l diminuti n f o u a a an e a, an a ua o o

th p p l ti n in s m
e o f th English gric lt r l districts in c ns qu nc p rtly f
u a o o e o e a u u a , o e e e a o

an a ct l br kd wn f th vit l f rc f th l b ur rs p rtly f th l dy ff ct d
ua ea o o e a o e o e a o e , a o e a r ea e e e

di p rsi n f th dis p s bl p p l ti n thr gh th d l rs in h um n fl sh D s pit

s e o o e o a e o u a o ou e ea e a e . e e

a ll this Mr R dgr v s ys This kind f l b ur h w v r w uld nly b s ght

. e a e a : o a o , o e e , o o e ou

a ft r wh n n n
e th r c uld b pr c ur d f it is h igh p ric d l b r Th rdin ry
e o e o e o e o e , or a -
e a ou . e o a

w g s f b y f 1 3 w ld b b t 4 p w k b ut t l dg t cl th t f d d t
a e o a o o ou e a ou s . er ee , o o e, o o e, o ee , an o

p r vid m di c l tt n d nc
o e d p r p r s p ri nt nd nc f 50
e a a 1 00 f th s b ys
e a d e an o e u e e e e or or o e e o . an

t et sid s m r m un r ti n f
o s a eth m c ld t b cc m plish d f 4 h d p
o e e e a o or e ,
ou no e a o e or 8 . a- ea er

w k ( R p rt f th Insp ct r f F ct ri s f 30th April 1 860 p

ee .
”
e o o Mr R d
e e o o a o e or , , . . e

gr v f rg ts t t ll h w th l b ur r hims l f
a e o e o d ll this f
e his childr n ut
us o e a o e e ca n o a or e o

o f th ir 4 w k w g s wh n th m n f ct r r c nn t d it f th 50 1 00
e s . a- ee a e , e e a u a u e a o o or e or

childr n l d d b rd d s p rint nd d ll t g th r T gu rd inst f ls

e o g
e , oa e , u e e e a o e e . o a ag a a e c on

l si ns fr m th t xt I ght h r t r m rk th t th Engli sh c tt n ind stry sinc

e u o o e e , ou e e o e a a e o o u , e

it w pl c d und r th F ct ry Act f 1 850 with its r g l ti ns f l b r tim &

as a e e e a o o e u a o o a ou -
e, c. ,

m st b r g rd d th m d l ind stry f Engl nd Th English c tt n p r tiv is

u e e a e as e o e u o a . e o o o e a e

in v ry r sp ct b tt r ff th n his c ntin nt l c mp ni n in mis ry

e e e e e Th Pr ssi n
e o a o e a o a o e . e u a

f ct ry p r tiv l b rs t l st t
a o o e a h urs p w k m r th n his English c mp ti
e a ou a ea en o er ee o e a o e

t d i f m pl y d t his w l m in his w h s his l b r is

or , a n e o e a t r strict d o n oo o n ou e , a ou no e e

t v n th s dditi n l h rs
o e e R p f Insp
o e a f F ct Oct 1 853 p
o a R d ou .
”
e . o . o a ,
”
.
, . e

gr v th F ct ry In p ct r m nti n d b v ft r th Industri l Exhibiti n in 1 851

a e, e a o s e o e o e a o e, a e e a o

tr v ll d
a eth C ntin nt s p ci lly in Fr nc
e on d G rm ny f
e o th p r p s f e , e e a a e an e a , or e u o e o

inquiring int th c nditi ns f th f ct ri s Of th Prussi n p r tiv h s ys

o e o o o e a o e . e a o e a e e a

H r c iv s r m n r ti n
e e e fii i t t p r c r th sim pl f r
e a e ud t s upply t h
e a o su c en o o u e e e a e, a n o e

sl nd r c m f rts t which h h b n cc st m d
e e o o h liv s p n his c rs
o e as ee a u o e . e e u o oa e

f r d w rks h rd wh r in his p siti n is s b rdin t t th t f th English Op r

a e, a n o a , e e o o u o a e o a o e e a

tiv e R p
. f Insp
”
f F ct 3 l t Oct 1 853 p
e . o . o a ,
”
s .
, , .

Th1 v rw rk d d i ff with str ng r pidity ; b ut th pl c s f th s wh

e o e o e e o a e a e a e o o e o

p rish
e inst ntly fill d d fr q nt ch g f p rs ns m k s lt r t i n in th
ar e a e , an a e ue an e o e o a e no a e a o e

s c n ( En l nd d Am ric L d n 1 833 l I D 55 R E G W k fi ld )
e e.
” “
g a an e a .
”
on o , ,
vo . . . . V . . a e e .
 7 733 Wor ki ng D ay . 2 55
i

a n d on ly per m i ts ges t ar e alr eady b e

th e s ur v i val of th e s tr on ,

gi n n i n g to d i e off Ca pi tal th at h as s uch g ood r eas on s for .

ll

d eny i n g th e s u ffer i n g s of th e legi on s of w or k er s th at s ur r oun d

i t i s i n pr a c ti ce m ov ed a s m u c h a n d as li ttle b y th e s i gh t of
,

th e com i n g d eg r a d a ti on a n d fi n al d epopulati on of th e h u m an
r ac e a s b t h r ob a b le fa ll of th e ear th i n to th e s un In ev er y
y ,
e p .

s toc k j obb i n g s w i n d le ev er y on e k n ow s th a t s om e ti m e or oth er

-

th e cr as h m us t c om e b u t ev er y on e h opes th a t i t m a y fa ll on ,

th e h ea d of h i s n ei gh b our after h e h i m s elf h a s ca u gh t t h e ,

s h ow er of g old a n d pla c ed i t i n s afety Ap r és m oi le d c luge !

’

i s th e w a tch w or d of ev er y cap i tali s t a n d of ev er y ca pi tali s t

n a ti on H en ce C api tal i s r eckles s of th e h ealth or len g th of
.

life of th e lab our er u n les s u n d er c om puls i on fr om s oci ety To

,
.
2

th e outc r y a s to th e p hy s i cal a n d m en ta l d egr a d a ti on th e p r e ,

m a tur e d eath th e tor tu r e of ov er w or k i t a n s w er s O ugh t th es e

, ,

t o tr oub le u s s i n ce th ey i n cr ea s e our pr ofi ts But looki n g a t

t h i n gs a s a w h ole all th i s d oes n ot i n d eed d epen d on th e g ood
‘ , , ,

or i ll w i ll of th e i n di v i d ual ca pi tali s t Fr ee c om peti ti on b r i n g s .

out th e i nh er en t la w s o f ca pi tali s t d u c ti on , i n th e s h a p e of
p ro

e x ter n al c oer ci ve law s h avi n g p ow er ov er e v er y i n d i v i d ual

c api ta li s t
3
.

1 P blic H lth Sixth R p rt f th M dic l Offi c r f th Pri vy C u cil

See u ea . e o o e e a e o e o n ,

P bli sh d in L nd n 1 864 This r p rt d ls s p ci lly with th gric ltur l

u e o o . e o ea e e a e a u a

l b ur rs
a o S uth rl d
e . is c mm nly r pr s nt de highly im pr v d c nty
an o o e e e e as a o e ou

b ut r c nt inq iry h disc v r d th t v n th r in districts nc f m s

e e u as o e e a e e e e, o e a ou

for fi m ne d g ll nt s ldi rs th inh bit nts h v d g n r t d int

en a n a a m gr d o e ,
e a a a e e e e a e o a ea e an

stunt d r c In th h lthi st sit ti ns hill sid s fr nting th

e a e. e ea th f c s f e ua o ,
on e o e s ea , e a e o

th ir f mish d childr n
e a p l
e th y c uld b in th f ul tm sph r f
e ar e a s a e as e o e e o a o e e o a

L nd n ll y (W T Th rnt n Ov r p pul ti n d its r m dy l p 7 4

o o a e . . . o o .
“
e -
o a o an e e .
”
. c .
, .
,

Th y r s mbl in f ct th
e e e g ll nt Highl nd rs wh m Gl sg w pigs
e a e
“
a a a e
”
o a o

t g th r in its wynds d cl s s with pr stit ut s d thi v s

o e e an o e , o e an e e .

2B t th gh th h lth f
u p p l ti n is
ou imp rt nt f ct f th n ti n l
e ea o a o u a o so o a a a o e a o a

c pit l w
a a fr id it m u st b s id th t th cl ss f m pl y rs f l b ur h v
, e ar e a a t e a a e a o e o e o a o a e no

b n th m st f rw rd t gu rd d ch rish this tr s r
ee e o o a Th c nsid r ti n f
o a an e ea u e. e o e a o o

th h lth f th
e ea p r tiv s w o f rc d p n th m ill w
e o e a Ti m s N v mb r e as o e u o e o n er s . e ,
”
o e e

5 th , Th m f th W st Riding b c m th cl thi rs f m nki nd

e en o e e e a e e o e o a

th h lth f th w rkp pl w
e ea o s crific d d th r c in f w g n r ti ns m ust
e o eo e as a e , an e a e a e e e a o

h v d g n r t d B t r cti n t in L rd Sh ft b y Bill limit d th h urs

a e e e e a e . u a ea o se . o a es ur
’
s e e o

f childr n s l b r R p rt f th R gistr r G n r l f Oct b r

’ ” ”
o & e a ou , c. e o o e e a -
e e a , or o e

W th r f r find g th t in th b ginni g f 1 86 3 26 firms wni g xt nsiv

3 e, e e o e, , e . .
, a e e n o , o n e e e

p tt ri s in St ff rdshir m ngs t th rs J si h W dgw d 8 S ns p titi n in ’

o e e a o e, a o o e o a e oo , : o e o a

m m ri l f s m l gisl tiv n ctm nt C mp titi n with th r c pit lists p

e o a or o e e a e e a e . o e o o e a a er

mits th m v lunt ry limit ti n f w rki ng tim f ch ildr n &

e no o a M ch w a o o o -
e or e , c.
“
u as e

d pl r th vils b f r m nti n d it w uld t b p si bl t pr v nt th m by y

e o e e e e o e e o e , o no e os e o e e e an
 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

Th eblis h m en t of a n or m al w or ki ng d ay i s th e r es ult of
es ta

c en tur i es of s tr uggle b etw een cap i tali s t a n d la b ou r er T he .

h i s tor y of thi s s tr uggle s h ow s tw o oppos ed ten d en ci es Com

t h e E n gli s h fa c tor y legi s lati on o f ou r ti m e w i th th e
p a e e
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th e m i dd le of th e 1 8 th W hi ls t th e m od e n F ac tor y Ac ts c om .
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p y
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c a i ta l i n em b r y o— w h en b eg i nn i n g t o g r o w i t s ec ur es th e
p , ,

r i gh t of a b s or b i n g a i of s u plu s lab ou r
q ua n tu m u
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,

m er ely b y th e for c e of ec on om i c r ela ti on s b u t b y th e h elp of ,

th e S ta te— a ppear v er y m od es t w h en pu t fa c e to fac e w i th th e

c on c es s i on s gr o w li n g a n d s tr u ggli n g i t h as to m ak e i n i ts
th at, ,

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ac ti v e li fe, h i s ve y r c a pa c i ty for w or k , for th e p r i c e of th e
n ec es s ar ies of li fe h i s ,
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i t is n a tur a l tha t th e len g th en i n g th e w or k i n g d ay , w h i ch
of

ca
p i t al, fr om th e m i d d le of th e 1 4 th to th e e n d of th e 1 7 th
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a p r ox i m a tel oi n ci d es w i th t h e s h or ten i n g of th e w or ki n g
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d ay w h i c h , i n th e s ec on d h alf of th e 1 9 th c en tur y , h as h er e a n d
th er e b een effec ted b y th e S ta te to pr ev en t th e c oi ni ng of
c h i ld r en s b lood i n to ca i tal T
’

p h a t w h i ch to d a y e
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S tate of Mas s ach us etts un ti l r ec en tly th e fr ees t S tate of the ,

N o th A m e i can R epu b li c h a s b een pr oclai m ed a s th e s ta tutor y

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sch m f gr m t b tw n th m nuf ct r rs
e e o a ee T king ll th s p ints int
en e ee e a a u e . a a e e o o

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o th t s m l gi sl tiv n ctm nt is
, e a e o e o e c on v t on a o e e a e e a e

w nt d a Childr s Empl ym nt C mm R p 1 8 63 p
e .
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en
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o e o .
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e .
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m ch m r striking x mpl ff rs Th ris in th p ric f c tt n d ring p ri d

u o e e a e o e . e e e e o o o u a e o

of f v rish ctivity h d ind c d th

e e m n f ct r rs in Bl ckb rn t sh rt n by
a , a u e e a u a u e a u o o e ,

m t l c ns nt th w rking tim i th ir mills d ring c rt in fix d p ri d This

u ua o e ,
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e n e u a e a e e o .

p ri d t rmin t d
e o b t t h d f N v mb r 1 871 M nwhil th w lthi r
e a e a ou e en o o e e , . ea e, e ea e

m n f ct r rs w h c mbin d spinning with w ving u d th dimin ti n f pr d c

a u a u e ,
o o e ea , se e u o o o u

ti n r s lting fr m this gr m n t xt nd th ir w b usin ss d th s t m k

o e u o a ee e t, o e e e o n e an u o a e

gr t pr fits t th xp ns f th sm ll mpl y rs Th l tt r th r p n t rn d in
ea o a e e e e o e a e o e . e a e e eu o u e

th ir xtr mity t th p r tiv s rg d th m rn stly t git t f th 9 h rs

e e e o e o e a e ,
u e e ea e o a a e or e ou
’

syst m n d p r mis d c ntrib ti ns in m n y t thi d

e , a o e o u o o e o s en .

Th L b r St t t s th lik f which w r n ct d t th s m tim in Fr c

,

1 e a ou a u e , e e o e e e a e a e a e e an e,

th N th rl nds
e d ls wh r w r first f rm lly r p l d in Engl nd in 1 81 3 l ng
e e a , an e e e e, e e o a e ea e a , o

ft r th ch ng s in m th ds f p r d ucti n h d r nd r d th m bs l t
a e e a e e o o o o a e e e e o o e e.
2 5 8 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

las t fr om 5 i n th e m or n i n g u n ti l dar k w i th th e s a m e i n ter vals , .

A s tatu te of E li z a b eth of 1 5 6 2 lea v es th e len g th of th e w or k

i n g d ay for a ll lab our er s h i r ed for d a i ly or w eek ly w a g e u n
.
”

t ouch ed , b ut ai m s a t li m i ti n g th e i n ter va ls to 2 t h ou r s i n th e
s um m er , or to 2 i n th e w i n ter . D i n n er i s on l
y t o la s t 1 h ou r
,

an d th e a fter n oon s lee of h alf an h our i s on ly a llo w ed

p
-

b etw een th e m i d d le of May a n d the m i d d le of Au g us t F or .

e v er h u r of a b s en ce 1 d i t b b t t d f m t h w g
y o s o e s u r a c e r o e a e . .

In pr a c ti c e h ow ev e th e c on d i ti on s w e e m u ch m o e fa v ou r a b le
,
r, r r

to th e la b our er s th an i n th e s ta tu te b ook Wi lli am Petty th e -

.
,

fa th er of poli ti c al e con om y a n d to s om e ex ten t t h e fou n d e o f ,

r

S ta ti s ti cs s ay s i n a w or k th a t h e p ubli s h ed i n th e las t th i r d of
,

th e 1 7 th cen tur y : L ab our i n g m en ( th en m ea n i n g fi eld la b our er ) “

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s

w o k 1 0 h our s per d i em a n d m a k e 20 m eals p er w eek v i z 3

r , ,
.

a da f r w or k i n g d a s a n d 2 o n S u n d a s w h b i t i l n
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,
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th a t i f th ey c ould fas t on F r y d ay n i g hts a nd d i n e i n on e h ou r ,

a n d a n h alf w h er ea s th e
y ta k e tw o ,f r o m e le v e n to on e ; th er e b y ,

th i s w or k i n g i m or e a n d s pen d i n g 5 1; les s th e a b ov e m en
v
a , 7
1
,
-

ti on ed ( ta x) m i g h t b e r a i s ed Was n ot Dr An d r ew Ur e r i gh t .
”1
.

i n c r y i n g d o w n th e 1 2 h ou r s b ill of 1 8 3 3 as a r etr og r es s i on t o
’

th e ti m es of th e d ar k ag es It i s tr ue th es e r eg ula ti on s c on ,

f a i n ed i n th e s ta tu te m en ti on ed b y P etty a pply a ls o to a p ,

p r en ti c es B u t t h e c on d i t i o n
. o f c h i l d la b o u r e v e n a t t h e en d -
,

o f t h e 1 7 th c en tu r i f r om th e follow i n g c om la i n t
'

y s s ee n , p :

Ti s n ot th ei r pr a c ti c e ( i n G er m a n y ) a s w i th u s i n th i s k i n g
’

d om to b i n d a n a ppr en ti c e for s ev en y ea r s ; th r ee or four i s

,

th ei r c omm on s ta n d ar d : a n d th e r eas on i s b eca us e th ey a e ,

r

e d u c a ted fr om th ei r c r a d le t o s om eth i n g of em loy m en t w h i c h

p ,

r e n d er s th em th e m o e a t a n d d oc i le a n d c on s eq u en tl th e m o e
p r
y ,
r

c a pa b le of a tta i n i n g to a i pen es s a n d qu i ck er pr ofi ci en cy i n r

b us i nes s W h e eas our y outh he e i n E n gla n d b ei n g b ed t o

. r ,
r ,
r

noth i n g b efor e t h ey c om e to b e a ppr en ti ces m ak e a v er y s low ,

be r ck n d t much high r pr p rti n f th ir w g s ( J W d Hist ry f th

e o e a a e o o o o e a e . . a e, o o e

Middl d W rking Cl ss s p 24 25 d
e an Th p ini n
o t h t t h i di ff r nc is a e ,
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. , , an e o o a
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s e e e

d u t th diff r nc i th p ric r l ti ns b tw n f d
e o e d cl thing th n
e e e d nw e e- e a o e ee oo an o e an no

is r f t d by th m st curs ry gl nc t Chr nic n P ti um &

e u e e By Bish p
o o a e a o o re os , c . o

Fl tw d ee l t Ed L nd n 1 7 07 2d Ed L nd n 1 7 45
oo . s .
, o o ,
.
, o o , .

W P tty P litic l An t my f Ir l nd V rbum S pi nti 1 6 72 Ed 1 6 91

1 . e , o a a o o e a ,
e a e ,
”
, .
,

p 1 0
. .
 T/z e Wor k i ng D ay . 2 59

p ro gr es s an d r e u i r e q m u ch long er ti m e w h er ei n to r ea ch th e
”1
er fec ti on of a c c om li s h ed ar ti s ts
p p .

S ti ll d ur i n g the
gr eater par t of th e 1 8 th c en tur y u p to th e
, ,

e poch of M od er n I n d u s tr y a n d m a c h i n i s m ca pi ta l i n E n gla n d ,

h a d n ot s u c c eed ed i n s ei z i n g for i ts elf b y th e p ay m en t of th e ,

w eek ly v a lue of la b our po w er th e w h ole w eek of th e la b our er -

,
,

w i th th e ex cepti on h o w ev er of th e a g r i c ultu r al lab our er s , , ,

Th e fa c t th a t th ey c ou ld li v e for a w h ole w eek on th e w a ge of

fou r d ay s d i d n ot a p p ear to th e la b our er s a s uffic i en t r ea s on
,

t hat th ey s h ou ld w or k th e oth er t w o d ay s for t h e c api ta li s t .

On e par ty of E n g li s h ec on om i s ts i n th e i n ter es t of c a pi ta l d e , ,

n oun c es thi s ob s ti n a c y i n th e m os t v i olen t m a n n er a n oth er ,

ar t d f n d s th e la b ou r er s L t u s li s ten e t o t h e c on tes t
p y e e e g .
,
. .
,

b et ween Pos tleth w ay t w h os e D i c ti on ar y of Tr a d e th en h a d th e

s am e r e u ta ti on
p as t h e k i n d r ed w or k s of M C ulloch a n d
‘

MGr eg r to d ay an d th e au th or ( alr ea dy quoted) of the

‘
o -
,

E s s ay on T r a d e an d C om m er ce .
”

1 A Disc rs th n c ssity f nc r gi g M h i k Ind stry L d

ou e on e e e o e ou a n ec an c u ,
on on,

1 689, p 1 3 M c l y w h h f lsifi ed English hist ry in th int r st f th Whig

. . a au a , o as a o e e e o e s

a n d th eb rg isi d cl r s f ll ws Th pr ctic f s tting childr n pr m t r ly

ou eo e, e a e as o o e a e o e e e a u e

to w rk op r v il d in t h 1 7 th c t ry t xt nt which wh n c mp r d
e a e e en u o an e e ,
e o a e

with th xt nt f th m n f cturing syst m s ms lm st incr dibl At N rwich

e e e o e a u a e , ee a o e e. o ,

t h chi f s
e t f th cl thing tr d littl cr t r f six y rs ld w th ght fit
e ea o e o a e, a e ea u e o ea o as ou

for l b ur S v r l writ rs f th t tim

a o . d m ng th m s m w h w r c nsid r d
e e a e
“

o a e, a n a o e o e o e e o e e

as e min ntly b n v l nt m nti n with x lt ti n th f ct th t in th t si gl city

e e e o e , e o e u a o e a a a n e ,

b ys d girls f v ry t nd r g cr t w lth xc ding wh t w n c ss ry f

o an o e e e a e ea e ea e ee a as e e a or

th ir w s bsist nc by tw lv th s nd p ds y r Th m r c r f lly w
e o n u e e e e ou a oun a ea . e o e a e u e

e x min th hist ry f th p st th m r r s n sh ll w find t diss nt fr m th s

a e e o o e a ,
e o e ea o a e o e o o e

w h im gin th t
o ag h b n fr it f l f w s ci l vi ls
e a Th t which i
ou r a e as ee u u o ne o a e . a s

ne w is t h int llig nc d th h m nity which r m di s th m

e e e H ist ry f E g
e an e u a e e e e . o o n

l nd
a l I p
,
”
vo M c ul y might h v r p rt d furth r th t xtr m ly
. .
, . a a a a e e o e e a e e e

w ll di p s d mi d mm
e -
s o e in th 1 7 th c t ry n r t with xul t ti n
a s a co er ce e en u , a ra e e a o

h w in p rh
o s in H ll nd child f f r w m pl y d d th t this x mpl
a oo ou e o a a o ou as e o e , an a e a e

o f tu m iv er p ti q u p ss s m u st r in ll t h h m nit ri n w rks a l M c u
s e en ra e a e e a e u a a a o , a a a

l y t th tim
a , of Ad m Smith e It is tr th t with th substit uti n f m n f ctur
e o a . ue a e o o a u a e

for h ndicr fts tr c s f th xpl it ti n f childr n b gin t pp r This xpl it ti n

a a , a e o ee o a o o e e o a ea . e o a o

e xist d lw ys t c rt in xt nt m g p s nts d w th m r d v l p d th
e a a o a e a e e a on ea a , an as e o e e e o e , e

h vi r th y k pr ssing th h sb ndm n Th t nd ncy f c p it l is th r u

ea e e o e e on e u a a . e e e o a a e e n

mist k bly b t th f cts th ms lv s still is l t d th ph n m n f t w

a a u e a e e e ar e as o a e as e e o e a o o

h d d childr n H nc th y w r n t d with x lt ti n
ea e e . sp ci lly w rthy
e e e e e o e
“
e u a o as e e a o

o f r m rk ed w nd rs by th f s ing mi d mm
a an as d r c mm nd d
o e e ar -
ee a s a co er ce, an e o e e as

m d ls f th ir w tim d f p st rity This s m Sc tch syc ph nt nd fi

o e or e o n e an or o e . a e o o a a ne

t lk r M c l y s ys W h r t d y nly f r tr gr ssi n and

a e , a au a , nly pr gr ss
a e ea o -
a o o e o e o s ee o o e .
”

Wh t y s d sp ci lly wh t rs
a e e , an e e a a ea

Am ng th cc us rs f th w rkp pl th m st gry is th n ym u s th r
2 o e a e o e o eo e, e o an e a on o au o

qu t d in th t xt f An Ess y tr d d c mm rc c t ini g bs rv ti ns n
o e e e o a on a e an o e e, on a n o e a o o
2 60 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

Pos tleth w ay t s ay s a m on g oth er th i n gs We c an n ot p u t a n

en d t o th os e fe w o b s e v a ti on s
r ,
w i th ou t n oti c i n g th at tr i te re

m ar k i n th e m ou th t oo m a n y ; th a t i f th e i n d us tr i ou s poor
of

can o b tai n e n ou g h to m a i n tai n t h em s el es i n fi v e d ay s , th ey v

w i ll n ot w or W h en c e th ey i n fe th e n ec es s i ty
k th e w h ole s i x . r

of ev en th e n ec es s a r i es of li fe b ei n g m a d e d e a b y ta x es o a n y r ,
r

oth e m ea n s to com p el th e w or k i n g a ti a n a n d m a n ufa c tur e

r ,
r z r

to la b our th e w h ole s i x d y s i n th e w eek w i th ou t c ea s i n g I a , .

m u t b eg lea ve to d i ffe
s i n s en ti m en t f om th os e g ea t r r r

oli ti ci a n s w h o con ten d fo th e pe petua l s la v e y of th e w o k r r r

p ,
r

i n g p eople of th i s k i n g d om th ey f g e t t h e v ulg a r a d g e a ll or a ,

w o k a n d n o pla y
r H a v e n o t th e E n gli s h b oas ted of th e i n
.

en u i ty a n d d ex te i ty of h e w or k i n g a ti s ts an d m a n u fa c tu er s r r r
g r

w hi c h h a v e h e e tofo e g i v en c ed i t a n d r ep u ta ti on to B r i ti h
r r r s

w a r es i n g n
e e a l ? W h a t h as th i s b een ow i n g to To n othi n g
r

m r e p ob ab ly th a n t h e ela x a ti on of th e w o k i n g p eople i n
o r r r

t h ei r ow n w a y We e th ey ob lig ed to toi l th e y ear r ou n d th e

. r ,

w h ole s i x d ay s i n th e w eek i n a r epeti ti on of th e s a m e w or k , ,

m i gh t i t n o t b lu n t th ei r i ng en u i ty a n d r en d er th em s tu pi d i n ,

s tea d of a le t a n d d ex te ou s ; a n d m i g h t n ot ou w o k m en los e
r r r r

t h ei r r ep uta ti on i n s tea d o f m a i n ta i n i n g i t b y s u ch e te n al r

s la v er y ? An d w h at s or t of w o k m an s h i p c ould w e ex r

p e c t f om s u c h h a d d
r i v en a n i m a ls ? M a n y of th em r -
r

w i ll ex ec u te a s m u c h w or k i n fou d a y s a s a F r en ch m a n w i ll i n r

Bu t i f E n gli s h m en a r e to b e ete n al d ud ges ti

’
fiv e o s ix r . r r ,
s

to b e fear ed th ey w i ll d eg en er a te b elow th e F en ch m en As r .

our
p p
e o le a e fam ed fo b a v e y i n w a r d o w e n ot s ay th a t i t
r r r r ,

i s ow i n g to g ood E n gli s h r oas t b eef a n d pu d d i n g i n th ei r b elli s e ,

a s w ell a s th ei c on ti tu ti n a l s pi i t of li b e tyr An d w h y m ay s o r r

n o t th e s u er i or i n g en u i ty a n d d x te i ty of our a r ti s ts a n d
p e r

T x ti n & L nd n 1 7 70 H h d lr dy d lt with this s bj ct i his rli r

a a o ,
c .
, o o , . e a a ea ea u e n ea e

w rko C sid r ti s T x s L nd n 1 7 6 5 On th s m sid f ll ws

on e a on on a e .
”
o o , . e a e e o o

P l ni s Arth r Y ng th
o o u tt r bl st tisti l pr ttl r Am ng th d f nd rs
u ou , e unu e a e a ca a e . o e e e e

of th w rking cl ss s th f r m st
e o J c b V d li t in M n y nsw rs ll
a e e o e o ar e a o an er n , : o e a e a

thi gs L nd n 1 734 th R N th ni l F rst r D D in An Enq iry int th

n .
”
o o , e ev . a a e o e , . .
,
u o e

C s s f th Pr s nt Pric f Pr visi s L nd 1 7 6 6 ; Dr Pric

au e o e e e d sp ci lly e o o on ,
”
o on , e, a n e e a

P tl th w y t
os e w ll in th s ppl m t t h i Univ rs l Dicti n ry f Tr d d
a , as e e u e en o s e a o a o a e an

C mm rc
o in his G r t Brit in s C m m rci l I t r st x pl i d d i m
e e,
”
as
“
ea a
’
o e a n e e e a ne an

p r v
o d 2 ed Editi.n ”
1 7 55 T h fncts th m lv s c nfirm d b
o y m ny th r
, . e a e se e ar e o e
'

a o e

writ rs f th tim m g th rs by J i h T ck r
e o e e, a on o e os a u e .
 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

les s th e m an ufa c tur i n g p oor h a v e of i t, cer ta i nly th e b etter for

t h em s elv es a n d for t h e S ta te Th e la b ou r i n g people s h ou ld .

n e v er t h i n k t h em s el v es i n d epen d en t of th ei r su
p er i or s

It i s x tr em ely
e d a n g er ou s to en c ou r a ge m ob s i n a c om m er c i a l

s ta te li k e o ur s ,
w h er e, p
e r h a
ps ,
s e e n p a r t s ou t o f e i h t o f t h e v g
w h ole, ar e
p eo le w i th li ttle or n o
p r o er t
p p y T h e c u r e w i ll .

n ot b e per fec t, ti ll ou r m a n u fa c tu r i n g p oor a r e c on ten te d to

la b ou r s i x d ay s for t h e s a m e s um w h i c h th ey n o w ea r n i n fou r
To thi s en d , an d for ex ti r pa ti n g i d len es s d eb a u c h er y
”
d ay s .

”
an d e x ces s pr om oti ng a s pi r i t of i n d u s tr y low er i n g th e pr i c e
, ,

of la b our i n ou r m a n u fa c tor i es a n d ea s i n g t h e la n d s f th e ,
o

h ea vy b u r d en of p oor s r a tes ou r fa i th fu l E c k a r t of ca pi ta l
’ ”
,

r o os es th i s a r ov ed d e v i c e : to s h u t u s u ch la b ou r er s a s
p p pp p
b ecom e d epen d en t on p ub li c s u ppor t i n a w or d pa uper s i n , , ,

a n i d ea l w or k/ ous e S u c h i d eal w or k h ous e m u s t b e m a d e a

r .
”

H o us e of T er r or ,
”
for th e poor , w h er e th ey a n d n ot a n a s y lu m
“

a r e to b e l n ti fu ll f d w a r m l a n d d e c en tly c loth ed a n d w h er e
p e y e
y , ,

H ou s e o f T er r or th i s
”
t h ey d o b u t li ttle w or k
”2
In th i s .
,

“
i d eal w or k h ou s e, th e poor s h all w or k 1 4 h ou r s i n a d ay ,

a llow i n g p ro
per ti m e for m ea ls , i n s uc h m a n n er tha t th er e s h a ll
r em a i n 1 2 h ou r s of n ea t

T w elv e w or k i n g h ou r s d a ily i n the I d eal W or k h ous e i n th e ,

H ou s e of T er r or of 1 7 7 0 l 6 3 y ea r s la te r i n 1 8 3 3 w h en th e , ,

E n gli s h P a r li a m en t r ed u ced th e w or k i n g d ay for c h ild r en o f

1 3 to 1 8 i n four b r a n c hes of i n d u s tr y t o 1 2 fu ll h o u r s th e
, ,

j ud g m en t d ay of E n gli s h I n d us tr y h a d d a w n ed In 1 8 5 2 ,

w h en L ou i s B on a pa rt e s ou g h t to s ec ur e h i s pos i ti on w i th th e
b ou r g eoi s i e b y ta m per i n g w i th th e legal w or ki n g d ay th e ,

F r en c h people cr i ed ou t w i th on e v oi ce th e la w th a t li m i ts
th e w or k i n g d ay t o 1 2 h ou r s i s t h e on e g ood th a t h as r em a i n ed
t o u s of th e leg i s la ti on o f th e R ep ub li c l ”
At Z ii r i c h th e w or k
’

1 A n Ess y & p 1 5 41 96 97 55 57 6 9 — J c b V d li t
a ,
c .
,
rly 1 784
. , , , , , , . a o an er n , as ea as ,

d cl r d th t th s cr t f th
e a e a t cry f th c pit lists t th l zin ss f th
e e e o e ou -
o e a a as o e a e o e

w rking p pl w simply th t th y cl im d f th s m w g s 6 d ys l b ur
o eo e as a e a e or e a e a e a
’
a o

inst d f 4
ea o .

2 1 c p 242
. . . .

3 l c Th Fr nch h s ys l gh t u th u i ti i d
. . e e f lib rty 1
,
”
p 78 e a ,
“
au a o r en s as c ea s o e . . c . . .

4 Th y sp ci lly bj ct d t w rk b y nd th 1 2 h rs p d y b c s th l w
e e e a o e e o o e o e ou er a , e au e e a

which fix d th s h rs is th nly g d which r m i s t th m f th l gisl ti n f

e o e ou , e o oo e a n o e o e e a o o

t h R p blic f Ins p f F ct 3 1 t Oct b r 1 85 6 p Th Fr nch

” ”
e e R p u . e . o . o a ,
s o e , , . e e

Tw lv h rs Bill f S pt mb r 5 th 1 850 b rg is diti n f th d cr f th

e e ou
’
o e e e , , a ou eo e o o e e ee o e
 T/zc Wor k i ng D ay . 2 63

of c hi ld r en o v er 1 0, i s li m i ted to 1 2 h our s i n Aar ga u i n 1 8 6 2,

t h e w or k d 1 6 , w a s r ed u c ed fr om
of c h i ld r en b etw een 13 an

1 2 4 to 1 2 h ou r s i n Aus tr i a i n 1 8 6 0 fo r c h i ld r en b e tw een 1 4 ,

a n d 1 6 th e s a m e r ed u c ti on w as m a d e
,
1
W h at a pr og r es s , s i n ce
”
.

1 7 7 O M a c a ulay w ould s h ou t w i th ex ulta ti on

Th e H ous e of T er r or for p a uper s of w h i ch th e ca pi tali s ti c
s ou l of 1 7 7 0 on ly d r ea m ed , w a s -
r ea li z ed a few y ear s la ter i n th e
s ha
p e of a g ig an ti c “
W o r k h ou s e ”
for th e i n d u s tr i al w or k er
h i m s elf . It i s c alle d th e F a c tor y . An d th e i d eal th i s ti m e
fa d es b efor e th e r eali ty .

S E CTI ON T HE S T RUGG L E O T HE N OR M AL W O R K I NG D A C OMPU L RY

6 — . F R Y . SO

LI M ITATI ON BY LAW O THE W ORK I NG T I M E T HE E NG LISH F AC T O RY F .

A C T 1 8 3 3 To 1 86 4
S, .

After ca pi tal h a d ta k en c en tu r i es in exten d i n g th e w or k i n g

d ay t o i ts n or m al m a x i m u m li m i t, an d th en b ey on d t h i s to th e
li m i t of th e n a t ur a l d ay of 1 2 h ou r s , 2
th er e follow ed on th e
bi rt h of m a ch i n i s m an d m od er n i n d us tr y i n th e la s t th i r d of

Pr visi n l G v rnm nt f M rch 2 d 1 84 8 h lds in ll w rksh p s with ut x pti ns

o o a o e e o a n , ,
o a o o o e ce o .

B f r this l w th w rking d y in Fr nc w W ith t d finit limit It l st d in

e o e a e o a a e as ou e e . a e

t h f ct ri s 1 4 1 5
e a m r h rs S
o e D cl ss s vrier s Fr nc p nd nt
, , or o e ou . ee es a e ou e en a e, e a

l
’
1 848 P
a n n ee
’
M Bl q i M Bl q i th c n mist t th R v l ti nist h d
. ar . an u .
”
. an u ee o o ,
no e e o u o , a

b n ntr ust d by th G v rnm nt w ith inq iry int th c nditi n f th w rk

ee e e e o e e an u o e o o o e o

i g cl ss
n a .

B lgi m is th m d l b rg is t t in r g rd t th r g l ti n f th w rki g
1 e u e o e ou eo S a e e a o e e u a o o e o n

d y L rd H w rd f W ld n E nglish Pl nip t nti ry t Br ss ls r p rts t th

a . o o a o e e , e o e a a u e , e o o e

F r ign O ffic M y 1 2th 1 86 2

o e M R gi r th minist r in f rm d m th t
e, a , . o e ,
e e ,
o e e a

childr n s l b r is limit d n ith r by g n r l l w

e
’
a ou by y l c l r g l ti ns e e e a e e a a n or an o a e u a o

th t th G v rnm nt d ri g th l st thr y rs int nd d in v ry s ssi n t p

a e o e e ,
u n e a ee ea ,
e e e e e o o ro

p s bill th s bj ct b t l w ys f nd ins p r bl bst cl in th j l s

o e a on e u e , u a a ou an u e a e o a e e ea ou

o pp siti n t o y l gisl ti n in c ntr dicti n w ith th p rincipl

o o an f p r f ct fr d m f
e a o o a o e e o e e ee o o

l b r
a ou .
”

It is c rt inly m ch t b r gr tt d th t y cl ss f p rs ns sh ld t il 1 2 h urs
2
e a u o e e e e a an a o e o ou o o

a d y which incl ding th tim f

a ,
th ir m ls d f g ing t d r t rning fr m
, u e e or e ea an or o o an e u o

th ir w rk m nts in f ct t 1 4 f th 24 h rs
e o , a ouWith t nt ring int th
, a , o o e ou ou e e o e

q sti n f h lth
ue o will h sit t I think t dmit th t i m l p i t
o ea , n o on e on e e a e, ,
o a a , n a or a o n

O f i w ntir
v e bs rp ti n f th tim f t h w rking cl ss s wi th t int rmissi
, so e e an a o o o e eo e o a e ,
ou e on ,

f r m th o rly g f 1 3 d in tr d s t s bj ct t r stricti m ch y ng r m st
e ea a e o , an a e no u e o e on , u ou e , u

b xtr m ly pr j dici l d is
e e e il gr tly t b d pl r d
e e u F th sk a , an a n ev ea o e e o e or e a e,

th r f r f p blic m r ls f bri ging up

e e o e, o rd rly p p l ti n d f giving th
u o a ,
o n an o e o u a o , an o e

gr t b dy f th p pl
ea o s bl nj ym t f li f it is m uch t b d sir d th t
o e eo e a r ea on a e e o en o e, o e e e a

in ll tr d s s m p rti n f ry w rki g d y sh ld b r s rv d f r st d l isur

a a e o e o o o ev e o n a ou e e e e or e an e e.
”

(L rd H eon a in R p rts f In p f F c t D or n cr e o o s . o a , ee. ,

 Cgt z ta ti st Pr od ucti on
'

2 64 .

th e 1 8 th c en tur y ,men t li k e th a t of a n a v i olen t en cr oac h

a v a la n c h e i n i ts i n ten s i t n d e x ten t A ll b u n d f m or als

y a o s o .

a n d n a tu r e, a e a n d s ex d a a nd n i gh t, w er e b r ok en d ow n
g y ,
.

E v en th e i d ea s of d ay a n d n i gh t of r us ti c s i m pli c i ty i n th e old ,

s ta tu tes , b ec a m e s o c on fus ed th a t a n E n gli s h j u d ge as la te as ,

1 8 6 0 n eed e d a q ui te T a lm ud i c s aga c i ty to ex pla i n j ud i c i a lly

,
“

w h a t w as d ay a n d W h at w as n i h t C a i ta l c eleb r a ted i ts
1L
g p .

or g es i .

As s oon a s th e w o k i n g cla s s s tu nn ed a t fi s t b y th e n oi s e r ,
r

a n d tur m oi l of th e n ew s s t e m f d u ti on r ec ov e ed i n
y o
p o c r ,
r ,

s om e m ea s u r e i ts s en s es i ts r e i s tan c e b ega n a n d fi s t i n th e
, ,
s ,
r

n a ti v e la n d of m a ch i n i s m i n E n gla n d F or 3 0 y ea r s h ow ev er ,
.
, ,

th e on c es s i on s con q u er ed b th w or k eo le w er e p ur ely
c
y e p p
n om i n a l Pa r li m en t pa s s ed 5 L ab ou r L a w s b etw een 1 8 02 a n d
.

1 8 3 3 b u t w a s s h r e w d en ou g h n ot to v ote a pen n y for th ei r

,

c a r r i n g ou t for th e r eq u i s i te o ffi c i als &c

’
y , , .

T h ey r em a i n e d a d ea d letter Th e fa c t i s th a t pr i or to th e
.
“
,

Ac t of 1 8 3 3 y oun g per s on s ,
a n d ch i ld r en w er e w or k ed all n i g h t ,

a ll d ay , d li b i tu m
or b oth a .
” 3

A n or m a l w or k i n g d ay for m od er n i n d us tr y on l
y d a te s fr om

th e F a c tor y Ac t of 1 8 3 3 w h i c h i n c lud ed cotton , ,

w o ol, fl a x, a n d

s i lk fa c tor i es N oth i n g i s m or e ch a r a c te r i s ti c of th e s pi r i t of
.

ca i ta l th a n th e h i s to r
p y o f th e E n g li s h F a c to r
y A c ts fr om 1 8 3 3
to 1 8 6 4 .

Th e Ac t of 1 8 3 3 d eclar es th e or d i n ar y fac tor y w or k i n g d ay to

b e fr om h alf pa s t fi v e i n th e m or n i n g to h a lf pas t ei gh t i n th e
- -

e ven i n g ,
an d w i th i n th es e li m i ts , a p er i o d o f 1 5 h ou r s , i t i s la w
fu l t o em ploy y ou n g per s on s p b e tw een 1 3 a n d 1 8 y ea s
er s on s r

1 See
“
J hd gm en t of Mr J H . . . Otw ey , B l f st Hil ry S si s C nty Antrim
e a . a es on ,
ou ,

2It is v ry ch r ct ristic f th egi m

e a a e o e r e o f L is Phili pp
ou th b rg is ki g th t e, e ou eo n , a

th e F ct ry Act p ss d d ri g his r ign th t f M rch 2 2 d 1 841 w

on e a o vra e u n e , a o a n , ,
as ne e

p t in f rc
u A nd this l w nly d lt with child l b r It fix d 8 h rs d y f
o e. a o ea a ou e ou a a or
-
.

childr n b tW 8 d 1 2 1 2 h rs f childr n b tw n 1 2 d 1 6 & with m ny

e e r en an ,
ou or e e ee an , c .
, a

exc pti ns which ll w night w rk v n f childr n 8 y rs ld Th s p rvi si n

e o a o -
o e e or e ea o . e u e o

an d nf rc m nt f this l w
e o in c ntry wh r v ry m
e e o is nd r p lic a a r e, a ou e e e e ous e u e o e

administr ti n l ft t t h g d Wi ll f th mi d mm
a o ,
e Only sinc o e oo -
o e a s a co er ce . e

in singl d p rtm nt— th D é p rt m nt d N rd— h p id g v rnm nt insp ct r

on e e e a e e a e e u o as a a o e e e o

b n pp int d N t l ss ch r ct ristic f th d v l pm nt f Fr ch s ci ty
ee a o e . o e a a e o e e e o e o en o e ,

g n r lly is th f ct th t L is Philipp s l w st d s lit ry m ng th ll mbr cing

e e a , e a , a ou e
’
a oo o a a o ea -
e a

m ss f Fr ch l ws till th R v l ti n f 1 84 8
a o en a ,
e e o u o o .

3 R p rt f Insp f F ct 30th April 1 860 p 50

e o o . o a .
, , , . .
2 66 Cap i ta ls P r od ucti on .

G uth r i e &c ,
i n a g ui s h ed phy s i ci an s an d
w or d , th e m os t d is ti n
s ur g eon s i n L on d on h a d d ec la r e d i n th ei r ev i d en ce b efor e t h e
,

H ous e of C om m on s th a t th er e w a s d a n ger i n d elay ,

Dr . .

F a r r e ex pr es s ed h i m s elf s ti ll m or e c oar s ely L eg i s lati on i s “

m
.

n ec es s a r
y f or th e
p r e v e n ti on o f d ea t h i n a n y f or i n w h i c h i t ,

can b e
p r em a tu r el
y i n fl i c te d a n d c er t a i n ly t hi s th ,
e fa c tor y
”
m eth od ) m us t b e v i ew ed a s a m os t c r u el m od e o f i n fl i c ti n g i t .

T ha t s a m e r efor m ed P a r li am en t w hi ch i n i ts d eli c a te c on
”
,

s i d er a ti on for th e m a n u fa c tur er s ,
con d em n ed ch ild r en u n d er 1 3,
for y ea r s to c om e, to 7 2 h our s of w or k p er w eek i n th e F a c tor y
H ell on t h e oth er h a n d , i n th e E m a n ci pa ti on Ac t w h i ch a ls o
, ,

a d m i n i s ter ed fr eed om d r op b y d r op for b a d e th e plan ter s fr om , ,

th e o u ts et, t o w or k a n n g r o s la v e m or e t h a n 4 5 h ou r s a
y e

w ee k .

Bu t i n no w i s e c on c ili a ted , capi tal n ow b egan a n oi sy ag i ta ti on

th a t w en t on for se ve r al
y ea r s . It tu r n ed c h i efly on th e a ge of

th os e w h o, u n d er th e n am e o f c h i ld r en , w er e li m i ted to 8 h ou r s
w or k ,
an d w er e bj ec t to a c e ta i n a m ou n t of c om puls o y
su r r

e d u ca ti on . A c cor d i n g to c a pi ta li s ti c a n th o pology th e a ge o f r ,

c hi ld h ood en d ed at 1 0, or at th e ou t s i d e, at 11 . Th e m or e
n ea r ly th e ti me a p pr oa c h ed for th e c om i n g i n to full for c e of
th e F a c t or y Ac t
,
t h e fa t a l y ea r 1 8 3 6 ,
t h e m or e w i ld ly r a g e d
th e m ob of m a n u fa c tur er s T h ey m an a ed , i n fa c t, to i n ti m i d a te
. g
th e g ov er n m en t to s uch an e x ten t
th a t i n 1 8 3 5 i t pr o pos ed to
low er th e li m i t of th e a ge of c hild h ood fr om 1 3 t o 1 2 In th e .

m ea n ti m e th e p r es s u r e fr om w i th ou t gr ew m or e th r ea ten i n g .

C our a g e fa iled the H ou s e of C om m on s It r efu s ed to th r ow .

ch ild r en of 13 un d er th e J ugger na u t Ca r of c a pi ta l for m or e

t h a n 8 h ou r s a d ay ,
an d th e Ac t of 1 8 33 ca m e i n to fu ll O p er a ti on .

It r em a i n ed u n alter e d u n ti l J un e ,
1 8 44 .

In th e t en y ear s d ur i n g w h i c h i t r eg ula ted fa c tor y w or k ,

fi r s t i n par t, a n d th en en ti r ely th e offici a l r epor ts b f th e fa c tor y ,

i n s p ec tor s t eem w i th com

p la i n ts as to th e i m pos s i i li ty of b
p u t ti n g th e Ac t i n to for c e . As th e la w of 1 8 3 3 left i t pti on a l O
w i th th e lor d s of c a i ta l d u r i n g th e 1 5 h ou r s , fr om a m to
p . .

p m . .
,
to m ak e e ve y r
y ou n g p er s on ,
”
an d e v er y c h ild

b egi n b r ea k ,
off, r es u m e, or en d his 1 2 or 8 h ou r s at a ny

m om en t th ey li k ed , an d a ls o p er m i tte d th em to as s i gn to
 Toe Wor é i flg D ay . 2 67

d i ffer en t p er s on s d i ffer en t ti m es for m eals th es e g en tlem en

, ,

s oon d i s cov er ed a a b ou r
”
n ew s s te m of r elay s
y b y w h i c h th e l ,

h or s es w er e n ot c h an g ed a t fix ed s ta ti on s b ut w er e c on s ta n tly ,

r e h a r n es s ed a t c h a n g i n g s ta ti on s
-
W e d o n ot pa us e lon g er on .

th e b ea uty of thi s s
ys tem , a s we s h all h a ve to r etu rn to i t lat er .

But thi s m u c h i s a t th e fi r s t glan c e : th a t thi s s y s tem

c lear

a n n u lled th e w h ole F a c tor A t n ot o n ly i n t h e s i r i t b u t i n

y c
p , ,

t h e le tter How c ould fa ctor y i n s pec tor s w i th th i s com plex

.
,

b ook -
k eepi n g in r es p ect to ea c h i n d i v id ua l c h ild or y o u n g
p er s on , en for c e t h e le gally d eter m i n ed w or k ti m e an d t he
g r a n ti n g of th e leg a l m ea l ti m es ? -
In a gr ea t m a ny of th e
fa c tor i es , th e b r utali ti es s oon blos s om ed ou t aga i n u n
old

p u n i s h ed I n a n .i n ter v i ew w i th th e H o m e S e c r e ta y r

th e fa c tor y i n s pec tor s d em on s tr a ted th e i m p os s i b i li ty of a n y

c on tr ol u n d er th e n ew l i n v en ted r ela s tem In t h e m ea n
1
y y y
s .

ti m e h ow ev e c i r c um s ta n ces h a d g ea tly c h a n g ed
,
r, Th e fa tor y r . c

h an d s es p eci a lly s i n e 1 8 3 8 h a d m ad e th e Ten H our s B i ll th ei r

’

,
c ,

ec on om i cal, as th ey h a d m a d e th e C har ter th ei r p oli ti ca l,

elec ti on y
-
cr . S om e of th e m a n ufa c tu r er s , e v en ,
w h o had
m a n ag ed t h ei r fa c tor i es i n c on for m i ty w i th th e Ac t of 1 8 3 3 ,

ov er w h elm ed P a r li a m en t w i th m em or i als on th e i m m or al com

eti ti on of th ei r fals e b r e th r en w h om g r ea ter i m u d en c e or
p p ,

m or e for tun a te local ci r c u m s ta n ces en a b led to b r ea k th e la w ,

.

M or eov er h o w ev er m u ch th e i n d i v i d ual m an u fa c tu r er m i gh t
,

g i v e th e r ei n to h i s old lus t for gai n th e s pok es m en an d ,

oli ti c al lea d er s of th e m a n u fa c tu r i n g c las s o d er ed a h n g

p a e r c

of f on t a n d of s eech tow a r d s t h e w o k eo le
r
p p p T h ey h a d r .

en ter ed u
p on
p th e c on tes t for t h e re ea l of th e C or n L a w s ,
an d

n eed ed th e w or k er s to h el
p th em t o v i c tor y . T hey pr om i s ed ,

th er efor e ,
n ot on ly a d ou b le s i z ed loa f
-
of b r ea d ,
b u t th e en a c t

m en t of th e Ten H our s B i ll i n th e F r ee T r a d e m illen i um T h us

’
2
.

t h ey s ti ll les s d a r ed to op
pose a m ea s u r e i n ten d ed on ly to m a k e
th e la w of 1 833 a r ea li t
y . T hr eaten ed i n th ei r h oli es t i nter es t ,

th e r en t of lan d , th e T or i es th un d er ed w i th ph i la n th r Opi c i n
d i gn a ti on a g a i n s t th e
“
n efa r i ou s pr a c ti c es of th ei r foes .

1 t f Ins p f
Rep . o 3 l t Oct b r 1 849 p 6
. o s o e , , . .

2 R pt f Insp f F ct 31 t Oct b r 1 848 p 98

e . o . o a .
,
s o e , , . .

3 L rd H rn r s s t h xpr ssi n n f ri s pr ctic s in his

eon a o e u e e e e o
“
e a ou a e offi ci l r
a epo rts .

R p rt f Insp f
e o o 31 t Oct b r 1 859 p
. o s o e , , .
 Cafi z m/z s f P r od zc zb n
' '

T hi s w a s the or i gi n of th e a d d i ti on a l F a c tor y Ac t of Ju n e
7 th 1 8 44 ,
. S eptem b er 1 0th 1 8 4 4 It
It ca m e i n to effec t on
’

,
.

l u n d r o tec ti on a n ew ca teg or f w k i th
p a c es er
p y o o r er s v z e , .
,

w om en ov er 1 8 T h ey w er e pla ced i n ev er y es p ec t on th e
. r

s am e footi n g a s th e y oun g p er s on s th ei r w or k t i m e li m i ted to , u

t w elv e h ou s th ei r n i g h t lab our for b i d d en &c

r , F or th e fi s t -
,
. r

ti m e leg i s la ti on s a w i ts elf c om pelled to c on tr ol d i r ec tly a n d

,

o ffi c i a ll
y th e la b our of a d u lts I n th e F a c to r
y R ep or t of 1 8 4 4 .

1 8 4 5 i t i s s ai d w i th i r on y :
,
N O i ns ta n c es h a v e c om e to m y
k n ow led g e of a d ult w om en h av i ng ex pr es s ed a ny r egr et a t
th e i r r ights b ei n g th u s far in ter fer ed w i th Th e w or k i n g ti m e
” 1
.

of ch i ld r en u n d er 1 3 w as r ed u ced to 6 1, an d in c er ta i n c i r c um

s ta n c es to 7 h ou r s a -
d ay .
2

To get r i d of th e a b u s es of th e s pu r i ou s r elay s y s tem th e “ -

,

la w es ta bli s h ed b es i d es oth er s th e follo w i n g i m por ta n t r eg ula

ti on s T h a t th e h our s of w or k of c h ild r en an d y ou n g per s on s
s h a ll k on ed fr om th e ti m e w h en a n y ch i ld
be r ec or y ou n g

r s on s h a ll b eg i n to w or k i n th e m or n i n g S th t i f A
p e o a .
,

eg
. b egi n s w or k at 8 i n th e m or n i ng an d B a t 1 0 B s w or k
.
, , ,
’

d ay m u s t n ev er theles s en d a t th e s a m e h ou r a s A s Th e
’
.

ti m e s h a ll b e r eg ula ted b y a pu b li c clock for ex a m ple th e

”
, ,

n ea r es t r a i lw a loc k b w hi c h th e fac tor c loc k i s to b e s et

y c y y ,
.

Th e o c cu p i er i s to h a n g u p a leg i ble r i n ted n oti c e s ta ti n g

“ ”
p
th e h ou r s for th e b eg i n n i n g a n d en d i n g of w or k a n d th e ti m es
a llow ed for th e s ev er a l m ea ls C h i ld r en b egi n n i n g w or k b efor e .

1 2 n oon m ay n ot b e a ga i n em ploy ed a fter 1 p m Th e a fter . .

n oon s h i ft m u s t th er efor e c on s i s t o f ot h er c h i ld r en th an th os e
em lo ed i n th e m or n i n g Of th e h our a n d a h alf for m eal
p y .

on e h ou r th er eof a t th e leas t s h a ll b e gi v en b efor e

“
ti m es ,

th r ee of th e c loc k i n th e a ft er n oon a n d a t th e s am e
.

p e r i od of th e d ay . No c h i ld or
y g p er s on s h a ll b e em lo ed
ou n
p y
m or e th an fi v e h our s b efo re 1 p m w i t
.h ou t a n i n ter va l for m ea l
.

ti m e of a t
"

leas t 3 0 m i n u tes . No ch i ld or y oun g p er s on [or

fem ale] s h all b e p loy ed or a llo w ed to r em a i n i n a n y r oom i n
em

w h i c h a n y m a n u fa c tur i n g pr oces s i s th en a t m eal ti m es ]

”
c a r r i ed on , &c .

1 S pt 1 844 p 1 5 &c .
, 3 oth e .
, , . .

2Th Act ll ws childr n t b

e mpl y d f 1 0 h urs i f th y d t w rk d y ft r
a o e o ee o e or o e o no o a a e

da y b ut nly
,
lt r t d ys In th m in this cl us r m in d in p r tiv
o on a e na e a . e a ,
a e e a e o e a e.
2 7 0

o ther r es
pec ts , th e Ac t on ly a m en d ed an d com pleted th e A c ts
of 1 83 3 an d 1 8 44 .

Ca pi ta l n ow en t er ed u pon a p r eli m i n ar y c a m pa i gn in or d er

to h i n d er th e Ac t fr om c om i n g i n to full for ce on May 1 s t, 1 8 4 8 .

A n d th e w or k er s th em s el ves ,
u n d er th e p r e ten c e th a t th ey h a d
b een ta u h t b yg xper i en c e
e ,
w er e to h elp i n th e d es tr u c ti on of
th ei r o w n w or k . Th e m om en t w a s c le ve r ly c h os en It m u s t .

be r em e m b er ed , too, th a t th er e h a s b een m or e th a n t w o y ea r s
of gr eat s u ffer i n g ( i n con s equ en c e of t h e ter r i ble cr i s i s of 1 8 4 6
4 7 ) a m on g th e fac tor y oper a ti v es fr om m a n y m i lls h av i n g ,

w or k ed s h or t ti m e a n d m a n y b ei n g a ltog eth er c los ed

,
A con .

s i d er a b le n u m b er of th e o er a ti v es m u s t t h er efor e b e i n v er
p y
n ar r ow c i r c u m s ta n ces ; m a n i t i s t o b e fea r ed i n d eb t ; s o
y , ,

t h a t i t m igh t fa i r ly h a v e b ee n p r es u m ed th a t a t th e p r es en t
ti m e th ey w ould pr efer w or k i n g th e lon g er ti m e i n or d er t o ,

m ak e u p for pa s t los s es per h a ps to pay off d eb ts or get th ei r , ,

fu r n i tur e ou t of
p a w n , or
p lac e t h a t s old , or to
re
get a new

th em s elv es a n d th ei r fa m ili es
” 1
su l
pp y of cloth es for .

Th e m a n ufa c tur er s tr i ed to a ggr a vate th e n a tur al effec t of

th es e g en er al r ed uc ti on of w ages b y 1 0/
c i r c um s ta n c es by a
0

O
.

T h i s w a s d on e s o to s a y to c eleb r ate th e i n a ug ur a ti on of th e
, ,

n ew F r ee T r a d e er a T hen follow ed a fu r th er r ed uc ti on of 8 1%
.

as s oon a s t h e w or k i n g d a w as s h or ten ed to 1 1 a n d a r ed u e
y ,

ti on of d oub le th a t a m ou n t a s s oon a s i t w a s fi n ally s h or ten ed

t o 1 0 h our s W h er ev er th er efor e ci r c u m s tan c es allow ed i t a
.
, , ,

r ed u c ti on of w a g es of a t leas t 2 5 ok l U n d er s u ch
° 2
/ t o p a ce
o
.

fa vou r a bly pr epa r ed c on d i ti on s th e a gi ta ti on a m on g th e fa c tor y

w or k er s for t h e r ep ea l of th e Act of 1 8 4 7 w as b eg u n N ei th er .

li es b r i b er y n or th r ea ts w er e s pa r ed i n th i s a ttem pt
, ,
But a ll .

w a s i n vai n C on c er n i n g th e h alf d oz en p eti ti on s i n w h i c h

.
-

w or k people w er e m a d e to c om pla i n of th ei r o pp r es s i on b y
“

t h e Ac t th e p eti ti on er s th em s elv es d e cla r ed u n d er or a l ex

,

a m i n a ti on th a t t h ei r s i g n a t ur es h a d b een ex tor ted fr om t h em

,

T h ey felt th em s elv es oppr es s ed b ut n ot ex a c tly b y th e ,

1 Insp f
R ep . 3 l t Oct 1 848 p 1 6
of . o s .
, , . .

2 I f nd th t m w h h d b n g tting 1 0 w k h d h d l t k n ff f
ou a en o a ee e s. a ee , a a s. a e o or

a r d cti n in th r t f 1 0 p c nt d l 6 d ff th r m ining 9 f th r d
e u o e a e o er e , an s. . o e e a s . or e e ue

ti n in tim t g th r 2 6 d
o e, d n twithst nding this m ny f th m s id th y
o e e 8 . .
, an o a , a o e a e

w ld r th r w rk 1 0 h rs 1 c
ou a e o ou . . .
 Tao Wor é i flg D ay . 2 7 1 3

Fa ctor y Act But i f th e m an ufac tur er s d i d n ot s u c c eed i n

.

m ak i n g th e w or k people s pea k a s th ey w i s h ed th ey th em ,

s elv es s h r i ek ed a ll th e lou d er i n r es s a n d P a r li a m en t i n t h e
p
n am e of th e w or k people T h ey d en ou n ced th e F a ctor y .

I ns pector s as a ki n d of r e v oluti on a r y c om m i s s i on er s li k e th os e
of th e Fr en c h Na ti on al C on v en ti on r uth les s ly s a cr i fi ci n g th e
un h a
ppy fa c tor
y w or k er s to t h ei r h u m a n i t ar i a n c r otch et T h i s .

m a n oeuv r e a ls o fai led F a c tor y I n s pector L eon a r d H or n er .

c on d u c ted i n hi s o wn
p er s on , a n d th r ou h h i s g s ub -
i n s pec tor s ,
m a ny e x am i n ati on s of w i tn es s es i n th e fa c tor i es of L a n ca s h i r e .

Ab ou t 7 0 / th e w or k people x am i n ed d ecla r ed i n fa v ou r
°

o
of e

of 1 0 h our s , m uch s m a ller er c en ta g e i n fa v ou r of 1 1 and an

a p ,

a lto eth er g i n s i gn i fi c an t m i n or i ty for th e old 1 2 h ou r s .

2

An oth er “
fr i en d ly
”
d od ge w a s to m a k e th e a d u lt m ales
w or k 12 to 1 5 h our s , an d th en to b laz on a b r oad th i s fa c t as

th e b es t p r oo f of w h a t th e pr oleta r i a t d es i r ed i n i ts h ea r t of
F act or y n s pec tor L eon ar d H or n er I
”
h ea r ts . Bu t th e “
r u thles s

g ai n Th e m aj or i ty v er ”
of th e ti m er s
“
w as a t o th e for e . o -

d eclar ed :
“
T h ey m u ch pr efer w or k i n g ten h ou r s for
w ou ld
"

les s w a g es , b ut th at th ey h a d n o c h oi ce ; th a t s o m a n y w er e
ou t of em g etti n g v er
l l a g es
( p y
o m en t y ow w so m an y s
p i n n er s

b y h a v i n g to w or k a s pi ec er s b ei n g u n a ble to d o b etter ) th a t , ,

i f th ey r efu s ed to w or k th e lon g er ti m e oth er s w ould i m m edi ,

a tely get th ei r l s s o th at i t w a s a q u es ti on w i th t h em of
p a c e ,

a gr eei n g to w or k th e lon g ti m e or of b ei n g th r ow n out of ,

em lo m en t a ltog eth er
” 3
p y .

Th e pr eli mi n a r y ca m pa i gn of c api tal th u s ca m e to gr i ef a n d ,

th e Ten H ou r s Ac t cam e i n to for c e

’
May l s t ,
1 8 48 . Bu t m ean
w hi le th e C h a r ti s t par ty w h os e lea d er s w er e
fi as co o f th e
1 Th gh I sign d it [th p titi n] I s id t th tim I w p tti g my h nd t
ou e e e o , a a e e as u n a o a

wr g thing
on Th n why did y p t y r h d t it ? .
’
B c s I sh ld h v e ou u ou an o
’ ‘
e au e ou a e

b n t rn d ff i f I h d r f s d W h nc it w ld pp r th t this p titi n r f lt
ee u e o a e u e .
’
e e ou a ea a e o e e

hims lf ppr ss d b t t x ctly by th F ct ry A ct 1 c p 1 02

e o e e ,
’
u no e a e a o .
”
. . . .

p 17 l c In Mr H rn r s district d l t m l l b r rs w r th s ’
2 o a u a e a ou e e e u
.
, . . . e

ex min d in 1 01 f ct ri s Th ir vid nc is t b f nd in th pp ndix t th

a e a o e . e e e e o e ou e a e o e

F ct ry R p rts f th h lf y r ndi g Oct b r 1 84 8 Th s x mi ti ns f rnish

a o e o or e a -
ea e n o e . e e e a na o u

v l bl m t ri l in th r c nn xi ns ls
a ua e a e a o e o e o a o.

1 c
3 S th. vid nc c ll ct d by L n rd H r r hims lf N 69 7 0 7 1 7 2
. ee e e e e o e e eo a o ne e , os .
, , , ,

92 9 3
,
d th t c ll ct d by S b Insp ct r A N
,
an 51 52 5 8 59 62 7 0 f th
a o e e u -
e o .
,
os . , , , , , , o e

App ndix O m n f ct r r t t lls th pl in tr th S N 1 4 d N

e . ne a u a u e , oo, e e a u . ee o .
, an o .

26 5 l c , . .
 ’
2 7 2 Cap i i a li s z P r oa a oi i on ‘
.

i m pr i s on ed , ga n i a ti on w a s d i s m em b er ed h a d
an d w h os e or s ,

s h a k en th e c on fid en c e of th e E n g li h w or k i n g cla s s i n i ts o w n s

s tr en g th S oon a fter thi s th e J un e i n s ur r ec ti on s i n P a r i s a n d

.

i ts b lood y s u ppr es s i on un i ted i n E n g la n d a s on th e C n ti n en t ,

o ,

a ll f a c ti on s of th e r uli n g c la s s es
r la n d lor d s a n d ca pi ta li s t ,
s
,

s toc k ex c h a n g e w olv es a n d s h o k P r otec ti on i s ts a n d

p eeper s
- -

Fr ee tr a d er s g ov er n m en t an d O ppos i ti on pr i es ts a n d fr ee
-

, ,

t hi n k er s y ou ng w h or es a n d Old n un s u n d er t h e c o mm on c r y
, ,

for th e s alva ti on of P r oper ty R eli g i on th e F a m i ly a n d , ,

S oci ety Th e w or k i n g c la s s w a s ev er y wh er e pr ocla i m ed

.
,

l d u n d b u n d er a v i r tu a l la w of s u s ec ts T h e
p a ce e r a a n , p .

m an u fa c tur er s h a d n o n eed a n y lo ng er to r es tr a i n th e m s elv es .

T h ey b r ok e ou t i n o pen r e olt n ot on ly a ga i n s t th e Ten H our s

’
v

Ac t b u t a g a i n s t th e w h ole of th e leg i s la ti on th a t s i n c e 1 8 33
,

h a d a i m ed a t r es tr i c ti n g i n s om e m ea s u r e th e fr e e ex ploi ta
t i on of la b ou r p o w er It w a s a p r o s la v er y r eb elli on i n m i n i a
-
.
-

t ur e c ar r i ed on for ov er tw o y ea r s w i th a c y n i c a l r ec k les s n es s
, ,

a t er r or i s t en er g y a ll th e c h ea er b ec a u s e the r eb el ca i ta li s t
p p
r i s k ed n oth i n g ex c e t t h e s k i n o f h i s
”
p h an ds
“
.

To u n d er s ta n d th at w hi c h follo w s w e m u s t r em em b er th a t
th e F a c tor y A c ts of 1 8 3 3 , 1 8 4 4, a nd 1 8 4 7 w er e a ll th r ee i n
for ce so fa r as t he on e d id n o t a m en d th e o th er : th a t n ot on e

of th es e li m i ted th e w o r i n k g d ay of th e m a le w o r k er ov er 1 8,
and tha t s i n ce 1 8 3 3 th e 1 5 h ou r s fr om a . m . to p m
. .

h ad r e m a i n ed th e le ga l “
d ay ,
”
w i th i n th e li m i ts of w h i ch
fir s t la b our g
’
at th e 1 2 and la ter th e 1 0 h ou r s Of y ou n

p er s on s and w om en h a d t o b e p er for m ed u n d er th e pr es cr i b ed
c on d i ti on s .

Th e m an ufac tu r er s b ega n b y h er e and t h er e d i s ch a r i n g g a

p a r t of, i n m a ny c as es h alf of, th e y ou n p er s on s a n d w om en g

em ploy ed b y th em ,
an d t h en , for th e a d ult m ales , r es tor i n g
th e a lm os t o bs olete gh t k Th e Ten H our s Ac t th ey
’
ni -
w or .
,

cr i e d , lea v es n o o th er a lte r n a ti v e .
1

T h ei r s ec on d s te
p d ea lt w i th t h e leg a l p a u s es fo r m ea ls .

Let us h ea r th e Fa c tor y I n s pec tor s S i n ce th e r es tr i cti on of .

t h e h our s of w or k to ten , th e fa c tor y o cc u

p i er s m a i n tai n ,

alth o u gh th ey h a v e n ot y et p r ac ti c a ll
y g on e th e w h ole len g th ,

1 R ep o rts , &c .
, for 3l s t Oct b r o e ,
1 848 , p 1 33 , 1 34
. .
2 74 Cap i i a /i s i P r od uci i on .

an d fa ctor y i n s pec tor s pr otes ted on hy g i en i c an d m or al gr oun d s ,

b ut C api tal a n s w er ed

My d eed s up on m y h ead I cr a v e th e law ,

Th e p en al ty an d for fe t i of m y b on d .

In fa c t, a ccor d i n g to s ta ti s ti cs la i d b efor e th e H ous e of Com

m on s on J u ly 2 6 th, 1 8 5 0, i n i t Of a ll r otes ts , on J u ly 1 5 t h
p e s
p ,

1 8 5 0, c h i ld r en w er e s ubj ec ted t o th i s r a c ti c e i n 2 57
p
fac tor i es S ti ll th i s w as n ot en ough The ly n x ey e of
.
1
,
.

C a pi ta l d i s cov er ed th at th e Ac t of 1 8 4 4 d i d n ot a llow 5 h our s ’

w o k b efor e m i d d ay w i t h ou t a pa us e of a t leas t 3 0 m i n u tes for

r -

refr es h m en t b u t p es c i b ed n oth i n g of th e k i n d fo
,
w o k a fter r r r r

m i d d ay -
T h er efor e i t c lai m ed a n d O b tai n ed th e enj oy m en t
.
,

n ot on ly o f m a k i n g c hild en of 8 d u d ge w i th ou t i n t e m i s s i on r r r

f r om 2 to m b u t a ls o of m a k i n g th em h un g er d ur i n g
p . .
,

t ha t ti m e .

Ay , h i s h ea r t,
SO s ays th e

S hyloc k c li n gi n g to t he letter of th e la w of 1 8 4 4 s o far

T hi s -
,

a s i t r eg ula ted c hild en s la b ou r w as b ut to lea d u p to a n o pen

’
r ,

r ev olt a g ai n s t th e s a m e la w s o fa r a s i t r eg ula ted th e la b ou of ,

r

y ou n g
p e s o n s a n d w o m e n I t w i l
rl b e r em em b er ed th a t th e .
”

a b oli ti on of th e fals e r elay s y s tem w a s t h e c h i ef a i m a n d “

O bj ec t Of th a t la w Th e m as ter s b ega n th ei r r ev olt w i th th e .

s i m ple d ec lar a ti on th a t th e s ec ti on s of th e A c t of 1 8 4 4 w hi ch

p r oh i b i te d y th e ad li b i tum u s e of ou n g p er s on s a n d w om en i n
s uc h s h or t fr a c ti on s of th e d a f 1 5 h ou r s a s th e e m loy er
y o p
c h os e, w er e com par a ti v ely h a r m les s s o lon g a s th e w or k
“

fix ed H ou r s Ac t
’
ti m e w as at 1 2 h ou r s . But u n d er th e Ten
t h ey w er e a g r i ev ous h a r d s hi p .
”3
T h ey i n for m ed th e i n
1 R
rts & f 3l t Oct b r 1 850 p p 5 6
epo , c .
, or s o e , , .
, .

Th n t r
2 f c pit l r m ins th s m in its d v l p d
e a u e o in its nd l p d
a a e a e a e e e o e as u e ve o e

f rmo In th c d which th infl nc f th sl v wn rs sh rtly b f r th t

. e o e e ue e o e a e o -
e , o e o e e ou

br k f th Am ric n civil w imp s d th t rrit ry f N w M xic it is s id

ea O e e a ar , o e on e e o o e e o, a

th t th l b r r in m ch th c pit list h b ght his l b r p w r is his

a e a ou e , as u as e a a as ou a ou -
o e ,
“

( th c p it list s ) m n y Th s m i w w c rr nt m ng th R m n p trici ns
’ ”
. e a a o e . e a e V e as u e a o e o a a a .

Th m n y th y h d dv nc d t th pl b i n d bt r h d b n tr ns f rm d i d th
e o e e a a a e o e e e a e o a ee a o e r e

m ns f s bsist nc int th fl sh d bl d f th d bt r This fl sh d bl d

ea o u e e o e e an oo o e e o . e an oo

w r th r f r
e e, th ir m n y H c th Shyl ck l w f t h T T bl s
e e o e, e o e . en e, e o -
a o e en a e .

Li g t hyp th sis th t th p trici n cr dit rs fr m tim t tim p r p r d b y nd

’
n ue s o e a e a a e o o e o e e a e ,
e o

t h Tib r b nq ts f d bt rs fl h m y r m in und cid d th t f D m n ’

e e ,
a ue o e o es , a e a as e e as a o au er o

t h Christi n E ch ri t
e a u a s .

R p rts & f 3 0th A p ril 1 848 p 2 8

3 e o , c .
, or , , . .
 T/i e Wor é i flg D ay . 2 75

s ec tor s i n th e c ooles t m a n n er th a t th ey s h ould p la ce th em

p
s elv es a b ov e th e letter Of th e la w ,
and r e- i n tr od uc e th e Old
s
y s tem on th ei r ow n ac cou n t .
1
T h ey g i n t h e i n ter es ts
w er e ac ti n

of th e i ll -
ad vi s ed oper a ti v es th em s elv es i n or d er to b e a b le to,

p ay th em hi gh er w a ges .
”
T h i s w a s th e on ly pos s i b le plan b y
w h i c h to m ai n ta i n , u n d er th e Ten H our s Ac t ’

,
th e i n d u s tr i a l
su
p re m a cy B i tai n P er h a s i t m a
pof y b G r ea t
e a li t tle r .
”

d i ffi c ult t o d etec t i r r egu la i ti es u n d er th e r ela y s y s tem ; b u t r

w h a t of th a t 7 Is th e g ea t m a n u fa c tu i n g i n te es t of t hi
. r r r s

c ou n t t o b e t ea ted a s a s ec on d a y m a tter i n o d er to s a v e
r r r
y r

s om e li ttle t ou b le t o I n s p ec tor s a n d Sub I n s pec to s of

r r

F a c tor i es 2

All th es e s h i fts n a tu r a lly w er e of no a va il . Th e F a c tor y

I n s pec to rs a
pp ea le d to th e La w C ou r ts . But s e en s u c h a c lou d

of d u s t i n th e w ay of peti ti on s fr om th e m a s ter s o v er w h elm ed

th e H om e S ecr etar y , Si r Geor g e G r ey t ha t i n ,
a c i r c u la r of

A u gu s t 5 th , 1 8 48 , h e r ec om m en d s th e i n s pec tor s n ot to la y
“

i n for m ati on s a ga i n s t m i ll ow n e r s -
for a b r ea c h of th e letter of
th e ,
Ac t p loy m e n t
or Of y o u n g p erfor
s on s b y r elem
a y s i n c as es

i n w h i ch t h er e i s n o r ea s on to b eli ev e th a t s u c h y ou n g per s on s
h av e b een a c tu a lly em ploy ed for a lon g er per i od th an th a t
H er eu pon F a c tor y I n s pec tor J S tua r t
”
s an c ti on ed b y la w .
,
.

a llow ed the s e ca lled r ela

-

y s y s tem d u r i n g th e 1 5 h our s of th e
fa ctor y d ay th r oug h ou t S cotla n d , w h er e i t s oon fl our i s h ed a ga i n
a s of old Th e E n gli s h F a ctor y I n s pec tor s , on th e oth er h a n d
.
,

d ecla r ed th a t th e r me S ec r eta r
y h ad no p o w er d i c ta tor i a lly
to s us
p en d th e la w , a n d c on ti n u ed th ei r le gal pr oc eed i ng s ag a i n s t
th e pr o s la e r y r e elli on
-
v b .

Bu t w h at w a s th e ood g of s u mm on i n g th e ca pi tali s ts w h en th e
C our ts i n th i s m a g i s tr a tes — Cob b ett Gr ea t
’

, c as e th e c oun tr y s

U d q ui tted
’
n
pa i -
ac th em 2 In t h es e ti i b u n als th e m a s ter s ,

s at in j u d g m en t on t h em s el v es . An e x a m ple . On e Es k r i ggc ,

c otton S -

p i n n er , of th e fi r m of Ker s h a w L ees e , ,
85 Co , h a d la i d
.

b efor e t he F a c tor y I n s pec tor of h i s d i s tr i c t t h e s ch em e of a

r ela
y s y s tem i n ten d ed for h i s m i ll . R ecei vi n g a r efu s a l, he at

fi r s t k ep t qu i et . A fe w m on ths la ter ,
an i n d i v i d ua l n a m ed

R ob i n s on ,
a ls o a cotton s -

p i n n er , an d if n ot his Man F r i d ay ,
at

Th s m g th rs Phil nthr pist Ash w rth t L n rd H rn r in

1 u , a on o e , a o o o eo a o e , a di sg u ti
s ng

Q k r l tt r ( R p rts & April 1 849 p

ua e e e . e o ,
c ,
.
, ,
.

l p 1 40
2
. c , . . .
2 7 6 Cap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

a ll e v en ts r ela ted to Es k r i gge ,

a
p p ea r ed b efor e th e ,
bo r ou gh
m ag i s tr a tes of S tock por t on a ch a g e of i n t r ro d uc i n g th e i d en ti
cal
pla n of r ela s i n v en ted b y Es k i gge
y r . F ou r J us ti ces s at .

a m on g th em th r ee cotton s pi n n er s , -
at th ei r h ead th i s s am e

i n ev i ta b le Es k r i gge . Es k r i gge qu i tted R obi n s on a n d n o w

ac ,

w as pi of o
n i on th a t w h a t w a s r i gh t for R ob i n s on w a s fa i r for
Es k r i gge S uppor ted b y. h i s ow n leg al d ec i s i on h e i n tr od u c ed ,

th e s y s tem a t on c e i n to h i s ow n fa ctor y .
1
Of c ou r s e , th e c om

p os i ti on of th i s tr i b un al w a s i n i ts elf a vi ola ti on of th e la w .
2

T h es e j u d i ci a l fa c es ex c lai m s I n s pec tor H ow ell g en tly

“
r , ,
ur

c a ll for a r em ed — ei th er th a t th e la w s h o uld be s o alter ed as

y
to b e m a d e to c on for m to t h es e d ec i s i on s , or th at i t s h ou ld

be a d m i n i s t er ed by a les s falli ble tr i b un al, w h os e d eci s i on s

w ou ld c on for m to th e la w . w h en th es e c a s es ar e b r ou gh t
for w ar d . I lon g for a s ti
p en d i a r y m ag i s tr a te .
”3

Th e Cr o w n la w y er s d eclar ed th e m a s ter s i n ter pr etati on

’
of

th e Ac t b s ur d But th e S av i ou r s of S oci ety w ould

of 1 8 48 a .

n ot a llow them s elv es to b e tu r n ed fr om th ei r

p u pos e L eon a r d r .

H or n er r epor ts H a v i n g en d ea v our ed to en for c e th e Act

,

b y ten p r os ecu ti on s i n s ev en m ag i s ter i a l d i v i s i on s a n d h av i n g ,

b een s uppor ted b y th e m agi s tr a tes i n on e c as e on ly I con .

s i d er ed i t u s eles s to r os ecu te m or e for thi s ev a s i on of th e la w

p .

T ha t par t of th e Ac t of 1 8 8 4 w h i c h w as f a m ed fo s ec u i n g u n i r r r

fo m i ty i n th e h our s of w or k
r i s th us n o lon g er i n for c e i n ,

m y d i s tr i c t ( L a n cas hi r e) N ei th er h a v e th e s ub i n s pec to s or .
-
r

m y s elf a n y m ea n s of s at i s fy i ng our s elv es w h en w e i n s pec t a ,

m ill w or k i n g b y s h i fts th at t h e y ou n g p er s on s a n d w om en ,

a e n ot w or k i n g m o e th a n 1 0 h ou s a d a
r In a r etu n o f r
y r r -
.

th e 3 0th Ap i l Of m i ll ow n er s
r w or k i n g b y s h i fts th e
,
-
,

n um b e a m ou n ts to 1 1 4 a n d h as b een fo s om e ti m e a idl
r
p y ,
. r r

i n cr eas i n g In g en e al th e ti m e of w o k i n g t h e m ill i s ex
. r ,
r

t en d ed to 1 3 5 h ou r s , fr om 6 a . m . to 75 p m . .
,
in s om e
”
i n s tan c es i t a m oun ts to 1 5 h ou r s , fr om 5 5 a . mto 8 1 p m
. . .

Alr ea dy i n D ec emb er , 1 8 4 8 L eon a r d H or n er

, ,
h a d a li s t Of 6 5
m a n u fa c tu r er s a n d 2 9 ov er look er s w h o u n an i m ou s ly d ecla r ed
R p rts & f 3oth April 1 849 pp 2 1 22 C f lik x m pl s ibid pp 4 5
1 e o , c .
, or , , .
, . . e e a e . .
, .

By I d II Will IV ch 24 s 1 0 kn wn Si J hn H b h
2
. an . .F ct ry A ct .
, .
, .
, o as r o o ou s e s
’
a o ,

it w f rbidd n t y wn r f c tt n s pinning w ving mill th f th r

as o e o an o e o a o o -
or ea , or e a e ,
s on ,

or br th r f s ch wn r t t J stic f th P c in y inq iri s th t

o e o u o e , o ac
’

as u e o e ea e an u e a c on ~

d th F ct ry Act
tae e a o .

R p rt & f 3oth April 1 849 p 5 4 e o s, c , . or , , . .

278 Cap i i a /i s i P r od n oi i on .

1 0 h our s
’
a g i ta ti on ,
th e m a s ter s c r i e d ou t th a t th e w or k i n g m ob
p eti ti on ed i n th e h Ope of o b ta i n i n g 1 2 h our s w ag es for
’
10
h ou r s
’
w or k Now t h ey . re ve rse d th e m ed a l . T h ey p a i d 1 0
h ou r s w a g es for 1 2
’
or 1 5 h ou r s lor d s h i p o v er la b ou r p ow er -
.

T hi s w a s th e g i s t of th e m a tter , th i s th e m a s te r s
’
i n ter pr eta ti on
T h es e
’
Of th e 1 0 h ou r s la w ! w er e th e sam e . u n c tu ou s fr ee
g
t r a d er s , p er s pi r i n w i th th e lo e of h u m an i ty , w h o for full 1 0 v
y ea r s , d u r i n th e A n t i C or n La w a i ta ti on , h a d p r ea c h ed to
g -
g
th e o
p er a ti v es , by a r ec k on i n g of
p ou n d s , s h i lli n gs ,
an d
p en c e,

th a t w i th fr ee i m por ta ti on of cor n , a n d w i th th e m ea n s p os

d by E n gli s h i n d u s tr y 1 0 h ou r s la b o u r w ou ld b e qui te
’
s es s e ,

e n ou g h t o e n r i ch th e c a pi ta li s ts
?
T hi s r ev olt o f c a i tal, a f ter
p
tw o y ea r s , w a s a t la s t c r ow n ed w i th v i c to y b y a d ec i s i on of
r

on e of th e four h i h es t C ou r ts of g J u s ti ce i n E n glan d th e ,

C ou r t of Ex ch equ er ,
w h i ch i n a c a s e b o ug h t b efor e i t o n
r

F eb r uar y 8 th , 1 8 5 0, d ec i d ed th a t th e m a n ufac tur er s w er e

c er ta i n ly a c ti n g aga i n s t th e s en s e of th e Ac t Of 1 8 4 4 b u t th a t,

t h i s Ac t i ts elf con ta i n ed c er ta i n w or d s t h a t r en d er ed i t m ean

By thi s d ec i s i on , th e Ten Hour s Ac t w a s a b oli s h ed
’ ”3
i n gles s .
“
.

A c r ow d of m a s ter s w h o u n ti l th en h a d b een a fr a i d of u s i n g ,

th e l y s y s tem for y oun g per s on s

re a -
an d w om en , n ow took i t up

h ea r t a n d s oul 4
.

Bu t on th i s a r en tl d i s ive v i c tor y of i ta l follow e d

pp a
y ec ca
p ,

a t on ce a r ev u ls i on . Th e w or k people h a d h i th er to offer ed a

p as s i ve ,
a lth ou gh i n fl ex i b le a n d u n r em i tti n g r es i s tan ce . T h ey
n ow
p r otes ted i n L a n ca s h i r e and Yor k s h i r e i n th r ea ten i n g
m ee ti n g s Th e pr eten d ed Ten H ou r s Ac t w a s th u s s im l
’
e
.
, p
h um b ug , p a r li a m en ta r
y c h e a ti n g h a d n ev er ex i s ted ,
. Th e
F a ctor y I n s p ec to r s ur g en tly w a r n ed t h e G ov er n m en t th a t th e
a n ta gon i s m Of c la s s es h ad a r r i v ed at an i n c r ed i b le ten s i on .

S om e of th e m as ter s th em s el v es m u r m u r ed : On a c c ou n t of

1 R p rts & f 30th April 1 849 p 6 d th d t il d xpl n ti n f th

See e o ,
c .
,
or , , .
,
an e e a e e a a o o e

shi fti g syst m by F ct ry Insp ct rs H w ll d S nd rs in R p rts & f

n e ,
”
a o e o o e an au e ,
“
e o ,
c .
, or

3 l t Oct b r 1 8 48
s S o ls th p titi n t th Q n fr m th cl rgy f Asht n
e , . ee a o e e o o e ue e o e e O o

d vicinity in th s p ri g f 1 849 g inst th shi ft syst m ”

an , e n o ,
a a e e .

2Cf f x m pl
. Th F ct ry Q sti n
or e ad th T H rs Bill By R H
e, e a o ue o an e en ou
’
.
”
. .

G r g 1 83 7
e , .

F Eng ls Th E glish T H rs Bill ( In th N Rh inisch Z it g

3 ’ ”
. e e n en ou . e eu e e e e un ,

P litisch k m i h R v
o -
oe on o Edit d by K M rx Ap ril n mb r 1 850 p
sc e e ue .
”
e . a . u e , , .

Th s m e high C rt f J stic disc v r d d ri g th A m ric n Civil W

a e ou o u e o e e , u n e e a ar , a

v rb l mbig ity w hich x ctly r v s d th m ni g f t h l w g inst t h rmi g

e a a u e a e er e e ea n o e a a a e a n

o f p ir t shi p s
a e .

4R p & e f 30th A p ril 1 8 50

.
,
c or , .
 7 71 6 War ni ng D a y; 2 79
th e c on tr a d i c tor
y d e c i s i on s of th e m agi s tr a tes , a c on d i ti on of

th i n gs a ltog eth er a b n or m a l an d a n a r c h i cal o b ta i n s . On e la w

h old s i n Yor k s hi r e, a n oth er in L an cas h i r e ; on e la w i n on e
p ar i s h

of L an cas h i r e a n oth er i n i ts i m m ed i ate n ei gh b ou r h ood

,
Th e .

m a n u fa c tur er i n la r g e t ow n s c ou ld ev a d e th e la w th e m a n u ,

fa c tu r er i n y d i s tr i c ts c ou ld n ot fi n d th e
cou n tr
p p
e o le n ec es s a r
y
for th e r elay s y s tem s t i ll les s for th e s hi fti n g of h a n d s fr om
-
,

n d th e fi r s t b i r th r i gh t of c a i ta l
”
o n e fa c tor
y to a n o th e r 8 5 0 A p ,
.

is e qua l ex ploi ta ti on la b o ur p ow er b y a ll c a pi ta li s ts
of -
.

U n d er th es e ci r c u m s ta n ces a c om p r om i s e b et w een m a s ter s

an d m en w a s v ed t h e s eal of P a r li a m en t i n
e ffec ted th a t r ec ei

th e a d di ti on al F a c tor y Ac t of A u g u s t 5th 1 8 5 0 Th e w o ki n g ,
. r

d a y for y ou n g p e s o n s a n d w o m en w as r a i s ed fr om 1 0 t o r ,

1 01 h ou s for th e fi r s t fi v e d ay s of th e w eek a n d w a s s h or ten e d

r ,

to 7 1 on t h e S a tu r d a T h w k w t n b etw n 6 m
; y e or a s o
g o o ee a . . .

and 6 pm w i t h p a u s es of h our s for m ea l

1
. .
,
n ot les s th a n
ti m es , th es e m ea l ti m es to b e -
allow ed a t on e a n d th e s am e ti m e
for a ll, a n d con for m a b ly t o th e c on d i ti on s Of 1 8 44 . By th i s a n
F or
’
en d w a s put to th e r elay s y s tem on ce for a ll c h i ld r en s
-
?

la b our , th e Ac t of 1 8 4 4 r em a i n ed i n for c e .

On e s et of m a s ter s ,
thi s ti m e as b efo r e, s ecu r ed to i ts elf
s
p gn eu r i a l r i g hts ov er th e ch i ld r en of th e pr oletar i a t
ec i al s ei .

T h es e w er e th e s i lk m an u fa c tu r er s In 1 8 3 3 t h ey h a d h ow led .

ou t i n th r ea ten i n g fas h i on i f th e li b er ty of w or k i n g c h i ldr en ,

“

of a n y a e f r 1 0 h ou r s a d a w r e ta k en a w a i t w u ld t
g y e o
y o s op ,

th ei r w or k s
” 3
It w ou ld b e i m pos s i b le for th em to b uy a s u ffi
.

c i en t n u m b er Of c h i ld r en ov er 1 3 T h ey ex tor ted t h e pr i v i leg e .

t h ey d es i r ed Th e pr etex t w a s s h ow n on s u b s equ en t i n v es ti ga
.

t i on t o b e a d eli b er a te li e It d i d n ot h ow ev er pr ev en t th em 4
.
, , ,

d u r i n g 1 0 y ear s fr om s pi n n i n g s ilk 1 0 h our s a d ay ou t of th e

,

blood of li ttle child r en w h o h a d to b e placed u pon s tools for

th e per for m a n c e of th ei r w or k Th e Act of 1 8 44 c er ta i n ly .
5

r obb ed th em of th e li b er ty of em p loy i n g c h i ld r en u n d er “

1 1 lon g er th a n 6 1 h ou r s a d ay But i t s ec u r ed to th em on th e .
,

oth er h an d t h e r i v i leg e o f w or k i n g c h i ld r en b et w een 1 1 a n d

p ,

1 In wint r fr m 7 e s bstit t d
, o a . m t o 7 p m m ay b e
. . . u u e .

2Th p t l w ( f 1 850) w
e c mp mis wh r by th mpl y d s rr nd r d
r es en a o as a o ro e e e e e o e u e e e

th b n fit f th T H rs Act f th dv nt g f nif rm p ri d f t h ’
e e e o e en ou or e a a a e o on e u o e o or e

c mm nc m nt d t rmin ti n f t h l b ur f th s wh s l b r is r strict d
o e e e an e a o o e a o o o e o e a ou e e .
”

( R p rts & f 3 oth Ap ril 1 852 p

e o ,
c .
, or , , .

R p rts &
3 e f oS pt 1 844 p 1 3
. c .
, or e . . , . .
2 80 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

1 3 , 1 0 h our s a d ay ,
a n d of an n ulli n g in th ei r cas e th e ed u cati on

m ad e c om pu ls or y for a ll oth er fa c tor y c h ild r en . T h i s ti m e th e

p r ete x t w as “
th e d eli c a te tex tur e of th e fa b i
r c i n w h i c h th ey
w er e em plo ed
y , re qu i r i n g a li gh tn es s of touch , only to b e
”1
ac qui r ed b y t h ei r ea r ly i n tr od u cti on to th es e fa c tor i es . Th e
c h i ld r en gh ter ed ou t an d out for th e s a k e of th ei r
w er e s la u - -

d eli cate fi n g er s a s i n S ou th er n R u s s i a t h e h or n ed c attle for th e

,

s a k e of th ei r h i d e a n d tallow At len g th i n 1 8 5 0 th e pr i v i leg e .

, ,

gr an ted i n 1 8 44 w as li m i ted to th e d epar t m en ts o f s i lk tw i s tin g -

a n d s i lk w i n di n g Bu t h er e to m a k e a m en d s to c api tal b e r eft

-
.
,
”
of fr eed om th e w or k ti m e for c h i ld r en fr om 1 1 to 1 3 w a s
“
i ts ,

r a i s ed P r etex t : L a b ou r i n s i lk m i lls
fr om 1 0 to 1 01 h our s .
“

w a s li gh ter th a n i n m i lls for oth er fa b r i cs a n d les s li k ely i n ,

r ej u d i c i a l to O fi ”2
oth er r es ec ts a ls o to b e h ea lth f c i al
p p .

m ed i c a l i n q u i r i es pr ov ed a fter w a r d s tha t on t h e c on tr a r y th e , ,

a v er a g e d ea th r a te i s e x ceed i n gl h i g h i n th e s ilk di s tr i c ts a n d
y
-

a m on g s t th e fem a le a r t of th e opu la ti on i s h i g h er ev en th a n
p p
L an cas h i r e D es pi te th e pr o
”
i t i s i n th e cott on d i s tr i cts of .
3

1 1 . c .

2 R ep o rts
Oct 1 86 1 p 26
, &c .
,
for 3l s t .
, , . .

1
3 .
p 27 cOn th wh l th w rki g p pul ti n s ubj ct t th F ct ry Act
.
, . . e o e e o n o a o , e o e a o ,

h gr tly im pr v d physic lly All m dic l t stim ny gr s this p int d

as ea o e a . e a e o a ee on o , an

p rs n l bs rv ti n t di ff r nt tim s h
e o a o e c nvinc d m f it N v rth l ss d
a o a e e e as o e e o . e e e e , an

excl siv f th t rribl d th r t f childr n in th first y rs f th ir lif t h

u e o e e e ea -
a e o e e ea o e e, e

Offi ci l r p rts f Dr G r nh w sh w th
a e o nf v r bl h lth c nditi n f th m n
o . ee o o e u a ou a e ea o o o e a u

f t i g districts c mp r d with gric lt r l districts f n rm l h lth A ”

a c ur n as o a e a u u a o o a ea . s

ev id nc t k th f ll wing t bl fr m his 1 861 r p rt

e e, a e e o o a e o e o

P erc en a ge t D ea th rt
a e D th r t P rc t g
ea a e e en a e
fr m
- -

of A
d ult f r om of A d lt o u
M a les en P ul m o n a r y
N P lm
u ry F m l s
on a e a e en Ki n d F em aIe
of

ga ged i n A t
ff ec i o n s
am e Of D i s tn ct .

A ff c i s g g d i
e t on a e n Oc c up a ti on .

m an u fac p er per m f a n u ac
t s M Fml tr
.

ur e . a les . e a es . u es .

Wig n a

Bl ckb rn
a u

H lif x
a a

Br df rda o

Mac cles field

L k ee

St k o e upo
-
n Tr nt
-
e

W ools tan ton

E i ght h lthy gri ea a

c lt r l districts
u u a
2 82 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

fr om 8 to 1 3 ,
and for w om en t o 1 6 h our s ,
b etw een 6 a . m . an d

10 pm leg a l w i th ou t
u for m eal t i m es I t a llow s an
.
y.
, p a s e .

m ales ov er 1 3 to b e w or k ed a t w i ll d ay a n d n i gh t 1
It i s a .

P a r li a m en ta r y a b or ti on ?

H o w ev er , th e pr i n ci ple h a d tr i u m ph ed w i th i ts v i c tor y i n
th os e g r ea t br an c h es of i n d us tr y w h i ch for m th e m os t c h a r ac ter
i s ti c c r ea ti on of th e m o d e r n m od e Of
p ro d u cti on . T h ei r
w on d er ful d e v elopm en t fr om 1 8 5 3 t o 1 8 6 0, h a n d i n h an d w i th - -

th e ph y s i cal a n d m or al r e en er ati on of th e fa c tor y w or er s g k ,

s tr u c k
th e m os t p u r li n d Th e m as ter s fr om w h om the lega l b .

li m i tati on an d r e gu la ti on h ad b een w r un g b
p y s te
s tep a fte r a

ci vi l w a r O f h a lf a c en t u r ,
y th e m s el v es r efer r ed os t e n ta ti ou s ly

to t h e c on tr a s t w i th th e b r an c h es of e x plo ita ti on s ti ll
“
fr ee .
”3

Th e P h ar i s ees p of
p oli ti c al ec on om
y n ow r ocla i m ed th e d i s
c er n m en t of th e n eces s i t
y o f a le g a ll y fix e d w or k in g d a
y a s a
”4
c h a r a c ter i s ti c n ew d i s c o v er
y of th e i r s c i en c e It w i ll b e .

eas i ly u n d er s tood th a t a fter th e fa c tor m a g n a tes h a d r es i g n ed

y
t h em s el es a n d v
b ec om e ec on c iled to th e i n ev i ta b le th e po w e of r ,
r

r es i s ta n ce Of ca i tal g r a d ua ll w e k en ed w hi ls t a t th s am e e
p y a ,

ti m e t h e p ow er of a tta c k of th e w o k i n g c la s s g r ew w i th th e r

n u m b er of i ts a lli es i n th e c la s s es o f s oc i ety n ot i m m ed i a tely

i n te es ted i n th e q ue ti on
r H en ce th e c om par a ti vely r a pi d s .

a d v a n ce s i n c e 1 8 6 0 .

Th e d y e w o k s a n d b lea ch w o k s all cam e u n d er th e F a c tor y

-
r -
r

Ac t of 1 8 5 0 i n la c e an d s tock i n g m an u fa c tu r es i n 1 8 6 1 .

1“
Childr n e of th e a g e of 8y rs d up w rds h
ea ind d b n mpl y d fr m
an a ,
a v e, ee ,
ee e o e o

6 a . m to 9 p m
. . . d ing
ur th e l st h lf y r in my district ( R p rts & f 3 1 t
a a ea .
”
e o , c .
,
or s

O ct b r o e , 1 8 57 ,
p .

2
Printw rks Act is dmitt d t b f il r b th with r f r nc t its d c
Th e o
’
a e o ea a u e, o e e e e o e u a

ti l
on a d p r t ctiv pr visi ns
an ( R p rts &o ef 3 l t Oct b r 1 8 6 2 p
e o o .
”
e o ,
c .
, or s o e , , .

3 Th s g E P tt r in l tt r t th Tim s f M rch 24th 1 8 6 3 Th

u ,
c . .
, . o e a e e o e e o a , . e

Tim s r min d d him f th m n f ct r rs r v lt g inst th T H s Bill

e e e o e a u a u e
’
e o a a e en o ur
’
.

4 Th s m ng th rs Mr W N w m h c ll b r t r d dit r f T k s Hist ry
u ,
a o o e , . . e ar c ,
o a o a o an e o o oo e
’
o

f Pric s Is it sci ntific dv nc t m k c w rdly c nc ssi ns t p blic pini n

” ?
o e . a e a a e o a e o a o e o o u o o
5 Th Act p ss d in 1 86 0 d t rmin d th t in r g rd t d y
e a d b l ch w rks th
e , e e e a , e a o e an ea -
o , e

w rki g d y sh ld b fix d A g st 1 t 1 86 1 pr visi n lly t 1 2 h rs d d fi

o n a ou e e on u u s , , o o a a ou , an e n

i t ly
e A g st 1 t 1 86 2 t 1 0 h rs t t 1 0 h rs f rdin ry d ys d 72 f
on u u s , , a ou , . e .
, a 5 ou or o a a ,
an or

S t rd y
a u N w wh n th f t l y r 1 8 6 2 c m th ld f rc w r p t d B
a . o , e e a a ea , , a e, e o a e as e ea e . e

sid s th m n f ct r rs p titi n d P rli m nt t ll w th mpl ym nt f y ng

e ,
e a u a u e e o e a a e o a o e e o e o ou

p rs ns
e d w m n f
o an12 h rs d ring y r l ng r
o In th xisting c nditi n
e or ou u on e ea o e . e e o o

o f th tr d ( th tim
e af th c tt n f min ) it w
e gr tly t th dv nt g f th
e e o e o o a e , as ea o e a a a e o e

O p r tiv s t w rk 1 2 h rs p d y d m k w g s wh n th y c ld A bill t
e a e o o ou er a , an a e a e e e ou .
”
o

this ff ct h d b n br ght in
e e d it wa m inly d t th cti n f t h p r tiv
ee ou , an as a ue o e a o o eo e a e

bl ch rs in Sc tl nd th t th bill w b nd n d ( R p rts & f 3 1 t Oct b r

ea e o a a e as a a o e .
”
e o . c .
,
or s o e ,
 T/i c War /ki ng D ay .

In c on s e u en c e of
q th e fi r s t r epor t of th e C om m i s s i on on th e
em l
p y
o m en t o f c h i ld r en th e s am e fa te w a s s h a r ed by
th e m a n ufa ctu r er s of a ll ea r th en w a r es ( n ot m er ely p otter y ),
lu c ifer m a tc h es , -

p er cu s s i on c a s ,
p
-
c ar tr i d g es ,
c ar ets
p fu s ti a n ,

c utti n g ,
an d m an y pr oc es s es i n c lu d ed u n d er th e n am e of

fin i hi ng In th e y ea r 1 8 6 3 b leac h i n g i n th e O pen
“ ”
ai r an d
1
s .

1 86 2 , p 1 4 Th s d f t d by th v ry w rk p pl in wh s n m it pr t d d
. u e ea e e e o -
eo e, o e a e e en e

s k C pit l disc v r d with th h lp f l wy r p t l th t th Act f 1 86 0

t o p ea , a a o e e , e e o a e s ec a c es , a e o ,

dr wn p lik ll th Acts f P rli m nt f th pr t cti n f l b r in q iv c l

a u , e a e o a a e or e
“
o e o o a ou ,
”
e u o a

p hr s s g v t h m
a e p r t xt t
, xcl d fr m its w rki g th c l nd r rs d fi
a e e a e e o e u e o o n e a e e e an n

i hs E gli h j ri pr d c v r th f ith f l s rv nt f c pit l s cti n d in t h

er s . n s u s u en e, e e e a u e a o a a ,
an o e e

C urt f C m m n Pl s this pi c f p ttif gging

o o o Th o p r tiv s h v b ea e e o e o .
“
e o e a e a e ee n

g tly d is pp int d
r ea th y h v c m pl in d f v rw rk d it is gr tly t b
a o e e a e o a e o o e o , an ea o e

r gr tt d th t th cl r i nt nti n f th l gisl t r sh ld h v f il d by r s n f
e e e a e ea e o o e e a u e ou a e a e ea o o a

f lty d finiti n
au (1 p e o .
”
. c .
, .

Th p n i bl c h rs h d v d d th l w f 1 8 6 0 by m ns f th li th t
1 e o e -
a r ea e a e a e e a o ea o e e a no
,

w m n w rk d t it i th ight Th li w xp s d by th F ct ry Insp ct rs
o e o e a n e n . e e as e o e e a o e o ,

d t th s m tim P rli m nt w by p ti ti ns f m th p r tiv s b r ft f

“

an a e a e e a a e as , e o ro e o e a e , e e o

its n ti s t th c l m d w fr gr nc in which bl ch i g in th p n i w
o on as o e oo ea o -
a a e, ea n e o e -
a r as

r p rt d t t k pl c In th is ri l bl ching d rying r ms w r s d t t m p r
e o e o a e a e. ae a ea , oo e e u e a e e a

t r s f fr m 90 t 1 00 F h r nh it in wh ich th w rk w d n f th m st p rt by
u e o o
°
o
°
a e e , e o as o e or e o a

girls C li g i th t chnic l xp r ssi n f th ir cc si n l sc p fr m th dry

. oo n s e e a e e o or e o a o a e a e o e

ing r ms int th fr sh i
-
oo Fi ft n girls in st v s H t fr m 80 t 90 f
o e e a r.
“
ee o e . ea o
°
o
°
or

lin s d 1 00 d pw rds f c mbrics T w lv girls ir ni g d d i g p

en , an
°
an u a or a . e e o n an o n -
u
in sm ll r m b t 1 0 f t sq r i th c ntr f which is cl s st v Th
a a oo a ou ee u a e, n e e e o a o e o e . e

girls st d r nd th st v wh ich thr ws t t rrific h t d d ri s th c mbrics

an ou e o e, o ou a e ea , an e e a

r pidly f th ir n rs Th h urs f w rk f th s b d
a or e o nlimit d If b sy
e . e o o o or e e an s ar e u e . u ,

th y w rk till 9 1 2 t night f
e o cc siv nights ( R p rts & f 3 l t Oct b r
or a or s u es e .
”
e o ,
c .
,
or s o e ,

1 86 2 p ,
A m dic l m st t s N sp ci l h rs
. ll w d f c li g b t
e a an a e : O e a ou ar e a o e or oo n , u

i f th t m p r t r g ts t high th w rk rs h nds g t s il d fr m p rsp ir ti n ’

e e e a u e e oo ,
or e o e a e o e o e a o ,

th y e ll w d t g t f f w min t s
ar e a o e My xp ri nc which is
o o ou or a e u e . e e e e,

c sid r bl in tr ti g th dis s s f st v w rk rs c m p ls m t xpr ss th

on e a e, ea n e ea e o o e o e ,
o e e o e e e

o pini n th t th ir o it ry c nditi n is by m ns high th t f th p r tiv s

a e s an a o o no ea so as a o e o e a e

in spin i g f ct ry ( d C pit l in its m m ri ls t P rli m nt h d p int d th m

a n n a o an a a , e o a o a a e , a a e e

as fl i dly h lthy ft r th m nn r f R b ns ) Th dis s s m st bs rv bl

or ea , a e e a e o u e . e ea e o o e a e

a m gst th m ph thisis br chitis irr g l rity f t rin f cti s hyst ri in

on e ar e , on , e u a o u e e un on ,
e a

its m st ggr v t d f rm s d rh um tism All f th s I b li v

o a a a e ith r o , an e a . o e e, e e e, ar e e e

d ir ctly e indir ctly ind c d by th im pur

or rh t d i f th p rtm nts in
e u e e e, o v e ea e a r o e a a e

which th h nds mpl y d d th w t f s ffi ci nt c m f rt bl cl thi g t

e a ar e e o e , an e an o u e o o a e o n o

p r t ct
o e th m fr m th c ld d m p tm
e s p h r in i ot r wh n g i g t th ir e o , a a o e e, w n e ,
e o n o e

h mso ep 56 . Th F ct ry Ins p ct rs m l d . th s ppl m nt ry l w e a o e o re ar e on e u e e a a

o f 1 8 6 0 t rn fr m th s , p n i bl ch rs
o Th A ct b o t ly f il d t ff rd
e e o e -
a r ea e e is no . on a e o a o

t h t p r t cti n t t h w rk rs which it pp rs t O ff r b t c nt ins

a o e o o cl se p o e a ea o e ,
u o a a au e a

p a r ently w rd d th t nl ss p rs ns d t ct d w rking ft r 8 cl ck t ight

so o e a , u e e o ar e e e e o a e o
’
o a n

th y pp r t c m nd r pr t ctiv pr visi ns t ll d i f th y d
e a ea o o e u w rk t h e no o e e o o a a , an e o so o ,
e

m d f pr f is d bt f l th t
o e o i ti
oo sc rc ly f ll w so (1 p ou u a a c on v c on can a e o o . . c .
, .

T ll int nts
o a d p r p s s th r f r e Act f y b n v l nt
an d c ti n l
u o e ,
e e o e, a s a n or a n e e o e or e u a o a

p rp s
u it is f il r sinc it
o e, sc rc ly b c ll d b n v l nt t p rmit which i
a a u e e c an a e e a e e e o e o e ,
s

t nt m t t c mp lling w m n d childr n t w rk 1 4 h rs d y with with t

a a ou n o o e ,
o e an e o o ou a a or ou

m ls th c s m y b
ea ,
as d p rh ps f l ng r h
e rs th n th s with t limit
a e a e, a n e a or o e ou a e e, ou as

t o a g with t r f r c t x d with t r g rd t th s ci l h bits f th

e, ou e e en e o se , an ou e a o e o a a o e

f mili s f th
a ighb rh d in which s ch w rks (bl ching d dy i g )
e o e ne sit u
ou oo , u o ea an e n ar e

a et d ( R p rts & f 30th April 1 86 3 p

.
”
e o ,
c .
,
or , , .
 2 84 Cap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

b ak i ng w er e pla c ed u n d er s p ec i a l A c ts , b y w h i ch , i n th e
for m er , th e la our of y o un
p b
er s o n s a n d w om en d ur i n th e g g
g
n i h t ti m e fr om 8 i n t h e e en i n
( -
t o g6 i n th e m or n i n
),
a g
n d i n v
th e la tter th e em ploy m en t of j ou rn e m en b a k er s u n d er 1 8
, y ,

b et w een 9 i n th e ev en i n g a n d 5 i n th e m or n i n g w er e for bi d d en .

W e s h all r etu r n to th e la ter pr opos als of th e s a m e C om m i s s i on ,

w hi ch th r ea t en ed to d epr i v e Of th ei r fr eed om a ll th e i m por

tan t b r a n c h es of E n gli s h I n d u s tr w i th t h x ti on of a g r i
y e e cep ,

c u ltu r e, m i n es , an d th e m ea n s of tr a n s p or t ?

S E CTI ON 7 . T H E ST RUGG LE F OR T HE N ORMAL W ORKING D AY R E AC TI ON

- -
.
-

OF THE E NG LI SH FA C T ORY A C TS ON OTHE R C OUN T R IE S .

Th e r ea d er w i ll b ear i n m i n d th a t th e pr od u c ti on of s ur plu s

v alue ,
or th e e x tr a c ti on of s ur
p lus la b ou r , i s t h e
-
s
pe ci fi c en d
an d aim , th e s um a nd su b s ta n ce ,
of ca
p i ta li s t
p r od u c ti on ,

q ui te a par t fr om an
y ch a n g es i n t h e m od e of pr od uc ti on , w h i c h

m ay ar i s e fr o m th e su bo r d i n a t i on of la b ou r to ca pi tal . He w i ll
r em em b er th a t as fa r as w e ha ve at p r es en t
g on e, on ly th e i n d e

p en d en t la b ou r er ,
an d th er efor e on ly th e la b ou r er leg ally q uali
fi ed to a ct for h i m s elf, en ter s a s a v en d o r o f a c o m m odi ty i n to a

c on tr a c t w i th th e ca
p i ta li s t If,
t h er e.for e,
i i i o u r h i s to r i ca l
sk etc h ,
on th e on e b a n d m o d er n i n d u s tr y ; on th e oth er , th e
,

lab ou r of th os e w h o ar e h
p y s i c a ll
y an d lega lly m i n or s play ,

i m p or ta n t p a r ts t h e for m er w a s t o u s ,
on ly a s p ec i a l d e pa r t

m en t, a n d th e la tter on ly a s pec i a lly s tr i k i n g x a m ple of la bour e

ex loi ta ti on
p W i th o u t h o w e v e r a n ti c i a ti n g th e s u b s eq u en t
.
p , ,

d ev elopm en t of ou r i n q ui r y fr om th e m er e c on n ex i on of th e ,

h i s tor i c fa c ts b efor e u s i t follo w s ,

F i t Th e p as s i on of ca p i tal for a n u n li m i ted a n d r eck les s

rs .

ex ten s i on of t h e w or k i n g d a y i s fi r s t g a ti fi ed i n th e i n d u s t r i es ,
r

ea r li es t r ev olu ti on i s ed b w t w r s tea m a n d m a c h i n er
y a er
p o e
y
-
, , ,
’

i n t h os e fi r s t c r ea ti on s of th e m od er n m od e of p r od u c ti on ,

c otton w o ol fl a x a n d s i lk s i n n i n g a n d w ea vi n g T h e c h a n g es
, p , , ,
.

i n th e m a ter i al m od e of p r od u c ti on a n d th e c or r es pon d i n g ,

c h an g es i n th e s oc i a l r ela ti on s of th e r o d u c er s g ave r i s e fir s t
2
p
1N t t th 2 d Ed Sinc 1 866 wh n I wr t th b v p ss g s r cti n
o e o e n . e , e o e e a o e a a e , a ea o

h as a g in
ain s et .

Th c nd ct f ch f th s cl ss s ( c pit li ts d w rkm n) h b n th
2 “
e o u o ea o e e a e a a s an o e as ee e

r s lt f th r l tiv sit ti n in which th y h v b n pl c d ( R p rts & f

e u o e e a e ua o e a e ee a e .
”
e o ,
c. , or

3 1 st Oct b r 1 848 po e , , .
2 86 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

w or k er s w er e th e ch a m
pi on s , n o t on ly of th e E n gli s h ,
b ut of

t h e m od er n w or ki n g -
c lass g en e al ly a s t h ei r th eor i s ts w er e
r ,

the fi r s t t o t h r ow d ow n th e g a u n tlet to th e t h eor y of ca pi ta l

?

H en c e , th e phi los op her Of th e F a c to r y , Ur e, d en oun c es a s a n

i n effa b le d i s gr a c e to th e E n gli s h w or ki n g c la s s th a t t h ey i n ~

s cr i b ed th e s la v er y of th e Fa c to y Ac ts on th e b a n n e w h i c h
“
r r

th ey b or e a ga i n s t cap i ta l m a n f ully s tr i vi n g for p e fec t f ee ,

“
r r

d om of la b ou r
”2
.

F a n c e li m ps s lo w ly b eh i n d E n gla n d Th e F eb u ar y r ev ol
r . r a

ti on w a s n ece s a y to b i n g i n to t h e w o ld th e 1 2 h ou r s la w
’ 3
s r r r ,

w h i ch i s m uc h m or e d efi c i en t th a n i ts E n g li h o i g i n a l Fo s r . r

a ll t h a t th e F en c h r ev olu ti on a r y m eth od h a s i ts s pec i a l

,
r

a d va n ta g es It on c e f r a ll c om m a n d s th e s a m e li m i t to th e
. o

w o k i n g d a y i n a ll s ho ps a n d fa c tor i es w i th o u t di s ti n c t i on
r -

w hi ls t E n g li s h leg i s la ti on r eluc ta n tly y i eld s to th e p es s u e of r r

c i r c u m s ta n ces n o w on th i s
p oi n t n ow on th a t a n d i g
,
t ti ng , ,
s e

los t i n a h opeles s ly b ew i ld e i n g ta n gle Of c n t a d i c to y en ac t r o r r

m en t On th e oth er b a n d t h e F en c h la w p oc la i m as a
s
?
,
r r s

u nd r 1 6 in th bl st f rn c s & f v ry 1 000 6 88 m 1 49 w m n 9 8 b ys
e e a -
u a e ,
c .
,
o e e , ar e en , o e ,
o ,

an d 85 girls nd r 1 6 A dd t this th l w w g s f th n rm
u xpl it ti n f
e . o e o a e or e e o ous e o a o o

m t r d imm t r l b r p w r Th v r g d ily p y f m is 2 8 d f
a u e an a u e a ou -
o e . e a e a e a a or a an 8 . or

a w m n l 8 d f b y 1 s 2£d As r s lt B lgi m h d in 1 86 3 c m p r d
o a ,
s. .
, or a o , . . a e u , e u a , as o a e

with 1 850 n rly d bl d b th th m nt d t h v l f its xp rts f c l

,
ea ou e o e a ou an e a ue o e o o oa ,

ir n &
o , 0.

R b rt Ow n s n ft r 1 81 0 t ly m int in d th n c ssity f li mit ti n

1 o e e , oo a e , no on a a e e e e o a a o

f t h w rking d y in th ry b t ctu lly intr d uc d t h 1 0 h rs d y int his ’

o e o a eo , u a a o e e ou a o

f ct ry t N w L n rk
a o This w l gh d t
a c mm nistic Ut pi
e a w r hia . as au e a as a o u o a so e e s

C mbin ti n f childr n s d c ti n with p r d ctiv l b u r

o a o d th C
O p r tiv e
’
e u a o o u e a o ,
”
an e o- o e a e

S ci ti s f w rking m first c ll d int b ing by him T d y th first Ut p i is

o e e o o -
en , a e o e . o -
a , e o a

a F ct ry Act th s c nd fig r s
a o ffici l p hr s in ll F ct ry A cts th t h i d
, e e o u e as an o a a e a a o , e r

is lr dy b ing us d
a ea cl k f r cti n ry h mb g
e e as a oa or ea o a u u .

U 2 Fr ch tr nsl ti n Phil s phi d M n f ct r s P ris 1 836 V l II

re
“
en a a o , o o e es a u a u e . a , ,
o . .
,

p 39 , 4 0, 6 7 , 7 7 , &c
. .

3 In C m t R d f th Int rn ti n l St tistic l C gr ss t P ris 1 855 it

th e o p e en u o e e a o a a a on e a a , ,

is st t d Th Fr nch l w which limits th l gth f d ily l b in f ct ri s d

a e e e a , e en o a a ou r a o e an

w rksh p s t 1 2 h rs d s t c nfin this w rk t d fi it fix d h rs F

o o o ou , oe no o e o o e n e e ou . or

childr n s l b r nly th w rk tim is p r scrib d b tw n 5 m d 9 p m

e
’
a ou o e o -
e e e as e ee e . . an . .

Th r f r s m f th m st rs u th right which this f t l sil nc giv s th m t

e e o e, o e o e a e se e a a e e e e o

k p th ir w rks g ing with ut int rmissi n d y in d y t p ssibly with th

ee e o o , o e o , a , a ou , o e

exc p ti n f S nd y F this p rp s th y
e o o tw diff r nt s ts f w rk rs f
u a . or u o e e use o e e e o o e ,
o

wh m n ith r is in th w rksh p m r th n 1 2 h rs t tim b t th w rk f th

o e e e o o o e a ou a a e, u e o o e

est blishm nt l sts d y d ight Th l w is s ti fi d b t is h m nity

a e a B id s a an n . e a a s e , u u a ? es e

t h d str ctiv infl nc f night l b r th h m n rg nism str ss is l ”

e e u e ue e o a ou on e u a o a , e a so

l id p n th f t l infl nc f t h s ci ti n f th t w s x s by night in th
a u o
“
e a a ue e o e a so a o o e o e e e

s m b dly light d w rksh ps

a e a -
e o o .
”

F4 inst nc th r is within my district

or cc pi r wh withi th s m c rti
a e, e e on e o u e o, n e a e u

l g is t th s m tim bl ch r d dy r nd r th Bl chi g d Dy ing W rks

a e, a e a e e a ea e an e u e e ea n an e o

Act print r und r th P int W rks A ct d finish r nd r th F ct ry A ct

, a e e e r o , an a e u e e a o .
”
 T/ze Wor toi ng D ay ,
2 87

p r i n ci
ple t h a t w h i ch i n E n g la n d w a s o n ly w o n i n th e n a m e

of c h ild r en , m i n o s, a
r n d w o m e n ,
a n d h a s b een on ly r ec en tly
for th e fi r s t ti m e clai m ed a s a gen er a l r i g h t
l
.

In th e U n i ted S tates of N or th A m e i ca ev er y i n d ep en d en t r ,

m ov em en t of t h e w o k er s w as pa r aly s ed s o lon g a s s la v e y d i s r r

fig ur ed a par t Of th e R epu bli c L ab ou ca n n ot em a n ci pa te . r

i ts elf i n th e w hi te s k i n w h e e i n th e b la c k i t i s b r a n d ed r .

Bu t ou t of th e d ea th of s la v e y a n e w li fe a t on c e a r os e Th e r .

fi r s t fr ui t of t h e C i v i l Wa r w a s th e ei gh t h ou s a g i ta ti on th a t r
’

r a n w i th th e s ev en lea g u ed b oots o f th e loc om oti v e fr om th e -

Atlan t i c to th e P a c i fi c fr om Ne w E n gla n d t o C ali for n i a Th e ,

.

G en e a l C on g es s of L ab our a t Ba lti m or e ( A ug us t l 6 th 1 8 6 6 )
r r ,

d ecla r ed : Th e fi r s t a n d g ea t n ec es s i ty Of th e p es en t t o fr ee r r ,

th e la b ou r of t h i s coun t y f om ca pi tali s ti c s la v er y i s th e p a s s r r ,

i n g Of a la w b y w hi ch ei g h t h ou s s h a ll b e th e n or m a l w or k r

i n g d ay i n a ll S ta tes of th e A m er i can U n i on
-
W e ar e r es olved .

to pu t for th a ll our s tr en g th u n til th i s glor i o us r es ult i s

At th e s a m e ti m e th e C on gr es s of th e I n ter n a ti on al
” 2
a tta i n ed .
,

VVOr k i n g M en s A s s oc i a ti on a t G en ev a on t h e p opos i ti on of
’

,
r

t h e L on d on G en er a l C ou n ci l r es olv ed th a t th e li m i ta ti on of ,

th e w o ki n g d a y i s a p eli m i n a y c on d i ti on w i th ou t w h i ch
r -
r r

a ll fur th er a t tem p ts a t i m p ov em en t a n d em a n c i pa ti on m us t r

p r o v e a b or ti v e t h e C o n g r es s
p p
r o os es e i g
. h t h ou r s as

th e leg a l li m i t of th e w or k i n g d ay
”
-
.

T h us th e m ov em en t of t h e w or k i n g cla s s on b oth s i d es of -

th e Atla n ti c th a t h a d g r ow n i n s ti n c ti v ely o ut o f th e c on d i ti on s
,

( R ep ort Mr B k r in R p rts & f Oct b r 3l t 1 861 p

of . a Aft r m
e , e o ,
c. , or o e s , , . e en u e

r ti g th di ff r nt pr visi ns f th s Acts d th c m plic ti ns rising fr m th m

a n e e e o o o e e , an e o a o a o e ,

Mr B k r s ys It will h nc p r th t it m st b v ry diffic lt t s c th
. a e a :
“
e e a p
ea a u e e u o e ur e e

e x c ti n f th s thr Acts f P rli m nt wh r th cc pi r ch s s t v d th

e u o o e e ee o a a e e e e o u e oo e o e a e e

But wh t is ss r d t th l wy rs by this is l ws its

”
l w
a . a a u e o e a e a u .

Thu s th F ct ry Insp ct rs t l st v nt r t y
1
e aTh s bj cti ns ( f
o e o a a e u e o sa : e e o e o o

c p it l t th l g l limit ti n f th w rki g d y ) must s cc mb b f r th br d

a a o e e a a o o e o n -
a u u e o e e oa

princi pl f th rights f l b r Th r is tim wh n th m st r s right in ’

e o e o a ou . e e a e e e a e

his w rkm n s l b r c s s d his tim b c m s his w v n i f th r w r

o a
’
a ou ea e , an e e o e o n, e e e e e e no

e xh sti n in th q sti n ( R p rts & f Sl t Oct 1 8 62 p

au o e ue o .
”
e o , c .
,
or s .
, , .

2 “ th w rk rs f D nkirk d cl r th t t h l gth f tim f l b r r q ir d

r
e, e o e o u , e a e a e en o e o a ou e u e

u nd r th p r s nt syst m is t
e gr t d th t f fr m l ving th w rk r tim f
e e e e oo ea ,
an a , ar o ea e o e e or

r st d d c ti n it pl ng s h i m int c nditi n f s rvit d b t littl b tt r th n

e an e u a o , u e o a o o o e u e u e e e a

sl v ry Th t is why w d cid th t 8 h urs

a e . a n gh f w rki g d y d e e e a o ar e e ou or a o n -
a ,
an

ou ght t b l g lly r c gnis d o n gh ; why w c ll t

e e a h l p th t p w rf l
e o e as e ou e a o ou r e a o e u

l v r th pr ss
e e , d why w sh ll c nsid r ll th s th t r f s
e e th i h lp an e a o e a o e a e u e us s e

as e n mi s f th r f rm f l b r d f th rights f th l b r r (R s luti n f
e e o e e o o a ou an o e o e a ou e .
”
e o o o

t h W rking M
e f D unki k N w Y rk St t
o en o r , e o a e,
2 88 Cap i ta li s t P r od uct i on .

of
p v
r od uc ti on es en d or s ed th em s el ,
th e w or d s of th e E ngli s h
F a c tor y I n s pec to R J S a un d ers : r, . . F ur th erp s te s t ow a r d s a.

r efo m a ti on of s oci et
r
y ca n n ev er b e ca r r i ed ou t w i t h a ny h ope
Of s u c c es s , u n les s t he h our s of la b our b e li m i ted ,
an d th e pr e
s cr i b ed li m i t s tr i c tly en for c ed .
” 1

It m u s t b e ac k n ow led g ed th a t o ur la b ou r er com es ou t of th e

p r oc es s of
p r o d u c ti on oth er th an b e en te r ed . In t h e m ar k et
he s tood as ow n er of th e com m od i ty lab our po w er fa c e -

to fa c e w i th o th er ow n er s of c om m o d i ti es , d ea ler a g a i n s t
d ealer . Th e c on tr a c t b y w hi ch h e s old to th e p i tali s t h i s ca

la b our p ow er pr ov ed s o to s a y , i n b la c k
-
,
a n d w hi te t h a t b e d i s

p os ed of hi m s elf fr eel
y T h e b a r gai n . c on c lud ed , it i s d is
co v er ed th a t h e w a s no fr ee a g en t ,
”
th a t th e ti m e for w h i c h
h e i s fr ee to s ell h i s la b our -

p o w er i s th e ti m e for w h i ch h e i s
for c ed to s ell v a m pi r e w i ll n ot los e i ts h old
it ,
2
th a t i n fa c t t he
on h i m s o lon g a s th er e i s a m us c le a n er ve a d r o p of b lood
”

, ,

to b e ex ploi ted F or pr otec ti on a gai n s t t h e s er en t of

p
3

th ei r a g on i es th e la b our er s m us t pu t th ei r h ea d s tog eth e

,
r,

a n d a s a c l s s c om el th e a s s i n g of a la w a n a ll p o w e fu l
p p a r
-
, , ,

s oci a l b a r i er th a t s h all v n t t h v w k f m s lli ng

p r e
r e e er
y o er s r o e r ,

b y v olu n ta r y c on t ac t w i th ca pi ta l th em s elv es a n d th ei r r ,

fa m i li es i n to s la v er y a n d d ea th In pla c e o f th e p om pou s ?

i n ali en ab le r i g h ts of m a n c om es th e m od es t
”
c ata log u e of th e
“

M a gn a C h a ta of a leg ally li m i ted w o k i ng d ay w h i ch s h a ll

r r -
,

m ak e c lea r w h en th e ti m e w hi ch th e w or k e s ells i s en d ed r ,

a n d w h en hi s o w n b eg i n s
” 5
Q u a n tu m m u t a t u s a b i llo .

1 R ep o rts
Oct 1 848 p 1 1 2, &c .
, for .
, , . .

2 Th p r c di ngs ( th m n
e vr s f c pit l g fr m 1 848 50) h v ff rd d
o ee e a oeu e o a a , e . .
,
o -
a e a o e ,

m r v r inc ntr v rtibl pr f f th f ll cy f th ss rti n ft n dv nc d th t

o eo e , o o e e oo o e a a o e a e o so o e a a e ,
a

O p r tiv s n d pr t cti n b t m y b c nsid r d fr g nts in th disp s l f

e a e ee no o e o ,
u a e o e e as ee a e e o a o

th nly pr p rty which th y p ss ss— th l b r f th ir h d d th sw t f th ir

e o o e e o e e a ou o e an s an e ea o e

br ws ( R p rts & f A pril 30th 1 850 p

o .
”
e o Fr l b r (i f it m y b
,
c .
,
or , , .
“
ee a ou so a e

t rm d ) v n in fr c ntry r q ir s th str ng m f th l w t pr t ct it
e e e e a ee ou ,
e u e e o ar o e a o o e .
”

( R p rts & Oct b r 3l t 1 86 4 p T p rmit which is t nt m nt t “

e o f ,
c .
,
or o e s , , . o e , a a ou o

c m p lling
o e t w rk 1 4 h u s d y with with t m ls & (R p t &
o o o r a a or ou ea ,
0 . e s c. ,

for April 30th 1 863 p Fri drich Eng ls 1 p 5

, , .
3 e e , . c .
, . .

Th 1 0 H rs A t h in th br nch s f ind stry th t c m nd r it p t

4 ’
e ou c as , e a e o u a o e u e ,
u an

d t th p r m t r d cr p it d f th f rm r l ng h r w rk rs ( R p rt &
”
en o e e a u e e e u e o e o e o -
ou o e . e o s ,
c .
,

for 3 l t Oct 1 8 5 9 p
s C p it l ( in f ct ri s ) n v r b m pl y d in k p
, . a a a o e ca n e e e e o e ee

i g th m chin ry in m ti n b y nd
n e a limit d tim with t c rt in i j ry t th
e o o e o a e e, ou e a n u o e

h lth d m r ls f th l b r rs mpl y d ; d th y
ea an o a t in o p siti n t e a ou e e o e an e ar e n o a o o o

p r t ct th ms lv s
”
o e (1 p e e e . . c. , .

A still gr t r b n is t h distincti n t l st m d cl r b t w n t h w rk r s
’
5 a e ea e ee e o e
ea e oo e o a a

o w tim d his m st r s Th w rk r k n ws w wh n th t which h s lls i

n e an a e
’
. e o e o no e a e e s
2 90 Ccap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

In the s am e w ay , i f a va
ble ca pi ta l of 3 s b ei ng th e d a ily
r a i .
,

v a lu e of on e lab ou r o w e ; p od uc e a d a i ly s u l v lu f 3
p r
p u s a e ro s r
- -
,
.

a v ar i b le c a i tal of 3 o0s w i ll pr od u c e a d a i l u lu v a lu e of
a
p y s
p s r -
.

3 00s a n d on e of n ti m es 3 s a d a ily s ur plus v a lu e of n x 3 8

.
,
.
-

Th e m a s s of th e s u plu s v a lu e p od uc ed i s th er efo e eq u al to
r -
r r

th e s ur plus v a lu e w hi c h th e w o k i n g d ay of on e la b our er
-
r -

su li es m ult i pli ed b t h e n u m b er of l b u m l d
pp y a o r e r s e p y o e .

But a s fu r th er th e m a s s Of u plu s va lue w hi ch a s i n g le lab ou r e

s r -
r

r od u ces th e v a lue o f la b ou r po w er b ei n g g i v en i s d eter m i n ed

p
-
, ,

b v th e r a te of th e s ur plus v a lue th i s la w follo w s th e m as s of

-
, :

th e s u plus v a lu e p r od u c ed i s equ a l t o th e a m ou n t of th e
r -

v a i a b le ca pi tal a d va n ced m u lti pli ed b y th e r a te Of s u plus

r ,
r

v alue i n oth er w o d s : i t i s d e te m in ed b y th e c om pou n d a ti o

r r r

b etw een th e n u m b er of lab our po w e s x ploi ted s i m ultan eous ly -

r e

b y th e s a m e c a pi ta li s t a n d th e d eg r ee Of ex ploi ta ti on of each .

i n d i vi d ua l lab ou po w er r- .

Let the m a s s Of th e s u r plus v a lue b e S th e s u r plu s v alue -

,
-

s u p pli ed b y th e i n d i v id u a l la b ur er i n th e a v er a g e d a y s th e o ,

v a i a b le c a i ta l d a i l ad v a n c d i n th e u r c h as e Of on e i n d i v id u a l
r
p y p e

la b our po w er v th e s u m tota l of th e v ar i ab le c a pi ta l V th e
-
, ,

v a lu e of a n a ver ag e la b our pow er P i ts d eg ee of ex ploi ta ti on -

,
r

a n d th e n u m b er of la b our er s em ploy ed n ; w e
’

g
ha v e

It i s a lw a
y s s u
pp os ed ,
n ot on ly th a t th e va lu e of an a v er age
lab ou r p ow er i s c on s ta n t b ut th a t t h e la b ou r er s em ploy ed b y
-
,

a c a pi ta li s t a r e r e d uc ed t o a v e r a g e la b our er s T h er e a r e ex .

cep ti on a l ca s es i n w h i c h th e s ur lu s v a lu e pr od uced d oes n ot

p
-

i n c r eas e i n pr opor ti on to th e n u m b er of la b ou r er s ex loi ted ,

p
b u t th en th e v a lu e of th e la b ou r pow er d o es -
n ot r em a i n c on

s t an t .

In th e pr od ucti on of a d efi n i te m a s s of s ur plu s -
value , th er e
for e, t he d ecr eas e Of on efa c tor m a y b e com p en s a ted b y th e i n
c r ea s e o f t he oth er . If th e v a r i a b le c a pi ta l d i m i n i s h es a n d a t ,

th e s am e ti m e t h e r a te of s u r
plus -
value i n cr eas es i n th e s am e
 R a te a nd Ma ss o f Su r p lu s Va lu e -
. 29 1

r a ti o, th e m as s of l s v alu e pr od u ced r em a i n s u n a lter ed

s ur
u
p
-
.

If on ou r ea r li er as s u m ti on th e c a pi ta li s t m u s t a d v a n ce
p
in or d er to b ou r e s a d ay a n d i f th e r ate of
e x ploi t 1 00 la r ,

s ur plu s v a lu e a m oun ts to 5 0
-

Z t hi s v a r i a b le c a i ta l of 3 008
p ,
.

y i eld s a s u r
plu s v a lu e o f 1 5 0 s o o f 1 -
00 x 3 w o k i n g h ou rs If . r r .

th e r a te of s ur plu s v a lue d ou b les or th e w or k i n g d ay i n s tea d

-
,
-

o f b ei n g ex t en d ed f om 6 t o 9 i s ex ten d ed fr om 6 to 1 2 h ou r s
r ,

a n d a t th e s a m e t i m e v a i a b le c a i tal i s les s en ed b h lf n d
p y a a r ,

r ed u c ed t o 1 5 0s i t y i eld s a ls o a s u plu s va lue of 1 5 03 o 5 0 x

.
,
r -
. r

6 w o k i n g h ou r s
r D i m i n u ti on of th e v a i ab le c api tal m ay th er e
. r

for e b e c om pen s ated b y a pr op o ti ona te r i s e i n t h e d eg r ee of r

ex loi ta ti on o f la b ou r w or th e d ec r eas e i n th e n u m b er of
p p o e r,
-

th e lab o ur e s e m ploy ed b y a pr op or ti on a te ex ten s i on of th e

r

w or k i n g d ay W i th i n c e tai n li m i ts t her efor e the s upply f

-
. r o

lab ou r exploi ta b le b y ca pi ta l i s i n d ep en d en t of th e s u pply of .

la b ou r e s On th e c on tr ar y a fall i n th e r a te of s u r plus v alue

r .
1
,
-

lea v es u n alte ed th e m a s s of th e s ur plus v a lu e pr od u c ed i f th e

r -
,

a m oun t of t h e v a r i a b le c a i tal or n u m b er of t h e la b o ur er s em
p ,

l
p y
o ed ,
i n c r ea s es i n th e s a m e p p
r o or ti on .

N ev er th eles s , th e c om p en s a ti on of a d ecr eas e i n th e n um b er

of la b our er s e m ploy ed , or of th e a m ou n t of v a r i able pi
catal

ad va n c ed b y a r i s e i n th e r a te of s u r plus value or
,
-
,
b y th e
len g then i ng of th e w or k i n g d ay h a s i m pa s s a b le li m i ts W h at -

, .

e v er t h e v alue of lab our ow er m a b w h t h t h w k i g

p y e e e r e o r n -
,

ti m e n ec es s a r y for t h e m a i n ten a n ce of th e la b our er i s 2 or 1 0

h our s t h e to tal v alu e th a t a la b our er ca n pr od u c e d ay i n d ay
, , ,

ou t i s a lw a y s les s t h a n th e v a lue i n w hi c h 2 4 h our s of la b ou

,
r

a r e e m b od i ed les s t h a n 1 2 s i f 1 23 i s th e m on ey ex pr es s i on fo
, , . r

24 h our s of r ea li z ed la b ou r In ou r fo m er a s s um p ti on ac cor d . r ,

i n g to w hi ch 6 w or k i n g h ou r s a r e d ai ly n eces s a r y i n or d er to
r e r od u ce th e la b our w r i ts elf or t o r e la ce th e v a lu e of th e
p po e p
-

c a pi ta l a d va n c ed i n i ts ur c h a s e a v a r i a b le c a p i ta l of l 5 o0s t h t
p a ,
.
,

e m loy s 5 00 la b ou r er s a t a
p a te o f s u r
p lu s v a lu e of 1 00
X w i th r -

a 1 2 h our s w or k i n g d a y r od u c es d a i l a s u r lu s v a lue of 1 5 00s

’

p y p
- -
.
,

or o f 6 x 500 w or k i n g h ou s A c a pi tal of 3 00s th a t em ploy s r . .

This l m nt ry l w pp rs t b unkn wn t th vulg r c n mists wh upsid

1 e e e a a a ea o e o o e a e o o , o, e

d wn A rchim d s in th d t rmin ti n f th m rk t pric

o e e , f l b r by s pply d
e e e a o o e a e -
e o a ou u an

d m nd im gin t h y h v f nd th fulcru m by m ns f which t t m v th

e a ,
a e e a e ou e ea o , no o o e e

w rld b ut t st p its m ti n
o , o o o o .
 Csp i ts /{s f P r od uci z mz
'

2 9 2 .

1 00 la b our er s a d ay w i th a r a te of s u plus v alue of 200 / or r -

°

w i th a w o k i n g d a y of 1 8 h ou r s pr od u c es on ly a m as s of
r -
,

s u r lu s v a lue of 6 00s o 1 2 1 00 w k i g h d i t t t l
p x or n o u rrs ; a n s o a
-
.

value pr od u c t th e equi v alen t of th e v ar i a ble c api tal a d van c ed

-
,

p lu s th e s u p lu s v a lu e r
c a n d a
y i n-
d a
y ou t n e v,
e r r ea c h ,
t h e s u m , ,

o f 1 2 00s or 2 4 x 1 00 w or k i n g h ou r s
. Th e a b s olu te li m i t of .

th e a v er a ge w or k i n g d a y — th i s b ei n g b y N a tu r e alw ay s les s th a n
-

2 4 h ou r s — s ets a n a b s olute li m i t to th e c om p en s a ti on of a r e
3

d uc ti on of va i ab le c ap i tal b y a hi g h er r a te of s u r plu s v alue or

r -

of th e d ecr eas e of th e n u m b er of la b ou r e s ex loi t ed b a h i h

p y g e r r n

d eg r ee of ex ploi ta ti on of la b ou r pow er T h i s p alpa b le la w i s -

.

of i m o tan c e fo th e clea r i n g u f m n h n m n i i n
p r
p ro a y p e o e a a r s g ,

f om a ten d en c y ( to b e w or k ed o ut la t er on ) of ca pi tal to r e
r

d u c e a s m u ch a s pos s i ble th e n u m b er of la b our e s em ploy ed b y r

i t or i ts v a r i ab le c on s ti tu en t tr a n s for m ed i n to la b our pow er i n

,
-
,

c on tr a d i c ti on to i ts oth er ten d en cy to p r od u ce th e g ea tes t r

o s s i b le m a s s of s u r lu s v alu e O th th h n d i f t h m
p p n e o er a e a s s
-
.
,

of la b ou r p o w er em lo e d or th e a m ou n t of v ar i a ble c a i ta l
p y p
-
, ,

i n cr eas es , b u t n ot i n pr opor ti on to th e fa ll i n th e r a te of sur

plu s

v alue ,
t h e m as s of th e s ur lus v a lu e p r od u c ed fa lls
p
-
,
.

A th i r d la w r es ults fr om th e d eter m i n a ti on ,
of th e m as s of

th e s u r plu s -
value p
d u ced b y th e tw o fa c tor s r a te of s ur plu s
ro ,

v alue an d a m ou n t of v ar i ab le c a pi tal a d van ced Th e r ate o f .

s ur lu s v alu e, or th e d egr ee of e x loi ta ti on of la b ou r ow er

p p p
- -
,

an d va lue of lab our pow er or th e am oun t of n ec es s a y

th e -
,
r

w or k i n g ti m e b ei n g g i v en i t i s s elf ev i d en t th a t th e g r ea ter t h e
,
-

v a i ab le ca pi tal th e g eater w ould b e th e m as s of the v a lue

r ,
r

p r od u c ed a n d of th e s u
p lu s v a lu e If th e li m i t of th
r e w or k i n g-
.

d ay i s g i v en a n d als o th e li m i t of i ts n ec es a r y c on s ti tu en t th e
,
s ,

m a s s of v alu e a n d s u plu s v alu e th a t a n i n d i v i d u a l c api tali s t

r -

r od u c es i s c lear ly ex c lu s i v el d e en d en t on th e m as s of lab ou r
p , y p
tha t h e s ets But th i s u n d er th e c on d i ti on s s u ppos ed
i n m oti on .
,

a b ov e d e en d s on th e m a s s of la b ou r w er or th e n um b er o f
p p o -

, ,

lab our er s w h om h e ex ploi ts a n d th i s n um b er i n i ts tu r n i s ,

d eter m i n ed b y th e a m ou n t of th e v ar i a ble c api tal a d v a n ced .

W i th a gi v en r a te of s ur plus v alu e a n d a gi v en v a lu e of lab our -

,

ow er t h er efor e, th e m as s es of s u r plus v alu e pr od u c ed v a r y

p
-
,

d i r ec tly as th e a m ou n ts of th e var i able ca

p i ta ls ad van ced .
 '

2 94 Cap eto /z s t P r od ucti on

to i t, b eca us e i t i s a n eces s a r y c on s e qu en ce of th e g en er al la w
of v a lu e . It tr i es to r es c ue th e la w f r om c olli s i on w i th
c on t r a d i c tor y h en om en a b y a v i ole n t a b s tr a c ti on It w i ll b e
p .

s ee n la ter 1
h ow th e s c h ool of R i car d o h a s com e to g r i ef ov er
thi s s t um bli ng block -
. V u lg ar e c on om y w h i c h , i n d e ed ,
“
h as
r ea lly lea r n t n oth i n g, h er e
”
as e ve r
y w h er e s ti c ks to a
ppea r a n c es

in O ppos i ti on t o th e la w w h i ch re g ula tes an d e x plai n s th em .

In O ppos i ti o n to S p i n oz a ,
it b eli ev es th a t i g n or a n c e i s a s u ffi
”
c i en t r ea s on .

Th e lab our w h i ch i s i n m oti on b y th e total c ap i tal of a

s et

s oc i et
y, d a
y i n ,
d ay ou t m ay b e r ega r d ed a s a s i ng le c ollec ti v e
,

w or k i n g d ay -
. If e g th e n u m b er of la b ou r er s i s a m i lli on a n d
,
. .
, ,

th e v e age w or ki n g d ay of a la b ou r e i s 1 0 h ou s th e s oci a l
a r -
r r ,

w or k i n g d ay con s i s ts of ten m i lli on h our s

-
W i th a gi ven len gth .

o f t h i s w o r k i n g —d ay w h e th e i ts li m i ts a r e fix ed ph y s i ca lly
,
r

or s oc i a ll t h e m a s s of s u r lu s v a lu e c a n on l b e i n c r eas ed b
y p y y
-
,

i n c r ea s i n g th e n um b er of la b ou e s i e of th e la b ou r i ng r r ,
. .
,

p po ul a ti on T h e g r o w th of
.
p p
o u la t i on h e e for m s th e m a th e r

m a ti cal li m i t to th e p od u c ti on of s ur plus v a lue b y th e tota l r -

s oc i a l c a i ta l
p O n th e c on t a y. w i t h a g i v en a m ou n t of r r ,

o ula ti on thi s li m i t i s for m ed b t h os s i b le len g th en i n g of

p p , y e
p
th e w o k i n g d ay r It w i ll h ow ev er b e s een i n th e follo w i n g
-
?
, ,

c h a ter t h a t th i s la w on l h old s for th e for m of s u r lus v a lue

p y p
-

d ea lt w i th p to t h e
p r es en t u .

F r om th e tr ea tm en t of t h e pr o d u cti on of s u r plus a lu e, -
v so

far , i t follow s th a t n ot e er y s u m of m on ey , or of a lu e i s v v ,
at

p leas u r e t r a n s for m a b le i n to c a pi ta l . To effect t hi s tr a n s for m a

t i on , i n fa c t, a c er ta i n m i n i m um of m on ey or of e x c h a n ge va lue -

m u s t b e pr es u ppos ed i n t h e h a n d s of th e i n d i i d ual p os s es s or v
of m on e
y or c om m od i ti es T h e m in i m u m o f a r i a le c a i ta l i s
p . v b
th e c os t pr i ce of a s i n gle la our po w er , em ploy ed t h e w h ole b -

y ear g
th r ou h , d a y i n , d ay out, for th e pr od u c ti on of s u r
p lu s

v alue If th i s la our er w er e i n p os s es s i on of h i s
. b ow n m ean s

F rth r p rtic l rs will b giv n in B k IV

1 u e a u a e e oo .

Th l b r th t is th
2 e c n mic tim f s ci ty i giv n p rti n y t
a ou , a e e o o e, o o e , s a e o o , sa en

h rs d y f milli n f p pl
ou a a o t milli n h rs
a C pit l h its
o o eo e, or en o ou . a a as

b d ry f incr s This b nd ry m y t y giv n p ri d b tt in d i th

o un a o ea e. ou a a ,
a an e e o ,
e a a e n e

act l xt nt f c n mic tim m pl y d

ua e e o An Ess y th P litic l Ec n my f
e o o e e o e .
”
a on e o a o o o

N ti ns L nd n 1 821 pp 47
a o .
”
o o , , .
,
 R a te a nd M ass o f Su rp /us Va lu e
l

. 2 95

of ro d uc ti on an d w er e s a ti s fi ed to li ve as a la b ou r er , h e n eed
p ,

n ot k b ey on d th e ti m e n ec es s ar y for th e r epr od u cti on of

w or
h i s m ean s of s u b s i s t en c e s ay 8 h ou r s a d ay He w ould b es i d es ,
.
, ,

on l r ui r e th e m ea n s of pr od u c ti on s u ffi ci en t for 8 w or k i n g
y eq
h our s Th e c api tali s t on th e oth er h an d w h o m a k es h i m d o
.
, , ,

b es i d es th es e 8 h our s s ay 4 h our s s ur plus lab our r equ i r es an ,

!
’
-
,

a d d i ti on al s u m of m on e for fur n i s h i n g th e a d d i ti on a l m ea n s
y
of r o d u c ti on O n our s u pp os i ti on h ow ev er h e w ou ld h a v e t o
p .
, ,

em loy t w o la b ou r er s i n o r d er t o li v e on t h e s u r plu s v a lu e
p
-

r o r i a ted d ai ly a s w ell a s a n d n o b etter t h a n a la b ou r er

a
pp p , , ,

i e t o b e a b le to s a ti s fy h i s n ec es s ar y w a n ts
. .
,
In th i s c a s e th e .

m er e m ai n ten a n ce of li fe w ould b e th e hi s pr od u cti on , en d of

n ot th e i n c r ea s e of w ea lth ; b u t th i s la tter i s i m pli ed i n

ca p i ta li s t p r od u c ti on . T h a t h e m ay li v e on ly t wi ce a s w ell
a s a n or d i na r y la b ou r er , and b es i d es t u r n h a lf of th e s u r plu s

v alue p ro d u ced i n to c a p i ta l, h e w ould h a v e to r a i s e, w i th t h e

n um b er of lab our er s ,
th e m i n i m um of th e ca v a n c ed 8
pi tal ad

t i m es . Of c our s e he c an , li k e hi s la b ou r er ,
ta k e to w o k h i m r

se lf, p ar ti c i pate d i r ec tly i n th e pr oc es s of

p r od u c ti on , b ut h e i s
t h en only a h y b r i d b etw een ca pi tali s t a n d la b our er , a s m all

m a s ter .
”
A cer ta i n s ta ge of c api tali s t p r od u cti on n ec es s i ta tes

t h a t th e c a p i ta li s t be a b le to d ev ote t h e w h ole of th e t i m e
d ur i n g w hi ch h e fu n c ti on s as p i tali s t, i e , as p er s on i fi e d
a ca . .

i tal to th e a r o r i a ti on a n d th er efor e c on tr ol of th e la b ou r
ca
p pp p ,
ll
o f ot h er s a n d t o th e s elli n g ,
of t h e pr od uc ts of t h i s la ou r b .

Th e g ui ld s of th e m i d dle a g es th er efor e t r i ed t o p r e en t b y v
for ce the tr a n s for m a ti on of t h e m a s ter of a t r a d e i n to a

c a pi ta li s t, b y li m i ti n g th e num b er of lab ou r er s th a t c ould be

1 rm r c n t r ly his w l b r d i f h d s I will m int in th t
Th e fa e a no e on o n a ou , an e oe , a a a

h is e l s r by it His mpl ym nt sh uld b g n r l tt nti n t th wh l h i

a o e . e o e o e a e e a a e o o e o e : s

thr sh r must b w tc h d h will s n l s his w g s in c rn t thr sh d t ;

e e e a e , or e oo o e a e o no e e ou

his m w rs r p rs & m st b l k d ft r ; h m st c nst ntly g r nd his

o e , ea e , c .
, u e oo e a e e u o a o ou

f nc s h m st
e e t h r is n gl ct which w ld b th c s i f h w c nfin d
e u s ee e e no e e ou e e a e e as o e

to an y p t An Inq iry int th c nn cti n b tw n th Pric f Pr visi ns

on e S o . u o e o e o e ee e e o o o

an d th Siz f F rms & e By F rm r L nd n 1 7 7 3 p

e o a This b k is v ry
, c. a a e .
”
o o , , . oo e

int r sti g In it th g n sis f th c pit list f rm r

e e n . m rch nt f rm r
e e e o e a a a e or e a a e ,
”
as

h is x plicitly c ll d m y b st di d
e e d his s l f gl i fi ti
a t th
e xp ns f th
, a e u e , an e -
or ca on a e e e e o e

sm ll f rm r w h h nly t d with b r s bsist nc b n t d

a a e o as Th cl ss f
o o o a e u e e, e o e .
“
e a o

c pit lists
a fr m th first p rti lly
a ar e d th y b c m ultim t ly c mpl t ly dis
o e a a , an e e o e a e o e e ,

ch rg d fr m th n c ssity f th m n l l b ur
a e o e T xt b k f L ctur s th
e e o e a ua a o . e -
oo o e e on e

P litic l Ec n my f N ti ns By th R Rich rd J n s
o a o o H rt f rd 1 8 52
o a o . e ev . a o e .
”
e o , .

L ct r III p
e u e . .
 Cop i mlzs z P r od uci z ofl
' ’
‘
.

em loy ed b y on e m a s ter w i th i n a v er y s m all m a x i m um Th e

p .

f m n om m od i ti es ac tually t ur n s i n to
p os s es s or o o e
y or c a

ca
pi ta li s t i n s u c h c as es on ly w h er e th e m i n i m u m s um a d va n ced
for pr od u c ti on g r eatly e x ceed s th e m a i m u m x of th e m i d d le
a g es . H er e ,
as in n a tu r a l s c i en c e, is s how n th e cor r ec tn es s of

t he la w d i s c ov er ed b y H eg el ( i n hi s th a t m er ely
q uan ti ta ti ve di ffer en c es b ey on d a cer tai n p oi n t pa ss i n to
q uali tati v e ch an ges .
1

Th e m i n i m u m of th e s u m of value tha t th e i n d i v i d ual pos

s ess or of m on ey or c om m od i ti es m us t c om m a n d , in or d er to
m etam or ph os e h i m s elf i n to a ca
p i ta li s t ,
ch a n g es w i th th e
d i ffer en t ges of d ev elopm en t of capi tali s t pr od uc ti on a n d
s ta ,

i s a t g i v en s tag es d i ffer en t i n d i ffer en t s ph er es of p r od uc ti on ,

a c c or d in g to th ei r s p eci al a n d te ch n i c al c o n d i ti on s Cer tai n .

s ph er es of p r od u c ti on d em an d ev en a t th e v er o u ts et o f c a i
y p ,

ta li s t pr od u c ti on , a m i ni m um of ca pi tal th a t i s n ot as y e t
foun d i n th e h an d s of s i n gle i n d i vi d ua ls . T hi s g i ves r i s e par tly
to s ta te s u b s i d i es to pr i va te p er s on s ,
as in F r a n ce i n th e ti m e of
C olber t , a n d as i n m an y G er m a n s ta tes up to our ow n e poc h ;
p ar tly to th e for m a ti on of s oc i eti es w i th le gal m on opoly for t h e
e x ploi tati on b r a n ch es of i n d us tr y a n d com m er c e th e
of c er ta i n ,

for e r unn er s of our m od er n j oi n t s toc k com pa n i es

- -
.
2

Wi th i n th e p oc es s of p r od u cti on as w e h a v e seen ca pi tal

r , ,

a c q u i r ed th e c om m a n d ov er la b our i e ov er fu n c ti on i n g la b o ur ,
. .
,

o w r or th e la b ou r er h i m s elf P e s on i fi ed ca pi tal t he c a i
p r
p e .
,

tali s t ta k es c a r e th at th e la b our r d oes h i s w o k r eg ula ly a n d e r r

w i th th e p oper d eg r ee of i n ten s i ty
r .

Ca pi tal fu th er d eveloped i n to a coer ci v e r ela ti on w hi ch

r ,

1 m l c l r th ry f m d rn ch mistry first sci ntific lly w rk d ut by

Th e o e u a eo o o e e e a o e o

L r nt d G rh rdt r sts
au e an th r l w ( A dditi n t 3 d Editi n ) F th x
e a e on n o o e a . o o r o . or e e

p l n ti n f this st t m nt which is
a a o o t v ry cl r t
a e ch mists w r m rk th t
e no e ea o n on e e e a a
-

, ,

th e au th r s p ks h r f th h m l g s s ri s f c rb n c mp nds first n m d
o ea e e o e o o o ou e e o a o o ou , so a e

by C G rh rdt in 1 8 43 ch s ri s f which h its w g n r l lg br ic f rm l

. e a , ea e e o as o n e e a a e a o u a .

Th s th s ri s f p ffi O Hm ” th t f th n rm l lc h ls 0 H H O ;
u e e e o ar a ns : n
, a o e o a a o o :
“
1 Qn

o f th n rm l f tty cids O 11
e o a 0 ad m ny th rsa In th b v x mpl s by H 211 2 an a o e . e a o e e a e ,

th e sim ply q ntit tiv dditi n f C H t th m l c ul r f rm l

ua a e a q lit tiv ly o o 2 o e o e a o u a, a ua a e

d i ff r nt b d y is
e e ch tim f rm d On th sh r ( v r stim t d by M rx ) f L r nt
o ea e o e . e a e o e e a e a o au e

an d G rh rdt in th d t rmin ti n f this imp rt nt f ct

e a e K pp Entwickl ng
e e a o o o a a s ee o ,
u

d erUn m l M unch n 1 8 73 pp 7 09 7 1 6 d S h l mm
e e. e Ris d Pr gr ss
, , .
, ,
an c or e er , e an o e

o f Or g nic Ch
a mistry L nd n 1 8e 9
7 p 5 4 —Ed .
”
o o , , . . .

2M rtin Luth r c lls th s kinds f instituti s Th C mp ny M p li

a e a e e o on :
“
e o a on o o a .
2 9 8 Cap i ta li st P r od ucti on .

h o w th i s h i s ti c ati on p ec uli a r to an d c h a r a c ter i s ti c of c a pi ta li s t

p so ,

r od u c ti on , th i s c om lete i n v er s i o n of th e r ela ti on b et w een d ea d

’

p p
and li v i n g lab ou r , b et ween v a lue a n d th e f or ce th a t c r ea tes

v alu e ,
m i r r or s i ts elf i n th e c on s c i ou s n es s of c a pi tali s ts . D ur i n g
the re volt of th e E n gli s h fa c tor y lor d s b etw een 1 8 48 an d 1 8 5 0,
th e h ea d of on e of th e old es t an d m os t r es
p ec ta ble h ou s es in
the Wes t of S cotla n d ,
M es s r s C a r lile . S on s Co .
,
of th e li n en
a n d c otton th r ea d fa ctor y at P ai s ley ,
a c om pa n y w hi ch h as n ow

e xi s ted for a b out a c en t ur y , w hi c h wa s i n o

per a ti on in 1 75 2,
an d g en er a ti on s of th e s am e fa m i ly h a v e c on d ucted i t
four
th i s v er y i n telligen t gen tlem an th en w r ote a letter i n th e 1

“
G las g ow D a i ly M a i l of Apr i l 2 5 th 1 8 4 9 w i th th e ti tle ”
, , ,

Th e r elay s y s tem i n w h i ch a m on g oth er thi n g s th e follo w i n g

”
,

g r otes q uely n ai ve pas s age occ ur s : Let us n e w s ee w h a t

“

ev i ls w i ll a tten d t h e li m i ti n g t o 1 0 h ou r s th e w or k i n g of th e

fa c tor y T h ey a m ou n t to th e m os t s er i ous d a m age to

.

”
t h e m i ll ow n er If h e h is h an d s )
’ “
ec ts a n d rt
s
pr os
p p y ro
pe
-
.

w or k ed 1 2 h ou r s b efor e, a n d i s li m i ted t o 1 0 t h en ,
e ve r
y 1 2
m ac h i n es or s pi n d les i n hi s es ta b li s h m en t shr i n k t o 1 0, an d

s h ou ld th e w or k s b e d i s pos ed of, th ey w i ll b e v alued on ly as l0 ,

so th a t a si x th p ar t w ould t h u s b e d ed uc ted fr om th e va lue of

e ve y
r fa c tor
y i n th e c oun tr
y .
” 2

To th i s W es t of S cotla n d b ou geoi s b r ai n i n h er i ti ng r , th e
a c c um u la ted c a i ta li s ti c q ua li ti es of f u g ti the
p o r e n er a on s ,

v alue of th e m ean s of pr od uc tion s pi n dles &c i s o i n s epar ab ly , ,

. s

m i x ed u p w i th th ei pr oper ty a s c a pi tal to ex pa n d th ei r ow nr , ,

v a lue a n d to s w allow u p d aily a d efi n i te q uan ti ty of th e u n

,

i d l b u r of oth er s t h a t t h e h ea d of th e fi r m o f C a li le & 5 Co
p a a o , r .

a c tu all
y i m a g i n es t h a t i f h e s ells h i s fa c tor y n ot on ly w i ll th e ,

v alu e of th e s pi n d les b e pai d to h i m b ut i n a d di ti on th ei r , , ,

o w er of a n n ex i n g s ur lu s va lu e n ot on l th l b w h i h is
p p y e a ou r c
-
,

em b od i e d i n th em a n d i s n ec es s a t th d u ti n f i dl
y o e
p r o, c o o s
p n es r

1 R ep o rts
Ins p f F ct April 3 0th 1 849 p 59
of . o a .
, , , . .

12
p 60
. c F ct ry Insp ct r St rt hims lf Sc tchm
.
, . . a od in c ntr st t e o ua , e a o an , a n o a o

t h English F ct ry Ins p ct rs q it t k n c p tiv

e a oby th c pit listic m th d f
e o , u e a e a e e a a e o o

thinking r m rks xpr ssly this l tt r which h inc rp r t s in his r p rt th t it

,
e a e e on e e e o o a e e o a
is th m st u s f l f th c mm ic ti ns which y f th f ct ry wn rs w rki g
e o e u o e o un a o an o e a o -
o e o n
w i h r l ys h v
t giv n t th s g g d in th s m t db d which is th m st ’

e a a e e o o e en a e e a e ra , an e o

c lc l t d t r m v th p r j dic s f s ch f th m h v scrupl r sp ting y

a u a e o e o e e e u e o u o e as a e es e ec an
ch ng f th rr ng m nt f th h rs f w rk
a e o e a a e e o e ou o o .
 R a te a nd Ma s s of Su rp lus Va lue
-
. 2 99

of thi s kin d ,
b ut a ls o th e s u r p lu s -
la b ou r w h i ch th ey h elp t o
pum
p ou t d a ily fr om th e b r a ve S c ots
P a i s ley a n d for th a t
of ,

v er y r ea s on h e thi n ks th a t w i th th e s hor ten i n g of th e w or ki n g

d ay b y 2 h our s t he s elli n g pr i c e of 1 2 s pi n n i n g m ac hi n es
,
-

d w i n d les to th a t of 10l
 PA RT IV

PRO DU CTI O N OF RE LA TI V E S U RPLU S VA LUE -

.

C HAP T E R XII .

THE CO N CEPT or R EL AT I V E SURPL US VA L U E -

.

T H AT p of th e w or k i n g d ay
or ti on w h i ch -
m er ely p ro d uc es
a n equ i va len t for th e v a lu e p a i d b y th e i t li t f h i
ca
p a s or s

lab ou r p ow er , h as , up to th i s p oin t, b een tr ea ted b y

-
us as

a con s tan t m a gn i tu d e ; an d s u ch i n fac t i t i s u n d er ,

g i ven
c on di ti on s of
p r od u cti on an d at a gi v en s ta ge i n th e c eemo

m i c al d ev elopm en t Of s oc i ety . B ey on d thi s , hi s n eces s ar

y
lab our ti m e
-
,
th e la b ou r er , we saw, c ou ld c on ti n u e to w or k
for 2 ,
3, 4, 6 ,
&c .
,
h ou r s . Th e r a te Of s ur
plu s -
va lue an d

th e len g th of th e w or ki n g d ay d epen d ed on th e m ag n i
t ud e Of th i s p r olon g ati on . T h ough th e n ec es s a r y la b ou r
ti m e w a s con s ta n t, we s aw , on th e oth er h an d , t h a t th e
total w or ki n g v a i ab le Now s upp os e w e h a v e a
-
d ay w a s r .

w o ki n g d a y w h os e len g th
r -
an d w h os e a pp or ti on m en t b e ,

tw een n eces s a r y lab ou r an d s u r plu s lab our a r e gi v en Let -

, .

t h e w h ole li n e a c a — b — c r ep es en t for ex a m le
, p r , ,

a w or k i n g d ay Of 1 2 h ou r s ; th e p or ti on Of a b 1 0 h our s
-
3 0 2 Cup i ta ti s t P r od ucti on .

la b our pow er , th e d u r a ti on Of hi s n ec es s a r y la b our ti m e i s

- -
g i v en .

Th e d ur a t i on Of th e s ur plu s la b ou r h o w e v er , i s a r r i ved -

, a t, by
su b tr a c ti n g th e n e c es s ar y la b ou r ti m e fr om th e tota l w or k i n g
-

d ay . Ten h ou r s su bt r a c te d fr om t w elv e lea v e t w o , ,

an d it is
n ot ea s
y to s ee, h o w, u n d er gi v en c on di ti on s
th e ,
th e s ur
plus

la b our ca n
p os s i b ly be p r olon g ed b e on d
y t w o h ou r s . NO
d oub t ,
th e ca
p i ta li s t c an , i n s tea d of fiv e s h i lli n gs , p ay th e
la b our er four lli n gs a n d s i x pen ce or ev en les s
s hi F o r th e r e .

p r od u c ti on Of th i s v a lue Of fou r s h i lli n g s a n d s i x en ce n i n e

p ,

h our s la b our ti m e w ould -

s u ffi ce a n d con s e qu en tly t h r ee h ou r s
Of s u r lu s la b ou r , i n s tea d of t w o, w ou ld a c c r ue to th e i ta li s t,
p ca
p
-

an d th e s u r plus -
v a lu e w ould
gh teen rise fr o m on e s h i lli n g to ei

p en ce T hi s r es u lt h o w e v er w o u ld b e O b ta i n ed on ly b
.
y lo w er i n g , ,

t h e w ag es of th e la b our er b elo w t h e v a lu e Of h i s lab our pow er -

.

W i th th e four s hi lli ngs an d s i x pen ce w h i c h h e p r od uces i n n i n e

h our s h e ,
c om m a n d s on e -
ten th les s of th e n ec es s a r i es of li fe t h a n
b efo r e, a n d con s e quen tly th e pr oper re
pr od u c ti on Of h i s la b ou r
ow er i l d T h e s ur plu s la b our w o uld i n t h i s c as e b e
is
p pp e cr -
.

r olon g ed on l b a n ov er s tep i n g Of i ts n or m a l li m i ts ; i ts
p y y p
d om ai n w ould b e x ten d ed e on ly by a u s ur p ati on of p a r t of th e
d om ai n of n ec es s a r y la b our -
ti m e . D es pi te th e i m por tan t par t
w h i ch th i s m eth od play s i n a c tual pr a c ti c e, w e a r e e c lu d ed x
g
fr om c on s i d er i n i t i n th i s pla c e, b y o ur a s s um pti on , th a t a ll
c om m od i ti es i n c lu di n g la b our p o w er , a r e b ough t a n d s old a t
,
-

th ei r full v a lue G r a n ted thi s i t follow s th a t th e la b our ti m e

.
,
-

n ec es s a r for th e r od u c ti on of la b ou r ow er , or for th e r e r o
y p p p
-

d u cti on Of i ts v a lu e, c a n n ot b e les s en ed b y a fa ll i n th e

la b our er ges b elow

v alue of h i s la b our pow er b ut on ly
’
s wa th e -
,

b y a fall i n t h i s v alu e i ts elf G i v en t he len g th of th e w or ki n g .

d ay th e pr olon ga ti on Of th e s u p lu s la b ou r m u s t of n ec es s i ty
,
r -

s o as to gnrt liv l b r (Wm P tty

e, P litic l An t my f Ir l nd
a ou ,
and e e a e . . e : o a a o o e a ,

1 6 72 p ,
Th p ric
. f L b r is lw ys c nstit t d f th pric f n c ss ri s
e e o a ou a a o u e o e e o e e a e

wh n v r th l b
e ring m n s w g s will t s it bly t h i l w r nk d
e e e a ou a
’
a e no , u a o s o a an

st ti n
a o l b uring m s pp rt h f mily is O ft n th l t f m ny f th m
, as a a o an , u o s uc a a as e e o o a o e

t h v h d s t r c iv p r p r w g s ( J V d li t l c p L sim pl
”
o a e, e oe no e e e o e a e . . an er n , . . . e e

ou vri r q i e q ,
br s t u ind stri
n a ri n q t t q i l p rvi nt a
’
u e s es a e s on u e, n a
’
e
’
u au a n u
’
a e

v ndr a d t
e e p in En t ut g nr d tr v il il d it rriv r t 11 rriv
’
a u r es sa e e. o e e e a a o a e ,
e a e en

ff t q u l s l ir d l b rn a q i l i t n é c ss ir p r l i p r c r r ’
e e ,
e i e a a e e ou v r er s e o e ce u u es e a e ou u o u e

sa s bsist nc
u ( T rg t R é fl xi ns & O vr s d D ir t I p
a e .
”
u Th p rico , e o ,
c .
, eu e e . a e . . . e e

o f th n c s ri s f li f is in f ct th c st f p r d cing l b
e e e s a e ro ( M lth s e ,
a , e o o o u a ou . a u ,

Inq iry i nt & R nt L nd n 1 81 5 p 48 n t )

u o, c .
,
e , o o , , . o e .
 Tne Con cept o f R ela ti v e S ur p lus Va lu e -
.
3 3
0

or i g i n at e i n th e c u r ta i lm en t of th e n ec es s ar la b o ur t i m e th e
y
-

la tter c a n n ot a r i s e fr om th e for m er . In th e ex a m ple w e h a v e

ta k en ,
i t is n ec es s ar y th a t th e v alue of la b ou r p o w er s h ou ld -

a ctua lly fall b y on e ten th , i n or d er -

th a t th e n ec es s ar y la b ou r
ti m e m ay b e d i m i n i s h ed b y on e ten th , i -
. e.
,
fr om ten h ou r s to
n i n e, a n d in or d er th a t t h e s ur
p lu s la b o
-
u r ma
y c on s e q u en tly
b e p r olon g ed fr om tw o h ou r s t o t h r ee .

S u ch a fa ll i n th e v a lue of la b our pow er i m pli es h ow ev er , -

,

th a t t h e s a m e n ec es s a r i es Of li fe w hi ch w er e for m er ly pr od u c ed
i n ten h ou r s , c an n ow b e pr od u ced i n n i n e h ou r s But th i s i s .

i m pos s i b le w i th ou t an i n cr eas e i n th e pr od uc ti v en es s Of la b our .

“

F or x a m ple s u pp os e
e ,
a s h oem a k er , w i th g i v en t ools m a k e s i n ,

on e w or k i n g d a of tw elv e h ou r s on e a i r of b oots If h e
y p ,
.

m u s t m a k e t w o p a i r s i n th e s a m e ti m e th e pr od uc ti v en ess of ,

h i s la b ou r m u s t b e d ou b led ; a n d t hi s can n ot b e d on e exc ept ,

b y a n a lter a ti on i n h i s tools or i n h i s m od e Of w or k i n g or i n ,

b oth H en c e t h e c on d i ti on s of pr od ucti on i e h i s m od e Of
.
, ,
. .
,

p r od u c ti on a n d th e la b
,
o u r
p r c e s s i ts elf m u s t b e r ev olu -
o
,

ti on i s ed By i n cr eas e i n th e pr od uc ti v en es s of la b ou r w e
.
,

m ea n g en er a lly a n a lter a ti on i n th e la b ou r p r oc es s of s uc h a
, ,
-
,

k i n d a s to s h or ten th e lab our ti m e s oci a lly n eces s ar y for th e -

p r od u c ti on of a com m od i t
y a n d t o e n d ow a g i v e n q u a n ti t
y o f ,

la b our w i th t h e p ow er of pr od u ci n g a gr ea ter q u a n ti ty of u s e
v a lue H i th er to i n tr eati n g of s ur plus v alue a r i s i n g fr om a
.
1 -
,

s i m ple p r olon g a ti on O f th e w or k i n g d a
y w e h a v e a s s u m ed t h e ,

m od e Of pr od uc ti on to b e g i v en a n d i n v a r i a ble Bu t w h en .

s u r plu s v a lu e h a s to b e r od u c ed b t h e on v er s i on of n ec es s a r y
p y c
-

la b our i n to s u r plu s la b ou r i t b y n o m ea n s s u ffi ces for c a pi ta l

-
,

to ta k e o ver th e la b ou r pr oces s i n th e for m u n d er w h i ch i t h as -

b een hi s tor i cally h an d ed d ow n an d t h en s i m ply to pr olon g th e ,

d u r a ti on of th a t pr oces s . Th e tec h n i c a l a nd s oc i a l c on di ti on s

of t h e pr oces s , and c on s e qu en tly th e y ve

m o d e of p r od u c ti on
r

m us t b e re v oluti on i s ed b efo ,
re th e p r od uc ti v en es s Of la b o ur ca n

b e i n c r ea s ed . By th a t m ea n s a lon e c a n th e v a lue of la b our

1 “ Q nd si p rf zi n n l rti h
ua o é ltreh l sc p rt di n u v
e o i
a nd o e a ,
c e n on a o c e a o e a o e v e, o e

si p ss c m pi r u m f tt
o a o m n g nt ( h e 1 st ss ) in min r t m p
e e na anu a ur a c on e o e e 0 c e 0 e o o e o

di prim ( G li i l c p
a.
”
Lé mi
a l fr is d p r d cti n
an . .
p .
“ ’
c on o e s ur es a e o u o ne en

d nc ét
o tr h q l é mi
re au l q ntité d
e c tr v il mpl yé p r
os e ue
’
c on o e s ur a ua e a a e o ou

r d r Sism di Et d s t I
’
”
p o ui ( e. p on u e . . .
 Cup zto ti s t P r od ucti on
'

3 4
0 .

p ow er b e m a d e to s i n k a n d th e por ti on Of the w or k i n g d ay,

n eces s ar y for th e r ep r od u c ti on of th at v a lu e b e s h or ten ed , .

Th e s ur lu s v alue r od u ced b
y p r olon g a ti on Of th e w or k i n g
p p
-

d ay ,
I c all a b s olute s urp lu s v a lu e On th e oth er h an d t h e
-
.
,

s ur
plus -
v alu e ar i sin g fr om th e c u r ta i lm en t Of th e n ec es s a r
y
lab ou r ti m e,
-
an d fr om th e cor r es pon d i n g a lter a ti on i n th e re

s pec ti v e len g th s of th e tw o c om
p on en ts of th e w or k i n g d ay ,
I
call r ela ti v e s u rp lu s v a lue -
.

In or d er to effec t a fall i n th e value

of la b our
p o w er , th e i h -

c r eas e i n th e p r od u c ti v en es s Of la b ou r m u s t s ei z e u pon th os e
‘
b r an ch es Of i n d u s tr y w h os e p r od uc ts d eter m i n e th e value
,
of

la b our pow er , a n d c on s equ en tly ei th er b elon g to th e clas s

-
Of

c u s tom a r y m ea n s Of s u b s i s ten ce ,
or ar e ca
pa ble Of l
pp y i n g
su

th e pla c e Of th es e m ea n s But th e v alu e . of a c om m od i ty i s d e

ter m i n ed , n ot on ly b y th e q ua n ti ty Of lab ou r w hi ch th e
lab ou r er d ir ec tly b es tow s up on th a t com m od i ty , b ut a ls o b y t he
la b our con tai n ed i n th e m ea n s of
p r o d u c ti on . F or i n s ta n c e,
th e value of a b oots d epen d s n ot on ly on th e c obble
pa i r Of ,
r s
’

lab ou b ut a ls o on th e v a lu e Of th e leath e w a x th r ea d 85 0
r, r, , ,
.

H en ce a fa ll i n th e v alue Of la b our pow er i s a ls o b ough t a b ou t

,
-
r

b y a n i n cr eas e i n th e p od uc ti v en es s Of la b ou r a n d b y a c or r es
r ,

on di n g c h ea pen i n g of com m od i ti es i n t hos e i n d u s tr i es w h i ch

p
s upply th e i n s tr u m en ts Of la b our a n d th e r a w m a ter i a l th a t ,

for m th e m a ter i al elem en ts of th e c on s ta n t c api ta l r equ i ed for r

r od u ci n g t h e n eces s a r i es Of li fe B u t a n i n c r eas e i n th e pr o
p .

d ueti v en es s of la b our i n th os e b r an ch es Of i n d u s t y w h i c h r

su l n i th r th e n ec es s ar i es of li fe, n or th e m ea n s Of pr od u c
pp y e e

t i on for s u ch n ec e ss a r i es lea v es th e v a lue of lab ou r pow er u n

,
-

d i s tu r b ed .

Th e c h ea
p en ed c om m od i ty , Of c ou r s e, c au s es
p on ly a ro

tan to fall i n th e v alue

Of la b ou r
p ow er , a -
fall pr op or ti on al to
th e ex ten t Of th a t c om m od i ty s em loy m en t i n th e r od u c
’

p re
p
ti on Of lab ou r pow er -
. S hi r ts , for i n s tan ce, ar e a n ec es s a r y

m ean s Of s u b s i s ten c e ,
b ut ar e on ly on e ou t of m an y . Th e
totali ty of th e n ec es s a r i es of li fe c on s i s ts , h o w ev er , of v a r i ou s
c om m od i ti es , ea c h th e pr od uc t of a d i s ti n c t i n d u s tr y an d the
l
v a ue O f ea ch Of th os e c om m od i ti es e n ter s a s a com pon en t par t

i nto th e valu e Of lab our pow er -

. T hi s la tter v alu e d ecr ea s es
3 0 6 Cap i ta ti s t P r od ucti on .

v a lue n ew ly a dd ed i n w or k i n g w i th th es e m ea n s . Now let

s om e on e c a i ta li s t
p con tr i ve to d ou b le the pr od uc ti ven es s of
la b our , to pr od u ce i n th e w or
an d k i n g d ay of 1 2 h ou s 2 4 i n r ,

s tea d Of 1 2 s u c h a r ti cles Th e v a lu e . Of t h e m ea n s
p Of ro d uc
t i on re m a i n i n g th e s a m e, th e v a lue Of ea c h a r ti c le w i ll fa ll to

n i ne m ad e u p of s i x pen ce for t h e v alue O f th e m ean s Of

'

n c e,
p e

p r od uc ti on a n d v a lu e n ew ly a d d ed b y th e
th r eepen c e for th e
lab our D es pi te th e d oub led p od uc ti v en es s of la b our th e
. r ,

d ay s lab our c ea tes a s b efor e a n ew v a lue Of s i x s h illi n gs a n d

’
r , ,

n o m o e w hi ch h ow ev er i s n ow s r ea d ov er t w i c e a s m a n y
r , p , ,

Of th i s v a lu e each a r ti cle n ow h a s em b odi ed i n i t 5 1 th

1
a r ti c les .
,

i n s tea d of fi th th eepen c e i n s tea d of i x pen c e ,

r o w ha t s r,

a m ou n ts t o th e s a m e t hi n g on ly h a lf a n h ou r s i n s tea d Of a
’

w h ole h ou s la b ou ti m e i s n ow a d d ed to t h e m ea n s of pr o
’
r r- ,

d u c ti on w hi le th ey a r e b ei ng t a n s for m ed i n to ea c h a r ti cle r .

Th e i n d i v i d ual v a lu e Of th es e a r ti c les i s n ow b elo w th ei r s oc i al

v a lue ; i n oth er w or d s th ey h a v e c os t les s la b our ti m e t han ,
-

th e g ea t b ulk of th e s a m e a r ti cle p r od u ced un d er th e a v er a g e

r

s oc i a l c on d i ti on s E ach a ti c le c os ts on a n a v e a g e one s h illi n g

. r ,
r , ,

a n d r epr es en ts 2 h our s of s oc i a l la b ou r b ut u n d er th e a lte r ed

m od e of r od u c ti on
p it c os ts o n ly n i n e
p en ce, or c o n ta i n s on ly 11
h ou r s la b ou r v a lue Of a ver
’
. The r ea l com m od i ty i s , h ow e ,
n ot

i ts i n d i v i d u a l v a lue
v a lue ; t ha t i s to sa y th e
,
b u t i ts s oci a l ,

r ea l v a lu e i s n ot m eas u r ed b t h la b ou r ti m e th a t th e a r t i c le
y e -

i n ea c h i n d i vi d ua l c a s e c os ts th e p od u c er b u t b y th e la b our r ,

ti m e s oc i a ll
y re
q u i r ed for i ts p ro d u c ti on . If ther efor e, th e
c a pi ta li s t w h o a pp li es th e n e w m eth od ,
s ells hi s c o m m odi ty

at i ts s oci a l va lu e of on e s h i lli n g ,
he s ells i t f or th r eepen ce
ab ov e i ts i n d i vi d ual v a lu e ,
a nd th us r ea li s es a n e x tr a s ur plus
v alue Of th r ee
p en ce . On t h e o t h er h a n d , th e w o k i n g d a y Of
r

1 2 h ou r s i s , as
p dreb yg ar d s
2 4 ar t i c le s him ,
n ow re r es en te

i n s tea d of 1 2 H en c e, i n or d er to get r i d Of t h e pr od u c t Of
.

o n e w o r k i n g d a , th e d em a n d m u s t b e d ou b le w h a t i t w as i e
y , ,
. .

th e m a r k e t m u s t b ec om e t w i ce as e xten s i v e . O th er t hi n gs
b ei n g e q ua l ,
hi s c o mm od i ti es c an c om m a n d a m or e e x ten d ed
m ar k et on ly by a d i m i n u t i on of th e i r
p r i c es . He w i ll t h er e
for e s ell th em a b ov e t h ei r i n d i v i d ua l b ut u n d er t h ei r s oc i a l

v a lue ,
sa
y at tenp en c e ea c h . By th i s m ea n s h e s ti ll s queez es
 T/z e Con cept o f R ela ti v e Su rplus Va lue .
3 7
0

an e x tr a v a lu e of on e pen n y ou t Of ea c h T h i s a ug
s ur plu s -
.

m en tati on of s u plu s valu e i s p ock ete d b y h i m w h eth er h i s r -

,

c omm od i ti es b elon g or n ot to th e c la s s Of n ec es a m e a n s of
y s r

s u b s i s ten ce th a t r ti ci a te i n d eter m i n i n g th e g en er a l v a lu e of
p a p
la b our pow er H en ce i n d epen d en tly Of th i s la tte c i r c um s ta n ce
-
.
,
r ,

ther e i s a m oti v e for ea ch i n d i v i d ua l c a pi ta li s t to c h ea p en

hi s com m od i ti es b y i n c ea s i n g th e pr od u c ti v en es s of lab ou r
,
r .

N ev e t h eles s ev en i n t h i s ca s e th e i n c r ea s ed p od u c ti on Of
r , ,
r

su l u s v a lu e a i s es f m th u r ta i lm en t o f t h n
p r o e c r e ec e ssa r
y r
-

la b our ti m e a n d f om th e c o es p on d i n g p olon g a ti on of th e
-
,
r rr r

l s la b our L h l b i m e a m ou n t to
1
su
p r u e-
t t e n e c es s a r
y .a o u t r -

1 0 h ou s th e v alue Of a d ay s la b our p ow er to fi v e s h i lli n g s th e

’
r ,
-
,

s u r lu s la b ou r ti m e to 2 h ou s a n d th e d a i l u r lu s v a lu e t o
p y s
p r
- -
,

on e s hi lli n g Bu t t h e ca pi ta li s t n ow p od u c es 24 a r ti cles
. r ,

w h i c h h e s ells a t ten p n ce a pi ece m a k i n g tw en ty s h i lli n g s i n e -

a ll . S i n ce th e v a lu e Of th e m ean s Of pr od uction i s t w elve

s hi lli n g s 1 4 g Of th es e a r ti cles m er ely r epla ce th e c on ta n t
,
s

c a i ta l a d v a n c ed T h l b of th e 1 2 h ou r s w o k i n g d a y i s
’

p e a ou . r r

re
p e s en ted b
r
y th e r e m a i n i n g 9 2 a ti c l es S i n ce t h e
p r i ce o f .

r .

t h e la b ou r pow er i s fi v e s hi lli n g s 6 a ti c les r epr es en t th e

-
,
r

n eces s a l a b our ti m e a n d ti l th u l u l b u T h
y r a r c es e s
p s a o r e r
- -
.
,

r a ti o Of th e n ec es s a
y la b o u t o t h e s u r
p l u s la b o u r w h i ch u n d er
r r -
,

a v e a g e s oc i a l con di ti on s w a s 5 : 1 i s n o w on l
r T h e
y ,

s a m e r es u lt m a h r r i v ed a t i n th e follo w i n g w a T h e
y e a
y .

v a lue of th e pr od uc t of th e w o k i n g d ay Of 1 2 h ou s i s tw en ty r r

s hi lli ng s Of thi s s u m t w elv e s hilli n g s b elon g to th e v a lu e of

.
,

th e m ea n s Of p r od u c ti on a v a lu e t h a t m er ely r e a ppea r ,
-
s ,

T h er e r em ai n ei gh t s hi lli n gs w h i c h a r e th e ex p r es s i on i n ,

m on ey of t h e v a lue n ew ly c r ea ted d u r i n g th e w o k i n g d ay
, r .

T hi s s u m i s g r ea ter th an th e s um i n w hi c h a v er a g e s oc i a l
la b ou r of th e s a m e k i n d i s ex pr es s e d : tw elv e h our s of th e
la tte la b ou r a r e ex pr es s ed b y s i x s h i lli n g s only
r Th e e xcep .

t i on a lly p od u c ti e la b our O p e a tes a s i n ten s i fi ed la b our ; i t

r v r

1 A m n s pr fit d s t d p nd p n h i c mm nd f th pr d c f th r m n s
a
’
o oe no e e u o s o a o e o u eo o e e
’

l b ur b t p n his c mm nd f l b r its lf If h
a o , u u o s ll his g ds t high r o a O a ou e . e can e oo a a e

p ric whil his w rkm s w g s r m in n lt r d h is cl arly b n fit d A ’

e, e o en a e e a u a e e e e e e e .
,

sm ll r p r p rti n f wh t h pr d c s is s ffici nt t p t th t l b ur int m ti n

a e o o o o a e o u e u e o u a a o o o o ,

d l rg r p r p rti n c ns q ntly r m ins f hims l f O utlin s f P l Ec n ” ”

an a a e e o o o e ue e a or e . e o o . o .

L nd n 1 832 pp 49
o o , , .
,
3 0 8 Cap i ta li s t P r od u cti on .

c r ea tes in q ua l g r ea ter v a lu es th an av er ag e
er i o d s Of ti m e
p e

s oc i al la b our Of th e s a m e ki n d ( S e e C h I S ect 1
p B ut . . . . . .

ou r ca i tali s t s ti ll c on ti n u es to pa y as b efor e on ly fi v e s h i lli ng s

p
a s th e v alue Of a d ay s la b ou r pow er H en c e i n s tead Of 1 0 ’
-
.
,

h ou r s th e la b our er n eed n ow w or k on ly 7 1 h o ur s i n or d er to
, ,

re
p
-
r od u c e th i s v a lu e H i s s u r lus la b ou r
p i s t h er efor e i n
.
-
, ,

c r eas ed b
y %2 h o u r s a n d t h e s u r
p lu s v a lu e h e p r,
o d u c es g r ow s -

fr om on e i n to th r ee s h i lli n g s
,
H en e th e c a pi ta li s t w h o . c
,

a pli es th e i m r ov ed m eth o d Of r od uc ti on a r o r i a tes to

p p p pp p ,

s ur lu s la b ou r a g r ea ter r ti on of th e w or k i n g d a y th a n th e
p p o
-
,

oth er c a pi tali s ts i n th e s a m e tr a d e He d oes i n d i v i d ually .

,

w h a t th e w h ole b ody of ca pi ta li s ts en ga g ed i n pr od u c i n g r e
la ti v e s ur plu s v a lu e d o c ollec ti v ely -
On th e o th er h an d
, .
,

ho w ev er t h i s ex tr a s ur plus v a lue v a n i s h es s o s oon a s th e n e w

,
-

m eth od Of p r o d u c ti on h a s b ec om e g en er a l a n d h as con s eq uen tly ,

cau s ed th e d i ffer en c e b etw een th e i n d i v i d u a l v alue of th e

c h ea en ed c om m od i t a n d i ts s oci a l v a lu e to v a n i s h T h law
p y e .

Of t h e d e ter m i n a ti on Of v a lu e b l a b o ur ti m e a la w w h i c h
y
-
,

br i ngs u n d er i ts s w ay th e i n d i vi d ua l ca pi tali s t w h o a ppli es

th e n ew m eth od Of pr od uc ti on b y c om pelli n g h i m to s ell h i s ,

g ood s u n d er thei r s oci a l v a lue th i s s a m e la w a c ti n g a s a c o , ,

er c i v e la w Of com eti ti on , for ces hi s c om ti t to ade t th

p p e ors
p e

n ew m eth od .
1
Th e gen er al r a te of s u r
plus -
v alue i s, t h er efor e ,

u lti m a tel a ffec ted b y th e w h ole pr oc es s on ly w h en th e i n

y ,

c r ea s e i n th e r od u c ti v en es s of la b ou r h a s s ei z ed u pon th os e
p ,

b r an c h es of
p r od uc ti on th a t ar e c on n ec ted w i th , and h as
c h ea n d th os e c o mm od i ti es th a t for m pa r t of, t h e n ec es s a r y
p e e

m ean s of s u bs i s ten c e ,
a n d a r e th er efor e elem en ts of th e a lue v
Of lab ou r pow er -
.

Th e v a lu e o f c om mod i ti es i s i n i n v er s e r a ti o to th e pr od uc
ti v en es s Of lab our . An d s o, too, i s th e value of la ou r
p ow eb
r ,
-

b eca us e i t d ep en d s on th e v alu es Of com m od i ti e s . R elati v e

1 “
my n ighb ur by d ing much with littl l b ur
If e s ll ch p I m st
o o e a o , can e ea , u c on

t i
r ve t s ll ch p b S th t v ry t tr d
o e as ngin d ing w rk with
ea as e . O a e e ar , a e, or e e, o o

l b r f f w r h nds d c ns q ntly ch p r b g ts in th rs kind f n c ssity

a ou o e e a ,
an o e ue ea e , e e o e a o e e

an d m l ti n
e ith r f using th s m t tr d
u a o , e ngi e f inv nti g s m
o e a e ar , a e, or e n e, or o e n o e

thing lik it th t v ry m m y b up n th sq r th t m m y b bl t
e , a e e an a e o e ua e , a no an a e a e o
u nd rs ll his n ighb ur
( Th Adv nt g s f th E st Indi Tr d t E gl nd
e e e o
” ” “
e a a e o e a
. a a e o n a
L nd n 1 720 p 6 7
.

o o , , .
3 10 rt P r od ucti on
Capi ta li fi .

one of th e foun d er s Of p oli ti ca l e con o m

y ,
tor m en ted his
gi v e
"

o
pp on en ts , an d t o w hi c h t h ey c ould him no a n s w er ,

Y ou k n o w led g e h e s ay s th a t th e m or e ex p en s es an d th e
ac ,
”
,
“

c os t Of la b ou r ca n i n th e m a n u fa c tu r e of i n d u s tr i a l pr od uc ts
, ,

b e r e d u c ed w i th ou t i nj u r y to pr od u c ti on th e m or e a d va n tage ,

o us i s s u ch r ed u c ti on b ec a u s e i t d i m i n i s h e s t h e pr i ce of th e ,

fi ni s hed a r ti cle An d y et y ou b eli e v e t ha t th e pr od uc ti on Of

.
,

w ea lth w h i c h a r i s es fr o m th e la b our Of th e w o r k p eople c on

, ,

s i s ts i n th e a ug m en ta ti on of th e ex ch a n g e v alue of th ei r -

” 1
r o d o c ts
p .

Th e s h or ten i n g th e w or k i n g d ay i s , th er efor e, b y
Of no

m ea n s w h a t i s a i m ed a t, i n ca i ta li s t
p pr od u c ti on , w h en la b our
is b y i n c r eas i n g i ts pr od uc ti v en es s
econ om i s ed It i s on ly th e .
2

s h or ten i n g Of th e la b ou r ti m e n ec es s a r f t h d u c ti o n Of
y or e
pr o -
,

a d efi n i te q u a n ti ty of com m od i ti es th a t i s a i m ed a t The fa c t ,
.

t ha t t h e w or ,
w h en t h ekm an
p r o d u c ti en es s Of h i s la o u r h as v b
b een i n c r eas ed pr od u ces , s ay 1 0 ti m es a s m a ny com m od i ti es as
,

b e for e, an d t h us s
pen d s o ne -
ten th as m uc h la b ou r ti m e -
o n ea c h,
by m ea n s pr e v en ts hi m fr om con ti n ui n g to w or k 1 2 h ou r s as
no

b efor e n or fr om pr od uc i n g i n t h os e 1 2 h our s 1 2 00 a r ti c les i n

,

s tea d Of 1 20 . Nay ,
m or e h i s w or k i n g d a
y
,
m a
y b e
p r olo n g ed

at th e s am e ti m e s o a s to m a k e h i m r od uc e s a 1 4 00 a r ti c les
, p y ,

i n 1 4 h ou r s . In th e tr ea ti s es th er efor e, of econ om i s ts o f t h e
,

s ta m
p of Ma c Cullo q u a n ti w e m a y ch , Ur e ,
S en i or ,
an d tut ti ,

r ea d u on on e a g e th a t t h e la b ou r er o w es a d eb t Of g r a ti tu d e
p p ,

t o ca pi ta l for d ev elopi n g h i s pr od u c ti v en es s b eca us e th e ,

n ec es s a r
y la b ou r ti m e i s t h er eb
y s h or ten ed a n d on th e n e xt
-
,

p a g e tha t h e m us t
, pr ov e h i s g r a ti t u d e b y w or k i n g i n fu t ur e

Ils c nvi nn t q u pl s p t s ns p r j dic é p rgn r d fr is d tr v x

1 o e en e u on eu , a e u e, a e e a ou e a au

disp ndi x d ns l f bric ti n d

e eu vr g s d rtis ns pl s c tt é p rg
a a a t p a o es o u a e es a a ,
u e e a n e es ro

fit b l p
a l dimin ti n d
e ar p rix d
a vr g s C p nd nt ils cr i nt q l p
u o es e c es ou a e . e e a o e ue a ro

d cti n d rich ss q i rés lt d tr v x d rtis ns c nsist d ns l gm t ti

u o e e e u u e es a au es a a o e a
’
au en a on

d l v l u r v en l d l rs vr g s ( Q sn y Di l gu s l C mm rc t ”
e a a e a e e eu ou a e . ue a : a o e s ur e o e e e s ur

l s Tr v u x d rtis ns pp 1 88 ”
e a a es a a , .
,

p éc l t rs si éc n m s d tr v il d vri rs q il f dr it q i l p y
C 2 “ es S u a eu o o e u a a es ou e u
’
au a u
’
s a

ass nt (J N Bi d t D M n p l q i ét b li t d ns l rts ind stri ls t l

e .
”
. . au
“
u o o o e u s
’
a a es a u e e e

c mm rc
o P ris 1 828 p
e e.
”
Th mpl y r will b lw ys th str tch t
a , , .
“
e e o e e a a on e e o

ec n mis tim d l b r ( D g ld St w rt W rks d by Si W H milt n

o o e e an a ou . u a e a : o e . r . a o .

Edinb rgh v viii 1 855 L ct r s P lit Ec n p

u , . .
, Th ir ( th c pit lists )
. e u e on o . o .
, . e e a a
’

int r st is th t th pr d ctiv p w rs f th l b r rs th y mpl y sh ld b th

e e a e o u e o e o e a ou e e e o ou e e

gr t st p ssibl On pr m ting th t p w r th ir tt nti n is fix d d lm st x

ea e o e . o o a o e e a e o e an a o e

l i ly fix
c us v e (R J n s l er L ct r III ) . o e 0 e u e .
 Co Oper a ti on
-
.
3 I I

for 1 5 h ou r s i n s tea d of 10 . Th e O bj ect of a ll d ev elopm en t of

t h e p r od uc ti v en es s of la our , w i th i n th e li m i ts b o f ca
p i tali s t

p r od u c ti on , i s to s h or ten th a t
p a r t of th e w or i n k g d ay d ur i n g ,

w hi c h th e w or k m an m u s t la b our for h i s ow n b en e fit a n d b y ,

t h a t v er s h or ten i n g t o len g th en t he oth er pa r t of th e d ay

y , ,

d u r i n g w h i ch h e i s a t li b er ty tO w or k g r a ti s for th e c api tali s t .

How fa r th i s r es ult i s a ls o a ttai n ab le w i th ou t c h ea pen i n g ,

com m od i ti es w i ll a pp ea r fr om a n ex a m i n a ti on Of th e p a ti c ula r
,
r

m od es of pr od u c i n g r ela ti v e s ur plus v a lu e to w h i ch ex a m i n a -
,

ti on w e n ow r oc eed
p .

C HAP T ER XIII .

J
( O -
OPERATIO N .

C APITAL IST p ro d ucti on on ly th en r ea ll

y b egi n s as w e ha ve
a lr ea d y s een , w h en ea c h i n d i v i d ua l c a pi ta l em p lo
y s s i m u lta n e

ou s ly a com par a ti v ely la r ge n um b er of la b our er s w h en c on s e

quen tly th e la b our pr oces s i s c a r r i ed on on a n ex ten s i v e s c a le

-

an d i eld s, r ela ti v el , la r g e q u a n ti t i es of r od u c ts A r ea ter

y y p g .

n um b er Of la b our er s w or k i n g t og eth er , at th e s am e ti m e, i n
on e p la ce
( or, if
y o u w i ll,
i n t h e s a m e fi eld of la b ou r
) i n or d e r ,

to r od u c e th e s a m e s or t Of c om m odi t u n d r t h e m a s ter s h i
p y e
p
of on e ca pi ta li s t, c on s ti t utes , b oth h i s tor i cally an d logi cally ,

th e s ta r ti n g p oi nt of c a p i ta li s t
p ro d u c ti on "
. Wi th re ga r d to
th e m od e Of pr od uc ti on i ts elf, m a n u fa c tur e, i n i ts s tr i c t m ea n
i n g, i s h a r d ly to b e d i s ti n g ui s h ed i n i ts ,
ea r li es t s ta g es ,
fr om
th e h a n di c r a ft tr a d es Of t he g ui ld s oth er
w i s e th an b y th e
,

gr ea ter n um b er of w or k m en s i m ulta n eou s ly em ploy ed b y on e

and th e s am e i n d i v i d u al ca
pi tal . Th e w or k s h op Of th e
m ed i aev al m as ter h a n d i cr a fts m an 1 s Si m ply en la r g ed .

At fir s t,
t h er efor e, th e d i ffer en ce i s p u r ely q u a n ti ta ti e We v .

h av e s h o w n th a t t h e s ur lu s
p a lu e
p
-
v
r o d u c ed b y a g i en ca i ta l
p v
is e q ual to th e s ur
p lu s -
v alu e pr od u ced b y ea ch w or k m a n m ul
ti pli ed b y the n u m b er of w or k m en s i m ulta n eou s ly em lo ed
p y .

Th e b er of w or k m en i n i ts elf d oes n ot a ffec t ei th er th e r ate

n um ,

of s ur lu s v a lu e or th e d eg r ee Of ex loi ta ti on Of la b ou r w
p p p o e r
- -
.
,

If a w or ki n g d ay of 1 2 h ou s b e em b od i ed i n s i x s hi lli n gs 1 2 00
r ,
3 1 2 Ccapi ta li s t P r od ucti on

s u ch b od i ed i n 1 200 ti m es 6 s h i lli n gs In one

d ay s w ill b e em .

c a s e 1 2 x 1 2 00 w or k i n g h our s an d i n th e o th er 1 2 s u ch h our s ,

a r e i n c or por a te d i n th e pr od u ct In th e pr od uc ti on Of v alue .

a n u m b er of w or k m en r a n k m er el as s o m a n y i n d i v i d ua l
y
w or k m en ; a n d i t th er efor e m ak es n o d i ffer en c e i n th e v a lue
r od u c ed w h eth er th e 1 2 00 m en w or k s e ar a tel u n i ted
p p y or ,

u n d er th e c on tr ol of on e c a
p i ta li s t .

N ev er th eles s ,
w i th i n c er ta i n li m i ts , a m od i fi c ati on ta k es
p la ce . Th e lab ou r r eali s ed in v alu e ,
i s lab ou r of a n a v er age
s oc i al quali ty ; i s c on s e u en tl q y th e e
p en d i tur e Of r x a v e ag e

lab ou r pow er An y a v er a ge
-
. g
m a n i tu d e, h o w e er , i s m er ely v
th e a v er a g e of a n u m b er of p se a r a te m ag ni tu d es a ll of on e

k i n d b ut d i ffer i n g a s to
,
In ev er y i n d us tr y eac h qu an ti ty .
,

i n d i v i d ua l la b our er b e h e P eter or P a ul d i ffer s fr om th e , ,

a v er a g e la b our er T h es e i n d i v i d u al d i ffer en c es or er r or s “ ”
.
,

as th ey ar e c alled i n m a th em a ti cs c om pen s a te on e a n oth er ,

an d v an i s h , w h en e ver a c er ta i n m i m m um n um b er of w or k m en
a r e em l
p yo ed tog eth er T h e c ele b r a ted s o h i s t a n d s co h a n t,
p y p .

E d m un d B ur k e g oes s o far a s to m ak e th e follow i n g a s s er ti on ,

,

b as ed hi s pr a c ti cal O b s er va ti on s a s a fa r m er v i z
on .
,
th a t “
in
a t of fi v e far m la b ou r er s
”
so s m a ll a la toon t h a ll indi
p as ,

v i d ual d i ffer en c es i n th e lab our van i s h an d th a t c on s equ en tly ,

a n y g i v en fi v e a d ult fa r m la b our er s tak en tog eth er w ill i n th e ,

s am e ti m e d o a s m u h w o k a s a n
y o t h er fi v e B u t h o we v e
cr r .
ll
,

th a t m a y b e i t i s c lea th a t th e c ollec ti ve w or k i n g d ay Of a
,
r,

la g e n u m b er of Wor k m en s i m u ltan eous ly em ploy ed d i v i d ed

r ,

b y th e n um b er Of th es e w or k m en gi v es on e d ay Of a v e a ge ,
r

s oc i a l la b o u r F or ex a m ple let th e w or k i n g d ay of ea c h
.
,

i n d i id u a l b e 1 2 h o ur s
v T h en th e c ollec ti v e w or k i n g d ay of .

1 2 m en s i m ulta n eou s l e m p lo ed , c on s i s ts of 1 4 4 h our s ; a n d

y y
a lth ou gh th e la b ou r of ea c h of th e d o z en m en m ay d evi a te

Unq sti n bly th r is g d d l f di ff r nc b tw n th v lu f

1 “ ue o a , e e a oo ea o e e e e ee e a e o on e

m n s l b r d th t f n th r fr m str ngth d xt rity d h n st pplic ti n

a
’
a ou an a o a o e o e , e e , an o e a a o .

B t I m q it s ur fr m my b st O bs rv ti n th t
u a u e y giv n fi
e, m will in th ir
o e e a o , a an e ve en , e

t t l ff rd p r p rti n f l b r q l t y th r fi wi thin th p ri ds f lif I

o a , a o a o o o o a ou e ua o an o e ve e e o o e

h v st t d th t is th t m ng s ch fi m th r will b
a e a e a , p ss ssing ll th
a a o u ve en e e e on e o e a e

q lific ti ns f g d w rkm n
ua a o b d d th
o th r thr middling d p
a oo o a , on e a , an e o e ee , an a

prox i m ti g t th firsta d t h l st
n S th t in
o sm ll epl t n th t f
an vn e a . o a so a a a oo as a O e e

y u will find t h f ll c m pl m nt f ll th t fi rn ( E B rk 1 ”
fiv e, o m n e u o e e o a a ve en ca ea . . u e, .

c p 15
. . C mp r Q et l t th
,
r g individ u l
o a e u e e on e a ve a e a .
 I
3 4 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

E v en w i th o ut an a lter a ti on i n th e s
y k i n g th e
s tem Of w or ,

s i m ulta n e ous em p loy m e n t of a lar g e n um b er of la b ou r er s

effe c ts a re voluti on i n th e m ater i al c on d i ti on s of th e la b our
p r oc es s . Th e b u i ld i n g s i n w h i c h th ey w or k th e s tor e h ous es ,
-

for th e r aw m a te r i a l, th e i m plem en ts an d u ten s i ls u s ed s i m u l

t a n eou s ly or i n tu r n s b y th e w or k m en i n s h or t, a p or ti on of
th e m ea n s of pr od u c ti on , a r e n ow c on s u m ed i n c omm on On .

th e on e h a n d , th e x c h a n g e v alu e of th es e m ean s of pr od uc ti on
e -

is n ot i n c r ea s ed for th e ex ch an g e v a lu e of a com m odi ty i s n ot

-

r a i s ed
b y i ts u s e -
v a lu e b ei n g c on s um ed m or e th or ough ly a n d to
gr ea ter a d van tag e . On th e oth er h a n d th ey ,
ar e u s ed in c om

m on , and th er efor e on a la r g er s ca le t h a n b efor e . A r oom

w h er e t w en ty w ea ve rs w or k at t w en ty loom s m u s t b e lar ger

t han the r oo gle w ea v er w i th tw o a s s i s ta n ts But i t
m of a s i n .

c os ts les s la b our to b u ild on e w or k s h op for t w en ty p er s on s

than to b ui ld t en to a c c om m od a te t w o w ea v er s ea c h th u s ,

th e v alue of th e m ea n s of p r od uc ti on th a t a r e con c en tr a te d for

us e in c om m on on a la r g e s c ale d oe s n ot 1 n C1 eas e i n d i r e c t pr o
p or t i on x pan s i on a n d to th e
to t h e e i n cr eas ed u s eful effec t of
th es e m ea n s W h en con s um ed i n com m on th ey gi ve up a
.
,

s m a ller a r t of th ei r v a lu e to eac h s i n gle p r od u c t ; a r tl

p p y
b ecaus e th e total v alue th ey pa r t w i th i s s pr ea d ov er a g r eater
qua n ti ty of p r od uc ts a n d p ar tly b eca us e th ei r va lue th ough
, ,

a b s olu tel g r ea ter i s h a v i n g r eg a r d to t h ei r s h er e o f a c ti on i n

y , p ,

th e pr oc es s r ela ti v ely les s t h a n th e v a lu e of i s ola ted m ea n s of

,

r od u c ti on O w i n g to t h i s th e v a lu e of a p a r t of th e cons ta n t
p .
,

c a i ta l fa lls a n d i n r op or ti on to t h e m a g n i tu d e Of t h e fa ll th e
p p , ,

tota l va lu e of th e c om m o di ty a ls o fa lls Th e effec t i s t he s am e .

as i f t h e m ea n s of
p r od u c ti on had c os t les s . Th e ec on om
y
in th ei r a
ppli c a ti on i s en ti r el
y o w i n g t o th ei r b ei n g c on

s u m ed in c omm on b y a la r g e n u m b er of w or k m en . M or eo v er ,

th i s c h a r a c ter Of b ei n g n ec es s a y c on d i ti on s of r s oc i a l la b our , a

c h a r a c ter th a t di s ti n g ui s h es th em fr om t h e d i s per s ed an d

r ela ti vely m or e c os tly m ea n s of

p r od u c ti on of i s ola ted , i n d e
p en d en t la b ou r er s , Or s m a ll m as ter s , i s ac qui r ed even w h en th e
Mrs B sch d uring tw d ys d s m r w rk th n tw n dl w m n mpl y d
. o et o a , oe o e o a o ee e o e e o e

t g th r d ri g
o e e d y Th l rn d p r f ss r sh ld
u n on e a t st dy th c p it lis t p
. e ea e o e o ou no u e a a ro

c ss f p r d cti n in th n rs ry
e o o u u nd r circ mst nc s wh r
o e t h p rinci p l p
u e , n or e u a e e e e a er

s on a
g th c p it list is w nti g
e, e a a , a n .
 Co Oper a ti on
-
. I
3 5

n u m er ou s w or k m en a s s em b led tog eth er do n ot as s is t on e

a n oth er , b ut m er ely w or k s i de by side . A por ti on of th e

i n s tr um en ts of la b our ac qui r es t hi s s oc i a l c h a r a c ter b e or e f th e
la b o ur pr oces s i ts elf d oes s o
-
.

E con om y i n th e u s e of th e m ea n s of p ro d u c ti on h as to b e
c on s i d er ed u n d er t wo as
p ec ts . Fi r s t ,
as c h ea pen i n g c om m o d i

t i es , an d b b
th er e y r i n g i n g a ou t a fa ll i n th e b va lue of la b ou r
p o w er . Sec on d l , as a lter i n g th e r a t i o of th e
y s ur
p lu s v a lu e t o
-

th e tota l i ta l a d va n c ed i e , t o th e s u m of th e v a lu e s o f t h e
p ca ,
. .

c on s ta n t a n d v a r i a b le c a i tal T h e la tter a s pec t w i ll n ot be

p .

c on s i d er ed u n ti l we c om e to t h e t h i r d b ook ,
to w h i ch , w i th th e
O bj ec t of tr ea ti n g them i n th ei r pr oper con n exi on w e als o ,

r elega t e m a n o th er oi n ts th a t r ela te to th e pr es en t q u es ti on
y p .

Th e m a r ch of our a n aly s i s c om p els th i s s pli tti n g u p of t h e

s u b ec t m a tter a s li tti n g u a t i s q u i te i n k eep i n g w i th th e
j p p t h,

s pi r i t o f ca i ta li s t r od u c ti on F or s i n c e, i n th i s m od e of pr o
p p .

d u c ti on , th e w or k m a n fi n d s th e i n s t r u m en ts of la b our ex i s ti n g
i n d ep en d en t ly of hi m a n oth er m an er ty , ec on o m y in
’
as s
p ro
p
th ei r us e a
p p ear s , w i th re g a r d to h i m ,
to b e a d i s ti n c t O per a ti on ,

on e th a t d oes n ot con c e r n hi m , an d w h i c h , t h er efor e, h as no

c on nexti on w i th th e m eth od s b y w hi ch hi s ow n er s on al p ro
p
d uc ti v en es s i s i n c r eas ed .

W hen n u m er ous la b our er s w or k t og eth er s ide by s i d e,

w h eth er i n on e a n d t he s am e
p r oc es s , or i n d i ffer en t b u t con

n ec ted
p r oces s es , they a r e s ai d to c o- o
p er a te, or t o w or k i n co

o per a ti on
1
.

J us t a s v e pow er of a s qu a d r on of c a v al y or th e
th e offen s i r ,

d e fen s i v e p ow er O f a r eg i m en t o f i n fa n t y i s es s en ti a lly r ,

d i ffer en t f om th e s um of th e offen s i v e or d efen s i v e po w er s of

r

t h e i n d i v i d ua l ca v a lr y or i n fa n t y s old i er s ta k en s e pa r a tely s o r ,

th e s u m t ota l of th e m ech a n i ca l fo c es ex er ted b y i s ola ted r

w o k m en d i ffer s fr om th e s oci al for c e th a t i s d e v elo ped w h en

r ,

m an y h a n d s tak e par t s i m u lta n eous ly i n on e a n d th e s a m e u n

d i v i d ed oper a ti on s uc h a s r a i s i n g a h ea vy w ei g h t tu n i n g a
, ,
r

w i n c h or r em ov i n g a n O b s ta c le
, In s u ch ca s es th e effec t of .
2

1 C nc r d f rc s (D t tt d Tr cy l p
o ou s e o e . es u e a , . c .
, .

2 Th r nu m r s p r ti ns f simpl kind
e e ar e e ou t t o e a o o so e a as no o a dmit divisi n a o

int p rts whic h c nn t b p r f rm d with t th

o a , a p r ti n o e e o e ou e c o- o e a o o f m ny p irs f
a a o

h nds I w ld inst nc th lifting f l rg tr

a . ou t w in
a e e o a a e ee on o a a . v rything in
e e ,
3 I 6 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

th e bin ed la b our c ould ei th er n ot b e pr od uced at all b y

c om

i s ola ted i n di vi d ual lab our or i t c ou ld on ly b e p od uc ed b y a ,

*
r

g r ea t ex pen d i tur e of ti m e or on a v er y d wa r fed s cale N ot ,

.

on ly h a v e w e h er e a n i n cr ea s e i n th e r od u c ti v e o w er of th e
p p
i n d i v i d u al b y m ea n s of co op er a ti on b u t th e c r ea ti on of a n ew
,
-
,

r n a m el h c ollec ti ve f m 1
p o w e y t ,e
p ow e r o as s es , .

Apar t fr om th e n ew
p ow er th a t a r i s es fr om th e fus i on of

m an y for c es i n to on e s i n g le for ce, m er e s oci a l c on ta c t b egets in

m os t i n d us tr i es a n em ula ti on an d a s ti m ula ti on of th e a n i m al

p
s i r i ts t h at h ei gh ten th e e ffi c i en c
y o f ea ch i n d i v id u a l w or k m a n .

H en c e i t i s th a t a d oz en p er s on s w or ki n g tog eth er w i ll i n ,

th ei r collec ti ve w or k i ng -
d ay 1 4 4 h our s , pr od u c e fa r m or e
of

th a n tw elv e i s ola ted m en ea c h w or k i n g 1 2 h our s , or th an on e

m a n w h o w or k s tw elv e d ay s i n s uc c es s i on The r ea s on .
2
of

th i s i s th a t m a n i s , i f n ot a s Ar i s totle con ten d s , a poli ti c al 3

,
at

a ll e ven ts a s oci al a n i m al .

A lth ough a n u m b er of m en m ay b e oc c u pi ed togeth er at th e

s am e ti m e on k i n d of w or k y et th e
th e s a m e, or th e s ame ,

la b our of ea c h a s a pa rt of th e c ollec ti v e la b our m ay cor r es

, ,

p on d to a d i s ti n c t
p h as e of t h e la b ou r
p r oce s s t h r ou g h a ll w h os e -
,

p h a s es i n c o n s e q u e
,
n c e o f c o o
p e r a ti o n t h e s u bj ec t o f th e i r -
,

la b our pas s es w i th g r ea ter s peed F or i n s ta n c e i f a d oz en .

,

m a s on s pla ce th em s elv es i n a r ow , s o a s to pa s s s ton es fr om th e

sh rt which c nn t b d n unl ss gr t m ny p irs f h nds h l p ch th r in

o , a o e o e e a ea a a o a e ea o e

th s m undivid d m p l ym nt d t t h s m tim ( E G W k fi ld A Vi w f “
e a e e e o e an a e a e e . . a e e : e o

th A t f C l nis ti n L nd n 1 8 49 p ”
e r o o o a o . o o : , .

1 A s m c nn t d t m m st str in t lift t f w ight y t 1 00

on e an a o , an en en u a o a un o e , e

d it nly by th str ngth f fi g r f ch f th m ( J hn B ll rs P ”

m en ca n o o e e o a n e o ea o e . o e e ro

p l f
os a s r ising C ll dg f Industry L nd 1 6 9 6 p
or a a o e e O .
”
o on , , .

2
Th r is ls ( wh n th s me e mb r f m a om pl y d by f rm r e e a e nu e o en a r e e o e on e a e on

3 00 cr s inst d f by t
a e f rm rs with 30 cr s
, ea pi c ) o dv nt g in t h p en a e a e a e e an a a a e e ro

p rti n f s rv nts which will

o o o t esily b nd rst d b t by pr ctic l m f it
a ,
no s o ea e u e oo u a a en or

is n t r l t y 1 is t 4
a u a 3 t 12 b t this will
o sa , as t h ld g d in p r ctic o ,
s o ar e 2 o u no o oo a e

for in h rv st tim d m ny th r p r ti ns which r q ir th t kind f d s tch

a e e an a o e o e a o e u e a o e pa

by th thr wing m ny h nds t g th r th w rk is b tt r d m r xp diti sly

e o a a o e e , e o e e an o e e e ou

d n f i in h rv st 2 driv rs 2 l d rs 2 p itch rs 2 r k rs d th r st t th
o e . . a e ,
e ,
oa e , e , a e , an e e a e

rick in th b rn will d sp tch d bl th w rk th t th s m n mb r f h nds

, or e a , e a ou e e o a e a e u e o a

w ld d i f divid d int diff r nt g ngs di ff r nt f rms ( An Inq iry int th

ou o e o e e a on e e a .
” “
u o e

c n cti n b tw n th p r s nt P ic f Pr visi ns d th Si f F rms By

o ne o e ee e e e r e o o o an e ze O a .
”
3

F rm r L nd n 1 7 73 pp 7
a e . o o , , .
,

Strictly Arist tl s d finiti n is th t m is by n t r t wn citiz n This i

3 ’
, o e e o a an a u e a o -
e . s

q it ch r ct ri tic f nci nt cl ssic l s ci ty F r nklin s d finiti n f m

u e as a a e s o a e a a o e as a
’
e o o an , as

a t l m king nim l i ch r ct ristic f Y nk d m

oo -
a a a , s a a e o a ee o .
3 8 1 C ap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

In m an y i n d u s tr i es th er e ,
ar e c r i ti c a l
p er i od s , d eter m i n ed b y
th e n a tu r e of th e pr oces s , d u r i n w h i c h c er ta i n g d efi n i te r es u lts
m us t b e Ob ta i n ed F or i n s ta n ce, i f a floc of s h eep h as t o b e
. k
s h or n , or a fi eld of w h ea t t o b e c u t an d h a r ves ted , t he q u a n ti ty
an d q uali ty
th e pr od u c t d ep en d s of on th e w or k b ei n g b eg u n
a n d en d ed w i thi n a c er ta i n ti m e . In th es e ca s es , t h e ti m e
th a t ou gh t to b e ta k en b y th e pr o ces s i s p r es cr i b ed j u s t as i t ,

is in h er r i n g fi s h i n g A s i n gle per s on ca n n ot c ar v e a w or k i n g
.

d av of m or e th a n ,
s ay 1 2 h ou r s , o ut o f t he n a tur a l d a y , b u t 1 00
m en c o- O per ati n g ex ten d th e w or ki n g d av to h ou r s .

Th e s h or tn es s of th e ti m e a llo w ed for th e w or k i s c om pen s a ted

for b y th e la r g e m a s s of la b our th r ow n u pon th e fi eld of pr o

d u c ti on a t th e d ec i s i v e m om en t Th e c o m pleti on of th e ta s k .

w i th i n th e pr oper t i m e d e pe n d s on t h e s i m ulta n eou s a ppli ca

t i on of n u m er ou s co m i n ed w o r i n d ay s t h e a m o un t o f u s e b k g
ful effec t d epen d s on t h e n u m b er of la b ou r er s ; th i s n u m b er ,
h ow ev er , i s alw ay s s m aller th a n th e n u m b er of i s ola ted
lab ou r er s re q u i r ed to d o t h e s a m e a m ou n t of w or k i n th e s am e

p er i od .
ll
It i s k
ow i n
i n d of c o o per ag to th e a b s en c e of thi s -

ti on t h a t i n th e w es ter n pa r t of t h e U n i ted S ta tes q ua n ti ti es

, ,

of c or n a n d i n th os e a ts of E a s t I n d i a w h e r e E n gli s h r u le h a s
p ,
r

d es tr oy ed th e old comm un i ti es q uan ti ti es of cotton a r e y ea r ly , ,

w a s ted .
2

On th e on e h an d , c o- Oper a ti on allow s of th e w or k b ei n g
c a r r i ed on o v er an e x ten d ed ps ; i t i
aces c on s e qu en tly i m per a
ti v ely c alled for i n c er ta i n u n d er tak i n g s , s uc h as d r ai n i ng ,
c on

s tr u c ti n
g yd k es i r r i g a ti on w or k s a n d t h e m a k i n g Of c an a ls
, , ,

r oa d s a n d r a i lw a s
y O n t h e ot h er h an d ,
w.h i le e x ten d i n g t h e

1 “
d ing f it ( gric lt r l w rk ) t th critic l j nct r is f m ch th
Th e o o a u u a o a e a u u e o so u e

gr t r c ns q nc
ea e ( A n Inq iry int t h C nn cti n b tw n th Pr s nt Pric
o e ue e .
“
u o e o e o e ee e e e e,
”

& c p.
, In gric lt r th r is m r im p rt nt f ct r th n th t f tim
.
“
a u u e, e e no o e o a a o a a o e .

( Li big U b r Th ri d Pr xis in d L d w i th h ft 1 856 p ”

e e e eo e un a er an r sc a . . .

2 Th n xt vil is e which w ld sc rc ly xp ct t find in c ntry whi h

e e one on e ou a e e e o a ou c

e xp rts m r l b r th
o y th r in th w rld with th
o e a ou xc pti n p rh ps f
an an o e e o ,
e e e o , e a , o

Chin d Engl nd— t h imp ssibility f p r c ri g s ffici nt n mb r f h nds t

a an a e o o o u n a u e u e o a o

cl n th c tt n Th c ns q nc f this is th t l rg q ntiti s f th cr p l ft
ea e o o . e o e ue e o a a e ua e o e o ar e e

u n p ick d whil n th r p rti n is g th r d fr m th gr nd wh n it h f ll n d

e , e a o e o o a e e o e ou e as a e ,
an

is f c rs disc l r d d p rti lly r tt d th t f w nt f l b r t th p r p r

o ou e o ou e an a a o e ,
so a or a o a ou a e o e

s s n th c ltiv t r i ct lly f rc d t s bmit t t h l ss f l rg p rt f th t

ea o e u a o s a ua o e o u o e o o a a e a o a

cr p f which E gl nd is
o or nxi ly l king (B ng l H rk r Ri M nthly
n a so a ou s oo .
”
e a u a u .
-
o

Ov rl nd S mm ry f N ws 22 d J ly
e a u a o e ,
n u ,
 Co Oper a ti on .
3 9 1

s c a le of
p ro d u c ti on i t ,
r en d er s
p ossi ble a r ela ti v e c on t r a c t on o i f
th e a r en a . T hi s c on tr a c ti on o f a r en a s i m u lta n eou s w i th , a nd

ar i s i n g fr om , e x ten s i on of s c a le, w h er e y b a n um b er of u s eles s

ex pen s es ar e cut d ow n , i s ow i n g t o th e c on g lom er a ti on of

la b ou r er s ,
to th e a gg r egati on of v ar i ou s pr oc es s es ,
an d t o th e
c on c en tr a ti on of th e m ea n s of r od u c ti on
1
p .

Th e c om b i n ed
ki n g d ay pr od uc es r ela ti v ely to an eq u al
w or ,

s u m o f i s ola te d w or k i n g d a y s a gr ea ter q u a n ti ty of u s e v a lu es -
,
-

a n d c on s eq u en tly d i m i n i s h es th e la b o u r ti m e n e c es s a r y for t h e
, ,
-

r od u c ti on of a g i v en u s efu l effec t W h et h er th e c om b i n ed
p .

w or k i n g d a y i n a g i v en c a s e a c qu i r es th i s i n cr ea s ed p r od u c
-
, ,

ti v e p ow er b eca u s e i t h ei g h ten s th e m ech a n i c al for c e of la b o ur

, ,

o r ex ten d s i t s s h er e of a c ti on ov e r a g r ea t er s pa c e or con
p ,

tr a c ts t h e fi eld of pr od u c ti on r ela ti v ely t o th e s c ale of pr od uc

ti on o r a t t h e c r i ti c a l m om en t s ets la r g e m as s es of la b our to
,

w or k or ex c i tes em ula ti on b et w een i n d i v i d u als a n d r a i s es th ei r

,

a n i m al s i r i ts i m pr es s es on th e s i m i la r o r a ti on s c a r r i ed on
p , or p e

by a n um b er of m en th e
p of c o n ti n u i t
s ta m
y a n d m an y -
s i d ed

n es s , or r fo r m s s i m u lta n e ou s l d i ffer en t op e r a ti on s , or ocen o

p e y
m i s es th e m ean s of p d u c t i on b
ro
y u s e i n c om m on , or len d s t o
i ndi vi d ual lab our th e c h a r a c ter of a v er a g e s oc i al la b ou r — w h i ch
e ver Of th es e b e t h e c au s e of th e i n cr ea s e th e s pec i al pr od uc ,

ti v e p o w er of th e c om b i n ed w or k i n g d ay i s u n d er a ll c i cu m ,
r

s ta n c es th e s oc i a l d u c ti v e w r o f la b ou r or th e r od u c ti v e
p o , p o e
p r ,

p ow er Of s oc i a l la b ou T h i s
p o w e i s d u e t o c o O p er a ti on r . r -

i ts elf W h en th e la b our er c o oper a tes s y s tem ati cally w i th

.
-

ot h er s h e s tr i s o ff t h e f etter s of h i s i n d i v id u a li t nd de
p , y a ,

v elopes th e c a a b i li ti es o f h i s s ec i es
2
p p .

A s a g en er a l r ule lab ou r er s c a n n ot c O O per a te w i th ou t b ei n g ,

-

b r ough t together : th ei r a s s em blag e i n on e place i s a n eces s ar y

In th pr gr ss f c lt r
1 e ll d p rh p s m r th n ll th c pit l
o e o u d l b r u e a , an e a o e a a , e a a an a ou

which nc l s ly cc pi d 500 cr s
o e oo e w c nc ntr t d f
o th m r c m pl t
u e a e , ar e no o e a e or e o e o e e

till g f a A l th gh
e o r l tiv ly t th m nt f c p it l d l b r m pl y d
ou e a e o e a ou o a a an a ou e o e ,

sp c is c nc ntr t d it is
a e onl rg d sp h r f p r d cti n
e a e c m p r d t th
,
an e a e e e o o u o , as o a e o e

sph r f p r d cti n f rm rly cc pi d w rk d up n by

e e o o u o singl ind p nd nt
o e o u e or o e o on e e e e e

a g nt f pr d cti n ( R J n s An Ess y th Distrib ti n f W lth p rt I

e o o u o .
”
. o e :
“
a on e u o o ea , a .

On R nt L nd n 1 831 p
e . o o , , .

2 L f rz di ci sc na o m e m im m l ri uni n d ll minim f rz f rm
a a u o uo o in a, a a o e e e e o e o a

u naf rz t t l m ggi r
o a nch d ll s mm d ll f rz m d im fi
o a e a h l f rz
o e a e e a o a e e o e e es e ne a c e e o e

p ss
er e r i i t p ss n d
e e r un i m i i l t m p d cccr sc r l s p zi d ll l r zi n
o o o n u er e e o e a e e e o a o e a o o a o e.
"

( G R C rli N t t P V rri l c t x p
. . a , o e o . e , . . . . v. .
3 2 0 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

c on d i ti on of th ei r co -
Oper a ti on . H en c e wa ge lab ou r er s ca n n o t

co -
O per a te ,
u n les s th ey ar e em plo
y ed s i m ulta n eou s l
y y b th e

s am e ca pi tal, th e s am e c a pi tali s t, a nd u n les s t h er efor e th ei r

lab ou r pow er s a r e b ough t s i m ulta n eous ly b y h i m
-
Th e total .

v alu e of th es e lab our pow er s , or th e a m ou n t of th e w ages of

-

t h es e la b our e rs for a d ay , or a w ee k ,
as th e c as e m ay h e, m us t
be i
r ea d n th e c k et of t h e c a i ta li s t, b efor e th e w or k m en
y p o
p
a r e as s em b led for th e r oces s of r od u c ti on T h a m en t of
p p e p y .

3 00 w or k m en a t on ce, th ough on ly for on e d ay , r eq ui r es a

g r ea ter ou tlay of c api tal than d oes th e pay m en t of a s m aller ,

n u m b er of m en w eek b y w eek d u r i n g a w h ole y ear

,
Hen c e , .

th e n u m b er of th e lab our er s th a t c o oper a te or th e s c ale of -

c o O per a ti on d ep en d s i n th e fi r s t i n s ta n c e on th e a m ou n t of
-
, , ,

c a pi tal th a t th e i n d i v id ual c a pi ta li s t c a n s pa r e for th e p ur c h as e

of la b our pow er -
i n o th er w or d s on th e ex ten t to w h i ch a ,

s i n gle c a i ta li s t h a s c om m an d ov er th e m ea n s of s ub s i s ten ce of
p
a n u m b er of la b ou r er s .

An d a s w i th th e v ar i ab le s o i t i s w i th th e c on s ta n t ca pi tal , .

F or ex a m ple th e ou tlay on r a w m a ter i al i s 3 0 ti m es a s g r ea t

, ,

for th e i tali s t w h o em lo s 3 00 m en as i t i s for eac h of

p ca p y ,

th e 3 0 c a pi tali s ts w h o em ploy 1 0 m en Th e v a lue a n d qu an .

ti ty of th e i n s t r u m en ts of lab ou r u s ed in c om m on do n ot, i t is
tr ue, i n c r eas e at th e s a m e r a te a s th e n um b er of w or k m en ,
b ut
th ey d o i n c r ea s e v er y c on s i d er a bly . H en ce ,
c on c en tr a ti on of

la r g e m as s es of th e m ea n s p of ro d uc ti on i n th e h a n d s of in di
v i d ual ca pi tali s ts , i s a m ater i al c on di ti on for th e co o era ti on
p
-

of w a ge la b ou r er s , a n d t h e
-
e x ten t of th e co -
O per a ti on or th e
s cale of d u c ti on , d e e n d s on th e ex ten t of th i s c on cen tr a ti on
ro
p p ,

We s a w i n a for m er c h a ter th a t a c er ta i n m i n i m u m a m ou n t
p ,

of ca pi tal w as i n o r d er th a t th e n u m b er of la b ou r er s
n ec es s a r
y ,

s i m u lta n eous l
y em l
p yo ed ,
a n d ,
c on s eq u en tly ,
t h e a m ou n t of
s u r plus v a lu e pr od uc ed , m i gh t s u ffi c e t o li b er a te th e em plo er
y
-

h i m s elf fr om m an u al lab our ,

to c on v er t h i m fr om a s m a ll

m as ter i n to a c a pi ta li s t an d th us for m ally to es ta b li s h c a pi ta

,

li s t p r od u c ti on We n ow s ee th a t a cer ta i n m 1 n 1 m u n1 a m ou n t
.

is a n ec es s a r y c on d i ti on v er s i on of n u m er ous i s olated
for th e c on

a n d i n d epen d en t pr oces s es i n to on e com b i n ed s oc i a l p oces s r .

W e als o s a w th at a t fi r s t th e s ubj ecti on o f lab our to capi tal ,

3 2 2 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

th e er ati on of wa ge la b our er s i s en ti r ely b r ough t ab out

’

co o
p
-

b y th e p i tal th at e m l
p yca
o s t h e m T h ei r u n i on i n to on e -
.

s i n g le r od u c ti v e b od a n d th e es ta b li s h m en t of a c on n ex i on
p y
b et w een th ei r i n d i v i d u al fun c ti on s a r e m a tter s for ei g n a n d ,

ex ter n a l to th e m a e n ot th ei r ow n a c t b u t th e a c t of th e,
r ,

ca pi ta l th a t b r i n g s a n d k ee s th e m tog eth er ;
p H en ce th e con

n ex i on ex i s ti n g b etw een t h ei r v a i o us la b ou r s a r s to th e m
ppea r ,

i d ea lly i n th e s hap e of a p ec on c ei v ed plan of th e ca pi ta li s t

,
r
,

and ll i
r a c t ca
n th h i f th u th i t f th m i
p y e s a
p e o e a o r y o e s a e ca p
t a li s t, i n th e s h a e of th e p o w er fu l w i ll of a n oth er , w h o s u b
p
j e c t s th ei r a c ti v i ty t o hi s a i m s If ,
t h en ,
th e co n tr ol o f th e .
.

ca
p i ta li s t i s i n su b s ta n c e t w ofold b y r ea s o n o f th e t w ofold
n a tu r e of t h e p r o ces s of o d u c ti lf
on i ts e , — w h i h on th e on e
p r c ,

h a n d, i s a s oc i al
p r oc es s for p ro d uc i n g use -
v a lues ,
on th e
o th er , a
p r oc ess for cr ea t i n glus v alue— i n for m t ha t c on
s ur
p
-

tr ol i s d es poti c . As co -
O per a ti on ex ten d s i ts s cale, thi s d es pot ,

i s m t ak es for m s p ec u li a r to i ts elf . J us t as at fir s t th e ca pi

ta li s t i s r eli ev ed fr om a c tual la b our s o s oon as hi s ca

p i ta l h as

r ea c h ed th a t m i n i m um a m oun t w i th w hi c h ca
p i ta li s t pr o

d u c ti on , as s uc h , v er b eg in s ,
s o n ow, h e h an d s o th e w or k of
d i r ec t a n d c on s tan t s u per v i s i on of th e i n d i v i d ual w or k m en ,

a n d g r ou s of w or k m en t o a s ec i a l k i n d of w a g e la b our er
p p , ,

An i n d us t i al a r m y Of w or k m en u n d er t h e c om m an d of a
r ,

ca i ta li s t r eq ui r es k O fi n a g er s nd
p li e a r
, e a l a my f c e s
( m a , ) a r ,
r ,

s er ea n ts
g ( for e m en
o v e lo ok e s
) w h o w hi l e t h e w o r k i s b ei n g
,
r r , ,
.

d on e c om m a n d i n th e n a m e of th e ca pi tali s t
,
Th e w or k of .

s u er v i s i on b ec om es t h ei r es ta b li s h ed a n d ex clu s i v e fun cti o n

p .

W h en com pa r i n g th e m od e of p r od uc ti on of i s ola ted peas a n ts

a n d a ti a n s w i t h r
p r od u c ti on
z b y s la v e l a b o u t h e poli ti c a l r,

e c on om i s t c ou n ts thi s la b ou of s u pe i n ten d en c e a m on g th e r r

en c on s i d e i n g th e ca pi ta l
f a w n f r a is of
p r od u c ti on B u t w h .
,
r

Of M nch st r a t h first r s ul t w
e s udd n d cr
e ,
”
in w st th m
“
e t e as a e e eas e a e, e en no

s ing why th y sh ld w st th ir w pr p rty y m r th n y th r

ee e ou a e e o n o e an o e a an o e

m st r a d w st is p rh p s n xt t b d d bts t h gr t st s urc
e 8 an a e fm ,
f t e a , e o a e , e ea e o e o a nu a c ur

i g l ss
n oTh s m p p r finds th t th m in d f ct in th R chd l
. e a e p r tiv a e a e a e e e o a e co o -
e a e

e x rim nts is this

pe Th y sh w d th t ss ci ti ns f w rkm n c ld m n g
e
“
e o e a a o a o o o e ou a a e

s h p mills d lm st ll f rms f ind stry with s cc s

o s, , an ad th y imm di t ly
o a o o u u e s , an e e a e

in p l d t h c nditi n f th m
r ov e ; b t th n th y did
e o t l v cl r pl c f
o o e en u e e no ea e a ea a e or

; t
n a s er s Q ll h rr r
. ue e o eu

1 P f s r C irns
r o es o ft r st ti g th t t h s p rint nd nc
a f l b r is
,
l ding
a e a n a e u e e e e o a ou a ea
 C0 Opem z i 0n
‘
-
.
3 2 3

i s t m od e of p r od u c t on , i h e, on th e c on tr a r y , tr eats th e w or k
o f c on tr ol m a d e n ec es s ar y b y th e c o- oper a ti v e ch ar a c ter of th e
la b ou r p r oc es s a s i d en ti ca l w i th th e r r , d i ffer en t w o k of c on t o l
n ec es s i tated b t h a i ta li s t ch a r a c ter of th a t pr oc es s a n d t h e
y e c p
a n ta g on i s m of i n ter es ts b etw een c a pi tali s t a n d la b our er It
1
.

i s n ot b ec a u s e h e i s a lea d er of i n d u s tr y th a t a m a n i s a
c api ta li s t ; on th e c on tr a r y , he i s a lea d er of i n d u s tr y b ec a u e s

he is a ca pi ta li s t . Th e lea d er s h i p of i n d us t r y i s an a t tr i b u te

j u s t a s i n feud al ti m es th e fu n c ti on s f g en e a l a n d
of c a p i tal, o r

j ud ge w er e a ttr i b u tes of lan d ed pr oper ty .

2

Th e lab our er i s th e ow n er of h i s lab our p ow er u n til h e h as -

d on e b ar g ai n i n g for i ts s ale w i th th e c a pi ta li s t ; a n d h e c a n
s ell n o m o e th a n w h a t h e h a s r h i s i n d i vi d u a l i s o ,

la ted lab our pow er T h i s s ta te of thi n g s i s i n n o w ay a lter ed

-
.

b y th e fa c t th a t th e c a pi tali s t i n s tea d of b uy i n g th e la b ou ,
r

o w r of on e m a n b uy s th a t of 1 00 a n d en ter s i n to s e par a te
p e , ,

c on tr a cts w i th 1 00 u n c on n ec ted m en i n s tea d of wi th on e . He

is at li b er ty t o s et th e 1 00 m en to w or k ,
w i th ou t letti n g th em
co o -

p er a te . He pay s th em th e v alu e of 1 00 i n d epen d en t

la b ou r pow er s b u t h e d oes n ot p ay for th e c om b i n ed lab our
-
,

fp o w er of th e h u n d r ed B ei n g i n d e p en d e n t o f ea ch oth er th e .
,

la b our er s i s ola ted p er s on s , w h o en ter i n to r ela ti on s w i th

ar e

th e c a p i tali s t, b u t n ot w i th on e a n oth er T h i s c o O per a ti on .

-

b egi n s only w i th the la b our pr oces s b ut t hey h av e th en c eas ed ,

to b elon g to th em s elv es On en ter i n g th a t p oc es s th ey b e . r ,

c om e i n c or por a ted w i th c a i ta l A s c o o er a t or s a s m em b er s
p p
-
.
,

of a w or k i n g or g a n i s m th ey a r e b u t s pec i al m od es of e x i s ten c e ,

of c a pi tal H en c e th e p r od u c ti v e p ow er d ev eloped b y th e
.
,

lab our er w h en w or k i n g i n co oper a ti on i s th e p r od uc ti v e -

,

f t r
ea u e o f p r d cti n by sl v s in t h S th rn St t s f N rth Am ric
o u o c ntin s a e e ou e a e o o e a, o ue

Th p nt p r pri t r ( f th N rth ) ppr pri ting th wh l pr d c f his t il

e ea sa o e o o e o , a o a e o e o u e o o ,

n dsee th r stim l s t x rti n S p rint nd nc is h r c mpl t ly disp ns d

no o e u u o e e o . u e e e e e e o e e e e

wi th ( C irn s l pp 4 8
.
”
a e , . c .
, .
,

Sir J m s St u rt writ r lt g th r r m rk bl f his q ick y f th

1 a e e a , a e a o e e e a a e or u e e or e

ch r ct ristic s ci l distincti ns b tw n di ff r nt m d s f p r d cti n s ys Why

a a e o a o e ee e e o e o o u o ,
a

d l rg
o nd rt kings in th m n f ct ring w y r in priv t ind stry b t by c ming
a e u e a e a u a u a u a e u , u o

n r r t th s i mplicity f sl v s ? ( Prim f P
ea e o e L nd 1 76 7 v I p o a e
” “
o ol o on , , . . .

1 67,
2 A g st C mt d his sch l might th r f r h v sh wn t h t f ud l l rds
u u e o e an oo e e o e a e o a e a o ar e

an e e t rn l n c ssity in th s m w y th t th y h d n in th c s f th l rd
a e e e a e a zf a e a ve o e e a e o e o s

o f c pit la a .
 '

Cap zta lzs t P r od uci z on

’ ’

3 2 4 .

p o w er of ca
p i tal . T hi s po w er i s d ev eloped gr a tu i tous ly ,
w h en
e v er th e w or k m en ar e
p la c ed un d er gi v en c on di ti on s , a n d it is
ca p i tal th a t pla ces t h em u n d er s uch c on d i ti on s . B ecaus e th i s
p ow e r c os ts ca i ta l n o th i n , a n d
p ec a u s e,
o n t h e g b oth er h an d ,

t h e la b our er h i m s elf d oes n ot d evelop it b efor e h i s la b ou r

b elon gs to c ap i ta l, it a
ppear s as a
p ow er w i th w h i c h c a pi ta l

is en d ow ed b y N a tu r e—a pr od u c ti v e p ow er th a t i s i mm a n en t
in ca
p i ta l .

Th e c olos s a l e ffec ts of s i m le
p cc -
O per a ti on ar e to b e s een in
th e g i ga n ti c s tr uc tur es of th e a n ci en t A s i a ti cs ,
Egy pti a n s ,

E tr us c a n s &c “
It h a s h a pp en ed i n ti m es pa s t th a t th es e
, .

O r i en ta l S ta tes a fter s up ply i n g th e ex pen s es of th ei r c i v il a n d

,

m ili ta r y es ta b li s h m en ts h a v e fou n d t h em s elv es i n p os s es s i on ,

of a s ur lu s w hi c h th e c o u ld a ply to w or k s of m a g n i fi c en ce
p y p
or u ti li t a n d i n th e c on s tr u c ti on of th es e th ei r c om m a n d o v er
y ,

th e h a n d s a n d a r m s of a lm os t th e e n ti r e n on a g r i c ult u r a l -

p p
o u la ti on h a s pr od u c ed s tu pen d ou s m on u m en ts w h i c h s ti ll
i n d i c a te th ei r pow er Th e teem i n g v a lley of th e N i le .

r od u c ed food for a s w a r m i n g n on a gr i c ultu r a l o u la ti on , a n d

p p p
-

th i s food , b elongi n g to t h e m on a r c h t h e pr i es th ood , a ffor d ed and

t h e m ea n s of g
er ec ti n g
th e m i h ty m on u m en ts w hi c h lled t h e fi
la n d . In m ov i n g th e c olos s a l s ta tu es a n d a s t m as s es of v
w h i ch the tr a n s por t c r ea tes w on d e r , h um a n la b our a lm os t
a lon e, w as pr od i gally u s ed . Th e n u m b e r of th e la b our e s a n d r

th e c on c en tra ti on o f th ei r effor ts s u ffi c ed We s ee m i gh ty c o a l. r

r eefs r i s i n g
fr om th e d ep th s of t h e oc ea n i n to i s la n d s a n d fi r m
la n d , y et ea ch i n d i v i d ua l d ep os i tor i s pu ny , w ea k , a n d con
t e m pti b le Th e n on a g r i c ultu r a l la b ou r er s of a n A s i ati c
.
-

m on a r ch y h av e li ttle b u t t h i r i n d i vi d u al b od i ly ex er ti on to e s

b i n g t o th e tas k b u t th ei n um b er i s th ei s tr en g th a n d th e
r ,
r r ,

owe of d i ec ti n g th es e m a s es g a v e r i s e to t h e a la c es a n d
p r r
p s

t e m ples t h e py r a m i d s a n d th e a r m i es of g i g a n ti c s ta tu es of
, ,

w hi c h th e r em ai n s a s ton i s h a n d pe plex u s It i s th a t c on r .

fi n e m en t of th e r e v en ues w h i c h feed th em , to on e or a few

h a n d s w h i c h m a k es
,
s u c h u n d er ta k i ngs p os s i ble .
” 1
T h i s pow er

R Jns
1 . T xt b k f L ctur s & pp 77 7 8 Th nci nt Assyri
o e . e -
oo o e e ,
”
c .
, .
, . e a e an ,

Egypti n d th r c ll cti ns in L nd n d in th r E r p n c pit ls m k

a , an o e o e o o o , an o e u o ea a a ,
a e

u y wi tn ss s f t h m d s f c rryi g
s e e e th t p r tiv l b r
e o e o e o a n on a co o e a e a ou
- -
.
 Cafi z fa li s t P r od uci z on
' ’

3 6 2 .

i t li t r oces s o f r od uc ti on It i s th e fi r s t c h a n g e exper i
ca
p a s p p .

en c ed b y t h e a c tual lab ou r r oces s w h en s ubj ec ted to c a pi ta l

p
-
,

T hi s c h an ge ta k es p lace s
p on tan eous ly . Th e s i m u lta n eou s

em l
p yo m en t o f a l g e n u m b er o f w a g e la b ou r er s i n on e a n d
ar -

th e s a m e p r oc es s w hi ch i s a n eces s ar y c on d i ti on of th i s ch a n ge,
,

als o for m s th e s ta r ti n g p oi n t p of c a p i ta li s t r od u c ti on . T h is
p oi n t c oi n ci d es w i th th e b i r th of ca pi tal i ts elf . If th en , on the
on e h an d , th e c a pi ta li s t
p p m od e of r od u c ti on r es en ts i ts elf to
us hi s tor i c all , a s a n eces s a r o n d i ti on to th e tr a n s for m a ti on
y y c

of th e la b our r oces s i n to a s oc i a l r oces s s o, on th e oth er h a n d

p p
-
, ,

thi s s oci al for m of th e lab our pr oces s p r es en ts i ts elf, as a m et hod -

em plo
y ed by ca pi ta l for th e m or e pr ofi ta b le ex ploi ta ti on of

la b ou r , b y i n cr ea s i n g th a t lab ou r s pr od u c ti v en es s
’
.

In th e elem en tar y for m , un d er w hi c h w e ha ve h i th er to

v i ew ed i t, co oper a ti on
-
is a n ec es sa r y c on c om i ta n t of a ll p ro

d u c ti on on a la r g e s ca le , b u t i t d oes n ot, i n i ts elf, re

p r es en t

a fix ed for m c h a r a c ter i s ti c of a
p ar ti c ula r epoc h i n th e d ev elop
m en t of th e c a pi ta li s t m od e of r od uc ti on
p . A t th e m os t i t
a
pp ea rs to d o s o, a n d th a t y pp on l a ro xi m a tely ,
i n th e h a n d i
c r a ft -
b egi nn i ngs
li k e of m a n ufa c tur e
1
,
an d i n th a t ki nd of

a g r i c ultu r e on a la g e s cale w h i ch cor r es pon d s to th e och of

r ,
e
p
m an ufa c tur e , an d i s d i s ti n gui s h ed fr om pea s a n t ag r i c ultur e,
m a i n ly b y th e n u m b er of th e la b ou r er s s i m ulta n eou s ly e m

lo
p y e d ,
a n d b y th e m as s of t h e m ea n s of
p r o d uc ti on c on

c en tr a ted S i m ple c o ope ati on i s a lw ay s th e

for th ei r us e .
-
r

r ev a i li n g for m i n th s e b r a n ch es of od u c ti on i n w h i c h
p o , p r

ca pi tal O er a tes on a la r g e s c a le a n d d i v i s i on of la b ou r a n d
p ,

m ach i n er y play b u t a s u b or d i n a te par t .

C o ope a ti on ev er c on s ti tu tes th e fun d am en tal for m of th e

-
r

ca pi ta li s t m od e of
p r od u c ti on ; n e e th eles s t h e elem e n ta r y v r ,

for m of c o oper a ti on c on ti n u es to s ub s i s t as a par ti c ular fo m

-
r

of ca pi ta li s t pr od uc ti on s i d e b y s i d e w i t h th e m or e d ev elop ed

for m s of th a t m o d e of p ro d ucti on .

Wh th r th unit d skill ind stry d m l ti n f m ny t g th r

e e e e th ,
u , an e u a o o a o e e on e

sam w rk b
e t th ow y t dv nc it And wh th r it h d b n th rwi s
e no e a o a a e ? e e a ee o e e

p ssibl f
o Engl nd t h v c rri d h W ll n M n f ct r t
e or a , ogr t p a e a e on er oo e a u a u e o so ea a er

(B rk l y Th Q rist L nd 1 750 p 56 p
? ” ”
f ti
ec on e e e . e ue . o on , , .
,
ar .
 D i r/ £3 2072 f
o L a éou r a nd M a nu ac
f mre .
3 2 7

C HA P T E R XIV .

D IV ISIO N O F L ABOUR AND MAN U F ACTUR E .

E
S CT I ON 1 .
—TW OFOLD O R I G IN or MANUFACT URE .

T H AT cc - op er a ti on b as ed on d i v i s i on of lab our a s s um es
w h i ch i s ,

i ts ty pi cal for m i n m an u fa c tur e a n d i s th e p r ev alen t ch ar a c ter ,

i s ti c for m of th e ca pi ta li s t pr oc es s of pr od uc ti on th r ou gh ou t
th e m an u fa c tur i n g per i od pr oper ly s o c alled T h at per i od .
,

r ou ghl s ea k i n g ex t en d s fr om th e m i d d le of th e 1 6 th t o th e
y p ,

las t th i r d of th e 1 8 th
y c en t ur .

M a n ufa ctu r e tak es i ts r i s e i n t w o w ay s

By th e a s s em b lag e i n on e w or k s h op ,
un d er t he c on tr ol

of a s i n gle c api tali s t ,

of la b our er s
var i ous i n d e b elongi n g to
n d n t h a n d i c a fts b n t th r ou g h w h os e h an d s a g i v en a r ti cle
p e e r ,

m u s t pas s on i ts w ay to c om pleti on A car ri ag e for ex am ple .

, ,

w a s for m er ly th e pr od u c t of th e la b ou r of a gr eat n u m b er of i n d e
n d n t ti fi u h w h lw r i gh ts h ar n es s m a k er s t ai lor s
p e e ar c er s s c a s ee -
, , , ,

loc k s m i th s ,
u ph ols ter er s , tur n er s , fr i n
g e

p oli s h er s , gi ld er s ,
&c . In th e m an u fa c tur e of car r i a g es ,
h ow
ev er ,
a ll t h es e di ffer en t a r ti fi c er s ar e a s s em bled in on e b ui ld
i n g, w h er e th ey w or k i n to on e a n oth er s h an d s It i s tr u e th at
’
.

g e c an n ot b e gi lt b efor e i t h as b een m a d e But i f a

a c ar r i a .

n u m b er of c a r r i a g es a r e b ei n g m a d e s i m u lta n eou s ly s om e m ay ,

b e In th e h an d s of th e gi ld er s w h ile oth er s ar e g oi n g th r ou gh a n
ea r li er So far , w e s ti ll i n th e d om ai n of s i m ple
p
r oc es s . ar e

c o- O per a ti on ,
w hi ch fin d s i ts m a ter i als r ea d y to h a n d i n th e
s h a p e of m en an dv er y s een an i m por tan t c h an ge
th i n gs . But
tak es pla c e Th e ta ilor th e loc k s m i th an d th e oth er a ti fi c er s
.
, ,
r ,

b ei n g n ow ex clus i v ely occupi ed i n ca r r i age m ak i n g ea ch g a d u -

,
r

a ll l o es th r o ugh w a n t of r a c ti c e th e a b i li t t o ca r y on to
y s , p y ,
r ,

i ts full ex ten t h i s old h an d i cr a ft

,
But on th e oth er h an d h i s .
, ,

a c ti v i ty n ow c on fi n ed i n on e gr oov e/ as s um es th e for m b es t

a d a ted to th e n a r o w ed s h er e of ac ti on
p p r A t fi r s t c ar r i age .
,

m an ufa c tu r e i s a com b i n a ti on of v a r i ous i n d epen d en t h an d i

c a fts
r . By d egr ees i t b ecom es th e s pli tti n g u p of car r i age
,
3 2 8 m
Ca i la /i s t P r od ucti on .

m a ki n g i n to i ts v a r i ous d eta i l pr oces s es each of w h i ch ,

c r s talli z es i n to th e ex clu s i v e f un c ti on of a r ti c u la r w o r k
y p a

m an , th e m a n u fa c tu r e a s a w h ole b ei n g car r i ed on b y th e m en , ,

in j
con u n c ti on . In th e s am e w ay , c loth m an u fa c tur e, as a ls o a

w h ole s er i es of oth er m an ufa c tu r es ,

a r os e by c om bi ni n g
d i ffer en t h an d i c r afts tog eth er u n d er th e c on tr ol of a s i n gle

c api ta li s t
1
.

M a n ufa c tu r e als o a r i se s in a x ac tly th e r ev er s e

w ay e of

th i s — n a m ely , b y on e c a pi tali s t em ploy i n g s i m ulta n eou s ly in

on e w or s h o
p a n u m e k
r of a r ti fi c er s , w h o b a ll d o th e s a m e, or

th e s am e k i n d of w or k ,
s u ch a s m ak i n g pa per ty pe, ,
or n eed les .

T hi s i s co O er a t i
p
-
on i n i ts m os t elem en ta r y for m . E ach of

th es e a r ti fi c er s
( w i th t h e h elp,
p er h a s ,
p of on e or tw o a
pp r en

t i c es ), m a k es th e en ti r e c om m od i ty , an d he c on s e quen tly
p er for m s in s u cc es s i on a ll th e op er a ti on s n ec es s a r y for i ts
p ro d u c ti on . He s ti ll w or ks i n h is old h an d i c r a ft li k e w ay -
.

But v er y s oon e x ter n al c i r cum s tan ces ca u s e a d i ffer en t u s e to

b e made of th e c o n cen tr a ti on of t he w or k m en on on e s p o t, a n d

of the s i m ulta n eous n es s of th ei r w or k . An i n cr ea s ed qua n tity

of th e a r ti c le h as per h a ps to b e d eli v er ed w i th i n a g i v en ti m e .

Th e w or k i s th er efor e r e d i s tr i b u ted I n s tea d -

. of each m an
b ei n g allow ed to per for m a ll th e a r i ou s Op er a ti on s i n s uc c es v
s i on , t h es e op er a ti on s a r e c h a n ge d i n to d i s c onn ec ted , i s ola ted

on es , c a r r i ed on side by side ; ea c h is ass i gn ed to a d i ffer en t

a r t i fi cer , a n d g eth er a r e per for m ed s i m ul
th e w h ole of t h em to
t an eou s ly b y th e c o oper a ti n g w or k m en T hi s a cci d en tal -
.

r epar ti ti on g ets r e ea ted d ev elo es a d v a n ta g es of i ts ow n a n d

p p , ,

gr a d ua lly os s i fies i n to a s y s tem ati c d i v i s i on of la b our Th e .

1 To i gv
m r m d rn inst nc Th silk s pinning d w ving f Ly ns d
e a o e o e a e : e an ea o o an

Nim s t t t p tri rc l ; ll mpl i b c p d f mm s t d f t m is

e es ou e a a a e e e e o e ea u ou e e e e
’
en a n s , a

s ns l é puis r i l c rr mpr
a es ll l l iss d ns l r b ll s v llé s d l Drom
e n es o o e e e es a e a eu e e a e e a e,

d V u cl us p u r y él v r d v rs t dévid r l rs c c ns j m is
’
du V d lI é ar , e s r e, e a e, o e e es e e e eu o o a a

ell t d ns u
’
e n en r e e i t b l f briq a P r etr ssi bi n bs rvé
ne v rl p rincip a e a ue . ou e au e o e e e

d l divisi n d u tr v il y c r ct er pe i l Il y bi n d dévid s s ’ ’
e a ét d
o a a s r ev un a a e s c a . a e es eu e ,

d m lin urs d
es ou t i turi rs d nc ll rs p is d tiss r nds m is ils s nt p
e ,
es e n e ,
es e o eu ,
u es e a a ne o as

ré nis d ns u m em é t bliss m nt
u a n dé p nd t p d m em m i tr ; t s ils
e a e e ,
ne e en as
’
un e a e ou

sont indé p nd nts ( A Bl q i C rs d E Ind stri ll

e a .
”
R c illi p A . an u ou
’
con . u e e.
”
e ue ar .

Bl i s P ris 1 838 39 pp
a e. a Sinc Bl q i wr t this th v ri us i d p nd nt
,
-
, . e an u o e ,
e a o n e e e

l b r rs h v t s m xt nt b n nit d in f ct ri s [And sinc M rx wr t

a ou e a e, o o e e e ,
ee u e a o e . e a o e

th b v th p w l m h inv d d th s f ct ri s nd is
e a o e, e o w —
er oo1 88 6 —r p i dl y as a e e e a o e , a no a

sup rs di ng t h h ndl
e e m ED ] e a oo . .
33 0 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

th e r es olu ti on of a h an d i c r a ft i n to i ts s u cc es s i ve m an u al
o
p er a ti on s p l . W h eth e
e x or s i m le, ea c h o er a ti on h a s
p p r c om

to b e d on e b y h an d , r eta i n s th e c h ar ac ter of a h an d i cr a ft, a n d

i s th er e for e d epen d en t on th e s t r en gt h s k i ll, qu i c k n es s a n d , ,

s ur en es s , of th e i n di i d u a l w orv k man i n h an d li n g h i s to ols .

Th e ha n d i c r a ft con ti n u es to b e th e bas i s . T hi s n a r r ow

tec hn i c al b as i s e x clu d es a r ea ll
y s c i en ti fi c a n aly s i s of any

d efi n i te pr oc es s of i n d us tr i a l pr od uc ti on , s i n c e i t i s s ti ll a con
d i ti on th at ea c h d eta i l pr oc es s g on e th r ou g h b y th e pr od u c t
m ust b e ca pa ble of b ei n g d on e b y h an d an d of for m i n g , i n i ts
w ay , a s epa r a te h an d i cr a ft It i s j us t b ecaus e h an d i cr a ft s k i ll
.

c on ti n ues ,i n th i s w ay , to b e th e foun d ati on of th e pr oces s of

r od u c ti on th a t ea ch w or k m a n b ecom es ex clus i v el as s i gn ed
p , y
to a
p ar ti a l fun c ti on ,
an d th a t for th e r es t of h i s li fe, h i s la b our

p o w er i s tu r n ed i n to t h e or ga n of th i s d eta i l fun cti on .

S econ d ly ,
th i s d i i s i onv of lab our i s a
pa r ti c ular s or t of c o

O per ati on a n d m any of i ts d i sa d v an ta ges s pri ng

,
fr om th e
g en er a l char ac ter of co oper a ti on an d n ot fr om th i s -
, p ar ti c ula r

for m of it .

SE C TI ON 2 —THE D E TA IL L ABOU RE R AN D
. H IS I MPLEM E NTS .

If w e n ow go m or e i n to d eta il, i t i s i n th e fi r s t pla c e , , c lear

th a t a la b ou r er w h o a ll h i s li fe per for m s on e a n d th e sa me
s im l e o er a ti on con v er ts h i s w h ole b od y i n to th e a u tom a ti c
p p , ,

s ec i a li s ed i m lem en t of th a t o er ati on
p p p C on s equ en tl
y h e .
,

ta k es les s ti m e i n d oi n g i t th a n th e ,
a r ti fi cer w h o per for m s a
w h ole s er i es of oper a ti on s in s uc ces s i on . But th e c ollecti e v
lab ou r er w h o , th e li i n g m ec h a n i s m of m a n u fa c tu r e,
c on s ti tu t es v
is m a d e u p s olely of s u ch s pec i ali s ed d eta i l la our er s H en ce, b .

in c om pa r i s on w i th th e i n d ep en d en t h an d i c r a ft, m or e i s
p ro

d u ced i n a gi v en ti m e, th e pr od u cti e p ow er of la ou r i s
or v b
i n cr eas ed .
1
M or eov er ,
w h en on ce th i s fr a cti on a l w or k i s es
ta b li s h ed as p
th e e x clus i v e fun c ti on of on e er s on , th e m eth od s
i t em ploy s b ecom e per fected Th e w or k m a n s c on ti n ued
’
.

Th m r
1 “
y m n f ct r
e f m ch
o e an ri ty sh ll b distri b t d d ssig d
a u a u e o u va e a e u e an a ne

t di ff r nt rtists th s m m st n ds b b tt r d n
o e e a ,d with gr t r x p diti n
e a e u ee e e e o e an ea e e e o ,

with l ss l e f tim d l b r
es s
( Th Adv nt g s f th E t Indi Tr d
o e an a ou .
” “
e a a e o e as a a e,
”

L nd 1 720 p
o .
, . .
 D i oi s i ou o f L u oour ou d M n uf aa ctu r e .
33 1

re
p eti ti on of th e s a m e s i m ple a c t, a n d th e c on cen tr a ti on of his
a tt en ti on i t, tea ch h i m b y ex per i en c e h ow to a ttai n th e
on

d es i r ed effec t w i th th e m i n i mu m of ex er ti on But s i n c e t h er e .

a r e a lw a
y v er a l g en e a ti on s of la b our er s li v i n g a t on e ti m e
s se r ,

a n d w or k i n g tog eth er a t t h e m an u fa c tur e of a g i ven a r ti cle ,

th e tec h n i ca l s k i ll th e tr i ck s of th e tr a d e th u s a c qu i r ed ,

b ecom e es tab li s h ed a n d a r e a c cu m ula ted a n d han d ed d ow n ,

.

M a n u fa c tu r e i n fa c t pr od uc es th e s k ill of t h e d etai l la b our er

, , ,

b y r epr od u c i n g a n d s y s tem a ti c ally d r i vi n g t o a n ex tr em e

,

w i th i n th e w or k s h op th e n a tu a lly d ev elope d d i ffer en ti a ti on of ,

r

tr a d es w h i c h i t foun d r ea d y to h a n d i n s oc i ety a t la g e
,
On r .

th e oth er h a n d th e c on v er s i on of f ac ti on al w or k i n to t h e li fe
,
r

c alli n g of on e m a n c o r es pon d s t o th e ten d en cy s h ow n b y ,

r

ear li er s oci eti es to m a k e tr a d es h er ed i ta r y ; ei th er to p etr i fy

,

th em i n to c as tes or w h en ev er d efi n i te h i s tor i c a l con d i ti on s ,

b eg et i n the i n d i v i d ua l a ten d en cy to va r y i n a m an n er i n c om
p a t i b le w i th t h e n a tu r e of ca s tes to os s i fy t h e m i n to g u i ld s ,
.

Ca s tes a n d g ui ld s ar i s e fr om th e a c ti on of th e s am e n a tur a l
la w th at r eg ula tes th e d i ffe en ti a ti on of plan ts a n d a n i m a ls
,
r

i n to s p ci es a n d v a r i eti es ex c ep t tha t w h en a c er tai n d eg ee

e , ,
r

o f d ev elo m en t h a s b een r ea c h ed t h e h e ed i ty of cas tes a n d

p ,
r

th e ex clu s i v en es s of g u i ld s a r e o d a i n ed a s a la w of s oci ety r .

Th e m us li n s of D a kk a i n fi n en es s th e cali coes an d oth er pi ece ,

g ood s of C or om an d el i n b r i lli a nt a n d d ur ab le c olour s h a v e ,

n ev er b een s u d Y t th r o d u c ed w i th ou t c a p i ta l
p as s e e e
y a re
p r .
,

m ac hi n er y d i v i s i on of la b our or a n y of th es e m ea n s w h i c h
, , .

g i v e s uch fa ci li ti es to th e m an u fa ctur i n g i n ter es t of E ur ope .

Th e w eav er i s m er ely a d eta c h ed i n d i v i d ual w or k i n g a w eb ,

1 “ E sy l b r is tr smitt d skill ( Th H d g ki l c p
a a ou an e . . o s n, . . .

2 Th rts ls h v e a in Egy pt r ch d th r q isit d gr f p r f cti n

a o a e ea e e e u e e ee o e e o .

F it is t h nly c ntry wh r ti fi
or e o m y t in y w y m
ou ddl w i th t h e e ar c er s a no an a e e e

aff i rs f
a th r cl ss f citi s b t m st f ll w th t c lling l n which by l w is
o ar o e a o z en ,
u u o o a a a o e a

h r dit ry in th ir cl n
e e a In th r c ntri s it is f nd th t tr d sm n divid
e a . o e ou e ou a a e a e

th ir tt nti n b tw n t m ny bj cts At
e a e o tim th y try gric lt
e ee oo t a o e . on e e e a u ur e, a

an th r th y t k t c mm rc t n th r th y b sy th ms lv s wi th tw
o e e a e o o thr e e, a a o e e u e e e o or ee

occ p ti ns t nc In fr c ntri s th y m stly fr q nt th ss mbli s f th

u a o a o e . ee ou e ,
e o e ue e a e e o e

p p eol e In Egy p t t h c ntr ry v ry ti fi is s v r ly p u nish d,

i fonh e o a , e e ar c er e e e e e

m ddl s with ff irs f St t

e e c rri s a s v r l tr d s t nc Th s th r is
a o a e , or a e on e e a a e a o e . u e e

n thi g t dist rb th ir pplic ti n t th ir c lling

o n o u M r v r sinc th y i
e a a o o e a . o eo e ,
e e n

h rit fr m th ir f r f th rs n m r us r l s th y
e o e g r t disc v r fr h
o e a e u e o u e ,
e ar e ea e o o e es

adv nt g s (B i d rns Si ulu Bibl Hist l 1 c

a a e . e e c s : . . . . .
 Cup i tutzlvt P r od ucti on
'

33 2 .

w h en or d er ed of a c u s tom er , a n d w i th a loom of th e r u d es t

g s om eti m es of a few b r a n ch es or b ar s of
c on s tr uc ti on , con s i s ti n

w ood p ut r ou g hly tog eth er

, T h er e i s ev en n o ex ped i en t for .

r olli n g u p th e w a r p ; th e loom m u s t th er efor e b e k ept

s tr etc h ed to i ts fu ll len g th a n d b ec om es s o i n con v en i en tlv ,

lar g e th a t i t c an n ot b e c on tai n ed w i thi n th e h u t of th e

,

m a n ufa c tur er , w h o i s th e r efor e t o ply h i s tr a d e i n c om p elled

th e open a i r , w h er e i t i s i n ter r u ted b

p y e er
y v i c i s s i tu d e of v
It i s only th e s peci al s k i ll a cc u m u la ted fr o m
”1
th e w ea th er .

g en er ati on to g en er a ti on a n d tr a n s m i tted fr om fa th er to s on , ,

t h a t gi v es to t h e H i n d oo a s i t d oes to th e s pi d er th i s p r o , ,

fi c i en cy An d y et th e w or k of s u ch a H i n d oo w ea v er i s v e y
. r

c om li c a ted c om a r ed w i th th a t of a m an u fa c tu r i n g la b ou r er
p p ,
.

An a r ti fi c er w h o p er for m s on e a fter a n o th er th e v a r i o us
,

fr a c ti on a l oper ati on s i n th e p r od u c ti on of a fi ni s h ed a r ti c le ,

m u s t a t on e ti m e c h a n g e h i s place a t a n oth er hi s tools The ,

.

t r a n s i ti on fr om on e o
per a ti on to a n oth er i n ter r upts th e flow
of hi s la b our , an d cr ea tes , s o to y sa ,
ga p si n h i s w or k i n g d ay .

T hes e ga ps c los e u p s o s oon as he is ti ed to on e a n d th e s a m e

o
p er a ti on a ll d ay lon g ; th ey v an i s h i n pr opor ti on as th e
ch a n g es i n h i s w or k d i m i n i s h . Th e r es ulti n g i n c r eas ed p r o
d u c ti v e pow er i s ow i n g ei th er to a n i n c r ea s ed ex pen di tur e
of la b ou r ow er i n a g i v en ti m e — i t o i n c r eas ed i n ten s i t
p e y
-
.

of la b ou r — or to a d ec r eas e i n th e a m ou n t of la b ou r w r un
p o e -

p ro d u c ti v ely c on s u m ed . Th e e x tr a x pen d i t ur e
e of
p ow er,

d em a n d ed b y ev er y tr a n s i ti on fr om r es t to m oti on , i s m a d e u p
for b y pr olon g i n g t h e d ur a ti on of th e n or m al v eloc i ty w h en
on c e qu i r ed On th e oth er h an d c on s ta n t lab our of on e
ac .
,

u n i for m k i n d d i s tu r b s t h e i n ten s i ty a n d fl
’
ow of a m an s a n i m a l

s i r i ts w h i ch fi n d r ec r ea t i on a n d d eli g h t i n m er e c h a n g e of
p ,

Th e pr od u c ti v en es s la b ou r d ep en d s n ot on ly on th e pr o
of

fi ci en cy of th e w or k m an , b ut on th e p er fec ti on of h i s t ools .

T ools of th e s am e ki n d ,
s uc h as k n i v es ,
d r i lls , gi m lets ,
ham
m er s , &c .
, m ay b e em lo
p y ed i n d i ffer en t
pr oces s es ; an d t he

1 Hist ric l d scrip tiv cc nt f Brit Indi & by H gh M rr y

o a and e ea ou o . a, c . , u u a a nd Jm a es

Wils n & Edinb rgh 1 83 2 v II p 44 9 Th Indi n l m is pright

o , c .
, u . . . . . e a oo u , i . e
.
, th e
w rp is str t h d v rtic lly
a e
c
e e a .
3 34 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

in ki n d m or eov er , p lay v er y d i s ti n c t pa r ts i n t h e s ub
,
an d ,

s equ en t tr a n s for m a ti on of m a n ufa c tu r e i n to m od er n i n d us tr y

c a r r i ed on b y m a c hi n er y T h i s d oub le ch a r a c ter a r i s es fr om
.

th e n a tur e of th e a r ti c le p r od uc ed T hi s a r ti cle ei th er r es ults .

fr om th e m er e m ech an i ca l fi tti n g tog e th er of pa r ti al p r od u c ts

m a d e i n d epen d e ntly , or ow es i ts c om pleted sha to a s er i es of
p e

c on n ec ted pr oc es s es a n d m a n i p u la ti on s .

A locom o ti v e for i n s tan ce, ,

c on s i s ts of m or e th an 5 000 i n d e
p en d en t
p a r ts . It ca n n ot, h ow ev er , s er ve as an e xa m ple of

th e fir s t ki n d of g en u i n e m an u fa c tur e, for i t i s a s tr u c tu r e

p ro d u ce d b y m o d e r n m ech a n i c a l i n d us tr
y B u t a w a tc h ca n .

a n d W i lli am P etty us ed i t to i llu s tr a te th e d i v i s i on o f la b ou r

i n m a n u fa c tur e F or m er ly th e i n d i v i d ua l w or k of a Nu r em
.

be g r a r ti ficer , been tr a n s fo m ed i n to th e s oc i al
th e w a tc h h as r

r od u c t of a n i m m en s e n u m b e of d eta il la b ou er s s u ch a s
p r r ,

m a i n s pr i n g m a k er s d i a l m ak er s s pi r al s pr i n g m a k er s j ew elled
, , ,

h ole m a k er s r uby lev er m a k er s h a n d m a k er s c a s e m a k er s

, , , ,

s c r e w m ak er s g ild er s w i th n u m er ou s s ub d i v i s i ons s uch as

, ,
-
,

w h eel m a k er s ( b r as s a n d s teel s e pa r a te) pi n m a k e r s m ov em en t , ,

m a k e s a c h ev eu r d e p i g n on ( fixes th e w h eels on th e a x le
r ,
s,

p oli s h es th e fa c ets
p i v o t m a
,
k er s p l a n t e ur d e fi n i s s a g e ,

( p s th e w h eels a n d s p i n gs i n t h e w or k s ) fin i s s eur d e b a r illet

u t r ,

( c u t s t ee th i n t h e w h e el s m a k es t h e h o les o,
f th e r i g h t s i z e ,

es ca e m en t m a k er s c li n d er m a k e s for c li n d e es ca e
p y , y p r r

m en ts es c a pem en t w h eel m a k er s b a la n c e w h eel m a k er s r a

, , ,

q u e t t e m a k e rs
( pp
a a r a t u s fo r r e g u la ti n g t h e w a t c h ) t h e ,

p l a n teu r d éc h a
pp
’
em e n t ( e s ca
p e m e n t m a k e r p p )o er t h e n t h e r

r e a s s eur d e b a r i llet fi n i s hes th e b ox for th e s r i n g

p ( p ,

s teel p oli s h e s w h eel r

p o li
,
s h e rs s c r e w p oli s h e r s fig u r e , p a i n t e s ,
r
,

d i al en a m elle s ( m elt th e en a m el on th e c oppe ) fa b i c a n t d e

r r ,
r

en d a n ts ( m a k es th e r i n g b h i h h h g i
p y w c t e c a s e i s u n ) fi n s s e u r ,

d e c h a n i er e ( puts th e b r a s s h i n g e i n th e c ov er
r fai s eu r d e ,

s ecr et ( p uts i n th e s r i n g s t ha t o en th e ca s e g r a v eu r c i s eleu r

p p ) , , ,

p o li s s e ur d e b o i te & c & c a n d ,
l a s t o.f a
,
ll th .e ,
ep as s eu w h o r r,

fi ts t og eth er th e w h ole w a tc h a n d h a n d s i t ov er i n a g oi n g
s ta te . O n ly a fe w pa r ts of th e w a tch pas s th o ugh s ev e a l r r

h a n d s ; a n d a ll th es e m em b a d i j ec ta c om e tog eth er for th e r s

fi s t t i m e i n th e h a n d th a t b i n d s th em i n to on e m ec h a n i cal
r
 D i v i s i on of L uoour an d Ma nuf a ctur e. 335

w h ole . T hi s e x ter n al r ela ti on b etw een th e fin i s h ed p ,

ro duct
an d i ts vari ous an d di v er s e elem en ts m ak es i t, as w ell i n th i s
cas e a s i n th e ca s e of a ll s i m ila r fin i s h e d a r ti cles , a m a tter of

c ha n c e w h eth er th e d etail la b our er s ar e b r ough t tog eth er i n

on e k s h op or n ot Th e d eta il oper ati on s m ay fur th er b e
w or .

c ar r i ed on li k e s o m a n i n d e en d en t h a n d i cr a fts a s th e
y p y ar e ,

in th e C a n ton s of Va u d a n d Neu c h atel ; w h i le i n Gen ev a th er e

ex i s t la r g e w a tch m a n u fa c tor i es w h er e th e d eta i l la b our e r s

d i r ec tly c o oper a te u n d er th e c on tr ol of a s i n gle c ap i tali s t

-
.

An d ev en i n th e la tter c as e th e d i al th e s pr i n g s a n d t he cas e , , ,

a r e s eld om m a d e i n t h e fa c tor y i ts elf . To c a r r y on th e t r a d e

as a m a n u fa ctur e, w i th con cen tr a ti on of w or k m en ,
i s , i n th e
w a tch tr a d e, p r o ta le on ly fi b
x c epti on al c on d i ti on s b e u n d er e ,

c a u s e com eti ti on i s
p g
r ea ter b etw een th e lab our er s w h o d es i r e
t o w or k a t h om e a n d b ec a u s e t h e s pli tti n g u p of th e w or k
,

i n to a n u m b er of h eter og en eous pr oc es s es p er m i ts b u t li ttle ,

us e of th e i n s tr um en ts of la b our i n c om m on a n d th e c a i t a li s t
p ,

b y s ca tter i n g th e w or k s a v es th e ou tlay on w or k s h ops & c , ,

.

N ev er th eles s th e pos i ti on of thi s d etai l la b our er w h o th oug h ,

h e w or k s a t h om e d oes s o for a ca pi tali s t ( m an ufa c tur er , ,

éta b li s s eu r ) i s v er y d iffer en t fr om th a t of th e i n d epen d en t

,

a r ti fic er w h o w or k s for h i s ow n c u s tom er s
2
, .

Th e s ec on d k i n d of m an u fa c tur e i ts p er fec ted for m pr o , ,

d u ces ar ti cles th a t go th r ough conn ec ted ph as es of d ev elop

1 In th y r 1 854 G n v pr d c d
e ea w tch s which is t e fi fth f th
e a o u e a e ,
no on e -
o e

p r d cti n i
o u th C nt n f N u ch at l
o n L Ch u x d F nd l n
e a which w m y
o o e e a a e- o a o e, e a
-
.

l k pn
oo u h g w tch m nuf ct ry p r d c s y rly twic
o as a u e a m ny G n v a a o , o u e ea e as a as e e a.

Fr m 1 850 61 G n v pr duc d
o -
w tch s S
e R p rt fr m G n v
e a o th e a e . ee e o o e e a on e

W tch T d in R p rts by H M S cr t ri s f Emb ssy d L g ti n th

a ra e
” “
e o . .
’
s e e a e o a an e a o on e

M n f ct r s C mm rc & N 6
a u a u e , oTh w nt f c nn xi n l n b tw n
e e, c .
, o. , e a o o e o a o e, e ee

t h p r c ss s int which th p r d cti n f rticl s th t m r ly c nsist f p ts fitt d

e o e e o e o u o o a e a e e o o ar e

t g th r is split up m k s it v ry di ffic lt t c nv rt s uch m n f ct r int

o e e , a e e u o o e a a u a u e o a

br nch f m d rn ind stry c rri d by m chin ry b t in th c s f w tch th r

a o o e u a e on a e u e a e o a a e e

ar e tw th r imp dim nts in dditi n th mi t n ss d d lic cy f its p rts d

o o e e e a o ,
e nu e e an e a o a , an

its ch r ct r
a a rticl f l x ry H nc th ir v ri ty which is s ch th t in th
e a s an a e o u u . e e e a e ,
u , a e

b st L nd n h s s sc rc ly d z n w tch s
e o o ou e m d lik in th c rs f y r
a e a o e a e ar e a e a e e ou e o a ea .

Th w tch m n f ct ry f M ssrs V h
e a a u aC nst ntin in which m chin ry h
o o e . ac er on o a ,
a e as

b n m pl y d with s ucc ss p r d c s t th m ost thr

ee e o e f u r diff r t v i ti s f
e ,
o u e a e ee or o e en ar e e o

i
s z e and f rm o .

2 In w tchm king th t cl ssic l x m pl f h t r g n s m f ct r w m y

a a , a a a e a e o e e o e eo u an u a u e, e a

st dy with gr t cc r cy th b v m nti n d diff r nti ti n d sp ci lis ti n f

u ea a u a e a o e e o e e e a o an e a a o o

th instr m nts f l b u c
e u e d by th b divisi n f h ndicr fts
o a o r au s e e su -
o o a a .
3 3 6 Cap i ta li s t P r od ucti on .

m en t, th r oug h p a s er i es of r oc es s es s te b
p y s te
p li,
k e th e w i r e

i n th e m a n u fa c tur e of n eed les , wh i c h pas s es t h r ou g h th e h a n d s

of 7 2 a n d s om eti m es ev en 9 2 d i ffer en t d e ta i l w or k m en .

In so fa r as s uch a m a n u fa c tu r e w h en ,
fir s t s ta r ted , c om

bi n es s catter ed h a n d i cr a fts i t les s en s th e s pa ce b y w hi ch th e ,

v a r i ous ph as es of pr od uc ti on a r e s epa a ted fr om ea ch o th e r r .

Th e ti m e tak en i n pa s s i n g fr om on e s tag e to a n oth er i s

s h or ten ed s o i s th e la b o u r tha t e ffec t ua tes t h i s a s s age I 1

n
, p .

c om a i s on w i th a h a n d i c a f t
p r
p r od u c ti v e
p o w er i s g a i n ed a n d r , ,

th i s g a i n i s o w i n g to th e g e n er a l co ope a ti v e c h a a c ter o f -
r r

m a n u fa c tu e On th e oth er h a n d d i v i s i o n o f la b ou w h i c h i
r .
,
r, s

th e d i s ti n g ui s h i n g p r i n c i ple of m a n ufa c tur e r eq ui es th e i s ola ,

r

ti on of t h e v a r i ous s ta g es of pr od uc ti on a n d t h ei r i n d epen d
en c e of e a c h o th er . Th e es ta b li s h m en t a n d m a i n ten a n ce of a

c on n e x i on betw een th e i s ola te d f un c ti on s n eces s i ta tes t he i n

ces s a n t tr a n s por t of th e a r ti c le fr om on e h an d to a n oth er , a n d

fr om p on e r oces s to a n oth er . F r om th e s tan d

p oi n t o f m od er n
m ech a n i c a l i n d us tr y , thi s n eces s i ty s ta n d s for th as a c h a r a c ter

i s ti c a n d c os tl
y d i s a d va n ta g e, a n d on e th a t i s i m m a n en t i n t h e

p i i
r nc
ple of m a n u fa c tur e .
2

If w e fi n e our a tten ti on to s om e pa r ti c ula r lot of r a w

con

m a ter i als of r a g s for i n s ta n c e i n pa per m a n u fa c tu r e or of

, , , ,

w i r e i n n eed le m a n u fa c t ur e w e p er c ei v e t h a t i t pas s es i n ,

s u c c es s i on t h r oug h a s er i es o f s ta g es i n th e h a n d s of t h e
v a r i ou s d eta i l w or k m en u n ti l c om leti on On t h e oth er h a n d
p .
,

i f w e look a t th e w or k s h op a s a w h ole w e s ee th e r a w m a ter i a l ,

i n a ll t h e s ta g es of i ts pr od u c ti on a t th e s a m e ti m e Th e c ol .

lec ti v e la b our er w i t h on e s et of h i s m a n y h a n d s a r m ed w i th
,

o n e k i n d of tools d r a w s t h e w i e w i th a n oth er s et ar m ed
,
r , ,

w i th d i ffer en t t ools h e a t t h e s a m e t i m e s tr a i g h ten s i t w i th

, , , ,

a n o ther , he c u ts i t w i th a n oth er , i n t i t, an d s o on Th e
, p o s .

d i ffer en t d etai l pr oces s es , w h i ch w er e s u c c es s i ve i n ti m e, h a ve

b ecom e s i m ulta n eou s go on s i d e b y ,
s i de in s
pa ce . H en ce ,

1 In cl s c h bit ti n f th p pl th c rri g m ust n d b l ss ( Th

so o e a o a a o o e eo e, e a a e ee s e e .
“
e

A dv nt g s f th E st Indi Tr d p
a a e o e a a a e,
”
.

2 “Th is l ti n f th di ff r nt st g s f m
e o a o f t o q t p n th
e m e e a e o a n u a c ur e , . cons e u en u o e e

p l y m nt
o f m n l l b r
e o dds imm ns ly t th c st f pr d cti n th l ss
a ua a ou , a e e o e o o o u o , e o

m inly rising fr m th m r r m v ls fr m pr c ss t n th r
a a o Th Ind u t ry
e e e e o a o on e o e oa o e .
”
e s

f N ti ns L nd 1 855 P rt I L
”
o a o . o .
, . a ,
33 8 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

i
s n c e, to e x pr es s our s el es v p su er fi ci ally ,
each
p s in gle r od u c er

is o bli ged to s ell hi s com m od i ty at i ts m a r k et pr i ce . In

Man ufa ctur e ,
on th e con tr a r
y ,
th e tu r n i n g o ut of a g i v en
qu an t um of
p r od u c t in a gi v en ti m e i s a tec h n i cal la w of th e

p f r od u c ti on i ts elf
r o c es s o
p .
1

D i ffer en t oper a ti on s tak e, h ow ev er ,

q
u n e u al per i od s , a n d y i eld
th er efor e, i n e q ual t i m es u n e ual q quan ti ti es of fr a c ti on al pr o
d u cts . If th er efor e th e
, ,
sa m e la b ou r er h a s ,
d ay a fter d ay , to
p er for m t he s am e o
p er a ti on , th er e m u s t b e a d i ffer en t n um be r

o f la b ou r er s for ea c h o er a ti on for i n s tan c e, i n ty pe m a n ufac

p
tu r e , th er e ar e four foun d er s an d tw o b
k er s to on e r ubb er
r ea

th e fou n d er ca s ts ty p e an h our th e b r ea k er b r eak s u p

,

and t he ru bb e r
p oli s h es H e r e w e h a v e a g a i n th e
l of c o o er a ti on i n i ts s i m les t for m , th e s i m ulta n eous
r i n ci
p p e
p p
-

em lo m en t of m a n
p y y d o i n g t h e s a m e th i n g on l y n o w ,
th i s

p r i n ci
ple i s th e e x pr es s i on of a n or g an i c r ela ti on . Th e d i v i s i on
of lab ou r , as car r i ed ou t i n Ma n u fac tur e, n ot on ly s i m li
p fies an d
m u lt ipli es th e quali ta ti v ely d i ffer en t pa r ts of th e s oc i al c ollec
ti v e la b ou r er , b ut a ls o c r ea tes a fix ed m a t h em ati c al r ela ti on or

r a ti o g ula tes th e qua n ti ta ti ve e xten t of th os e pa r ts

w h i ch re

i e th e r ela ti v e n u m b er of la b our er s or th e r ela ti v e s i z e of th e

f
. .
, ,

gr oup of lab our er s for each d etai l oper a ti on It d ev elopes ,

.
,

a lon g w i th th e q u a li ta ti v e s ub di vi s i on of th e s oci a l la b our -

p r oc es s a q u an ti ta ti v e r ule
,
a nd
p pr o o ti on ali t
y f or t h at r

p r oc es s .

W h en p on ce b e th e m os t
en ex p er i fi tti n g re
por ti on h as
m en tally es ta b li s h ed for th e n um b er s of th e d etai l lab ou r er s i n
th e v a ri ous g ou ps w hen p od u c i n g on a g i v en s ca le th a t s ca le
r r ,

c a n b e ex ten d ed on l b m l i n g a m u lti p le of ea c h p a ti c u
y y e p yo r

la r g oup “
T h er e i s th i s to b oot th a t th e s a m e i n d i vi d u al ca n
r .
,

1 N v rth l ss
e m n uf ct ri g syst m in m y br nch s f ind stry tt ins
e e e , th e a a u n e , an a e o u , a a

this r s lt b t v ry imp rf ctly b c s it kn ws t h w t c tr l w ith c rt inty

e u u e e e ,
e au e o no o o on o e a

th g n r l ch mic l
e e d p h y sic l c nditi ns f t h p r c ss f p r d cti n
e a e a an a o o o e o e o o u o .

Wh n (fr m th p c li r t r f th pr d c f ch m n f ct ry ) th m
2 e o e e u a na u e o e o u e o ea a u a o , e nu

b f p r c ss s int which it is m st dv nt g
er o o e e s t divid it is sc rt in d w ll
o o a a a eou o e a e a e , as e

as th n mb r f individ
e ls t b mpl y d th n ll th r m n f ct ri s which d
u e o ua o e e o e , e a o e a u a o e o

n t m pl y
o dir ct m ltipl f this n mb r wi ll pr d c th rticl t gr t r c st
e o a e u e o u e o u e e a ea a ea e o .

H nc ris s f th c
e s s f th gr t siz f m f ct ri g st blish
e a e on e o e au e o e ea e o an u a u n e a

m ts ( C B bb g
en . On th Ec n my f M chin ry l t d L nd n 1 832
. a a e. e o o o a e ,
”
s e . o o , .

Ch xxi p 1 72 1 73
. .
, .
-
 D i v i s i on o
f L a oou r a nd M a n u a ctu r e
f .
3 39

do c er tai n k j us t a s w ell on a la r g e a s on a s m all

ki n d s Of w or
s ca le for i n s tan ce th e lab ou r et s up er i n ten d en ce th e c ar r i ag e
,
~
,

Of th e fr a c ti on al r od u c t fr om on e s ta g e to th e n ex t & c T h
p e , .

i s olati on Of s uch fu n c ti on s , th ei r a llotm en t to a pa r ti cula r

lab ou r er , d oes n ot b ecom e a d va n tag eous ti ll a fter an i n cr ea s e i n

th e n um b er Of lab ou r e s em ploy ed ; b ut th i s i n cr eas e m u s t
r

a ffec t e v e y g r oup pr opor ti on ally

r .

Th e i s olated g r ou p of lab ou r er s to w h om a n y p ar ti c ula r

d eta i l fun c ti on i s a s s i g n ed i s m a d e u p Of h om og en eous ele ,

m en ts , an d is on e Of th e c on s ti tu en t
p a r ts Of th e total
m ech an i s m . In m an y m an u fa ctu r es , h ow ev er th e
gr o up i ts elf ,

i s a n or g a n i s ed b od y of lab our th e tota l m ech a n i s m b ei n g a ,

r e eti ti on
p or m u lti p li ca ti on o f t h es e e le m e n ta r
y o r g a n i s m s .

T a k e for i n s tan ce th e m an u fac tur e Of g las s b ottles

, ,
It m ay .

b e r es olv ed i n to th r ee es s en ti a lly d i ffer en t s tag es F i r s t the .

,

p r eli m i n a r
y s ta g e c on s i s t i n g of t h e p p
r
,
e a r a ti on of t h e c om

on en ts of th e gla s s m i x i n g th e s a n d a n d li m e &c a n d m elti n g

p , ,
.
,

th em i n t o a flui d m as s of glas s Var i ous d etai l lab our er s a r e .

1

e m loy e d i n thi s fi r s t s tag e a s a ls o i n th e fi n a l on e Of r em ov i n g

p ,

the b ottles fr om th e d r y i n g fur n a ce s or ti n g a n d pa c ki n g th em , ,

85 0 In th e m i d d le b etw een th es e tw o s tag es com es th e gla s s

.
, ,

m elti n g pr oper th e m an i pula ti on Of th e fl ui d m as s

,
At ea ch .

m outh Of th e fur n a c e th er e w or k s a g r ou p called ,

th e h ole ,
“
,

c on s i s ti n g of on e b ottlem a k er or fi n i s h er on e blow er on e , ,

g ath er er on e pu tter up or w h etter Off,a n d on e ta k er i n T h es e

,
- - -
.

fi v e d etai l w or k er s a r e s o m a n y s peci al or g an s Of a s i n gle

w or k i n g or g a n i s m th a t a c ts on ly a s a w h ole a n d th er efor e ca n ,

Op er a te on ly b y th e d i r ec t co oper ati on Of th e w h ole fi v e Th e -

.

w h ole b od y i s par a ly s ed i f b ut on e Of i ts m em b er s b e w an ti n g .

Bu t a gla s s fur n a c e h as s ev er al open i n g s ( i n E nglan d fr om 4 to

ea c h of w h i ch con tai n s a n ear th en w ar e m elti n g t f u l l f
p o o -

m olten glas s a n d em ploy s a s i m i lar fi v e m em b er ed g r ou p Of

,
-

w or k er s Th e or gan i s a ti on of eac h g r ou p i s b as ed on d i vi s i on
.

Of la b ou r b u t th e b on d b etw een th e d i ffer en t g r oups i s s i m p le

,

c O O er a ti on w h i ch b u s i n g i n com m on on e of th e m ea n s Of
p y
-
, ,

1 In Engl nd th m lting f rn c is distinct fr m th gl s f rn c in which th

a , e e -
u a e o e a s- u a e e

gl ss is m nipul t d In B lgi um
a a d th
a e s m furn c s rv s f b th
. e ,
on e an e a e a e e e or o

p r c ss s
o e e .
34 0 Cap i ta ti s t P r od ucti on .

d u c ti on , th e fur n a c e, c a u s es i t to b e m or e econ om i ca lly c on

p ro

su m ed . S uch a fur n a ce, w i th i ts 4 6 ”

-
g r ou ps ,
c on s ti tu tes a

glas s h ous e ; a n d a g la s s m a n u fa c tor y c om pr i s es a n u m b er Of

s uc h g la s s h ou s es tog eth er w i th t h e a p par a tus a n d w or k m en
,

re qui s i te for th e pr epa r a tor y and fi n al s tages .

F i n a lly j us t a s M a n u fa c tur e a r i s es i n par t fr om th e c om b i n a

,

t i on of v a r i ous h a n d i c r a fts s o too i t d ev elopes i n to a c om b i n a , , ,

t i on of v a r i ou s m a n u fa c tu es Th e lar g er E n g li s h g las s r .

m an u fa c tu r er s for i ns ta n c e m a k e th ei r o w n ear th en w a e
, ,
r

m elti n g p ots b ec a us e on th e q u ali ty Of th es e d epen d s to a

-
, , ,

gr ea t ex ten t th e s uc ces s or fa i lur e of t h e pr oc es s Th e m a n u

,
.

fa c tur e o f on e of th e m ea n s Of p ro d u c ti on i s h er e u n i ted w i th
th a t of th e pr od uc t . On th e oth er h a n d , th e m an ufa c tur e Of
th e pr od u c t m ay b e u n i ted w i th oth er m a n u fac tu r es Of w h i c h ,

th a t pr od u c t i s th e r a w m a ter i a l, w i th th e pr od uc ts Of w h i ch
or

i t i s i ts elf b s eq uen tly m i x ed

su . T h u s , w e fi n d th e m a n u fa c tur e
Of fl i n t g la s s c om b i n ed w i th th a t Of g la s s c u tti n g a n d b r a s s

foun d i n g ; th e la tter for the m etal s etti n gs Of v a r i ous a r ti cles

of g la s s Th e v a i ou s m a n u fac tur es s o com b i n ed for m m or e or
. r

les s s e pa r a te d epa r tm en ts Of a la r g er m a n ufa c tur e b ut a r e a t ,

the s am e ti m e i n d epen d en t pr oces s es , ea c h w i th i ts ow n

di vi s i on of la ou r b In s pi te Of th e m an y
. ad van tages O ffer ed b y
t hi s c om bi n ati on Of m a n u fa c tur es , i t n ever g r ow s i n to a c om ple te
t ec h n i c a l s y s tem on i t s o wn foun d a ti on T h a t ha pp en s on ly .

on i ts tr a n s for m a ti on i n to a n i n d u s tr r r i ed on b m a hi n
y c a y c er
y .

E ar ly i n th e m a n u fa c tu r i n g per i od , th e p r i n c i ple Of les s en i n g

th e n ec es s a r
y la b ou r ti m e i n th e
p r od u c ti on Of c omm od i ti es ,
- l

w as a ccepted a n d for m u la ted and th e u s e Of m a c h i n es ,

es pec i

a ll f cer ta i n s i m l fi rst r o c es s es th a t h a v e to b e c on d u c ted

y or
p e p
on a v e y la ge r r s ca le, a n d w i th t h e a
pp li c a t i on o f g r ea t fo r c e,

s r ang u
p p h er e an d
p th er e . T h us ,
at an ea r ly e r i od i n p a p er
m a n ufa c tur e, th e tea r i n g u p of t h e r a gs w a s d on e b y pa per
m i lls ; a n d i n m eta l w or k s th e poun d i n g Of th e or es w a s ,

effected by s ta mp i n g m i lls .
2
Th e R om a n E m pi r e h a d h an d ed
1This b s n fr m W P tty J hn B ll rs Andr w Y
ca n e ee ot Th Ad . e ,
o e e ,
e a r r an on , e

v nt g s f th E st Indi T d
a a e O d J V d li t
e at t m nti n th rs a ra e, an . an er n , no o e o o e .

2T w rds th d f th l 6 th c nt ry m rtars d si v s w r still us d in Fr nc

o a e en O e e u , o an e e e e e a e

f p nding
or ou d w shing r s an a o e .
 Cap zZ a /zs z P r od ucti on
'
‘

34 2 .

e x c ellen ce, all th e q uali ti es re q u i s i te

for pr od u c ti on an d ex ,

p en d s th em i n th e m os t ec on omi ca l m a n n er b y ex clu s i v ely ,

e m lo i n g
p y g of par ti cular lab our er s or
all hi s or gan s ,
c on s i s ti n ,

gr ou ps of lab our er s i n per for m i n g th ei r s pec i al fun cti on s ,

.
1

Th e on e s i d edn es s an d th e d efi ci en ci es of th e d eta i l lab our er

-

b ecom e per fecti on s w h en h e i s a par t of th e c ollec ti v e lab ou r er .

2

Th e h ab i t of d oi n g on ly on e th i n g c on v er ts h i m i n to a n ev er
fa i li n g i n s tr um en t w h i le h i s c onn ex i on w i th th e w h ole m e ,

c h an i s m c om els h i m to w or k w i th th e r eg u la r i t f th a r ts
p y o e p
”
of a m a c hi n ef
Si n ce th e c ollec ti v e la b our er h as fun cti on s b oth s i m ple an d ,

c om lex
p b o t h h i g h a n d l ow
,
h i s m e m b e rs t h e i n d i v i d u al , ,

lab our p ow er s r eq ui e d i ffer en t d eg ees of t a i n i n g a n d m u s t

-
,
r r r ,

th er efor e h a v e d i ffer en t v a lues Ma n u fa c tu r e th er efor e d e .

, ,

v elo es a h i er ar ch
p y o f l a b o u r
p o w e r s to w hi c h th e e co es -
,
r rr

p o n d s a s c a le o f w a g es If o n th e o n e h a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l .
, ,

lab ou r er s a r e a ppr opr i ated a n d a n n ex ed for li fe b y a li m i te d

fun c ti on on th e oth er h a n d th e v a r i ous O per a ti on s of th e ,

h i er a c h y a r e pa r c elled out a m on g th e la b our er s a c cor d i n g to

r

b oth th ei r n atur al a n d th ei r a c qui r ed c apab i li ti es E v er y .

4

p r oc es s of
p r o d u c ti on h ow ev e r r e q u i r e s c e r ta i n s i m p le m a n i p , ,

1
m st r m n f ct r r by dividing th w rk t b x c t d int di ff r nt
Th e a e a u a u e , e o o e e e u e o e e

p r c ss s
o e ch r quiri g diff r nt d gr s f skill
e , ea f f rc
e p rch s n x ctly e e e ee o or o o e , ca n u a e e a

th t pr cis q ntity f b th which is n c ss ry f

a e e ua ch pr c ss ; wh r s i f th
o o e e a or ea o e e ea , e

wh l w rk w r x c t d by
o e o w rkm n th t p rs n m st p ss ss s ffici nt skill
e e e e u e on e o a ,
a e o u o e u e

t p r f rm th m st di ffi c lt
o e o d s ffici t str ngth t
e x c t th m st l b ri s f
o u , an u en e o e e u e e o a o ou o

p r ti ns i t which th rticl i di id d ( Ch B bb g l ch xviii ) ”

th e o e a o n o e a e s v e . . a a e . . c .
, . .

F 2 inst nc bn rm l d v l p m nt f s m m scl s c rv t r f b n s &

or a e, a o a e e o e o o e u e ,
u a u e o o e , c .

Th q sti n put by
3 e f th Inq uiry C mmissi n rs H w th y u g p rs ns
ue o on e o e o o e , o e o n e o

ar e k pt st dily t th ir w rk is v ry c rr ctly nsw r d by Mr l M rsh ll th

e ea o e o , e o e a e e . . a a , e

g n r l m n g r f gl ss m nuf ct ry Th y c nn t w ll n gl ct th ir w rk
e e a a a e o a a a a o : e a o e e e e o

wh n th y nc b gin th y m st g
e e ; th y
o j t th s m
e e p rt s f
, e u o on e ar e us e a e as a o a

m chia Childr n s Empl

ne .
” “
4 th R p 1 86 5 p e
’
. e .
, , .

Dr U in his p th sis f M d rn M ch ni l Ind stry brings t th p c uli r

4 . r e, a o eo o o e e a ca u , ou e e a

ch r ct r f m n f ct r m r sh rply th n pr vi s c n mists w h h d t his p l

a a e o a u a u e o e a a e ou e o o , o a no o e

mic l int r st in th m tt r d m r sh rply v n th n his c nt mp r ri s— B bb g

a e e e a e , an o e a e e a o e o a e a a e,

e.g wh th gh m ch his s p ri r
.
, o, m th m tici n d m ch ici n tr t d m
ou u u e o as a a e a a an e an a , ea e e

ch i l ind stry fr m th st ndp int f m n f ct r

an c a u l n U s ys Th is ppr
o e a o o a u a u ea o e . re a , a o

p i ti
r a t ch w rkm n f ppr pri t v l
on o ea d c st w n t r lly ssign d
, a o a o a o a e a ue an o as a u a a e ,

f rms th v ry ss nc f divisi n f l b ur On t h th r h nd h d scrib s this ”

o e e e e e o o o a o . e o e a , e e e

divisi n d p t ti n f l b ur t th diff r nt t l nts f m

o as a a a d l stly ch r c
o o a o o e e e a e o en ,
”
an a , a a

t i th wh l m n uf ct ri g syst m
er s es e syst m f th divisi n gr d ti n f
o e a a u n e as a e or e o or a a o o

l b ur
a o th divisi n f l b ur i t
, as d gr s f skill & (U l pp 1 9 23
“
e o o a o n o e ee o ,
”
c. r e, . 0 . .
-

p ssim )
a .
 D i v i s i on o f L a bou r a nd M f
a u u a cl u r e .
34 3

a la ti on s , w h i ch e v er y m an i s c a pa b le Of d oi n g . T h ey t oo
a r e n ow s e v er ed fr om th ei r c onn e x i on
w i th th e m or e p r e g
n an t m om en ts of a c ti vi ty ,
a n d os s i fied i n to e clus i e fun c x v
t i on s of s ec i all
py a ppoi n ted
,
la b ou r er s . Hen ce Man u fa c tu r e
begets , i n ever y h an d i c r aft tha t i t s ei z es u pon a clas s of s o ,

c alled un s k i lled la b our er s , a clas s w h i ch h a n d i cr a ft i n d us tr

y
s tr i c tly ex c lu d ed . If i t d ev elopes a on e s i d ed s -

p ec i ali ty i n to a

p er fec ti on , at th e e x pen s e Of th e w h ole of a m an

’
s w or i n k g
c a pa c i ty , it a ls o b eg i n s to m a k e a s pec i ali t
y of th e a b s en c e Of
a ll d evelopm en t . Alon g s i d e g r a d a ti on th er e
of th e hi er a r chi c
s te th e s i m le s epar a ti on of th e la b our er s i n to s k illed a n d
p s
p
u ns ki lled . F or th e latt er th e c os t of a ppr en ti c es h i p v a n i s hes
,

for th e for m er i t di m i n i s h es , , c om
p a r ed w i th th a t of a r ti fi cer s ,

in quen ce of th e fu n c ti on s b ei n g s i m pli fi ed In b oth

c on s e .

c a s es th e v a lu e of lab our ow er falls A n ex c e ti on t o th i s

1
p p
-
.

la w h old s g ood w h en ev er th e d ecom pos i ti on of t h e la b our

r oces s b eg ets n ew a n d c om r eh en s i v e fun c ti on s t h a t ei th er
p p .
,

h a d n o pla ce a t all or on ly a v e r y m od es t on e i n h a n d i cr a fts

, , .

Th e fall i n th e v alu e of la b ou r p ow er cau s ed b y th e d i s ap -

,

ar a n c e or d i m i n u ti on of th e ex p en s es of a pp r en ti c es hi p i m
p e ,

li d i r ec t i n cr eas e Of s ur lu s v a lu e for t h e b en efi t o f
p es a p
-

c a i tal ; for ev er y thi n g th a t s h or ten s th e n ec es s ar y la b our

p
t i m e r equ i r ed for th e r epr od u cti on Of la b ou r pow er ex ten d s th -
,

d om a i n of s ur plus lab our -

.

SE CT I O N 4 .
—D IVISIO N or LAB O UR I N M ANUF ACTURE ,
AND DIVISI ON or

LAB O UR IN OC I E TY
S .

We fir s t c on s i d er ed th e or i gi n Of Man uf ac tur e, th en i ts
sim l l m en ts , th en th e d eta il la b our er a n d h i s i m lem en ts
p e e e p ,

a n d fi n a ll , t h e tota li t
y y Of th e m e c h an i s m W e s h a ll n o w .

li gh tly tou c h upon th e r elati on b etw een th e d i v i s i on Of lab ou r

i n m an ufa c tur e, a n d th e s oc i al d i v i s i on of la b ou r , w h i ch for m s
th e foun d a ti on of a ll r od u c ti on of c om m o d i ti es
p .

If w e k eep lab our a lon e in v i ew ,

w e m ay d es i n a te th e g
s epa r a ti on Of s oci a l p r o d u c ti on i n to i ts m ai n d i i s i on s or v
en er a — v iz a gr ic ultur e i n d u s tr i es , &c as d i v i s i on of la b ou r
g .
, , .
,

1 E ch h ndicr ftsm n b ing

a a n bl d t
a a e e a e o p e fe r ct hims lf by p r ctic in
e a e on e

po int b c m
, e a ch p r w rkm n (U l
e a ea e o a .
”
r e, . c .
, p .
 Cup ua lz s z P m a ud w u ’
'
‘ ‘

3 44 .

in g en er al ,
an d th e s pli tti n g u p of th es e fa m i li es i n to s peci es
and s ub -
s peci es , as d i v i s i on Of lab our i n
p ar ti cu la r , a n d th e

d i v i s i on of la b our w i thi n th e w or k s h op as d i vi s i on Of la b our in

s in g u la r or i n d etai l .
ll

D i v i s i on Of lab ou r i n a s oci ety , a n d th e c or r es

p on d i n g ty i n g
d ow n of i n d i vi d u a ls to a p a r ti c u la r c a lli n g ,
d evelopes i ts elf,
j us t a s d oes th e d i v i s i on of la b ou r i n m an ufa c tur e, fr om o
pp os i t e

s ta r ti n g p oi n ts . W i th i n a fa m i ly ,
2
an d a fter fur th er d ev elop
m en t w i thi n a tr i b e t h e e s pr i n gs
,
r u
p n a tu r a ll
y a d i v i s i on Of

lab our , c au s ed b y d i ffer en c es of s ex a n d a ge, a d i vi s i on th at i s

c on s e u en tly q ba s ed on a pu ely r h
p y s i ologi c a l fou n d a ti on , w h i c h

di v i s i on en la r g es i ts m a t er i a ls b y th e e x pan s i on of th e c om

m u n i ty b y t he i n cr ea s e of p op u la ti on
, ,
and m or e es
p ec i a lly , by
th e c on fl i c ts b etw een d i ffer en t t r i b es ,
an d th e bj ugati on of
su

on e tr i be by a n oth er . On t h e ot h e r h an d , as I h a v e b efor e
r e m ar k ed ,
th e e x ch a nge Of p r od u cts s
p rin gs u
p at th e p oi n ts
w h er e d i ffer en t fa m i li es , tr i b es c omm u n i ti es
, ,
c om e i n c on ta c t
for , i n th e b eg i n n i n g of c i v i li s a ti on i t i s n ot , p ri v a te i ndi
v i d uals b u t fa m i li es , tr i b es ,
&c , th at m eet
. on a n i n d e en d en t
p
footi n g . D i ffer en t c om m u n i ti es fi n d d i ffer en t m ea n s p of ro

d uc ti on ,
an d d i ffer en t m ea ns of s u b s i s ten ce i n th ei r n a tu r a l en

v i r on m en t . H en ce ,
th ei r m od es of
p ro d u c ti on , and Of li vi n g,
an d th ei r pr od u c ts ar e d i ffer en t It i s thi s on ta n eous ly de
.
p s

v elop ed d i ffer en c e w h i ch , w h en d i ffer en t c om m un i ti es c om e in

c on ta ct, c a lls for th t h e m u tu a l e x ch a n g e Of p r o d u c ts , a n d th e
Divisi n f l b r pr c ds fr m th s p r ti n f pr f ssi ns th m st wid ly
1 o o a ou o ee o e e a a o O o e o e o e

diff r nt t th t divisi n wh r s r l l b r rs divid b tw n th m th p r p r ti n

e e o a o , e e ev e a a ou e e e ee e e e a a o

f d th s m p r d ct in m n f ct r ( St rch C rs d E P l ” ’
o on e a n e a e o u , as a u a u e . o ou con . o .

P ris Ed t I p
a n N s r nc ntr ns ch z l p pl s p rv nus a c rt in
. . .
, . ou e o o e es eu e a e nu e a

d gr é d civilis ti n tr is g nr s d divisi ns d i d t i l p r mi er q n s
e e a o o e e e o
’
n us r e a e e, ue ou

n mm r ns g é n ér l m en l distincti n d p r d ct rs
o e o gric lt rs m nu
a e, a e a o es o u eu en a u eu ,
a

f ct ri rs t mm g ll r p p rt x tr is princip l s br nch s d i d t i ’
a u e e co er an s , e e se a o e au o a e a e n us r e

n ti n l l s c nd qu n p r it pp l r spé ci l t l divisi n d ch q g nr
a o a e a e o e,
’
o ou r a a e e a e , es a o e a ue e e

l tr isi em divisi n d i d t i c ll fi q n d vr it
’ ’
d i d t i pé
’
n u s r e en e s c es . a o e o n us r e, e e en n u o e a

q lifi r d divi si n d l b s gn
ua e e d tr v il p r p r m nt dit o t c ll q i ét b li t
e a e o e ou e a a o e e ,
es e e u s
’
a

d s l rts t l méti rs sép r é s

an es a q i ét b li t d ns l p l p rt d
e es m n f ct r s
e a . u s
’
a a a u a es a u a u e

et d t li rs ( Sk b k l pp 84
es a e e . ar e . . 0 . .
,

N t t th third diti n S ubs q nt v ry s rching st dy f th p rimitiv

2 o e o e e o . e ue e ea u o e e

c nditi n f m l d th th r t th c ncl si n th t it w
o o o an , t th f mily th t
e e au o o e o u o , a as n o e a a

ori gin lly d v l p d int th trib b t th t th c ntr ry th trib w th primi

a e e o e o e e, u a , on e o a , e e as e

tiv d sp nt n sly d v l p d f rm f h m n ss ci ti n
e an o a eou th b sis f bl d e e o e o o u a a o a o , on e a o oo

r l ti shi p d th t t f th first incipi nt l s ning f th trib l b nds th

e a on , an a ou o e e oo e O e a o , e

m y and v ri u s f rms f th f mily w r

an a ft r w rds d v l p d
o ( Ed 3 d d )
o O e a e e a e a e e o e . . r e .
34 6 Cap i i a li s i P r od ucti on .

A r e at l i v ely th i n ly pop ulated c oun tr y , w i t h w ell d ev elop ed -

m ea n s of c om m un i c a ti on , h a s a d en s er o ula ti on th a n a m or e
p p
n um er ous l
y p p o ula te d c ou n tr
y, w i th b a d ly d ev elop e d m ea n s of -

c om m u n i c a ti on ; a n d i n th i s s en s e th e N or th er n S ta tes Of th e

A m er i ca n U ni on for i n s ta n c e , ,
ar e m or e thi ckly populated th an
In d i a .
I

S i n ce th e pr od uc ti on an d th e ci r c ula ti on of com m odi ti es ar e

th e gen er a l pr e r eq u i s i tes Of th e c a pi tali s t m od e of p r od u cti on
-
,

d i v i s i on of la b ou r i n m an u fa ctur e d em an d s th a t d i v i s i on Of ,

lab our i n s oc i ety a t la r g e s h ould pr ev i ous ly h av e a ttai n ed

a c er ta i n d egr ee Of d ev elopm en t I n v e s ely th e for m er . r ,

di v i s i on r eac ts u p on a n d d ev elop es a n d m ulti pli es th e

la tter S i m ulta n eou s ly w i th th e differ en ti ati on of th e i n
.
,

s tr u m en ts of la b our th e i n d u s tr i es th at pr od u ce th es e i n
,

s tr u m en ts b ec om e m or e a n d m or e d i ffer en tia ted

,
If th e .
2

m a n u fa c tur i n g s y s tem s ei z e u pon a n i n d us tr y w h i ch pr e , ,

v i ou s l w a r r i ed on i n con n ex i on w i th oth er s i th er as a
y s ca , e ,

ch i ef or as a s ub or d i n a te i n d us tr an d b ne r od u c er th es e
y y o
p , ,

i n d u s t i es i mm ed i a t ly s epa r a te th ei r con n ex i on a n d b ec om e
r e ,

i n d ep en d en t If i t s ei z e u pon a pa r ti cular s tag e i n th e pr o

.

d uc ti on Of a c omm od i ty th e oth er s ta ges Of i ts pr od uc ti on ,

b ecom e con v e ted i n to s o m any i n d epen d en t i n d us tr i es It

r .

h a s a l ea dy b een s ta ted th a t w h er e th e fi n i s h ed a ti cle c on

r ,
r

s i s ts m er el
y o f a n u m b er of p a r ts fi tted t og e th e r t h e d eta i l ,

O per a ti on s m ay r e es ta bli s h th em s elv es a s gen ui n e a n d s ep

-

a r a te h a n d i cr a fts . In or d er to ca rr y out m or e per fec tly th e

d i v i s i on of la b our i n m an u fac tur e ,
a s i n gle b r a n ch of pr o

d u c ti on i s ,
a cc or d i n g to th e v ar i eti es of i ts r aw m a ter i a l, or th e
v a r i ous for m s th a t on e a n d th e s am e r aw m a ter i a l m ay a s s um e,
s
p li t u p i n t o n u m er ou s , an d to s om e ex ten t, en ti r ely n ew

m a n ufac tu r es . A c cor d i n gly i n F r a n c e ,

a lon e, i n th e fir s t h alf
Of th e 1 8 th c en tu r y , o v er 1 00 d i ffer en t k i n d s of s i lk s tuffs

In c s qu nc f th gr t d m nd f c tt n ft r 1 861 th pr d cti n f
1 on e e e o e ea e a or o o a e , e o u o o

c tt n in s m thickly p pul t d districts f Indi w xt nd d t th xp ns f

o o , o e o a e o a, as e e e a e e e e O

ric c ltiv ti n I c ns q nc th r r s l c l f m i n th d f ctiv m ns f

e u a o . n o e ue e e e a o e o a a s , e e e e ea O

c mm nic ti n t p rmitting th f il r f ric in

o u a o no di strict t b c m p ns t d
e e a u e O e on e o e o e a e

by imp rt ti n fr m n th r
o a o o a o e .

Th s th f bric ti n f shuttl s f rm d
9 u ,
e a rly th 1 7th c nt ry sp ci l
a o o e o e , as ea as e e u , a e a

br nch f industry in H ll nd
a o o a .
 D i v i s i on o f L uoour a nd Ma nuf a oi u r e .
34 7

w er e w o v en ,
an d, i n A v i gn on , i t w as la w , tha t
v er y appr en e

ti ce s h ould d ev ote h i m s elf to on ly on e s or t of fa b i ca ti on a n d r ,

s h ould n ot lear n th e r a ti on of s ev er a l k i n d s of s tu ff a t
p pr e a

on ce . Th e ter r i tor i a l d i v i s i on Of lab our w h i c h con fi n es ,

s ec i al b a n ch es Of d ti t i l d i t i t f t
p p r
r o u c o n o s p ec a s r c s O a c o u n y r ,

a c q u i r es fr es h s ti m u lu s fr o m th e m an u fa ctu r i n g s s tem w h i c h
y ,

ex ploi ts ev e
y ps eci al a d va n ta g er T h e C o l o n i a l s y s te m an d .
1

th e open i n g out of th e m a r k ets of th e w or ld b oth Of w hi c h ,

a r e i n clu d ed i n th e g en e a l con d i ti on s of ex i s ten ce of th e r

m a n u fac tu r i n g per i od fu r n i s h r i c h m a te i a l fo ,
d ev elopi n g r r

th e d i v i s i on of lab ou r i n s oc i ety It i s n ot th e plac e h e e to go .

,
r ,

on to s h o w h o w d i v i s i on of la b our s ei z es u on n ot on l t h e
p y ,

e con om i c a l b u t ev er o th er s h er e of s oci et a n d ev er y w h er e
y , p y ,

lay s th e foun d ati on of th at a ll en gr os s i n g s y s tem of s pec i a li s

i ng a n d s or ti n g m en th a t d ev elopm en t i n a m an Of on e s i n g le ,

fa c ulty at th e ex pen s e of a ll oth er fa c ulti es w hi ch c au s ed A ,

.

F er g u s on th e m a s ter Of A d a m S m i th to ex clai m
,
We m ake ,

a n a ti on of H elots an d h av e n o f ee c i ti z en s
”2
,
r .

But i n s pi te of th e n u m er ous a n a log i es an d li n k s c onn ec ti n g

,

th em d i v i s i on of lab our i n th e i n ter i or of a s oc i ety a n d th a t

, ,

i n th e i n ter i or of a w or k s h op d i ffer n ot on ly i n d egr ee b u t , ,

als o i n k i n d Th e a n alogy a ppear s m os t i n d i s puta b le w h er e

.

th er e i s a n i n v i s i ble b on d u n i ti n g th e va r i ous b r a n ch es Of
tr a d e F or i n s tan ce th e c attle b r eed er pr od u c es h i d es th e
.
, ,

tan n er m a k es th e h i d es i n to lea th er a n d th e s h oem ak er th e , ,

lea th er i n to b oots H e r e t h e th i n g pr o.d u c e d b y eac h o f t h em

i s b u t a s tep tow ar d s th e fi n al for m w h i c h i s th e pr od uc t of ,

a ll th ei r la b our s com bi n ed T h er e a r e b es id es a ll th e var i ous .

, ,

i n d us tr i es th a t s u pply th e c attle b r eed er th e tan n er a n d th e -

, ,

s h oem a k er w i th th e m ean s of
p r od uc ti on N ow i t i s q ui te .

os s i b le to i m ag i n e w i th A d a m S m i th th a t th e diffe en c e b e
p , ,
r

t w een th e a b ov e s oc i al d i v i s i on Of la b our a n d th e d i vi s i on i n ,

1 Wh th r th w ll n m nuf ct r f Engl nd is t di vid d int s v r l p rts

“
e e e oo e a a u eO a no e o e e a a

or br nch s ppr pri t d t p rticul r pl c s wh r th y

a e a o nly princi p lly
a e o a a a e , e e e ar e o or a

m n f ctur d fi cl ths in S m rs tshir c rs in Y rkshir l g lls t Ex t r

a u a e ne o o e e e, oa e o e, on e a e e ,

s i s t S udbu ry cr p s t N rwich lins ys t K nd l bl nk ts t Whitn y d

o e a , a e a o , e a e a , a e a e , an

so f rth o ( B rk l y
. Th Q rist 1 7 50 p
”
e e e
“
e ue ,
”
, .

A F rgu n H ist ry f Civil S ci ty Edinburgh 1 76 7 ; P rt i s ct u

2 . e so : o o o e .
”
,
a v ,
. e . .
,

p 285
. .
34 8 Cufii m/i s i P r od ucti on .

m a n u fa c tu r e, is m er ely su bj ecti v e ,
e x i s ts m er ely for th e
O b s er ver ,
w h o, i n a m a n ufa c tur e, can s ee w i th on e glan c e ,
a ll

th e O per a ti on s b ei n g per for m ed On on e s pot w h i le

n u m er ou s ,

i n th e i n s tan c e g i v en a b ov e th e s pr ea d i n g ou t Of th e w or k ,

o v er g r ea t a r eas a n d th e g r ea t n u m b er Of l em loy ed i n
e
p po e p ,

ea ch b r a n c h of la b our O b s c ur e th e c on n exi on Bu t w h a t i s 1
, .

i t th at for m s th e b on d b etw een th e i n d ep en d en t la b our s Of

t h e c a ttle b r eed er th e tan n er a n d th e s h oem a k er ? It i s th e
-
, ,

fa c t th at th ei r r es pec ti v e p r od uc ts a r e c om m od i ti es W h a t on .
,

t h e oth er h a n d c h a r a cter i s es d i v i s i on of lab ou r i n m an u fa c tu r es ?

,

Th e fa ct th a t th e d eta i l la b our er p r od u c es n o c om m od i ti es 2
.

It i s on ly th e c om m on pr od u c t of all t h e d eta i l la b ou r er s th a t
b ecom es a c om m od i ty D i v i s i on of la b ou r i n a s oci ety i s .
3

b r ough t a b ou t b y th e pur c h as e a n d s a le of t h e pr od u cts of

d i ffer en t b r an c h es Of i n d u s tr y w hi le th e c on n ex i on b etw een ,

1In m nuf ct r pr p r h s ys th divisi n f l b ur pp rs t b g t r

a a u e o e , e a , e o O a o a ea o e r ea e ,

b c s th s mpl y d i n v ry diff r nt br nch f th w rk

e au e
“
o e e Oft n b l
o e e e e e a O e o ca n e e co

l t d int th s m w rkh
ec e o s d p l c d t nc und r th vi w f th s p ct t r
e a e o ou e , a n a e a o e e e e o e e a o .

I th s gr t
n o e t h c ntr ry which
ea d stin d t s pply th on e o a , ar e e e o u e

gr t w nts f th gr t b dy f t h p pl v ry di ff r nt br nch f th w rk
ea a o e ea o O e eo e, e e e e a o e o

e mpl ys gr t n mb r f w rkm n th t it is imp ssibl t c ll ct th m ll int

o so ea a u e o o e , a o e o o e e a o

th s m w rkh us th divi si n is t n r bvi s ( A Smith W lth ” “

e a e o o e e o no ea so o ou . . : ea

f N ti ns bk i h i ) Th c l br t d p ss g in th s m ch pt r th t b gins with
”
O a o , . . o . . e e e a e a a e e a e a e a e

th w rds
e o Obs rv th cc mm d ti n f th m st c mm n ti fi
, e e d yl b r r ea o o a o o e o o o ar c er or a a ou e

in civiliz d d thrivi g
a e d th n p r c ds t d p ict wh t
an n rm s
n an e o ee o e a an e o ou

nu mb r d v ri ty f ind stri s c ntrib t t th s tis f cti n f th w nts f

e an a e o u e o u e o e a a o O e a o an

o rdin ry l b r r is c pi d lm st w rd f w rd fr m B d M d ill R m rks

a a ou e ,
o e a o o or o o . e an ev e s
’
e a

t his
o F bl f th B s a Priv t Vic s P blick B n fits ( First d with ut
e O e ee , or a e e , u e e . e . o

th r m rks 1 7 06
e e awith th r m rks ,
e e a ,

Th r is l ng r nything which w
2 e e c ll th e n t ur l r w rd f individ u l
no o e a e ca n a a a e a o a

l b r E ch l b r r pr d c s nly s m p rt f wh l
a ou . a a d
ou e ch p rt h vi g o u e o o e a O a o e, a n ea a ,
a n no

vl tili ty in its l f th r is n thing which th l b r r

a u e or u s iz
e d , y e e o on e a ou e can e e, a n sa

It is my p r d ct this I will k p t mys lf

o u L b r D f nd d g inst th Cl ims
, ee o e .
”
a ou e e e a a e a

f C pit l L nd 1 825 p th r f this dmir bl w rk is th Th

”
o a a . Th o .
, , . e au o O a a e o e .

H d g ki I h v lr dy cit d
o s n a e a ea e .

This distincti n b tw n divisi n f l b r in s ci ty d in m n f ct r w

3 o e ee o O a ou o e an a u a u e, as

p r ctic
a lly ill str tad t th Y k s O f th w t x s d vis d t W shingt n
u a e o e an ee . ne O e ne a e e e a a o

d ring th civil w w th d ty f 6
u e ll ind str i l p r d cts
ar , Qu sti n
as e u O
°
0
on a u a o u . e o :

t t is a ind stri l p r d ct ? Answ r f th l gi l t r A thing is pr d c d

an u a o u e O e e s a u e: o u e

wh n it is m de d it is m d wh n it is r dy f
a e,s l Nw f ”
an x mp l a e e ea or a e. e ,
or on e e a e

ou t f m ny O Th N w Y rk
a d Phil d l phi m n f ct r rs h d p r vi u sly b n
. e e o an a e a a u a u e a e o ee

in th h bit f m king mbr ll s with ll th ir b l ngings B t si c

e a O a u e a , a e e o . u n e an

u mbr ll is mi xt m mp i tum f v ry h t r g n us p rts by d gr s th s

e a a u co os o e e e o e eo a , e ee e e

p rts b c m th p r d cts f v ri us s p r t ind stri s c rri d

a e a e e ind p nd ntly
o u O a o e a a e u e , a e on e e e

in d iff r nt p l c s Th y nt r d s p r t c mm diti s int th umbr ll m

e e a e . e e e e as e a a e o o e o e e a an

uf t y wh r th y w r fitt d t g th r
ac or , Th Y nk s h v giv n t
e e e rti cl s thu
e e e o e e . e a ee a e e o a e s
3 50 Cap i ta li s t P r oa ucti on ’
.

a n i m al k i n g d om ,
th e bollum om ni u m c on tr a omnes m or e or les s
p v
r es er es th e con d i ti on s of ex i s ten c e of ev er y s p ec i es T h e .

s a m e b ou r g eoi s m i n d w h i c h p a i s es d i v i s i on Of la b our i n th e r

w or k s h op li fe lon g a n n ex a ti on of th e lab our er t o a par ti al

,
-

o er a ti on a n d hi s c om plete s u bj ec ti on to ca pi ta l a s b ei n g a n
p , ,

or g a n i s a ti on o f la b ou r h
t a t i n c eas es i ts p o d u c v e es
t i n s — th a t r r

s a m e b ou r g eoi s m i n d d en oun ces w i th eq u a l v i g ou r ev er y c on

s c i ou s a ttem t to s oc i all c on t ol a n d r eg u la te t h e r oc es s of
p y p r

r od uc ti on a s a n i n r oa d u on s u c h s a c r ed thi n g s a s t h e i g h t
p , p s r

Of pr oper ty f eed om a n d u n r es tr i c ted play for th e b en t of

,
r

th e i n d i v i d u a l ca pi tali s t It i s v e y c h a a c te i s ti c th a t th e . r r r

en th u s i a s ti c a olog i s ts Of th e fac to y s y s tem h a v e n oth i n g

p r

m o e d a m n i n g to u g e a g a i n s t a g en e a l or g an i z a ti on of th e
r r r

la b ou r Of s oc i ety th a n th a t i t w ould tur n a ll s oci ety i n to on e

,

i m m en s e fa c tor y .

If i n
,
a s oc i et
y w i th ca pi talis t p r od u c ti on , y i a n ar c h
n t h e

s oci a l d i v i s i on of lab our an d d es poti s m i n th a t of th e w or k s h op

ar e m u tu a l c on d i ti on s th e on e of th e oth er , w e find, on th e con

tr ar y , i n th es e y i n w h i c h th e s e a r a ti on
ear li er p for m s of s oc i et

of tr a d es h a s b een s on ta n eou s l d e v el op ed th en r s ta lli z ed

p y ,
c y ,

a n d fi n a ll m d r m a n en t b l a w , on th e on e h a n d , a s eci
y a e p e y p
m en of gan i s ati on of th e lab our of s oc i ety i n a c cor d an ce
th e or ,

w i th a n a ppr ov ed a n d a u th or i ta ti v e plan an d on th e other , ,

th e en ti r e ex c lus i on Of d i v i s i on of la b ou r i n th e w or k s h op ,

or a t a ll ev en t s a m er e d w ar f li k e or s p or a d i c a n d acc i d en ta l -

d ev elopm en t of th e s a m e .
1

Th es e s m a ll an d ex tr em ely a n c i en t I n d i an c omm u n i ti es s om e ,

of w h i c h h a v e c on ti n u ed d ow n t o th i s d ay ar e b a s ed on pos s es ,

s i on i n c om m on of th e la n d on th e b len d i n g Of a g r i c ultu r e a n d ,

h a n d i cr afts a n d on a n u n a lter a b le d i vi s i on of lab ou r w hi ch

, ,

s er v es w h en ev er a n ew c om m u n i ty i s s ta r ted as a plan a n d
, ,

s ch em e r ea d
y c u t a n d d r i ed O c c u p i n g a r eas of fr om 1 00 u
y p .

t o s ev er al th ou s a n d a cr es each for m s a c om pac t wh ole pr o ,

d uci n g all i t r equ i r es Th e chi ef pa r t of th e pr od uc ts i s .

1 On p t ét blir r egl gé ér l q m ins l t i té p e i d a l divisi n

eu a en e n a e, ue o
’
a u or r s e a o

d tr v il d ns l i té i d l s ci é t é p l s l divisi n d tr v il d é v l pp d ns
’
u a a a n r eur e a o ,
u a o u a a se e o e a

l i té i
’
n d
r eur l t li r ct p l s ll y t s mis a l t i té d s l Ainsi
e
’
a e e , u e e es ou e
’
a u or
’
un eu .

l t i té d ns l t li r t c ll d ns l s ciété p r pp rt a l di isi n d tr v il
’ ’
a u or a a e e e e e a a o , ar a o a v o u a a ,

s nt r is n inv rs l n d l tr
o en a o ( K rl
e M rx e Mis er’
& u p p
e 1 30e
’
au e .
”
a a ,
e,
”
c .
, .
 D i v i s i on o f L a oou r an a Ma n uf a ctur e
’
.
35 1

d es ti n ed for di r ec t us e b y th e c om m u n i ty i ts elf, an d d oes n ot

tak e th e for m of a c om m od i ty . H en ce pr od uc ti on h er e i s
,

i n d epen d en t of th a t d i vi s i on Of la b our b r ough t ab out i n I n d i an ,

s oci ety as a w h ole, b y m ea n s of th e ex c h an g e Of com m od i ti es .

It i s th e s ur plu s a lon e th a t ec om es b a c om m odi ty , a n d a

p or ti o n

of e ven th a t, n ot un ti l i t h as r ea c h ed th e h a n d s of th e S ta te ,

i n to w h os e h a n d s fr om ti m e i m m em or i al a c er tai n quan ti ty of
th es e pr od u c ts h as foun d i ts w ay i n th e s h a pe Of r en t i n k i n d .

Th e c on s ti tu ti on of th es e com m u n i ti es ar i es i n d i ffer en t par ts v

I
of n d i a In th os e Of th e s i m ples t for m , th e lan d i s ti lled i n
.

comm on , an d v
th e pr od u ce d i i d ed a m on g th e m em er s b . At
th e s am e v
ti m e, s pi nn i n g a n d w ea i n g a r e ca r r i ed on i n each

fam i ly as s u b s i di ar y i n d us tr i es . Si d e by side w i th th e m as s es
th us oc c u pi ed w i th on e a n d k w e fi n d th e chi ef
th e s am e w or ,

i nh a b i ta n t w h o i s j u d g e poli c e a n d ta x ga th er er i n on e th e
”
-
, , ,

b ook k eeper w h o k eeps th e a ccou n ts of th e ti llag e a n d r egi s ter s

-

ev er y th i n g r ela ti n g th er eto ; a n oth er offi c i a l w h o r os ec u tes

p ,

c r i m i n a ls r otects s tr a n g er s tr a v elli n g th r oug h nd s c or ts

p ,
a e ,

th em to th e n ex t v i lla ge th e b oun d a r y m a n w h o g uar d s th e ,

b oun d ar i es a gai n s t n ei gh b our i n g com m un i ti es th e w ater

ov er s eer w h o d i s tr i b u tes th e w a ter fr om th e c om m on t a n k s
,

for i r r i gati on th e B r ah m i n w h o c on d u c ts th e r eli g i ous

,

s er v i c es th e s ch oolm a s ter w h o on t h e s an d tea c h es th e

,

ch i ld r en r ea d i n g a n d w r i ti n g th e calen d a r B r a h m i n or a s tr o -
,

log er w h o m a k es k n ow n th e lu cky or u n luc ky d ay s for s eed

,

ti m e a n d h ar v es t a n d for ev er y oth er k i n d of a gr i c ultur al

,

w or k ; a s m i th a n d a car pen ter w h o m a k e an d r epai r a ll th e ,

ag r i c ultur al i m plem en ts th e potter w h o m ak es a ll th e p otter y ,

of th e v i llag e ; th e b ar b er th e w a s h er m an w h o w a s h es cloth es
, , ,

th e Si lv er s m i th h er e a n d th er e th e poet w h o i n s om e com
, ,

m u n i ti es r eplac es th e Silv er s m i th i n oth er s th e s ch oolm as ter ,

.

T hi s d oz en Of i n d i v i d ua ls i s m a i n ta i n ed a t th e exp en s e of th e
w h ole c om m u n i ty If th e p op ula ti on i n c r ea s es a n ew c om
.
,

m un i ty i s foun d ed , on th e p a tter n of th e Old on e on u n oc c u pi ed ,

la n d . Th e w h ole m ech a n i s m d i s clos es a s y s tem a ti c d i v i s i on Of

la b our ; b u t a d i vi s i on li k e th a t i n m a n u fa c tur es i s i m p os s i ble ,

s i n c e th e s m i th a n d th e ca r en t er , &c , fi n d a n u n c h a ng i n g
p .

m ar k et, an d a t the m os t th er e oc cu r , a cc or d i n g to th e s i z es of
3 52 Capi ta li s t P r od ucti on .

the v i llages tw o or th ee Of ea ch i n s tea d of on e Th e la w

,
r ,
.
1

th a t r eg ula tes th e d i v i s i on Of lab our i n th e c om m un i ty a c t s

w i th th e i r r es i s ti b le a u th or i ty Of a la w of N a t u e a t the s a m e r ,

ti m e th at ea c h i n d i v i d ual ar ti fi c er th e s m i th th e c a r p en t e , , r,

a n d s o on c on d u c ts i n hi s w or k s h op a ll th e o per a ti on s of h i s
,

h a n d i c r aft i n tr a d i ti on al w a y b ut i n d epen d en tly , a n d

the ,

w i th out r ecog n i i n g a ny a u th or i ty o er hi m z
Th e s i m pli c i ty v .

Of th e or g an i s a ti on for p r od u c ti on i n th es e s elf s u ffi c i ng -
c om

m u n i ti es th a t c on s ta n tly r ep r od u c e t h em s elv es i n th e s am e

for m , an d w h en a c c i d en ta ll d s tr oy ed , s pr i n g u p a ga i n on th e
y e
2—
t an d w i th th e s am e n am e th i s s i m pli ci ty su li es th e
s
po pp
k ey t o th e g ea b len es s o f As i a ti c s oc i eti es
s ec r e t of th e un c h a n ,

a n u n ch a n g ea b len es s i n s u ch s tr i k i n g c on tr as t w i th th e c on

s ta n t d i s s olu ti on a n d r efou n d i n g Of A s i a ti c S ta tes a n d th e ,

n ev er c ea s i ng c h a n g es
-
of d y n as ty Th e s tr uc tur e of t he .

ec on om i ca l elem en ts of s oc i et
y re m ai n s u n to u c hed by th e
s to r m -
c lou ds of t he p oli t i cal s k y .

Th e r ules b efor e b y li m i ti n g
Of th e g ui ld s , as ha I ve sa id ,

m os t s tr i c tly th e n um b er Of a ppr en ti ces a n d j our n ey m en th a t a

s i n g le m a s ter c ould e m lo
p y p ev en ted h i m f om b ec om i n g a , r r

c a pi ta li s t M or eov er h e c o uld n ot em ploy h i s j ou n ey m en i n

.
,
r

an o th er h a n d i cr a ft th a n th e on e i n w hi ch h e w as m as ter
y a .

Th e g ui ld s zealous ly r epelled ev er y en cr oa c h m en t b y th e ca pi ta l
of m er c h an ts th e on ly for m i t lof
w i th w h i fr ee
h th ca
, p a c ey
c am e in c on ta c t . A m er c h a n t c ould b uy ev er y k i n d of c om
m od i ty , b u t la b ou r as a c om m od i t
y h e c ould n ot b u
y H o .

e xi s ted on l
y on s uffer a n c e, as a d ealer i n th e pr od u c ts of th e
h an d i cr a fts . If ci r c u m s ta n c es c al e dl for a fur th er d i vi s i on Of

lab our , th e exi s ti n g g ui ld s s pli t t h em s elv es up i n to va i

r et es , or i
1
Li t eu .
-
C ol a . M rk Wilks Hist ric l Sk tch s f th
th f Indi L nd “
o a e e O e So u O a .
”
o .
,

1 81 0 1 7 v-

,
A g d d scripti n f th v ri s f rms f th Indi n
. I , pp 1 1 82 0
. . . oo e o O e a ou o o e a

c mm uniti s is
o nd in G rg C mpb ll s M d rn Indi
e to b e fou L nd 1 852 eo e a e
’
o e a .
”
o .
, .

9 “U d t h i sim pl f rm
n er th i h bit nts f th c
s ntry h v liv d fr m
e o e n a a o e ou a e e o

tim imm m ri l Th b nd ri s f th vill g s h v b n b ut s ld m lt r d

e e o a . e d ou a e o e a e a e ee e o a e e an

th gh th vill g s th ms l s h v b n s m tim s inj r d d v n d s l t d by

ou e a e e e ve a e ee o e e u e , an e e e o a e

w f min
ar , ad dis s th s m n me, a nt h s m limits th s m int r sts
ea e. d e a e a e, e a e ,
e a e e e , an

v n th s m f mili s h v c ntin d f g s Th inh bit nts giv th ms lv s

e e e a e a e , a e o ue or a e . e a a e e e e

no tr bl b t th br king up d divisi n f ki ngd ms whil th vill g r m ins

ou e a ou e ea an o O o e e a e e a

entir th y c r t t wh t p w r it is tr ns f rr d t wh t s v r ign it d v lv ;
e, e a e no o a o e a e e ,
or o a o e e e o es

its int rn l c n my r m i ns unch ng d ( Th St m f rd R ffl s l t Li ut G

e a e o o e a a e .
”
. a o a e , a e e . ov .

ofJ v a aTh H ist ry f J v “

L nd 1 81 7 V l I p
e o o a a .
”
o .
, , o . .
, .
3 54 Capi ta /i s t P r oa ucti on ’
.

th a t th e m i n i m um a m ou n t of ca pi ta l, b oun d
w h i ch i s to b e i n
th e h a n d s Of ea ch i tali s t m us t k eep i n cr ea s i n g ; in oth e r
p ca ,

w or d s , th a t th e tr a n s for m ati on i n to pi ta l of th e
cas oci a l m ean s

of p r od u c ti on a n d su bs i s ten ce m u s t k eep ex ten d i n g 1

.

In m a n u fa c tur e, as w ell as in s i m le
p c o oper a ti on ,
-
th e c ollec

ti ve w o ki ng r or ga n i s m is a for m of e x i s ten ce of ca
p i tal . Th e
m ech a n i s m th a t i s m a d e up of n u m er o us i n d i v i d u a l d etai l
lab our er s b elon gs to th e c api tali s t H en ce th e pr od ucti v e .
,

w r r es ulti n g f om a com b i n a ti on of lab ou s a pea s to b e

p o e p r r r

th e pr od u c ti v e pow er of c api tal M an ufac tu e pr oper n ot on ly . r

s ubj ec ts t h e r ev i ou s ly i n d e en d en t w o k m a n to th e d i s c i li n e
p p p r

a n d comm an d of ca i ta l, b u t, i n a dd i ti on , cr ea tes a h i er a r c h i c
p
g r a d a ti on of th e w or k m en pe ra th em s elves . W hile s i m ple c O -
o

ti on lea v es th e m od e Of w or k i n g b y th e i n d i vi d ual for th e m os t

r t u n c h a n g ed m an u fa c tur e th or o ugh l r ev olu ti on i s es i t a n d
p a y , ,

s ei z es la b our pow er b y i ts v er y r oot -

It c on v er ts th e lab ou r er s
.

i n to a c r i ppled m on s tr os i ty b y for ci n g hi s d etail d ex ter i ty ,

a t th e ex pen s e of a w or ld of pr od u c ti v e c a a b i li ti es a n d i h
p
s ti n c ts ; j us t a s i n th e S ta tes of La P la ta th e b u tc h er a w h ole
y
b ea s t for th e s a ke Of h i s h i d e or hi s tallow Not on ly i s the .

d eta i l w or k d i s tr i b uted to th e d i ffer en t i n d i v id uals b u t th e i n ,

d i v i d ual h i m s elf i s m ad e th e a utom ati c m otor of a fr a c ti on a l

o er a ti on
p a n d t h e a bs
,
u
2
r d fa b le of M e n en i u s A g r i ppa w h i c h ,

m ak es m an a m er e fr a g m en t of h i s o w n b od y b ec om es ,

r eali s ed If a t fi r s t th e w or k m an s ells hi s lab ou r pow er to

.
3
, ,
-

c a i tal b eca us e th e m a ter i al m ea n s of r od u c i n g a c om m od i t

p , p y
It is t suffici nt th t th c pit l ( th w rit r sh uld h v s id th n c ss ry
1 no e a e a a
”
e e o a e a e e e a

m ns f s bsist nc d f pr d cti n ) r q ir d f th b divisi n f h ndi

ea o u e e an o o u o e u e or e su -
o o a

cr fts sh ld b i r din ss in th s ci ty it m st ls b c m l t d in th h nds

a ou e n ea e e o e u a o e ac u u a e e a

of th mpl y rs in s ffici ntly l rg q ntiti s t n bl th m t c nd ct th ir

e e o e u e a e ua e o e a e e o o u e

op r ti ns
e a l rg sc l
o on a Th m r th divisi n incr s s t h m r d s th
a e a e. e o e e o ea e , e o e oe e

c nst nt mpl ym nt f giv n n mb r f l b r rs r q ir gr t r tl y f c pit l

o a e o e o a e u e o a ou e e u e a ea e ou a o a a
in t ls w m t ri l &
oo , ra ( St rch C rs d E
a e P lit P ris Ed t I pp 250
a , c. o : ou
’
con . o . a .
, . .
, .
,

L c nc ntr ti n d
a instr m nts d pr d cti n t l divisi n d u tr v il s nt
o e a o es u e e o u o e a o a a o

au ssi ins ép r bl s l n d l utr q l s nt d ns l régim p litiq l c nc ntr

a a e
’
u e e
’
a e ue e o ,
a o e o u e, a o e a

ti n d p uv irs publics t l divisi n d i té et privés ( K rl M rx l

o es o o e a o es n r s . a a . . c .
,

p .

D g ld St w rt c lls m uf tu i g l b u
2 u a e ali ving ut m t ns
a mpl y d an ac r n a o r er s
“
a o a o e o e

in th d t ils f th w rk (I p
e e a o e o .
”
. c .
, .

In c r ls ch individ l is in f ct th st m ch f th wh l gr p b t it up
3 o a , ea ua , a , e o a o e o e ou u s

pli s th gr up with n u ishm nt inst d f lik th

e e o R m n p trici n wi thdr w
o r e , ea O , e e o a a a , a

i ng it .
 D i v i s i on f
o La oour a na
’
M f
a n u a ctur e .
3 55

fa il hi m , n ow hi s v er y lab our p ow er r efu s es i ts s er v i c es u n les s

-

i t h as b een s old to c api tal Its fun c ti on s c an b e ex er ci s ed

.

only i n a n en vi r on m en t th a t e xi s ts i n the w or k s h op of th e
ca i t li s t a fter th e s ale B n a tu r e un fi tted to m a k e a n y th i n g
p a y .

i n d epen d en tly , t h e m a n ufa c tur i n g lab ou r er d ev elop es pr od u c

ti v e a cti v i ty as a m er e a
p penda ge of th e c api tali s t s
’
w or k s h op .
l

As th e ch os en p eople b or e i n th ei r featu r es t h e s i gn m an ual of

J eh ovah ,
so d i vi s i on of lab our b r a n d s th e m an u fac tu i n g w or k r

m an as th e pr op er ty Of ca
p i tal .

Th e kn ow led e, th e g j u d gm en t, an d th e w i ll, w h i ch , th ou gh
in v er
e so s m all a d egr ee, ar e
p r a cti s ed b y th e i n d epen d en t
p ea s ant or h a n d i c r a fts m an ,
in th e sa m e w ay a s th e s av a g e
m ak es th e w h ole ar t of w a r con s i s t i n th e ex er c i s e of h i s p er
s on al c un n i n g — th es e fac ulti es a r e n ow re qui r ed on ly for th e
w or k s h op as a w h ole . I n telli gen ce i n pr od uc ti on ex pan d s i n
on e d i r ec ti on , b ecaus e i t v an i s h es i n m an y oth er s What i s .

los t b y th e d etail lab ou r er s ,

is c on c en tr a ted i n th e c a pi tal th at
em loy s th em
p .
2
It i s a r es u lt of th e d i i s i on v o f la b our i n
m an u fa c tu r es , th a t th e lab our er i s b r ough t fa ce to face w i th
th e i n tellectua l p oten c i es of th e m a ter i al pr oces s of pr od u c ti on ,

as th e r o er ty of an oth er , a n d as a r u li n
p p p ow e r T h i s s ep a g .

r ati on b egi n s in sim

p le co O p er a ti on , w h er e th e ca i ta li s t r e
p
-

p r es en ts to th e s i n g le w or k m a n t h e on en es s a n d th e w i ll of ,

th e a s s oc i a ted la b our . It i s d ev eloped i n m an ufac tu r e w h i ch

c u ts d ow n th e lab our er i n to d etai l lab our er It i s c om
“

a .

l t d i n m d r n i n d u s tr , w h i c h m a k es s c i en ce a r od u c ti v e
p e e o e y p
for c e di s ti n ct fr om la b our a n d pr es s es i t i n to th e s er vi ce of
ca pi tal
3
.

1 rt d ns br s t t méti r
’
L Ouvr i er q ui po e a s es a ou un t ll r p rt ut x c r
e , p eu a e a o e er e s on

ind stri
u tr v r
e et ou e m y ns
d es s bsist r l tr
o e de u e :m n f ct uring l b r r)
’
au e ( th e a u a a ou e

n st
’
e
’
cc ss ir sé ré
q u u n a e o e q ui , pa l s c p cité i i d ep d
’
d e s es c on fr ér es , n a p u ui a a ,
n n en

a nc tr v
e , et q u i s e
’
q nj g
ou e for ce d accepter la loi r p s d l i imp s r
u o
’
u e a p o o e u o e .
”

( St rch l c P t b dit 1 81 5 t I p
o . . . e er s . e .
, . .
, .

A F rg us n 1
2
.
p 28 1 eTh f rm r m y h v g in d wh t th
o , . c., th r h . : e o e a a e a e a e o e as

l st
o .

3 Th m f kn wl dg d th p r d uctiv l b u r c m t b wid ly divid d

e an O o e e an e o e a o re o e o e e e

fr m o ch th r d kn wl dg inst ad f r m ining th h ndm id f l b ur in th

ea o e , an o e e, e o e a e a a o a o e

h nd f th l b r r t incr s his p r d ctiv p w rs

a o e a ou e h lm st v rywh r
o ea e o u e o e as a o e e e e

a rr y d its l f g inst l b r
a e syst m tic lly d l uding an d l di ng th m (th
e a a a ou e a a e ea e e

l b r rs ) str y in rd r t r nd r th ir m sc l r p w rs ntir ly m ch nic l d

a ou e a a o e o e e e u u a o e e e e a a an

o b di nt (W Th mps n A n Inquiry int th Principl s f th Di stributi n f

e e .
”
. o o :
“
o e e o e o o

W lth L nd n 1 824 p 274

ea . o o , , . .
356 Caf i ta ti s t Pr od ucti on .

In m a n ufa c tur e i n ,
or d er to m a ke th e c ollec ti ve la b our er ,
and th r ou h hi m g ca i t al, r i c h in s oci a l r o d u c ti v e p ow er , each
p p
la b ou r er m u s t b e m a d e p oor i n i n d i vi d ual pr od u c ti v e p ow er s .

Ign o a n ce i s th e m oth er of i n d u t y a s w ell a s Of s u pe s ti ti on

r s r r .

R efl e ti on a n d fan cy a e s ubj e c t to er ; b u t a h ab i t of m ov i n g
c r r

t h e h an d or th e foot i s i n d epen d en t of ei th er . M a n ufa c tur es ,

a c c or d i n
p p gly ,
r os er m o s t w h er e th e m i n d i s lea s t c on s ulted ,

a n d w h er e th e w or k s h o m be c on s i d er ed a s a n en gi n e
p ay ,

” 1
th e p a r ts Of w h i ch a r e m en . As a m a t ter Of fac t ,
s om e

few m a n u fa c tur er s i n th e m i d d le of th e 1 8 th c en tur y r efer r ed ,

p
for c er ta i n O per ati on s th at w er e tr a d e s ec r ets , to em ploy h alf

d i oti c per s on s
‘
2
: .

Th e u n d e r s t a n d i n gs of th e gr ea ter par t Of m en ,
s ay s Ad a m
S m i th , a r e n ec es s a r i l
y for m ed b y th ei r or d i n a r y e m ploy m en ts .

Th e m an w h os e w h ole li fe i s s p en t i n per for m i n g a few s i m ple

Oper ati on s has no oc ca s i on to e x er t hi s u n d er s tan d i n g .

He gen er ally b ecom es as s tu pi d an d i g n or a n t as i t is

p ossi ble for a h um a n c r ea tu r e b ecom e After
to .
”
d es cr i b i n g
i d of th e d eta i l lab ou r er h e g oes on : Th e uni
“
th e s tu
p i ty
for m i ty Of hi s s ta ti on a r
y li fe n a tu r a ll
y c or r u pts th e cou r a ge of

hi s m i n d . v en th e a cti v i ty of h i s b ody
It cor r u p ts e
‘

and

r en d er s h i m i n capab le Of ex er ti n g h i s s t en g th w i th v i gou r r an d
p e rsev er a n c e i n a ny oth er em ploy m en ts th a n th at to w h i ch
h e h a s b een b r ed Hi s d ex ter i ty a t h i s ow n pa ti c ula r tr a d e . r

s eem s i n th i s m a n n e to b e ac q u i ed a t th e ex en s e of h i s i n
p r r

tellec tual s oci al a n d m a ti a l v i tues , But i n ev er y i m p ov ed

,
r r . r

a n d c i v i li s ed s oc i et th i s i s th e s t a t e i n to w hi ch th e la b ou r i n g
y ,

p oo t h a t
r, i s t h e g ea t b o d y o f t h e p p
e o
,
le m u s t n eces s a ily r ,
r
”3
fall F o p ev en ti n g th e c om plete d eter i o ati on of th e g eat
. r r r r

A F rg s n l p 280
1 . e u o , . c .
, . .

J D T ck t t A Hist ry f th P st d Pr s nt St t f th L b uring P p u
2 . . u e : o o e a an e e a e o e a o o

l ti n L nd 1 846
a o .
”
o .

A Smith w lt h f N ti ns Bk V h I t II B i g p pil f A F
3 . : ea o a o , . .
,
o . .
, ar . . e n a u o . er

g s n w h sh w d th dis dv nt g s ff ct f divisi n f l b r Ad m Smith

u o o o e e a a a eou e e s O o O a ou , a

w p r f ctly cl r
as e this p int In th intr d ucti n t his w rk wh r h x p
e ea on o . e o o o o ,
e e e e ro

f p r is s divisi n f l b
ess o a r h indic t s nly in c u s ry m nn r th t it is th
e o O a ou , e a e o a r o a e a e

s rc f s ci l in q liti s It is t till th 5th B k th R v n f th St t

ou e O o a e ua e . no e oo , on e e e ue o e a e,

th t h r pr d c s F rg s n In my Mi er d l Phil s phi I h s ffici tly

a e e o u e e u o . s e e a o o e,
”
ave u en

e xpl in d th hist ric l c n cti n b tw n F rgus n A Smith L m t y d S y

a e e o a on e o e ee e o , .
, e on e , an a ,

as r g r d s t h ir criticisms f Divisi n f L b ur d h v sh wn f th first tim

e a e o o o a o , an a e o , or e e,
35 8 Cap i ta i i s t Pr od ucti on .

s en ten ce, to as s as s i n a te h i m i f h e d oes n ot . Th e s ub

la b ou r i s th e
”1
d i v i s i on of as s a s s i n ati on of a p p
eo le .

CO -
O per ati on b a s ed on d i v i s i on of lab our , i n oth er w or d s ,
m a n u fa c tu r e, c om m en ces a s a s pon ta n e ous for m ati on . So s oon

as it a tta i n s s om e c on s i s ten c e a n d e x ten s i on ,

it b ecom es th e re

co gn i s ed m eth od i cal a n d s y s tem a ti c for m of c a pi ta li s t p r od uc

ti on . H i s tor y s h ow s h ow th e d i v is i on Of la b our p ecu li a r to

m a n ufa c tu r e, b es t ad apted for m

s tr i c tly s o c a lled , a c q ui r es th e
a t fir s t b ex i en ce a s i t w e e b ehi n d th e b a c k s of t h e a c tor s r
y p e r , ,

a n d th en li k e th e g ui ld h a n d i c a fts
,
s t i v es to h old fas t th a t r ,
r

fo m w h en on ce foun d a n d h e e a n d th e e s u c ceed s i n k eepi n g

r ,
r r

i t fo c en tur i es
r An y alte a ti on i n th i s fo m ex c ept i n t i v i a l
. r r ,
r

m a tter s i s s lely ow i n g to a r ev olu ti on i n t h e i n s t um en ts Of

,
o r

lab ou Mo e d rrn m
. a n u fa c tu e w h er eve t
r i a r i s es é I d o n ot h e e r -
r

l
a lu d e to m od er n i n d u s t b a s ed on m ac hi e n — i t h fi nds
y y e e r r r

th e d i sj ec ta m em b a p oetae ea d y to h an d a n d on ly w a i ti n g to r r ,

b e c ollec ted tog eth er a s i s th e c a s e i n the m a n u fa c tu e Of ,

r

c loth es i n la r g e t o w n s o r i t c a n eas ily a l t h i n i l f

pp y e
p c p e o,
r

di v i s i on s i m ply b y ex clus i v ely a s s i gn i n g t h e v a i o us op e a ti on s

,
r r

of a h a n d i c r a f t ( s uc h a s b ook b i n d i n g) to p a ti c u lar m en In r .

s u c h c a s es a w eek s ex e i en c e i s en oug h t o d eter m i n e th e

’

p , p ro r

or ti on b et w een th e n u m b er s Of th e h a n d s n ec es s a f r th e
p y o r

v ar i ous fun c ti on s ?

By d ec om p os i ti on h a n d i c r a fts b y s pec i a li sa ti on of th e i n
of ,

s tr u m en ts Of lab o ur , b y th e for m a ti on of d etai l lab our er s , a n d

by g r ou pi n g a n d c om bi n i n g t h e la tter i n to a s in gle m ec han i s m ,

d i v i s i on o f la b ou r i n m an u fa c tur e c r ea t es a quali ta ti ve g r a d a
t i on , qua n ti tati v e pr opor ti on i n th e s oci al pr oces s Of
an d a

r od u c ti on ; i t c on s equ en tl c t d fi n i te o g a n i s a ti on of
p y r ea es a e r

th e la b ou r of s oc i ety a n d t h er eby d ev elopes a t th e s a m e ti m e ,

1
(D
Urq h rt F mili r W rds L nd 1 855 p
. u a a a o . o .
, , . H g l h ld v ry h r tic l
e e e e e e a

vi ws divisi n f l b r In his R chtsphil s phi

e on o o a ou . e o o e he s ys By w ll d c t d
a e e u a e

m w u nd rst nd in th first i nst nc

en e th s wh
e a e a e, o e o ca n d v rything th t th rs
o e e a o e
”
do .

2 simpl b li f in th inv ntiv g ni s x rcis d pri i by th individ l

Th e e e e e e e e u e e e a or e ua

c pit list in divisi n f l b r xists w d ys nly m ng G rm n p r f ss rs f

a a o o a ou , e no -
a a o a o e a o e o , o

th t mp f H rr R h w h t r c mp ns th c pit list fr m wh s J vi n
e s a o e os c er , o, o e o e e e a a o o e o a

h d divisi n f l b r spr ng r dy f rm d d dic t s t him v ri s w g s

ea o O a ou a ea o e , e a e o
“
a ou a e
”

( div rs A b i t l h ) Th m r
e e r l ss xt nsiv pplic ti n f di isi n f l b ur
e s o ne . e o e or e e e e a a o O v o O a o

d p nds l ngth f purs

e e t ongr tn ss f g nius
e O e, n o on ea e O e .
 D i v i s i on of L a b ou r a nd Ma n uf a ctu r e .
3 59

n ew
p r od u c ti v e for ces i n th e s oc i ety . In i ts s p ec i fi c c ap i ta li s t
for m — a n d u n d er th e g i v en c on d i ti on s , it c ould tak e n o oth er
for m t ha n c a i ta li s ti c on e— m an u fa ctu r e i s b ut a r ti c u la r
a p a
p
m eth od of b eg etti n g r ela ti ve s ur
p lu s v a lu e, or of -
au g m en ti n g
at th e ex en s e of th e la b our er th e s elf ex pa n s i on of c a
pi tal
p
-

u s u a ll
y called s oc i al w ealth , W ea lth of N ati on s ,
&c . It i n
c r ea s es th e s oc i a l d u c ti v e ow er Of la b ou r , n ot on ly for t h e
p p
ro

b en efit of th e c a i tali s t i n s tea d of for th a t of t h e la b ou r er b ut

p ,

i t d oes th i s b y c r i p pli n g th e i n d i vi d u al lab ou r er s It c r ea tes .

n ew c on d i ti on s for th e lor d s h i p of c a pi tal o ver la b ou r If .

,

t h er efor e, on t he on e h an d i t pr es en ts i ts elf h i s tor i cally a s a

,

p ro gr es s an d as a n eces s ar y p h a s e i n t he ec on om i c d ev elop

m en t y, of s oci et on th e oth er h an d i t i s a re fin ed and ci vi li s ed

m eth od of ex ploi ta ti on .

P oli ti c al ec on om y w h i ch a s an i n d epen d en t s ci en ce fi r s t , ,

s r a n g i n to b ei n g d u r i n g th e i d f m u f tu v i w
p p e r o o a n a c r e e s ,

t h e s oc i a l d i v i s i on of la b our on ly fr om th e s ta n d poi n t of
m an ufa c tu r e a n d s ees i n i t on ly th e m ea n s Of pr od u ci n g m or e
,
1

c om m od i ti es w i th a g i v en qu an ti ty of lab ou r a n d c on s e , ,

qu en tly of ch eapen i n g c om m odi ti es a n d h ur r y i n g on th e

,

a cc u m u la ti on Of c a i ta l I n m t tr i ki n g c on tr a s t w i th th i s
p os s .

a cc en tu a ti on of q u a n ti t a n d x h n g lu i t h e a tti tu d e
y e c a e v a e s -

of th e w r i ter s of c la s s i ca l a n t i q u i t w h o h old ex clus i v ely b y

y ,

q uali ty a n d us e v alue In c on s equ en ce Of th e s epar a ti on of -

.
2

t h e s oc i a l b r a n ch es of r od u c ti on m m od i ti a r e b etter
p co es ,

m a d e th e v a r i ou s b en ts a n d ta len ts of m en s elec t a s u i tab le

,

Th Old r writ rs lik P tty

1 e d th
e n nym s th r f Adv nt g s f th
e , e e an e a o ou au o o
“
a a e o e

E st Indi Tr d bring t th c p it list c h r ct r f divisi n f l b r ppli d

a a a e,
”
ou e a a a a e o o o a ou as a e

in m n f ct r m r th n A Smith d s
a u a u e o e a . oe .

A m ngst th m d rns m y b
2 o xc pt d f w writ rs f th 1 8th c ntury lik
e o e a e e e e a e e O e e ,
e

B cc ri d J m s H rris w h wi th r g rd t divisi n f l b r lm st ntir ly

e a a an a e a ,
o e a o o O a ou a o e e

f ll w th nci nts Th s B cc ri Ci sc n p r v c ll sp ri nz h pplic nd ’

o o e a e . u , e a a: a u o o a o e e e a, c ea a o

l i n li g g s mpr ll st ss g n r di Op r di p d tt gli pi n f cili

’
a na e e n e no e e a o e o e e e e e e ro u e, e a ,

p i u bb nd nti
a migli ri t
o is lt ti di q ll h ci sc n is l t m nt l
a e o ne r a ca r u a , ue o c e se a u o o a a e e e

c s t tt
o e n c ss ri s lt nt f c ss
u e a se Divid nd si in t l m ni r p l
e e a e o a o a e e . e o a a e a er a

c m n priv t tilita gli mini in v ri cl ssi c ndizi ni ( C s r B cc ri

o u e e a a u uo a e a e o o .
”
e a e e a a
“
El m nti di Ec n P b blic
e e d C st di P rt M d rn o t xi p . Jms u a,
”
e . u o , a e o e a, . .
, . a e

H rris ft rw rds E rl f M lm sb ry c l br t d f th Di ri s f his mb ssy

a ,
a e a a O a e u ,
e e a e or e a e o e a

t St P t rs b rg s ys in n t t his Di l g C nc rning H ppin ss L nd ”

a . e e u , a a o e o a o ue o e a e , o .
,

1 7 41 r print d ft rw rds in Thr Tr tis s & 3 Ed L nd 1 7 72 Th wh l

“
,
e e a e a ee ea e , c .
, .
, o .
, e o e

a rg m nt t pr v s ci ty n t r l
u e oby divisi n f mpl ym nts )
o e o is t k n e a u a o o e o e a e

fr m th s c nd b k f Pl t s R p blic ”
’
o e e o oo O a o e u .
 3 6 0 Capi ta ti s t Pr od ucti on .

fi eld ,
Jl
an d w i th ou t s om e r es tr a i n t n o i m p or tan t r es u lts ca n be
o b tai n ed
wh er e H en c e bo th p r od uc t a n d pr od u c er ar e
a ny
?

i m pr ov ed b y d i v i s i on of la b our If th e gr ow th of th e qu an ti ty .

r o d u c ed i s oc c a s i on all m ti d t hi i l d w i th
p y e n on e s s on y on e ,

r efer en ce to th e g r e ater a b un d an c e o f u s e v a lu es T her e i s n ot -

.

a w or d a lludi n g to e x ch a n ge v alu e -
or to th e g Of ch ea
penin

c om m od i ti es . T hi s as
pec t,
fr om th e s ta n d oi n t of u s e v a lu e
p
-

a lon e i s tak en , as w ell b y P la to, w h o 3

tr ea ts d i v i s i on of la b ou r
as th e foun d ati on on w hi ch th e di i s i on v of s oc i ety i n to c las s es
is b as ed ,
as b y Xen oph on , w h o w i th 4
c h ar a c ter i s ti c b ou geoi s r

1 Th in Odyss y xi 228
u , th e e V. , , y dp 7
’ ’'
oc 7l xoun v a
’
wiqp E
m a fpcr w a c épy az g,
- ''

an d Archil ch s in S xt s Emp iri ns o u e u o

’
i h h o; d i
a ke
» E
a
” '
épy qu f
xa b lm i a fv er m e
, p .

2 “ Hoaa
’
Ev ry Ath ni n c nsid r d him '
épy a , n ou n s; wai ve a -
.
"
e e a o e e

s l f s p ri r
e upr d c r f c mm diti s t
e o Sp rt n ; f th l tt r in t i m
as a f o u e o o o e o a a a or e a e e o

w h d m
ar n gh t his disp s l b t c ld t c mm nd m n y Th cydid s
a en e ou a o a u ou no o a o e , as u e

m k s P ricl s y i th sp ch inciting th Ath ni ns t th P l p nn si n w

a e e e sa n e ee e e a o e e o o e a ar
bp f ( Th c l I c
'
é w iJ dp i i) xp ip
’
i l l p i xw v
'
coco n
' ‘
oc f
ro or s ot o a trr ov T
'
u
p py o v a v :
‘ '
a a a ot r e a s v. . . .

N v rth l ss v n with r g rd t m t ri l pr d cti n b pm f

e e e e
pp s d
, e e e a o a e a o u o , a r a a
,
as o o e

t divisi n f l b
o r r m in d th ir id l w p é y a. 5 b pa d
o O a ou t wi e a e e ea , a
'
v 7 a “ To s
'
w v xa
,

a
’
bm p It sh uld b m nti n d h r th t t th d t f th f ll f th 30Tyr nts
xsg .
”
o e e o e e e a a e a e o e a o e a

th r w r still t 5000 Ath ni ns with t l nd d pr p rty

e e e e no e a ou a e o e .

With Pl t divisi n f l b r within th c mm unity is d v l p m nt fr m th

3 a o, o O a ou e o a e e o e o e

multif ri s r quir m nts d th limit d c p citi s f individ ls Th m in p int

a ou e e e , an e e a a e o ua . e a o

with him is th t th l b ur r m st d pt hims l f t th w rk t th w rk t th

,
a e a o e u a a e o e o , no e o o e

l b r r ; which l tt r is u n v id bl i f h c rri s s v r l tr d s t nc th s
a ou e a e a o a e, e a e on e e a a e a o e, u

m king
a th th r f th m sub rdin t
on e or O b y lp 3 p 51 e o iw 9 e O e o a e . e 7 { as 7
-
2 1 9” t
r 7 0

pd 3 T; i r a u oh oufl
i vu v, si v
ph
’
t d y x n T ri s wpd
’
u r r ow o; 01 W spra oc l l -
r T ov ac
‘

76
‘
19
‘
0 c v r

39 cr a ps py ou p fpsu J A voi y x m—
'
' J Ex v a zi e —
vr l u au 7 s gn a o r ot o
r i / vi r a l
g n ant x d k l l ov xa t
'
' 't

pd ,
ov Z T a v 57; gr n acr é
'

Wi ?
n » xa l i v xa u a
p 75
’ 0 01 3
1 9 Tar d k l w v d y wv mod m 1
‘
.
3 ( R ep 1 2 e -
. . . Ed .

B it r
a e , Or elli , &c ) in Th cydid s l c
SO u e S ring isc , 42 : lk . ea fa a n ar t i e a n y . . .

o th r d c nn t circ mst nc s r q ir b c rri d

e , an a s bsidi ry cc p ti n ;
o , as u a e e u e, e a e on as a u a o u a o

na y th r,s bsidiory cc up ti ns c
e nn t b c rri d l
u ngsid f this I
af th o a o a o e a e on a o e O on e .
”
e

w rk s ys Pl t h t w it f th l b r r th critic l p int in th pr c ss is
o , a a o, as o a or e a ou e ,
e a o e o e

miss d d th rticl sp il d fpy m pi atr i m

e an Th s m Pl t nic id
e a is e o e , av x v u .
”
e a e a o ea

f nd r c rring in th p r t st f th English bl ch rs g inst th cl

ou e u s in th e o e o e ea e a a e au e e

F ct ry Act th t p r vid s fix d m l tim s f ll Op r tiv s Th ir b sin ss c nn t

a o a o e e ea e or a e a e . e u e a o

w it th c nv ni nc f th w rkm n f
a e in th v ri s Op r ti ns f sing ing
o e e e o e o e ,
or
“
e a ou e a o o e ,

w shing bl ching m ngling c l nd ring d dy i g n n f th m

a , ea b st p p d, a . a e e , an e n ,
o e o e ca n e o e

a t giv n m m nt with t risk f d m g

a e t onf rc th s m di nn r h r
e ou o a a e o e o e e a e e ou

for a ll th w rk p pl might cc si n lly s bj ct v l bl g ds t th risk f d ng r

e o -
eo e o a o a u e a ua e oo o e O a e

by inc mpl t Op r ti ns L pl t nism u t i l nich r

o e e e a o .
”
e a o e O v a- -
se e

X n ph n s ys it is t nly h n r t r c i f d fr m th t bl f th King
4 e o o a ,
no o an o ou o e e ve oo o e a e o e

f P rsi b t s ch f d is m ch m r t sty th n th r f d And th r is n thing “

o e a, u u oo u o e a a o e oo . e e o

w nd r f l in this f
o e th th r rts
u br ght t sp ci l p rf cti n in th gr t
, or a s e o e a ar e ou o e a e e o e ea

t wns th r y l f d is pr p r d in sp ci l w y F in th sm ll t wns th
o ,
so e o a oo e a e a e a a . or e a o e

s m m m k s b dst ds d rs pl ghs d t bl s Oft n t h b uilds h s s

a e an a e e ea , oo ,
ou , an a e : e , oo , e ou e

int th b rg in d is q it c nt nt i f h finds cu t m suffici nt f his ust n nc

o e a a , an u e o e e s o e or s e a e.
3 6 2 Cap i ta li s t Pr od u cti on .

s li tti ng u o f h a n d i r a fts low er s t h e c os t of for m i n g th e w or k

p p c

m an , a n d t h er eb y low er s hi s va lue , y et for th e m or e d i ffi c u lt

d eta i l w or k, a lon g er a
pp r en ti c es hi p i s n ec es s a r y , an d , e v en

w h er e i t w o uld b e su
p
er fl uous ,
is j ea lous ly i n s i s ted u p on by
t he w or k m en . In En gla n d ,
for i n s tan c e w e fi n d th e la w s ,
Of

a
pp r en ti c es hi
p, w i th th ei r s e en
y ea r s p r o a ti on ,
i n fu ll f o r c e v ’
b
d ow n t o th e en d of th e m a n u fac tu r i n p er i od ; a n d th ey ar e g
n o t t h r ow n on on e s i d e till t he a d en t of M od er n n d u s tr v I
y .

Si n ce h a n d i c r a ft s k ill i s th e foun d a ti on of m a n u fa c tur e, an d

s i n ce th e m ec h a n i s m of m a n u fa c tu r e as w h ole p os s es s es n o
a

fr a m e w or k , p a ar t fr om t h e la b ou r er s v
th em s el es , c api tal i s c on
s ta n tl
y c om p elled t o w r e s tle w i t h th e i n s u bo r d i n a ti on Of th e
w or k m en By th e i n fi r m i ty of h um a n
”
“
. n a t u r e, s ay s fr i en d
Ur e ,
i t h
“
a
pp en s th a t th e m o r e s k i lful t h e w o r k m a n th e m or e ,

s elf w i lled a n d i n tr a c ta b le h e i s a t to b ecom e, a n d O f c our s e

p
-

t h e les s fi t a c om
p on en t of a m ech a n i cal s y s tem i n w h i ch
g r eat d am a g e to H e n c e th r ough out
” 1
h e m ay d o th e w h ole .

th e w h ole m a n ufac tur i n g per i od t her e r u n s th e c om pla i n t of

w a n t of d i s ci pli n e a m on g th e w or k m en An d h ad w e n ot th e
?

t es ti m on y of c on tem
por a r y w r i ter s , t h e s i m ple fa cts , th a t d ur i n g
th e per i od b etw een t h e l 6 th c en tur y a n d th e e
p och of M od er n
In d us tr ,
y ca
p i ta l fa i led t o b ecom e th e m a s t er of th e w h ole
d i s pos ab le w or k i n g ti m e of t h e m a n u fa c tu r i n g lab ou r er s th a t
-
,

m an u fa c tu r es a r e s h or t li v ed a n d c h a n ge th ei r loc ali ty fr om-

,

on e cou n tr y to a n oth er w i th th e em i g r a ti n g or i m m i g r a ti n g
w or k m en ,
k v olum es
th es e fa cts w ould O r d er m us t i n s
p ea .

on e w ay or an oth er b e es tab li s h ed ex cla i m s i n 1 77 0 th e Oft

”
,

c i ted a u th or of th e E s s ay on Tr a d e an d C om m er c e O r d er .
,
”

r e— ech oes Dr An d r ew Ur e 6 6 y ea r s la ter

. O r d er w a s w a n ti n g ,

i n m a n u fa c tu r e b as ed on th e s c h ola s ti c d og m a of d i v i s i on of
“

la b our a n d Ar k w r i g h t c r ea ted or d e
” ”
r .
,

A t th e s am e ti m e m a n ufa c tur e w a s un ab le ei th er to s ei z e ,

up on th e p r od u c ti on of s oci ety to i ts fu ll ex ten t or to r e ,

v olu ti on i s e th a t pr od u c ti on to i ts v ery c or e It tow er ed u p a s .

a n econ om i ca l w or k Of ar t on th e b r oa d foun d a ti on of th e t ow n ,

1 Ur e ,
l . c .
, p 20
. .

This
2 is mr o e th e c s in Engl nd th n in Fr nc
a e a a a e, a nd m r in Fr nc th n in
o e a e a

H ll nd
o a .
 D i v i s i on o f L a bou r an d M an
uf a ctu r e . 6
3 3

h a n d i cr a fts , a n d of th e r ur al d om es ti c i n d u s tr i es . At a g i v en
s ta ge i n i ts d ev elopm en t, th e n a r r ow t ech n i c a l b a s i s on w hi ch
m a n u fa c tur e r es ted , ca m e i n to c on fl i ct w i th r e q ui r e m en ts of

p ro d u c t i on th a t w er e b y m a n u f
c r ea ted
a c tu r e i ts elf .

On e Of i ts m os t fi n i s h ed cr ea ti on s w as th e w or k s hop for th e
r od u c ti on of th e i n s tr u m en ts of la b ou r th em s elv es i n c lu d i n g
p ,

es ec i a ll the c om pli ca t ed m ech a n i c a l ar a tus th en a lr ea d y

p y pp a

e m lo ed
p y A m .a c h i n e fa c t or
y, s a
y s-
Ur e
“
d i s l
p y
a e d t h e d i v i
,
s i on

Of la b ou r i n m a n i fold g r a d a ti on s — th e fi le t h e d r i ll th e la th e , , ,

h a vi n g
”
each i ts d iffer en t w or k m a n i n th e or d er of s ki ll ( p . .

Th i s w or k s h op, th e pr od u c t of v
th e d i i s i on of la b ou r i n m a n u fa c
t ur e, pr o d u c ed i n i ts tur n — m a ch i n es . It i s th ey th a t s w eep a w ay
th e h a n d i c r a fts m a n
’
s w or k as th e re gulati n g pr i n ci ple of s oc i a l

pr od u c ti on . Thus ,
on th e on e h an d , th e tec hn i c al r eas on for
t h e li fe lon g
-
a nn e x ati on of th e w or k m a n to a d eta i l fun c ti on
is r em o v ed . On th e oth er h a n d , t h e fetter s t ha t thi s s am e

r i n ci l l i d th e d om i n i on of c a pi tal, fa ll a w ay
p p e a on .