TRINDADE - HidroPropulsao - Livro PDF

Hidrodinamica e Propulsao
Engenharia de Maquinas Martimas
Jorge Trindade
ENIDH
2012
Indice
1 Introducao 1
1.1 Geometria do navio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Principais dimensoes dos navios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Coeficientes de forma do navio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Comportamento hidrodinamico do navio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Metodos empricos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Metodos experimentais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Simulacoes numericas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2 Resistencia 13
2.1 Analise dimensional . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Leis da semelhanca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.1 Semelhanca geometrica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.2 Semelhanca cinematica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2.3 Semelhanca dinamica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 Decomposicao da resistencia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3.1 Resistencia de onda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.3.2 Resistencia de atrito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.3 Resistencia viscosa de pressao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4 Ensaios de resistencia em tanques de reboque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Calculo da resistencia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.1 Metodos de extrapolacao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5.2 Resistencias adicionais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Previsao com dados sistematicos ou estatsticos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.7 Ensaios a escala real . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3 Propulsao 35
3.1 Sistemas de propulsao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.1 Helices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.2 Outros meios de propulsao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2 Helices propulsores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.1 Geometria do helice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.2 Valores caractersticos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Teoria da quantidade de movimento . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3.1 Forca propulsiva . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
i
ii INDICE
3.3.2 Coeficiente de carga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.3.3 Rendimento ideal do helice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4 Ensaios com modelos reduzidos de helices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4.1 Diagrama em aguas livres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.2 Rendimento . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.3 Indice de qualidade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5 Series sistematicas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5.1 Serie sistematica de Wageningen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.5.2 Outras series sistematicas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.5.3 Diagrama de 4 quadrantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6 Cavitacao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.1 Origem da cavitacao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.6.2 Controle da cavitacao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6.3 Consideracao da cavitacao na seleccao do helice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6.4 Ensaios experimentais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.7 Seleccao do helice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.7.1 Variaveis de optimizacao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.7.2 Tipos de problema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.8 Interaccao entre casco e helice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.8.1 Ensaios de propulsao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.8.2 Potencia e velocidade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.8.3 Extrapolacao dos resultados do ensaio de propulsao . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4 Instalacoes Propulsoras 67
4.1 Introducao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Propulsao diesel-mecanica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2.1 Accionamento de auxiliares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.2 Engrenagens redutoras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2.3 Configuracao pai-e-filho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3 Propulsao diesel-electrica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3.1 Propulsao por motor electrico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3.2 Propulsores azimutais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4 Seleccao do motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.4.1 Turbinas e motores electricos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4.2 Motores diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Indice Remissivo 83
A Previsao Baseada nos Ensaios de Propulsao 87
B Provas de velocidade e Potencia 121
C Condicoes das Provas de Velocidade e Potencia 133
D Seleccao de Motores Propulsores 141
E Derating 175
Lista de Figuras
1.1 Plano de flutuacao, longitudinal e transversal de um navio. . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Plano geometrico de um navio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Principais dimensoes dos navios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Marcacao no costado das linhas de carga do navio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Tanque de provas utilizado por W. Froude. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Tanque de testes actual. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Bacia para testes com ondulacao. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.8 Bacia para testes com aguas geladas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.9 Escoamento num helice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.10 Malha colocada a esquerda e desfasada a direita. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.11 Representacao esquematica de um PC-cluster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.12 Um PC-cluster com 24 nos computacionais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.13 Decomposicao 1D, 2D ou 3D do domnio espacial de um problema. . . . . . . . 11
1.14 Troca de valores nas fronteiras dos sub-domnios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Decomposicao da resistencia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2.2 Sistema de ondas gerado por um ponto de pressao em movimento. . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Sistemas de ondas da proa e da popa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Interaccao entre os dois sistemas de ondas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.5 Curva da resistencia de onda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.6 Variacao do coeficiente da resistencia de atrito com o numero de Reynolds e
com a rugosidade da superfcie. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.7 Distribuicao de pressao num escoamento ideal, invscido. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.8 Modelo a escala reduzida para ensaios de resistencia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
cT F r4
2.9 Representacao grafica da dependencia de com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
cF 0 cF 0
2.10 Reducao de velocidade (%) em aguas pouco profundas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1 Helice com tubeira. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.2 Helices de passo fixo e de passo controlavel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Helices em contra-rotacao. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 Helices supercavitante. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5 Propulsao por jacto de agua. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 Propulsores azimutais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.7 Propulsores cicloidais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
iii
iv LISTA DE FIGURAS
3.8 Geometria do helice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.9 Distribuicao espacial de velocidade e pressao para a teoria da quantidade de
movimento. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.10 Diagrama de aguas livres. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.11 Aspecto geometrico das pas da serie B de Wageningen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.12 Diagrama em aguas livres de um helice da serie sistematica de Wageningen. . . 50
3.13 Notacao do diagrama com 4 quadrantes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.14 Diagrama em aguas livres de 4 quadrantes para os helices Wageningen B-4.70. 53
3.15 Efeito da cavitacao no valor dos parametros relativos a aguas livres. . . . . . . 54
3.16 Pressao de vapor da agua em funcao da temperatura. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.17 Diagrama de Burrill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.18 Instalacoes de ensaio do RINA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.19 Imagem da cavitacao num helice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.20 Modelo para ensaios de propulsao. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.21 Resultados dos ensaios de propulsao. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.1 Variantes de instalacoes propulsoras diesel-mecanicas lentas e de media veloci-

dade. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.2 Instalacoes propulsoras diesel-mecanica (em cima) e diesel-electrica (em baixo). 69
4.3 Acoplamento com relacao variavel de velocidades. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4 Conversao da frequencia da energia electrica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.5 Instalacao propulsora com quatro motores, engrenagens redutoras e dois helices. 73
4.6 Instalacao com dois motores diesel diferentes, engrenagens redutoras, embrai-
agens e geradores acoplados aos veios. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.7 Motor electrico de propulsao. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.8 Instalacao diesel-electrica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.9 Representacao esquematica de uma instalacao diesel-electrica. . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.10 Propulsores azimutais. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.11 Diagrama de carga de um motor diesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Lista de Tabelas
1.1 Valores de K na formula de Alexander. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Valores do coeficiente de correccao cA em funcao do comprimento do navio. . . 29
3.1 Series sistematicas de propulsores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

3.2 Coeficiente para atribuicao do diametro maximo do helice pela Eq. (3.34). . . . 59
3.3 Constante para o calculo do diametro equivalente em agua livres pela Eq. (3.35). 59
v
vi LISTA DE TABELAS
Captulo 1
Introducao
1.1 Geometria do navio
A variacao da proporcao relativa das dimensoes principais de um navio tem um importante
efeito nas suas caractersticas operacionais. Afecta as suas caractersticas hidrodinamicas, a
sua resistencia estrutural e, naturalmente a capacidade de carga.
Os navios existentes, em particular as unidades de construcao mais recente, constituem
uma boa fonte de inspiracao para o pre-dimensionamento de um navio novo. No que diz
respeito a informacao mais detalhada, estas bases de dados sao, regra geral, bem resguardadas
pelos gabinetes de estudo e projecto, bem como pelos estaleiros construtores. No entanto,
alguns destes dados estao disponveis nos registos publicados pelas sociedades classificadoras
e por alguns gabinetes de estudo.
Depois de um processo iterativo de dimensionamento do navio, durante o qual sao tidas
em consideracao as variaveis de optimizacao seleccionadas, a solucao final da forma do navio
constitui o plano geometrico do navio. Na pratica, este plano geometrico e gerado por uma
das seguintes vias:
- deformacao de um navio de referencia;
- modelo matematico para definicao de forma em funcao de parametros do navio;
- utilizacao das series sistematicas.
1.1.1 Principais dimensoes dos navios

O casco de um navio e uma forma tridimensional, na maior parte dos casos simetrica rela-
tivamente a um plano vertical longitudinal do navio. O contorno do casco fica definido pela
sua interseccao com tres planos ortogonais (Fig. 1.1):
- o plano de flutuacao de projecto;
- o plano longitudinal;
- o plano transversal.
1
2 CAPITULO 1. INTRODUCAO
Figura 1.1: Plano de flutuacao, longitudinal e transversal de um navio.
O plano longitudinal, unico plano de simetria do navio, e o plano de referencia. A forma

do navio cortada por este plano e o perfil. O plano de flutuacao de projecto e um plano
perpendicular ao plano longitudinal, escolhido como plano de referencia. Os planos paralelos
ao plano de flutuacao de projecto sao conhecidos como planos de agua, ou de flutuacao, e as
linhas de interseccao como linhas de agua. Os planos de flutuacao sao simetricos relativamente
ao plano longitudinal. Os planos perpendiculares ao plano longitudinal e ao plano de flutuacao
de projecto sao os planos transversais. As seccoes transversais exibem simetria relativamente
ao plano longitudinal.
A seccao do navio equidistante das perpendiculares e normal aos planos de flutuacao de
verao e longitudinal e designada por seccao de meio-navio, ou seccao mestra. Na Fig. 1.2
esta representado um plano de linhas do navio, que inclui o plano do casco, no qual, por
convencao, sempre que o navio e simetrico, se exibem metades das seccoes. Do lado direito
representam-se metades das seccoes avante de meio-navio e do lado esquerdo metades das
seccoes a re. O plano de linhas do navio inclui ainda o plano da metade da boca, no qual sao
representados os planos de flutuacao.
Figura 1.2: Plano geometrico de um navio.

1.1. GEOMETRIA DO NAVIO 3
Na Fig. 1.3 estao representadas as dimensoes mais frequentemente utilizadas para definir
o navio. Quanto ao comprimento do navio, sao tres as definicoes a considerar:
- o comprimento entre perpendiculares, Lpp , distancia medida ao longo do plano de flu-
tuacao de verao entre a perpendicular da popa e a perpendicular da proa;
- o comprimento na linha de agua, Lwl , distancia na linha de flutuacao que se verifique, se
nada for referido devera entender-se a linha de flutuacao de verao, entre as interseccoes
da proa e popa com a mesma linha de flutuacao;
- o comprimento fora a fora, Loa , distancia entre os pontos extremos a vante e a re do
navio, medida numa direccao paralela a linha de flutuacao de verao.
Designa-se por boca, a maxima distancia entre as faces interiores das chapas de costado
nos dois bordos do navio, na seccao mestra, se outra seccao nao for indicada. O pontal e a
distancia na vertical, medida a meio navio, entre a face inferior do conves e a face superior
da chapa da quilha. O calado de um navio em qualquer ponto do seu comprimento e a
distancia na vertical entre a quilha e a linha de agua. O calado varia nao so com o estado de
carregamento do navio mas tambem com a densidade da agua em que este se encontra.
A altura desde a linha de flutuacao e o conves e designada por bordo livre. Pode ser
calculado pela diferenca entre o pontal e o calado.
Um aspecto importante relativamente a seguranca de um navio mercante prende-se com
a alocacao regulamentar de um valor mnimo do bordo livre, como forma de garantir uma
reserva de estabilidade suficiente para a seguranca da navegacao. Este valor mnimo do bordo
livre depende do local de navegacao e da epoca do ano. No costado do navio estao marcadas
as linhas de carga por forma a permitir verificar facilmente se as condicoes de seguranca sao
verificadas. O valor de referencia e a linha de Verao que e marcada no centro de um crculo,
Fig. 1.4. Ao lado deste crculo, sao marcadas na horizontal linhas adicionais que correspondem
ao:
- bordo livre de Inverno, superior em 1/48 avos do bordo livre de Verao;
- bordo livre de Inverno no Atlantico Norte, ainda superior em 50 mm;
- bordo livre tropical, inferior em 1/48 avos do bordo livre de Verao;
- bordo livre em agua doce, inferior em / (40 t) cm, sendo o deslocamento em ton e
t as ton por cm de imersao;
- bordo livre tropical em agua doce e inferior em 1/48 avos do bordo livre de Verao ao
bordo livre em agua doce.
1.1.2 Coeficientes de forma do navio

O deslocamento do navio e o peso do volume de agua que o navio desloca quando a flutuar
em aguas tranquilas,
= g (1.1)
em que e a massa volumica da agua em que o navio se encontra a flutuar, g e a aceleracao
da gravidade e o volume deslocado.
A partir das principais dimensoes da navio, definem-se os seguintes coeficientes de forma:
Figura 1.3: Principais dimensoes dos navios.
- o coeficiente de finura total (block coeficient):

Cb = (1.2)
Lpp BT
onde:
- e o volume do deslocamento;
- Lpp o comprimento entre perpendiculares;
- B a boca (maxima abaixo da linha de agua);
- e T e o calado medio do navio.
- o coeficiente de finura da flutuacao:

Awp
Cwp = (1.3)
Lwp B
em que:
- Awp e a area do plano de flutuacao;

1.1. GEOMETRIA DO NAVIO 5
Figura 1.4: Marcacao no costado das linhas de carga do navio.
- Lwp o comprimento na linha de flutuacao;

- e B a boca (maxima na linha de flutuacao).
- o coeficiente de finura da seccao mestra:
Am
Cm = (1.4)
BT
representando por:
- Am a area imersa na seccao mestra;
- B a boca na seccao mestra;
- e T o calado a meio navio.
- o coeficiente prismatico longitudinal:

Cp = (1.5)
Am Lpp
em que novamente:
- e o volume da querena;
- Am a area imersa a meio navio;
- e Lpp o comprimento entre perpendiculares.
Como exemplo da utilizacao dos coeficientes de forma no estabelecimento de relacoes
empricas para incio do projecto de um navio, pode-se indicar a formula de Alexander,
V
Cb = K 0.5 (1.6)
L
em que K apresenta os valores da Tab. 1.1 de acordo com o tipo de navio. A formula de
Alexander estabelece uma relacao emprica entre o coeficiente de finura total do navio, a sua
velocidade e o comprimento. Pela especificidade de cada caso, o coeficiente de finura total
Cb do navio podera depois desviar-se do valor inicialmente previsto durante o processo de
optimizacao das caractersticas do navio.
Tipo de Navio K
Petroleiro 1.13
Graneleiro 1.11
Carga geral 1.10
Navio de linha 1.05
Ferry 1.08
Rebocador 1.18
Tabela 1.1: Valores de K na formula de Alexander.
1.2 Comportamento hidrodinamico do navio

A analise do comportamento hidrodinamico do navio pode ser decomposta em diversas areas,
de entre as quais se pode salientar:
- a resistencia;
- a propulsao;
- o comportamento do navio no mar;
- a capacidade de manobra.
O calculo do escoamento e o projecto de helices pode ser considerado como um sub-topico do

tema resistencia e propulsao.
As metodologias para o calculo ou para a previsao dos parametros relevantes do compor-
tamento do navio podem ser classificadas como:
- empricas e estatsticas;
- experimentais em modelos a escala reduzida, ou a escala real;
- numericas, atraves de solucoes analticas ou com recurso a mecanica de fluidos compu-

tacional.
Os princpios fundamentais destas metodologias sao sumariamente descritos nas seccoes

seguintes.
1.3 Metodos empricos

Os metodos empricos baseiam-se num modelo fsico relativamente simples e na analise por
regressao para a determinacao dos coeficientes relevantes, a partir de um so navio ou de uma
serie de navios. Os resultados assim obtidos sao depois expressos sob a forma de constantes,
formulas, tabelas, graficos, etc.
Numerosos estudos realizados entre 1940 e 1960 permitiram criar series de boas formas
de carenas. O efeito da variacao dos principais parametros do casco, como por exemplo o
coeficiente de bloco, foi determinado por alteracao sistematica daqueles parametros.
1.4. METODOS EXPERIMENTAIS 7
Figura 1.5: Tanque de provas utilizado

por W. Froude. Figura 1.6: Tanque de testes actual.
1.4 Metodos experimentais

Esta abordagem baseia-se no teste de modelos em escala reduzida para extrair informacao que
possa ser extrapolada para a escala do navio. Apesar dos grandes esforcos de investigacao e
normalizacao, a correlacao modelo-navio esta sujeita a algum grau de empirismo. Cada uma
das principais instalacoes de teste (tuneis, bacias, etc.) tende a adoptar os metodos de ensaio
e tratamento da informacao que melhor se adaptam a experiencia ja incorporada nas suas
bases de dados. Esta nao uniformidade de processos dificulta, se nao mesmo em muitos casos
impossibilita, o aproveitamento estatstico dos dados de uma forma agregada.
Embora a metodologia base para a avaliacao da resistencia de um modelo num tanque de
testes se mantenha praticamente inalterada desde os tempos de Froude (1874), varios aspectos
tecnicos sofreram grande evolucao. De entre estes, podem-se salientar:
- as tecnicas experimentais nao-intrusivas, como a Laser-Doppler Velocimetry, que per-

mitem a medicao do campo de velocidades na esteira do navio para melhorar o projecto
do helice;
- a analise do padrao da formacao ondosa gerada pelo modelo para estimar a resistencia
de onda;
- nos testes de modelos com propulsao autonoma, e possvel agora medir grandezas rela-
cionadas com o propulsor como o impulso, binario, rpm, etc.
Instalacoes com caractersticas bem diferentes surgiram entretanto para possibilitar outro
tipo de estudos. Trata-se de bacias equipadas com geradores de ondas, para ensaios de modelos
com o objectivo de estudar as questoes de manobrabilidade e de comportamento do navio no
mar, Fig. 1.7.
Outro tipo de bacias para ensaios de modelos de navios, Fig. 1.8, dedica-se preferencial-
mente a estudos e ensaios relacionados com a presenca de gelo no mar.
Por ultimo, um outro tipo de instalacao de teste nesta area dedica-se ao estudo do desem-
penho de helices propulsores. Neste tipo de instalacao, que iremos abordar com um pouco
mais de detalhe no Cap. 3, para alem da determinacao de varias caractersticas de desempenho
do helice, pode-se vizualizar o padrao de cavitacao no helice.
Figura 1.7: Bacia para testes Figura 1.8: Bacia para testes com
com ondulacao. aguas geladas.
Figura 1.9: Escoamento num helice.
1.5 Simulacoes numericas

As simulacoes de escoamento obtidas pela mecanica de fluidos computacional sao ainda consi-
deradas pela industria como pouco precisas para a previsao da resistencia de um casco ou da
forca propulsiva de um helice. No entanto, o contributo da mecanica de fluidos computacional
esta a tornar-se cada vez mais importante em determinados passos do processo de projecto.
Casos tpicos de aplicacao sao, por exemplo:
- a simulacao de escoamento invscido, com superfcie livre, para analise do comporta-
mento da proa, interaccao com o bolbo, formacao ondosa, etc.
- as simulacoes de escoamento viscoso na zona da popa, desprezando a formacao ondosa
para avaliacao do comportamento de apendice ou analise do escoamento de aproximacao
ao helice.
No caso mais geral, o escoamento de fluidos incompressveis em regime nao-estacionario e
modelado pelas seguintes equacoes:
1.5. SIMULACOES NUMERICAS 9
- Equacao da continuidade,
ui
=0 (1.7)
xi
- Equacao de conservacao da quantidade de movimento,
ui p 2 ui
+ (ui uj ) = + + bi (1.8)
t xj xi xj xj
- Equacao de conservacao da energia (forma simplificada),
(uj ) 2
+ = (1.9)
t xj c xj xj
em que xi e a coordenada na direccao i, ui e a componente da velocidade na direccao i,

e sao a massa especfica e a viscosidade do fluido, respectivamente, p e a pressao, e a
condutividade termica, c e o calor especfico, e a temperatura, b e a componente na direccao
i das forcas exteriores por unidade de massa e t e o tempo.
As equacoes sao discretizadas no espaco de acordo com uma malha colocada ou desfasada.
Na Fig. 1.10 esta indicada a localizacao das variaveis, no caso bi-dimensional, para cada
uma daqueles tipos de malhas. Cada um daqueles tipos de malha de discretizacao apresenta
Figura 1.10: Malha colocada a esquerda e desfasada a direita.
algumas vantagens e desvantagens. As mais importantes estao relacionadas com:
- a complexidade da programacao;
- o tratamento das fronteiras do problema;
- a solucao para o acoplamento pressao-velocidade (formato xadrez na solucao da pressao).
Selecionado o tipo de malha a utilizar, outras opcoes ha a tomar para desenvolver o metodo
de solucao. Algumas das mais comuns sao:
Figura 1.12: Um PC-cluster

Figura 1.11: Representacao esquematica com 24 nos computacionais.
de um PC-cluster.
- SIMPLE / metodo de projeccao;
- volume finito / diferencas finitas;
- aproximacao dos termos convectivos/difusivos das equacoes;
- upwind;
- diferencas centrais de ordem 2;
- diferencas centrais de ordem 4;
- o metodo de integracao para a evolucao temporal;
- Euler;
- Crank-Nicolson;
- Adams-Bashforth;
- Runge-Kutta.
Tratando-se de calculos complexos, o tempo de calculo podera ser reduzido, sem acrescimo
significativo de custos, com recurso de um PC-cluster, Fig. 1.11.
Este tipo de estruturas computacionais caracterizam-se por dispor de:
- 20 a 1000 CPU;
- 2 a 8 GB RAM por no;
- comunicacao em rede com velocidade superior a 1 Gbps;
- elevada capacidade para armazenamento de dados;
- sistema operativo estavel.

1.5. SIMULACOES NUMERICAS 11
Para a solucao de um problema de mecanica de fluidos num PC-cluster e necessario pro-

ceder a decomposicao do domnio espacial do problema (Fig. 1.13) e recorrer a rotinas de uma
das varias bibliotecas disponveis para efectuar a troca de dados entre os nos computacionais,
como por exemplo a biblioteca Message Passing Interface, necessaria para a continuacao do
calculo. Na Fig. 1.14 estao representados esquematicamente aquelas comunicacoes de dados
relativos as fronteiras dos sub-domnios de calculo.
Figura 1.13: Decomposicao 1D, 2D ou 3D do domnio espacial de um pro-

blema.
Figura 1.14: Troca de valores nas fronteiras dos sub-domnios.

Captulo 2
Resistencia
2.1 Analise dimensional
A resistencia do navio a uma velocidade constante e a forca necessaria para rebocar o navio
a essa velocidade em aguas tranquilas. Se a querena nao tiver apendices, a resistencia diz-se
da querena simples. Designaremos por potencia efectiva, ou potencia de reboque, a potencia
necessaria para vencer a resistencia do navio a uma dada velocidade,
Pe = V RT (2.1)
em que V e a velocidade do navio e RT a sua resistencia total.

A resistencia do navio RT = f (V, L, , , g) depende:
- da velocidade do navio V ;
- das dimensoes do navio, representadas aqui por uma dimensao linear L;
- da massa especfica do fluido ;
- da viscosidade cinematica do fluido ;
- da aceleracao da gravidade g.
Assim, a resistencia do navio devera ser uma funcao da forma
RT = V a Lb c d g e (2.2)
Ao estudar a resistencia de um navio e importante calcular nao o seu valor absoluto, mas
tambem a sua relacao com outro valor, dimensionalmente semelhante, tomado como referen-
cia. Vamos dar o nome de coeficientes especficos a estas relacoes. No caso da resistencia
total do navio, o valor do coeficiente e obtido por
RT
cT = (2.3)
1
SV 2
2
em que e a massa especfica do fluido, S a superfcie molhada do navio e V a sua velocidade.
13
14 CAPITULO 2. RESISTENCIA
Resolvendo o sistema de equacoes gerado pela Eq. (2.2) em ordem a a, b e c, e considerando

a definicao do coeficiente em 2.3 dada pela Eq. (2.3), temos

2 2 V L gL
RT = V L f , (2.4)
V2
Ou seja, a analise dimensional mostra que o coeficiente de resistencia total do navio,

V L gL
ct = f , (2.5)
V2
depende dos grupos adimensionais designados por numero de Froude,
V
Fr = (2.6)
gL
e por numero de Reynolds,
VL
Re = (2.7)

calculados para o navio.
2.2 Leis da semelhanca

No caso dos ensaios de modelos para avaliacao da resistencia de uma querena, podemos
considerar tres formas de semelhanca:
- semelhanca geometrica;
- semelhanca cinematica;
- semelhanca dinamica.
2.2.1 Semelhanca geometrica

Verificar-se semelhanca geometrica significa a existencia de uma razao constante entre qual-
quer dimensao linear na escala real do prototipo (comprimento, boca, calado do navio, etc.)
Ls e o dimensao linear na escala do modelo Lm . Aquela razao e a escala geometrica do modelo
,
Ls = Lm (2.8)
Consequentemente, temos para as areas,
As = 2 Am (2.9)
e para os volumes,
s = 3 m (2.10)
2.2. LEIS DA SEMELHANCA 15
2.2.2 Semelhanca cinematica

A semelhanca cinematica significa a existencia de uma razao constante entre o tempo na
escala real, ts e o tempo na escala do modelo tm , a escala cinematica :
ts = tm (2.11)
A verificacao simultanea das condicoes de semelhanca geometrica e cinematica resulta nos
seguintes factores de escala:
- para a velocidade:

Vs = Vm (2.12)

- e para a aceleracao:

as = am (2.13)
2
2.2.3 Semelhanca dinamica
Obter semelhanca dinamica significa que a razao entre cada uma das forcas actuantes no navio
a escala real e as correspondentes forcas actuantes no modelo e constante, escala dinamica do
modelo ,
Fs = Fm (2.14)
As forcas presentes, actuantes sobre o navio e sobre o modelo, podem ser classificadas de
acordo com a sua natureza como:
- as forcas de inercia;
- as forcas gravticas;
- as forcas de atrito.
Forcas de inercia
As forcas de inercia regem-se pela lei de Newton, expressa por
F = ma (2.15)
em que F e a forca de inercia, m a massa do corpo, e a a aceleracao a que ele e sujeito.
Considerando o volume deslocado pelo navio , a massa do navio e
m = (2.16)
sendo a massa volumica da agua.
Entao, a razao entre as forcas de inercia e uma equacao que incorpora os tres factores de
escala, lei da Semelhanca de Newton, e dada por
Fs s s as s 4
= = = (2.17)
Fm m m am m 2
que pode ser re-escrita como
2
Vs 2

Fs s 2 s As
= = = (2.18)
Fm m m Am Vm
Forcas de origem hidrodinamica

As forcas de origem hidrodinamica sao normalmente descritas recorrendo a um coeficiente
adimensional c na seguinte forma, semelhante a Eq. (2.3),
1
F = c V 2A (2.19)
2
em que V e uma velocidade de referencia, por exemplo a velocidade do navio e A uma area de
referencia como, por exemplo, a area das obras vivas com mar calmo. Aplicando a Eq. (2.19)
ao navio e ao modelo e combinando as duas equacoes, obtem-se
cs s Vs2 As Vs 2

Fs cs s As
= = (2.20)
Fm cm m Vm2 Am cm m Am Vm
Daqui resulta que igualando o valor dos coeficientes no navio e no modelo, cs = cm , fica
garantida a verificacao da lei da semelhanca de Newton.
Forcas Gravticas
As forcas gravticas podem ser descritas de forma semelhante as forcas de inercia, para o
navio
Gs = s g s (2.21)
e para o modelo
Gs = s g s Gm = m g m (2.22)
daqui resultando uma nova escala,

Gs s s s
g = = = 3 (2.23)
Gm m m m
Para que se possa verificar a semelhanca dinamica, os factores de escala devem apresentar
o mesmo valor, ou seja, = g . Se
s 4
=
m 2
e
s
g = 3
m
entao, para que = g e necessario verificar-se

= (2.24)
Esta nova relacao permite eliminar a escala temporal em todas as relacoes apresentadas,
ficando a proporcionalidade apenas dependente de como, por exemplo, na Eq. (2.12), fazendo
Vs
= (2.25)
Vm
2.2. LEIS DA SEMELHANCA 17
Numero de Froude
A Eq. (2.25) pode ainda assumir a forma de uma relacao entre a dimensao linear e a
velocidade do modelo e do navio,
V V
s = m (2.26)
Ls Lm
Adimensionalisando a razao entre a velocidade V e a raiz quadrada do comprimento L
com a aceleracao da gravidade, g = 9.81 m/s2 , obtemos o numero de Froude
V
Fr = (2.27)
gL
Na ausencia de forcas viscosas, igual numero de Froude assegura semelhanca dinamica.
Para igual numero de Froude, as ondulacoes no modelo e a escala real, desde que de pequena
amplitude, podem considerar-se geometricamente semelhantes.
A lei de Froude e verificada em todos os ensaios de modelos de navios, ensaios de resis-
tencia, propulsao, comportamento no mar e manobrabilidade. A aplicacao da lei de Froude
impoe os seguintes factores de escala para a velocidade,
Vs
= (2.28)
Vm
forca,
Fs s
= 3 (2.29)
Fm m
e potencia,
Ps Fs Vs s
= = 3.5 (2.30)
Pm Fm Vm m
Forcas de atrito
As forcas viscosas R, com origem no atrito entre camadas de fluido, sao modeladas por
u
R = A (2.31)
n
u
em que e a viscosidade dinamica do fluido, A a area sujeita ao atrito e o gradiente de
n
velocidade, avaliado na direccao normal ao escoamento.
A razao das forcas de atrito no navio e no modelo e dada por
us
s As
Rs ns s 2
f = = = (2.32)
Rm um m
m Am
nm
Na presenca das forcas de atrito, para verificar a condicao de semelhanca dinamica, sera
necessario que f = , ou seja:
s 2 s 4
= (2.33)
m m 2
Se introduzirmos a viscosidade cinematica, como = /, obtem-se:
s 2 V s Ls
= =
m Vm Lm
ou seja,
Vs Ls Vm Lm
= (2.34)
s m
Numero de Reynolds
Entao, de acordo com a Eq. (2.34), se apenas estiverem presentes forcas de inercia e de
atrito, a igualdade do numero de Reynolds,
V L
Re = (2.35)

assegura semelhanca dinamica entre o modelo e o navio.
Para o calculo do numero de Reynolds, a viscosidade cinematica da agua do mar (m2 /s)
pode ser estimada, em funcao da temperatura ( C) e da salinidade s (%), por
= (0.014 s + (0.000645 0.0503) + 1.75) 106 (2.36)
Semelhanca dinamica
O numero de Froude e o numero de Reynolds estao relacionados por,
p
Re V L gL gL3
= = (2.37)
Fr V
A semelhanca de Froude e facilmente obtida para testes em modelos porque para modelos
mais pequenos a velocidade de teste diminui. A semelhanca de Reynolds e mais difcil de
obter pois modelos mais pequenos exigem superior velocidade de teste para igual viscosidade
cinematica.
os navios de superfcie estao sujeitos a forcas gravticas e de atrito. Assim, nos testes de
modelos a escala reduzida ambas as leis, de Froude e de Reynolds, deveriam ser satisfeitas;
s
Res m L3s m 1.5
= = = 1 (2.38)
Rem s L3m s
No entanto, nao existem, ou pelo menos nao sao economicamente viaveis, fluidos que permitam
satisfazer esta condicao. Para diminuir os erros de extrapolacao dos efeitos viscosos, a agua em
que sao realizados os testes pode ser aquecida para aumentar a diferenca entre as viscosidades.
2.3 Decomposicao da resistencia

A resistencia do navio tem origem complexa e, para facilidade de analise, e tradicionalmente
decomposta em varios termos. No entanto, nao existe uniformidade nos diversos textos quanto
a forma como realizar aquela decomposicao. Uma das abordagens a este assunto consiste
em considerar as decomposicoes constantes na Fig. 2.1. De acordo com a figura, podemos
considerar a seguinte decomposicao da resistencia total:
2.3. DECOMPOSICAO DA RESISTENCIA 19
- a resistencia de onda;
- a resistencia de atrito;
- a resistencia viscosa de pressao.
Figura 2.1: Decomposicao da resistencia.
Para alem dos termos relativos a uma querena simples em aguas tranquilas, outras com-
ponentes adicionais da resistencia deverao ser consideradas:
- a resistencia aerodinamica, resistencia ao avanco no ar da parte emersa do casco e

superestruturas do navio;
- a resistencia adicional em mar ondoso, resistencia resultante da accao de ondas inciden-

tes sobre a estrutura do navio;
- a resistencia adicional devida aos apendices da querena.
2.3.1 Resistencia de onda

Quando o navio avanca na superfcie tranquila do mar e rodeado e seguido por uma formacao
ondosa. Esta formacao e quase imperceptvel a baixa velocidade. No entanto, a partir de
uma dada velocidade torna-se claramente visvel e, a partir da, tem dimensao crescente
com a velocidade. Para alem da dependencia com a velocidade, a formacao ondosa depende
tambem da forma da querena.
Nos estudos de resistencia de onda nao se pode afirmar que uma dada velocidade e elevada
ou baixa sem conhecermos tambem a dimensao do navio. Assim, surge frequentemente a
referencia ao conceito de velocidade relativa, como razao entre a velocidade do navio e um
parametro representativo da dimensao do navio,
V
vrel = (2.39)
L
com V em nos e L em pes, em substituicao do adimensional numero de Froude.
Numa perspectiva do estudo hidrodinamico do escoamanto, o navio pode ser considerado
como um campo de pressao em movimento. Kelvin resolveu analiticamente o caso simplificado
do sistema de ondas criado pelo movimento de um ponto de pressao. Demonstrou que o padrao
da formacao ondosa inclui um sistemas de ondas divergentes e um outro sistema cujas cristas
das ondas se apresentam normais a direccao do movimento, como representado na Fig. 2.2.
Ambos os sistemas de ondas viajam a velocidade do ponto de pressao.
Figura 2.2: Sistema de ondas gerado por um ponto de pressao em movi-

mento.
O sistema de ondas associado ao movimento de um navio e bastante mais complicado.

No entanto, como primeira aproximacao, o navio pode ser considerado com um campo de
pressao em movimento composto por uma sobrepressao considerada pontual na proa e uma
depressao, tambem pontual, na popa. Assim, num navio que se desloque a uma velocidade
relativa elevada, a formacao ondosa provocada e constituda por dois sistemas principais de
ondas, Fig. 2.3:
- o sistema da proa;
- o sistema da popa.
Cada um dos sistemas de ondas formados, com origem na proa e na popa do navio, e
constitudo por dois tipos de ondas:
- as ondas transversais;
- as ondas divergentes.
Geralmente, os dois sistemas de ondas divergentes sao detectaveis apesar de o sistema da

popa ser muito mais fraco. Nao e normalmente possvel isolar o sistema transversal da popa,
sendo apenas visvel a re do navio a composicao dos dois sistemas, transversal e divergente.
Figura 2.3: Sistemas de ondas da proa e da popa.
A proa produz um sistema de ondas semelhante ao descrito por Kelvin para um ponto de
pressao em movimento e, pelo contrario, na popa forma-se um sistema de ondas semelhante,
mas com uma depressao localizada na popa. Conforme representado na Fig. 2.3, se a linha
que une os pontos de maior elevacao das cristas das ondas divergentes fizer com a direccao
longitudinal do navio um angulo , entao a direccao destas fara um angulo 2 com a mesma
direccao.
O comprimento de onda de ambos os sistemas transversais e igual e dado por:
2V 2
= (2.40)
g
Existe uma interaccao entre as formacoes ondosa transversais dos sistemas de ondas da
proa e da popa. Se os sistemas estiverem em fase, de tal forma que as cristas das ondas
coincidam, o sistema resultante tera maior altura e, consequentemente, maior energia. Se,
pelo contrario, a cava de um dos sistemas de ondas ficar sobreposta com uma crista do outro
sistema, a energia consumida para gerar o sistema de ondas sera reduzida. A velocidade V
e o comprimento do navio L sao muito importantes para a determinacao da energia total do
sistema de ondas gerado e, consequentemente, para a resistencia de onda do navio.
Continuando a assumir o modelo fsico que aproxima o movimento do navio por um
campo de pressao em movimento, a distancia entre os dois pontos de pressao, proa e popa,
e aproximada por 0, 9 L. Sabendo que uma onda gravtica com comprimento de onda se
desloca em aguas profundas a velocidade
r
g
C= (2.41)
2
para que haja coincidencia de uma crista ou cava do sistema da proa com a primeira cava
gerada na popa, devera verificar-se
V2 g
= (2.42)
0, 9L N
Tomando em consideracao a Fig. 2.4, verifica-se que as cavas vao coincidir para N =
1, 3, 5, ... enquanto que para N par as cristas do sistema da proa coincidem com as cavas do
sistema da popa. Se nao existisse esta interaccao entre os dois sistemas de ondas a resistencia
de onda apresentaria uma evolucao bem comportada crescente com a velocidade do navio,
Figura 2.4: Interaccao entre os dois sistemas de ondas.
conforme representado pela linha tracejada da Fig. 2.5. Na realidade, a partir de uma dada
velocidade a partir da qual esta interaccao se torna significativa, verifica-se a existencia de
elevacoes e depressoes na curva correspondendo aos casos extremos de interaccao entre os
sistemas de ondas. E de esperar que a maior elevacao se verifique para N = 1 porque a
velocidade e mais elevada para esta condicao.
Como a curva de resistencia de onda exibe estes maximos e mnimos locais, o navio deve
ser projectado para operar num mnimo local da curva de resistencia de onda, a velocidade
economica.
Quando o comprimento de onda das ondas transversais e igual ao comprimento do na-
vio, o numero de Froude e aproximadamente 0, 4. Ate este valor do numero de Froude, as
ondas transversais sao as principais responsaveis pelas elevacoes e depressoes na curva da
resistencia de onda. Se o numero de Froude aumentar, aumentara tambem a resistencia de
onda sobretudo a custa da influencia das ondas divergentes. O maximo da resistencia de
onda verifica-se para F r 0, 5. A velocidade correspondente designa-se por velocidade da
querena. Acima da velocidade da querena a resistencia de onda do navio decresce. Navios
rapidos que operem acima da velocidade de querena deverao naturalmente dispor de potencia
instalada suficiente para vencer aquele pico de resistencia.
Bolbo de proa
A finalidade da instalacao dos bolbos de proa e a reducao da resistencia de onda. O
mecanismo de reducao consiste na interferencia dos sistemas de onda. O sistema de ondas
gerado pela pressao elevada no bolbo interfere com o sistema de ondas da proa, reduzindo a
sua amplitude. A interferencia favoravel ocorre quando a cava do sistema transversal de ondas
Figura 2.5: Curva da resistencia de onda.
do bolbo surgir na crista do sistema de ondas da proa do navio. Esta situacao de interferencia
favoravel sendo optimizada para uma dada velocidade, pode no entanto ser considerada como
tendo efeito favoravel num determinado intervalo de velocidades.
Efeito da profundidade restrita

Os efeitos da profundidade finita comecam a fazer-se sentir quando a profundidade h e
menor que metade do comprimento de onda da formacao ondosa gerada pelo movimento do
navio, h < /2. Doutra forma, podemos considerar profundidade infinita sempre que,

h> (2.43)
2
No caso de profundidades muito pequenas, h < 0, 05 , a velocidade de propagacao deixa
de depender do comprimento de onda, Eq. (2.41) e passa a depender apenas da profundidade
p
C= gh (2.44)
Neste caso, a velocidade de grupo e igual a velocidade de propagacao, a velocidade crtica:

p
Cg = C = gh (2.45)
Para caracterizar o efeito da profundidade e usado o numero de Froude baseado na pro-

fundidade h:

- se V / gh < 0, 4, o padrao de ondas e semelhante ao caso de profundidade infinita;

- se V / gh se aproximar de 1, o angulo da envolvente aproxima-se de 90 ;

- se V / gh > 1, sin = gh/V .
2.3.2 Resistencia de atrito

A resistencia de atrito do navio resulta do escoamento em torno da querena com numero de
Reynolds elevado. Quando um corpo se move num fluido em repouso, uma fina camada de
fluido adere ao corpo em movimento, ou seja, tem velocidade nula relativamente ao corpo.
A variacao de velocidade e elevada nas proximidades da superfcie do corpo e diminui com
o aumento da distancia ao mesmo. E pratica habitual convencionar-se para a definicao da
espessura da camada limite, a distancia a partir da superfcie do corpo ate que a velocidade
do fluido seja 1% da velocidade do corpo.
Desenvolve-se assim da proa para a popa do navio uma camada limite tridimensional. Esta
camada limite inicia-se em escoamento laminar e sofre transicao para o regime turbulento.
Normalmente, esta transicao ocorre junto a proa do navio. Esta transicao e controlada pelo
numero de Reynolds do escoamento. Considerando o caso da placa lisa plana, a transicao
ocorre para valores entre Re = 3105 e Re = 106 . Em regime turbulento os efeitos dissipativos
de energia vao alem do atrito molecular. Com crescente numero de Reynolds, verificam-se
intensas trocas de quantidade de movimento em camadas adjacentes do fluido, ou seja, maior
transporte de energia.
No caso de uma placa plana, a espessura da camada limite turbulenta pode ser aproximada
por:
x
= 0, 37 (ReL )1/5 (2.46)
L
Num navio, o gradiente lontitudinal de pressao na regiao da proa e, em geral, favoravel
ao escoamento. Pelo contrario, este gradiente e adverso na regiao da popa e a camada limite
aumenta significativamente de espessura deixando de poder ser considerada pequena quando
comparada com o comprimento ou a boca do navio. Para todos os efeitos praticos, a camada
limite de um navio pode ser considerada completamente turbulenta.
A dependencia da resistencia de atrito com o numero de Reynolds e com a rugosidade da
superfcie e indicada pelo grafico da Fig. 2.6. Para uma superfcie rugosa, a resistencia segue
a linha da superfcie lisa ate que, para um dado valor de Re, se separa e tem a partir da
um andamento quase horizontal, ou seja, o coeficiente torna-se independente do Re. Quanto
mais rugosa for a superfcie mais cedo se evidencia este comportamento.
A resistencia de atrito de um navio e habitualmente dividida em duas componentes:
- a resistencia a que ficaria sujeita uma placa plana com area equivalente;
- o aumento de resistencia originado pela forma do navio.
A resistencia de atrito foi estimada durante decadas por expressoes empricas como, por
exemplo, a formula de Froude:
RF = 1 0, 0043 ( 15) f SV 1,825 (2.47)

Figura 2.6: Variacao do coeficiente da resistencia de atrito com o numero

de Reynolds e com a rugosidade da superfcie.
em que e a temperatura do fluido, expressa em C e

0, 258
f = 0, 1392 + (2.48)
2, 68 + L
Outra formula emprica muito popular para a previsao do coeficiente da resistencia de atrito e
devida a Schoenherr e conhecida como formula da ATTC (American Towing Tank Conference)
0, 242
= log (Re cF ) (2.49)
cF
Esta correlacao preve coeficientes de atrito excessivos quando aplicada a modelos muito
pequenos. Para ultrapassar este problema foi proposta na ITTC (International Towing Tank
Conference) de 1957 uma nova formula,
0, 075
cF = (2.50)
(logRe 2)2
designada por linha de correlacao modelo-navio da ITTC 1957.
2.3.3 Resistencia viscosa de pressao

A componente da pressao originada pelas ondas formadas pelo movimento do navio ja foi
considerada. Resta agora considerar a resistencia originada por diferencas de pressao a actuar
no casco devida a efeitos viscosos do escoamento. Num escoamento ideal, ver Fig. 2.7, a
pressao exercida na popa do navio seria igual a exercida na proa, ou seja forca resultante
nula. Na pratica, os efeitos viscosos vao reduzir a pressao exercida na popa do navio.
Parte desta resistencia sera devida a geracao de vortices nas descontinuidades do casco.
Outra parte sera devida a um aumento de espessura da camada limite nalguns casos po-
tenciada por fenomenos de separacao do escoamento. Estes aspectos sao fundamentalmente
condicionados pela forma do casco pelo que sao normalmente considerados como uma resis-
tencia de forma.
Figura 2.7: Distribuicao de pressao num escoamento ideal, invscido.
2.4 Ensaios de resistencia em tanques de reboque

Apesar da crescente importancia dos metodos numericos, os ensaios com modelos a escala
reduzida de navios em tanques de reboque sao ainda essenciais para a avaliacao hidrodinamica
dos novos projectos e para a validacao de novas solucoes.
Os testes devem ser realizados em condicoes que permitam considerar que o modelo e o
navio tem comportamentos semelhantes por forma a que os resultados obtidos para o modelo
possam ser extrapolados para a escala real do navio. Com este objectivo, os ensaios realizam-
se respeitando a igualdade do numero de Froude.
Os testes sao realizados em tanques de reboque, com agua imovel e o modelo rebocado por
um carrinho ou, em alternativa, os testes podem ser realizados em tanques de circulacao,
em que o modelo esta imovel e a agua circula.
No primeiro caso, apos um percurso inicial de aceleracao, a velocidade do carrinho deve
ser mantida constante para obter um regime estacionario e garantir o rigor das observacoes
efectuadas. A fase final e de desaceleracao e imobilizacao do modelo. Assim, os tanques de
reboque apresentam frequentemente centenas de metros de extensao.
O comprimento do modelo, como o exemplo representado esquematicamente na Fig. 2.8,
e escolhido de acordo com as condicoes experimentais no tanque de reboque. O modelo deve
ser tao grande quanto possvel por forma a minimizar efeitos de escala relativos aos aspectos
viscosos, nomeadamente as diferencas relativas a escoamentos laminares e turbulentos e as
questoes relacionadas com fenomenos de separacao do escoamento. Por outro lado, a dimensao
do modelo deve ainda permitir evitar deformacoes resultantes de esforcos no modelo e no
equipamento de teste.
A dimensao do modelo deve ser suficientemente pequena para permitir que o carrinho
de reboque do modelo atinja a velocidade correspondente e evitar os efeitos de aguas res-
tritas nos testes efectuados. Estes constrangimentos conduzem naturalmente a um intervalo
pratico de comprimentos admissveis. Os modelos para ensaios de resistencia e propulsao
tem normalmente comprimentos entre 4 m < Lm < 10 m. A escala dos modelos esta entre
15 < < 45.
2.5. CALCULO DA RESISTENCIA 27
Figura 2.8: Modelo a escala reduzida para ensaios de resistencia.
Durante o movimento, o modelo mantem o rumo atraves de fios-guia, sendo livre para
adoptar o caimento que resultar do seu movimento. Ainda de acordo com a Fig. 2.8, a
resistencia total de reboque do modelo e dada por,
RT = G1 + sin G2 (2.51)
Com os ensaios de resistencia com o modelo a escala reduzida pretende-se obter dados
que permitam estimar a resistencia do navio sem o propulsor e apendices, ou seja, dita da
querena simples. Dos ensaios no tanque de reboque obtem-se a resistencia nas condicoes do
tanque, ou seja:
- aguas suficientemente profundas;
- ausencia de correntes;
- ausencia de vento;
- agua doce a temperatura ambiente.
O numero de Reynolds e normalmente superior duas ordens de grandeza na escala do navio

que na escala do modelo, tipicamente na ordem de 109 e 107 , respectivamente. O modelo tem
frequentemente uma fita rugosa para estimular artificialmente a transicao da camada limite
laminar para turbulenta mais perto da proa do modelo. Globalmente, o desvio originado
pelo facto de nao se manter constante o numero de Reynolds no ensaio e depois compensado
atraves de correccoes empricas.
2.5 Calculo da resistencia

2.5.1 Metodos de extrapolacao
A resistencia do modelo tem depois de ser convertida por forma a obter-se uma estimativa
da resistencia do navio na escala real. Para tal, estao disponveis, entre outros, os seguintes
metodos:
- o metodo ITTC 1957;

- o metodo de Hughes/Prohaska;
- o metodo ITTC 1978;
- o metodo Geosim de Telfer.
Actualmente, o metodo mais frequentemente utilizado na pratica e o metodo ITTC 1978.
Metodo ITTC 1957

Para a aplicacao deste metodo, a resistencia total da querena, RT , e considerada decomposta
nos seguintes termos,
RT = RF + RR (2.52)
a resistencia de atrito, RF , e a resistencia residual, RR .

Os coeficientes de resistencia, adimensionais, sao genericamente calculados por,
Ri
ci = 1 2
(2.53)
2 V S
Na aplicacao deste metodo de previsao e considerado igual para o modelo e para o navio
o coeficiente de resistencia residual,
cR = cT m cF m (2.54)
determinado a partir do coeficiente de resistencia total do modelo,

RT m
cT m = 1 2
(2.55)
2 m Vm Sm
e da formula ITTC 1957 (Eq. (2.50)) para o calculo do coeficiente de resistencia de atrito
cF ,
0.075
cF =
(log10 Re 2)2
O coeficiente de resistencia total para o navio e entao estimado por:
cT s = cF s + cR + cA = cF s + (cT m cF m ) + cA (2.56)
em que cA e um factor de correccao tradicionalmente associado a rugosidade do casco. De

facto, embora o modelo esteja construdo a uma dada escala geometrica, a rugosidade das
superfcies do modelo e do navio nao respeitam esta escala. O valor de cA pode ser obtido
por correlacoes empricas como, por exemplo,
cA = 0.35 103 2 Lpp 106 (2.57)
ou a partir de valores tabelados (Tab. 2.1).

A previsao da resistencia total do navio e dada por
1
RT s = cT s s Vs2 Ss (2.58)
2
Lpp (m) cA
50 - 150 0,0004-0,00035
150 - 210 0,0002
210 - 260 0,0001
260 - 300 0
300 - 350 -0,0001
350 - 400 0,00025
Tabela 2.1: Valores do coeficiente de correccao cA em funcao do compri-

mento do navio.
Metodo de Hughes-Prohaska
O metodo de Hughes-Prohaska e normalmente classificado como um metodo de factor de
forma. E considerada a decomposicao da resistencia total em duas componentes, uma asso-
ciada a resistencia de onda e outra dependente da forma do casco. Considerando entao os
coeficientes adimensionais, fica
cT = (1 + k) cF 0 + cw (2.59)
Para a determinacao do factor de forma, presume-se aqui a relacao
cT F r4
= (1 + k) + (2.60)
cF 0 cF 0
que e particularmente valida para valores reduzidos de velocidade.
Apos varios ensaios a diferentes velocidades, diferentes numeros de Froude, e possvel
construir um grafico semelhante ao representado na Fig. 2.9 e, com base naqueles valores,
obter o valor de k por regressao linear.
cT F r4
Figura 2.9: Representacao grafica da dependencia de com .
cF 0 cF 0
Este factor de forma, (1 + k),e assumido como independente dos valores de F r e de Re e

igual para o navio e modelo.
O procedimento de calculo do metodo de Hughes-Prohaska e o seguinte:
- determinar o coeficiente de resistencia total,
RT m
cT m =
1
m Vm2 Sm
2
- determinar o coeficiente de resistencia de onda, o mesmo para o modelo e o navio,
cw = cT m cF 0m (1 + k) (2.61)
- determinar o coeficiente de resistencia total para o navio,
cT s = cw + cF 0s (1 + k) + cA (2.62)
- determinar a resistencia total para o navio, novamente por
1
RT s = cT s s Vs2 Ss
2
O coeficiente da resistencia de atrito, cF 0 , e neste caso obtido pela correlacao de Hughes,
0.067
cF 0 = (2.63)
(log10 Re 2)2
Quanto ao coeficiente de correccao cA , a ITTC recomenda a aplicacao universal de
cA = 0.0004 (2.64)
na aplicacao deste metodo.
Metodo ITTC 1978
E uma modificacao do metodo de Hughes-Prohaska, geralmente mais preciso que os ante-

riormente apresentados. Ao contrario dos metodos anteriormente descritos, este metodo de
extrapolacao dos resultados obtidos nos ensaios com modelos a escala reduzida inclui o efeito
da resistencia do ar.
A previsao do coeficiente de resistencia total para o navio e, tambem aqui, descrita em
termos do factor de forma, ou seja,
cT s = (1 + k) cF s + cw + cA + cAA (2.65)
em que:
- cw e o coeficiente de resistencia de onda, igual para o navio e modelo;
- cA e o coeficiente de correccao;
AT
- e cAA a resistencia do ar, cAA = 0.001 .
S
O coeficiente da resistencia de atrito e determinada de forma semelhante a preconizada

para o metodo ITTC 57, Eq. (2.50).
Para a determinacao da correccao devida pela variacao da rugosidade da querena, e acon-
selhada aqui a seguinte formula:
r
3 ks
cA 10 = 105 3 0.64 (2.66)
Loss
em que ks e a rugosidade do casco e Loss e o comprimento do navio no plano de flutuacao.

Para navios novos ks /Loss = 106 e cA = 0.00041.
Os detalhes sugeridos pela ITTC na aplicacao deste metodo estao indicados no Apendice
A.
Metodo Geosim
Este metodo foi proposto por Telfer em 1927. Dos metodos aqui enunciados, e considerado
como o metodo de extrapolacao com previsoes mais precisas da resistencia do navio. A
grande vantagem do metodo resulta de nao recorrer a qualquer decomposicao, teoricamente
questionavel, da resistencia total.
Sao realizados varios ensaios com modelos geometricamente semelhantes mas a diferentes
escalas. Isto significa que os testes podem ser realizados, para a mesma velocidade equivalente,
com igual numero de Froude e diferente numero de Reynolds. O coeficiente de resistencia total,
obtido naqueles ensaios, e representado em funcao de logRe1/3 . Para cada um dos modelos,
obtem-se uma curva da resistencia, em funcao do F r, que permite fazer a extrapolacao para
a escala do navio.
Pela grande quantidade de modelos a construir e ensaios a realizar, trata-se de um metodo
muito dispendioso, utilizado sobretudo apenas para fins de investigacao.
2.5.2 Resistencias adicionais

As condicoes de ensaio dos modelos sao substancialmente diferentes daquelas em que o navio
ira operar. As principais diferencas a considerar resultam de:
- a presenca de apendices na querena;
- a navegacao em aguas pouco profundas;
- o vento;
- a crescente rugosidade do casco durante a vida do navio;
- as condicoes de mar.
Para estimar as alteracoes causadas por estes itens no comportamento do navio, usam-se
correccoes empricas, baseadas em pressupostos fsicos, para correlacionar os valores obtidos
no modelo, ou no navio em provas de mar, com os estimados para as condicoes normais de
servico do navio. A resistencia adicional devida a apendices e a resistencia do navio em aguas
pouco profundas sao os topicos sucintamente abordados nos paragrafos seguintes.
Resistencia adicional dos apendices

Os modelos de navios a escala reduzida podem ser testados com apendices a escala geome-
trica apropriada. No entanto, nem sempre nesta altura do projecto estes estao completamente
definidos. Por outro lado, o escoamento em torno dos apendices e predominantemente go-
vernado pelas forcas de origem viscosa. Seria entao necessario, para obter resultados fiaveis,
verificarem-se condicoes de semelhanca de Reynolds, o que, como ja referido, nao e viavel
se, cumulativamente, pretendermos manter a igualdade do numero de Froude. Consequente-
mente, a presenca dos apendices em condicoes de semelhanca de Froude tem pouca relevancia.
Em primeira analise, os apendices do casco contribuem para um aumento da superfcie
molhada do navio. Por outro lado, da sua presenca surgem tambem alteracoes no factor de
forma do casco. Para a determinacao da resistencia de forma dos apendices pode recorrer-se a
dois ensaios, com e sem apendices, a uma velocidade superior. Se admitirmos que a resistencia
de onda e igual nos dois casos, a diferenca de resistencia verificada, tendo descontado a
diferenca de resistencia de atrito resultante da variacao da area molhada, da-nos a resistencia
de forma dos apendices.
Os valores tpicos de acrescimo de resistencia originados pela presenca de apendices sao
os seguintes:
- robaletes: 1 a 2%;
- impulsores:
- de proa: 0 a 1%;
- transversais de popa: 1 a 6%;
- aranhas de veios: 5 a 12% (twin-screw pode chegar a 20%);
- leme: 1%.
Resistencia em aguas pouco profundas

Quando um navio navega em aguas pouco profundas verifica-se um aumento, quer da resis-
tencia de atrito, quer da resistencia de onda. Em particular, a resistencia aumenta signifi-
cativamente
para valores proximos do numero de Froude crtico, baseado na profundidade,
Fnh = V / gH = 1.
O aumento da resistencia do navio quando a navegar em aguas pouco profundas foi es-
tudado por Schlichting. A sua hipotese de trabalho foi a seguinte: a resistencia de onda e a
mesma se o comprimento de onda da ondulacao transversal for igual.
O grafico da Fig. 2.10 permite prever a perda de velocidade do navio em aguas pouco
profundas. Correccoes simples nao sao possveis para aguas muito pouco profundas ja que os
fenomenos envolvidos sao complexos. Nestes casos, so testes em modelos ou simulacoes por
CFD poderao contribuir para uma melhor previsao.
2.6 Previsao da resistencia com dados sistematicos ou estats-

ticos
Na fase preliminar do projecto de um navio podem ser utilizados metodos aproximados para a
previsao da resistencia baseados em ensaios de series sistematicas de navios ou, pela regressao
2.6. PREVISAO COM DADOS SISTEMATICOS OU ESTATISTICOS 33
Figura 2.10: Reducao de velocidade (%) em aguas pouco profundas.
estatstica de dados experimentais relativos a modelos e a navios a escala real.

Series sistematicas sao conjuntos de formas de querena em que se provocou a variacao,
sistematica, de um ou mais dos seus parametros de forma. As variacoes sistematicas sao
feitas em torno de uma forma mae (parent form). Os resultados dos ensaios de resistencia
dos modelos que constituem a serie permitem determinar um coeficiente adimensional de
resistencia para uma forma de querena contida ou interpolada na serie.
Taylor mediu, entre 1907 e 1914, 80 modelos obtidos por variacao sistematica de:
- a razao entre o comprimento e a raiz cubica do deslocamento (5 valores de L/1/3 );
- a razao entre a boca e o calado (B/T = 2, 25; 3, 75);
- o coeficiente prismatico (8 valores de 0,48 a 0,86);

a partir de uma forma mae: o cruzador Leviathan.
Estes dados foram posteriormente re-trabalhados por Gertler em 1954, disponibilizando
diagramas de resistencia residual.
Outra serie sistematica, com particular interesse para os navios mercantes, e a serie 60,
devida aos trabalhos de Todd. Consta de 5 formas mae com coeficientes de finura, 0,60,
0,65, 0,70, 0,75 e 0,80. Para cada uma daquelas formas mae existem variacoes de L/B,
B/T , etc.
Como exemplo de um metodo de previsao da resistencia de navios envolvendo dados
estatsticos pode-se indicar o metodo de Holtrop e Mennen. Este metodo pode ser aplicado
para efectuar uma analise qualitativa do projecto de um navio no que diz respeito a sua
resistencia. O metodo baseia-se na regressao estatstica de resultados de ensaios em modelos
e de resultados de provas de mar de navios. A base de dados e muito vasta cobrindo uma
gama muito alargada de tipos de navios. No entanto, para formas muito especficas de navio,
a precisao das previsoes pode reduzir-se pelo menor numero de elementos daquele tipo na
base.
2.7 Ensaios a escala real

Os resultados obtidos nas provas de mar de um navio sao talvez o mais importante requisito
para a aceitacao deste pelo armador. A especificacao detalhada destas provas deve estar
claramente contratualizada entre o armador e o estaleiro. Entre outros organismos, a ITTC
recomenda alguns procedimentos para a realizacao destas provas. As recomendacoes para as
provas de velocidade e de potencia estao includas no Apendice B.
Os problemas surgem normalmente em consequencia de as provas se realizarem em condi-
coes diferentes, quer das que foram consideradas como condicoes de projecto, quer daquelas
que se verificaram nos ensaios com o modelo a escala reduzida.
O contrato de construcao deve especificar uma velocidade contratual do navio, a carga de
projecto, para uma dada percentagem da MCR do motor, em aguas tranquilas e profundas e
na ausencia de vento. Sao raras as ocasioes em que e possvel realizar as provas de mar em
condicoes proximas das condicoes contratuais. As condicoes em que se realizam as provas de
mar incluem, frequentemente:
- condicao de carga parcial ou em condicao de lastro;
- presenca de correntes e ondulacao;
- aguas pouco profundas;
Para prevenir maior diversidade de resultados, e habitual definir contratualmente valores

limite para as condicoes ambientais em que as provas de mar se realizarao. As condicoes
recomendadas pela ITTC para a realizacao das provas de velocidade e potencia estao no
Apendice C. As diferencas entre as condicoes contratuais e verificadas durante a realizacao
das provas de mar impoem a utilizacao de correlacoes para corrigir os resultados obtidos para
as condicoes de contrato. Para alem de todas as incertezas experimentais, todo este processo
de correccao, com recurso a graficos e tabelas, oferece muitas duvidas de aplicacao.
A prova da milha pode ser avaliada com velocidade over ground ou velocidade in
water . A velocidade na agua exclui o efeito das correntes. A velocidade over ground
era avaliada atraves de equipamentos de navegacao mas, a disponibilidade de sistemas de
posicionamento por satelite (GPS) permitiu eliminar muitos problemas e incertezas destas
provas. Para reduzir os efeitos de ventos e correntes, as provas de velocidade, consumo, etc.
devem ser realizadas repetidamente em sentidos opostos.
De notar que as provas de mar de um navio vao muito para alem das provas de veloci-
dade e potencia. Todas as funcionalidades do navio, operacionais e de seguranca, deverao ser
demonstradas. Para as restantes provas, nomeadamente as que dizem respeito a manobrabi-
lidade do navio, existem tambem recomendacoes exaustivas da ITTC para a sua realizacao.
Captulo 3
Propulsao
3.1 Sistemas de propulsao
Em qualquer tipo de navio temos presente um propulsor cuja finalidade e a geracao de uma
forca propulsiva. As solucoes propulsivas sao muito diversas mas predominantemente os navios
continuam a utilizar helices simples como meio de propulsao. Outros meios de propulsao com
expressao significativa em aplicacoes especficas sao:
- os helices especiais, com particular destaque para os helices com tubeira e os helices
contra-rotativos;
- os sistemas de jacto de agua (water-jets ou pump-jets);
- os propulsores azimutais (AziPods);
- e os propulsores cicloidais (Voith-Schneider ).

Na escolha da solucao propulsiva devera ser sempre considerado o seu rendimento e a
interaccao com a querena. Outro aspecto generico a considerar durante o projecto da solucao
propulsiva e o fenomeno da cavitacao originada pela velocidade elevada do movimento das
pas do helice na agua.
3.1.1 Helices
O helice e colocado tradicionalmente a popa do navio para recuperar parte da energia dis-
pendida para vencer a resistencia da querena. Na forma mais tradicional da popa dos navios,
a esteira nominal e muito nao-uniforme. A uniformidade da esteira da querena e uma das
condicoes necessarias para o bom funcionamento do helice. A utilizacao da popa aberta ou
de um bolbo na popa permite melhorar a esteira.
As pas do helice, animadas de velocidade de rotacao e de avanco, funcionando como
superfcies sustentadoras, estao distribudas simetricamente em torno do cubo. As seccoes
das pas funcionam como perfis alares a angulo de ataque gerando uma forca de sustentacao.
Esta forca de sustentacao contribui para a forca propulsiva axial e para o binario resistente
ao veio.
Classificam-se com helices direitos aqueles que, quando observados de re, rodam no
sentido horario. Nos navios com dois helices, sao normalmente utilizados:
35
36 CAPITULO 3. PROPULSAO
- um helice direito a estibordo;
- e um helice esquerdo a bombordo.
Nestes navios, a popa e relativamente plana e os veios estao expostos e suportados por
aranhas (shaft brackets). A presenca destas aranhas provoca ainda nao-uniformidades na
esteira em que, devido a forma da popa, o escoamento entra no helice com um certo angulo.
Figura 3.1: Helice com tubeira.
A aplicacao de uma tubeira aceleradora, Fig. 3.1, permite aumentar o rendimento, relati-
vamente a um helice convencional, no caso de helices fortemente carregados como os aplicados
em rebocadores, arrastoes, petroleiros, etc. Outro objectivo da aplicacao das tubeiras pode
ser a uniformizacao do escoamento de entrada no helice. Para este fim trata-se normalmente
de tubeiras assimetricas colocadas avante do helice. Frequentemente este tipo de tubeiras e
instalada depois de o navio estar em servico.
Figura 3.2: Helices de passo fixo e de passo controlavel.

3.1. SISTEMAS DE PROPULSAO 37
Para um helice de passo fixo, a velocidade do navio e a forca propulsiva sao controladas
pela velocidade de rotacao do helice. Para um helice de passo controlavel, a forca propulsiva
pode tambem ser controlada por variacao do passo do helice. A variacao do passo obtem-se
por rotacao das pas em torno de um eixo, a direita na Fig. 3.2. Utiliza-se quando a velocidade
de rotacao e constante, ou variavel numa gama restrita, quando o helice tem de funcionar em
mais de uma condicao.
Apesar de constiturem uma solucao cara, pela complicacao de chumaceiras e engranagens
necessaria, encontram-se exemplos de propulsao por helices contrarotativos. Sao dois helices,
em que o helice de tras tem um diametro ligeiramente menor que o helice da frente, a rodar
em sentidos contrarios, permitindo ao helice de tras eliminar a perda de energia cinetica
de rotacao do helice da frente, Fig. 3.3. Em consequencia, apresentam rendimentos tpicos
superiores a um helice isolado.
Figura 3.3: Helices em contra-rotacao.
Outro tipo particular de helice e o helice supercavitante, Fig. 3.4. E um helice para
funcionar com elevada velocidade de rotacao em que as seccoes das pas sao concebidas para
provocar uma bolsa de cavitacao que envolve toda a pa. O perigo de implosao e eliminado
porque a implosao das bolhas de cavitacao ocorre longe das faces das pas. Aplicam-se em
navios de alta velocidade com rendimento, em geral, fraco.
3.1.2 Outros meios de propulsao

Jacto de agua
Nestes sistemas, a forca propulsiva e obtida pela descarga de um jacto de agua a popa do
navio. Para transmitir a energia pretendida ao jacto podem ser utilizadas bombas axiais,
como no caso da Fig. 3.5, ou bombas centrfugas.
Os sistemas de jacto de agua constituem actualmente um solucao comprovada para a pro-
pulsao de embarcacoes rapidas, com divulgacao crescente nas embarcacoes de recreio, ferries,
embarcacoes de patrulha, etc. Sao boas solucoes quando os principais requisitos colocados
passam pela manobrabilidade do navio, bom rendimento propulsivo, bom comportamento em
aguas restritas e pouca necessidade de manutencao. Actualmente, ja estao disponveis no
mercado solucoes deste tipo para potencias propulsivas da ordem dos 30MW.
Figura 3.4: Helices supercavitante.
Figura 3.5: Propulsao por jacto de agua.
Propulsores azimutais
Esta configuracao, ver Fig. 3.6, possibilita a geracao de forca propulsiva em qualquer direccao
por rotacao do propulsor em torno do eixo vertical. No sistema tradicional de propulsao
azimutal, o motor era colocado no interior do casco e um sistema mecanico relativamente
complexo fazia a transmissao do movimento as pas. Actualmente, o accionamento e feito
por um motor electrico colocado no veio de propulsor. Estes sistemas permitem combinar a
propulsao e o governo do navio, dispensando a presenca do leme.
Apresentam como principais vantagens um bom rendimento, justificado em grande parte
pela maior uniformidade do escoamento a entrada do propulsor, elevada capacidade de ma-
nobra e economia de espaco. A sua aplicacao, inicialmente quase que restrita a ferries, tem-se
alargado nos tempos mais recentes a praticamente quase todos os tipos de navios.
3.1. SISTEMAS DE PROPULSAO 39
Figura 3.6: Propulsores azimutais.
Propulsores cicloidais
Esta solucao propulsiva, representada na Fig. 3.7, desenvolvida pela Voight a partir duma
ideia inicial de Ernst Schneider, permite gerar impulso de magnitude variavel em qualquer
direccao. As variacoes daquele impulso sao rapidas, contnuas e precisas, combinando assim
as funcoes de propulsao e governo do navio.
Figura 3.7: Propulsores cicloidais.
O propulsor, colocado no fundo do navio, e composto por um conjunto de laminas paralelas

com movimento de rotacao, segundo um eixo vertical, com velocidade variavel. Para gerar o
impulso, cada uma daquelas laminas tem um movimento oscilante em torno do seu proprio
eixo. O percurso das laminas vai determinar a forca impulsiva gerada, enquanto um angulo
de fase entre 0 e 360 vai definir a direccao do impulso. Desta forma, pode ser gerada a
mesma forca propulsiva em qualquer direccao. A intensidade e a direccao da forca propulsiva
sao controladas por um conjunto cinematico de transmissao mecanica.

Pelas suas caractersticas, esta solucao apresenta bom desempenho na propulsao de re-
bocadores, ferries, grandes iates, navios de apoio a plataformas petrolferas e outros navios
especiais.
3.2 Helices propulsores

O projecto do helice devera dar resposta as seguintes questoes:
- sera que o helice desenvolvera a desejada forca propulsiva a velocidade rpm de projecto?
- qual vai ser a eficiencia do helice?
- qual vai ser o desempenho do helice em condicoes diferentes das condicoes de projecto?
- sera a distribuicao de pressoes favoravel a prevencao da cavitacao?
- qual sera o valor das forcas e momentos gerados pelo helice sobre o veio propulsor e
chumaceiras de apoio e de impulso?
- qual a pressao induzida pelo funcionamento do helice no casco do navio, potencialmente

responsavel por vibracoes e rudo?
Os principais metodos de calculo disponveis para, de alguma forma, dar resposta aquelas
questoes sao:
- a teoria da quantidade de movimento;
- a teoria dos elementos de pa;
- a teoria da linha sustentadora;
- a teoria da superfcie de sustentacao;
- o metodo de painel;
- as simulacoes RANSE.
Outro contributo importante para o projecto do helice vem das series sistematicas de
helices, para as quais sao ja conhecidos os principais parametros de funcionamento em aguas
livres.
Por ultimo, ha que citar o contributo importante dos ensaios experimentais em modelos
a escala reduzida, os ensaios do helice em aguas livres e o ensaio de propulsao.
3.2.1 Geometria do helice

Na complexa geometria do helice, conjunto de pas distribudas uniformemente em torno do
cubo montado na extremidade do veio, representada esquematicamente na Fig. 3.8, distinguem-
se as seguintes areas, linhas e pontos:
- o bordo de ataque (leading edge), a linha frontal das pas;
- o bordo de fuga (trailing edge), a aresta atras;

3.2. HELICES PROPULSORES 41
Figura 3.8: Geometria do helice.
- a extremidade da pa (tip) e o ponto linha ou seccao de maior raio;
- o dorso (back) e a face da pa sao, respectivamente, a superfcie da pa do lado do veio,

aspiracao, e a superfcie do lado de pressao;
No cubo, com uma forma axisimetrica, unem-se as pas pela sua raiz ( blade root).
A geometria do helice propulsor e caracterizada, entre outras, pelas seguintes dimensoes,
tambem representadas naquela figura:
- diametro do helice (propeller diameter), D;
- diametro do cubo (boss (or hub) diameter), d;
- numero de pas do helice (propeller blade number), Z;
- passo do helice (propeller pitch), P ;
- area do disco, A0 = D2 /4;
- area projectada, area da projeccao das pas num plano normal ao eixo do helice, AP ;
- area expandida, soma das areas das faces das pas, AE ;
- deslocamento circunferencial (skew);
- abatimento axial (rake), iG .
3.2.2 Valores caractersticos

Como parametros adimensionais para caracterizacao dos helices propulsores podemos apontar:
- a razao entre os diametros do cubo e do helice, d/D;
- a razao entre a area expandida e a area do disco, AE /A0 , frequentemente designada por
blade area ratio (BAR);
- e a razao entre o passo e o diametro do helice, P/D.
Sao valores tpicos para a razao de area expandida 0.3 < AE /A0 < 1.5. Razoes superi-
ores a 1 significam que o helice tem pas sobrepostas o que o torna dispendioso. O valor de
AE /A0 e selecionado de tal forma que a carga das pas seja suficientemente baixa para evitar
uma situacao inaceitavel de cavitacao. Quanto mais carregada for a condicao de funciona-
mento prevista para o helice maior devera ser a razao AE /A0 considerada na sua seleccao. O
rendimento do helice diminui com o aumento da razao AE /A0 .
O numero de pas Z e um parametro muito importante para as vibracoes induzidas pelo
helice. Em geral, um numero mpar de pas Z proporciona melhores caractersticas no que diz
respeito a vibracoes. Maior numero de pas reduz a vibracao, devido aos inferiores picos de
pressao, mas aumenta os custos de fabrico.
Os helices propulsores para navios sao sempre adaptados as caractersticas especficas do
navio apos exaustivo estudo hidrodinamico. O numero de pas esta normalmente entre 4 e 7.
Os helices propulsores para pequenas embarcacoes, regra geral com o numero de pas entre 2
e 4, sao produzidos em massa.
3.3 Teoria da quantidade de movimento

A teoria mais simples para representar o funcionamento de um helice propulsor e a teoria da
quantidade de movimento, tambem designda por vezes como do disco actuante. Esta teoria
permite relacionar a forca propulsiva do helice com as velocidades induzidas. Tem como
principais hipoteses simplificativas:
- considerar o escoamento de fluido perfeito e incompressvel;
- o numero de pas do helice e infinito;
- o helice propulsor exerce uma forca axial T que se distribui uniformemente sobre o disco
do helice de diametro D;
- o helice nao induz velocidade velocidade de rotacao no fluido, ou seja, nao ha velocidade
circunferencia induzida.
3.3.1 Forca propulsiva

Consideremos o escoamento axisimetrico atraves do plano do helice, representado na Fig. 3.9,
e denotar por VA a velocidade de aproximacao da agua ao helice e por p a pressao em
pontos suficientemente afastados quer a vante quer a re do helice. Conforme representado,
sendo a agua incompressvel, a seccao do escoamento reduz-se pelo aumento de velocidade
transmitido pelo helice ao escoamento de agua. Na figura podemos ainda ver que no disco
existe uma descontinuidade de pressao p. Esta descontinuidade, como resultado do referido
disco actuante, gera uma forca propulsiva do helice dada por
T = pA0 (3.1)
Quanto a distribuicao de velocidades, vamos considerar que a velocidade no disco e VA +V0

e, no infinito, a velocidade e VA + V .
3.3. TEORIA DA QUANTIDADE DE MOVIMENTO 43
Figura 3.9: Distribuicao espacial de velocidade e pressao para a teoria da

quantidade de movimento.
Representando por A e A as areas no infinito, a montante e a juzante, respectiva-

mente, do tubo de corrente que passa pelo disco actuante, para se verificar a conservacao de
massa no escoamento sera necessario que,
Va A = (Va + V0 ) A0 = (Va + V ) A (3.2)
Entao, aquelas areas, A e A estao relacionadas com a area do disco e com a velocidade
induzida por
Va + V0
A = A0 (3.3)
Va
e
Va + V0
A = A0 (3.4)
Va + V
Aplicando agora o princpio da conservacao da quantidade de movimento ao escoamento
de fluido no tubo de corrente, obtemos a equacao,
T = (Va + V )2 A Va2 A (3.5)
Usando a equacao de conservacao da massa, Eq. (3.2), podemos dizer entao que a forca
propulsiva T e dada por,
T = (Va + V0 ) V A0 (3.6)
e, que o salto de pressao no disco actuante vale
p = (Va + V0 ) V (3.7)
Por fim, vamos aplicar a equacao de Bernoulli ao tubo de corrente. A montante do disco
temos,
1 1
p + Va2 = p0 + (Va + V0 )2 (3.8)
2 2
e, a juzante,
1 1
p + (Va + V )2 = p0 + p + (Va + V0 )2 (3.9)
2 2
Fazendo agora a subtraccao das equacoes, Eq. (3.9) Eq. (3.8), temos uma nova equacao
para avaliar o valor de p

1
p = Va + V V (3.10)
2
Naturalmente que o salto de pressao avaliado pela ultima equacao nao pode ser diferente
daquele que resulta da Eq. (3.7). Logo,

1
(Va + V0 ) V = Va + V V (3.11)
2
e, entao, daqui resulta que a velocidade induzida no disco e metade da velocidade induzida
na esteira no infinito,
1
V0 = V (3.12)
2
A forca propulsiva T obtida no disco actuante pode ser calculada, em funcao da velocidade
induzida no disco, por
D2
T = (Va + V0 ) 2V0 (3.13)
4
3.3.2 Coeficiente de carga

Se definirmos para um helice propulsor como coeficiente de carga, CT ,
T
CT = 21 2
(3.14)
4 D 2 Va
e considerarmos a forca propulsiva resultante da teoria do disco actuante, obtem-se

V0 V0
CT = 4 1+ (3.15)
Va Va
ou, em termos de velocidade induzida no disco,
V0 1 p
= 1 + 1 + CT (3.16)
Va 2
3.4. ENSAIOS COM MODELOS REDUZIDOS DE HELICES 45
3.3.3 Rendimento ideal do helice

O rendimento ideal do helice e o rendimento maximo que pode ser obtido em fluido perfeito
com um helice propulsor que nao induza velocidade de rotacao no fluido.
Num referencial em repouso no fluido, considere-se que o helice avanca com velocidade
Va , exercendo uma forca propulsiva T . A potencia efectiva do helice e dada por
PE = T Va (3.17)
A perda de energia cinetica axial por unidade de tempo e o fluxo de energia por unidade
de tempo atraves de um plano perpendicular a direccao de avanco, no infinito, a juzante.
Este fluxo de energia e calculado pelo produto do caudal massico que se escoa pelo tubo de
corrente pela energia cinetica especfica,
D2 1 2
Ep = (Va + V0 ) V
4 2
ou seja, considerando a relacao conhecida entre a velocidade no disco e na esteira no infinito,
D2
Ep = (Va + V0 ) V02 (3.18)
2
O rendimento ideal do helice propulsor sera entao dado por
T Va
i = (3.19)
T Va + Ep
ou, considerando (3.13) e (3.18), e simplificando, ficamos com

1
i = (3.20)
1 + VVa0
3.4 Ensaios com modelos reduzidos de helices

Apesar de o helice ir funcionar numa esteira nao-uniforme do navio, sao realizados ensaios
para avaliacao do seu desempenho numa esteira uniforme, recorrendo ao ensaio em aguas
livres de um modelo a escala reduzida do helice, em condicoes apropriadas de semelhanca.
Neste ensaio, o chamado open water test, um modelo do helice e deslocado com a velocidade
da avanco Va num fluido em repouso. O escoamento de aproximacao deve ser tao uniforme
quanto possvel. Durante o deslocamento do helice este e posto a rodar por um pequeno motor
electrico a velocidade n (rps) pretendida. O ensaio realiza-se normalmente a uma velocidade
de rotacao constante, ou seja, para um dado numero de Reynolds.
As caractersticas propulsivas em aguas livres, nomeadamente a forca propulsiva T e o
binario Q, sao medidas em regime estacionario de funcionamento. Depois de adimensionaliza-
dos, os valores medidos da forca propulsiva e do binario para varios regimes de funcionamento
constituem o diagrama em aguas livres do helice em questao.
A forca propulsiva T e o binario Q disponibilizados por um helice propulsor dependem de
varias variaveis:
- a velocidade de avanco Va ;
- a velocidade de rotacao n;
- o diametro D;
- a massa especfica do fluido ;
- a viscosidade cinematica do fluido .
Aplicando a analise dimensional, expressando a dependencia dos coeficientes de forca

propulsiva e de binario dos seguintes grupos adimensionais:
Va
- coeficiente de avanco, J = ;
nD
nD2
- e numero de Reynolds, aqui definido como Re = ;

ou seja,
KT = KT (J, Re) e KQ = KQ (J, Re)
obtem-se os seguintes expressoes para os referidos coeficientes adimensionais:

T
- coeficiente de forca propulsiva KT = ;
n2 D4
Q
- coeficiente de binario KQ = .
n2 D5
3.4.1 Diagrama em aguas livres

O diagrama em aguas livres do helice integra a representacao grafica da variacao dos coefici-
entes da forca propulsiva, KT , e de binario, KQ , com o coeficiente de avanco, Va . Um exemplo
de diagrama em aguas livres esta representado na Fig. 3.10.
As curvas tracadas nestes diagramas servem principalmente para a optimizacao do helice
e determinacao do ponto de funcionamento. Na pratica, ja nao sao utilizadas aquelas re-
presentacoes graficas no projecto de helices, mas sim os polinomios representativos daquelas
evolucoes para permitir o calculo computacional. As tabelas tem cerca de 50 coeficientes
para os polinomios relativos a serie sistematica de helices de Wageningen. Embora o trabalho
inicial de registo destes coeficientes seja moroso e fastidioso, os processos de calculo e optimi-
zacao posteriores ficam muito facilitados e expeditos pela utilizacao de programas ou folhas
de calculo. A importancia da representacao grafica esta actualmente restrita a verificacao
da tendencia de variacao do desempenho do helice com a alteracao de algumas condicoes
operacionais.
3.4.2 Rendimento
Definindo o rendimento de um helice propulsor como sendo a razao entre a potencia efectiva
e a potencia fornecida pelo veio ao helice, o rendimento em aguas livres e calculado por
PE Va T
0 = = (3.21)
PD 2nQ
3.5. SERIES SISTEMATICAS 47
Figura 3.10: Diagrama de aguas livres.
a partir das medicoes observadas durante o ensaio.

Ou, se quisermos expressa-lo em termos dos coeficientes adimensionais, podemos obter,
JKT
0 = (3.22)
2KQ
3.4.3 Indice de qualidade

A qualidade de um propulsor nao fica bem caracterizada apenas pelo seu rendimento maximo.
O ndice de qualidade, que permite caracterizar melhor um helice para uma dada aplicacao
especfica, e dado por
0
q= (3.23)
i
em que 0 e o rendimento em aguas livres e i e o rendimento ideal.
8KT
Como CT = , substituindo em (3.23):
J 2
r !
KT 8
q= J + J 2 + KT (3.24)
4KQ
3.5 Series sistematicas

Uma serie sistematica de helices e um conjunto de helices obtidos por variacao sistematica de
parametros geometricos. Ao longo de decadas, por todo o mundo tem sido realizados ensaios
em series sistematicas de propulsores para navios. As principais caractersticas de alguns
exemplos de series sistematicas de helices propulsores simples de passo fixo estao includas na
Tab. 3.1.
O principal objectivo perseguido na realizacao dos ensaios sistematicos nestes conjuntos
de helices e criar uma base de dados que permita ajudar o projectista a entender os principais
Serie No Z AE /A0 P/D D(mm)

Wageningen B 120 27 0, 3 1, 05 0, 5 1, 4 250
Au 34 47 0, 4 0, 758 0, 5 1, 2 250
Gawn 37 3 0, 2 1, 1 0, 4 2, 0 508
KCA 30 3 0, 50 1, 25 0, 6 2, 0 406
Ma 32 3e5 0, 75 1, 20 1, 0 1, 45 250
Newton-Rader 12 3 0, 5 1, 0 1, 05 2, 08 254
KCD 24 36 0, 44 0, 80 0, 6 1, 6 406
Meridian 20 6 0, 45 1, 05 0, 4 1, 2 305
Tabela 3.1: Series sistematicas de propulsores.
factores que influenciam o desempenho do helice, bem como a ocorrencia de cavitacao, em

varias condicoes de funcionamento. Um segundo objectivo e a construcao de diagramas que
permitam ajudar a seleccao das caractersticas mais apropriadas para uma dada aplicacao a
escala do navio.
3.5.1 Serie sistematica de Wageningen

Uma das series sistematicas de helices propulsores mais populares e a serie B de Wageningen.
Esta serie, em que os trabalhos iniciais datam de 1940, sera talvez a mais vasta. As principais
caractersticas destes helices sao:
- ter distribuicao radial do passo constante;
- um pequeno deslocamento circunferencial (skew);
- distribuicao radial do abatimento axial (rake) linear 15 ;
- contorno largo da pa junto a extremidade;
- seccao das pas NSMB, indicada na Fig. 3.11.
Figura 3.11: Aspecto geometrico das pas da serie B de Wageningen
Os parametros cuja variacao sistematica foi considerada na realizacao desta serie foram
os seguintes:
- o numero de pas: 2 Z 7;
- a razao de area expandida: 0.3 AE /A0 1.05;
- a razao passo-diametro: 0.5 P/D 1.4.
A nomenclatura dos helices desta serie, considerando a ttulo de exemplo um helice B-4.85,
e a seguinte:
- Serie B;
- Numero de pas: 4;
- razao de area expandida: 0.85.
Para cada caso existe um diagrama, ou uma tabela com os ja referidos coeficientes po-
linomiais, com as curvas caractersticas dos diagrams de aguas livres, para diferentes razoes
passo-diametro, P/D. Na Fig. 3.12 esta representado o caso dos helices com duas pas, razao
de area expandida 0, 3 e razao passo-diametro compreendida entre 0, 5 e 1, 4.
3.5.2 Outras series sistematicas

A serie sistematica de helices propulsores Au e muito popular no Japao mas, fora dele, nao
conseguiu uma divulgacao semelhante a serie de Wageningen podendo, no entanto, considerar-
se como uma serie complementar daquela.
A serie Gawn apresenta como caracterstica distintiva o maior diametro dos helices que
a integram. Isto significa que muitos dos efeitos de escala presentes nas outras series foram
aqui evitados ou, pelo menos, reduzidos. A serie KCA, tambem designada por vezes como
Gawn-Burrill, e complementar da serie de Gawn. Sao 30 helices com 3 pas, tambem com
grande diametro, 400mm. Esta serie foi ensaiada num tanque de cavitacao, e nao num tanque
de reboque, a diferentes numeros de cavitacao e, consequentemente, permite verificar num
determinado projecto de aplicacao os aspectos relacionados com o fenomeno da cavitacao.
Os helices da serie de Lindgren, serie Ma, sao mais pequenos, 250mm, e as suas pas
tem passo constante. Foram testados num tanque de reboque e num tanque de cavitacao e,
assim, resultou dos ensaios um extenso e integrado conjunto de dados adequado para a fase
preliminar do projecto.
A serie de Newton-Rader compreende um conjunto limitado de 12 helices com tres pas
vocacionados para a propulsao de embarcacoes rapidas.
Para alem destas series sistematicas de helices simples, existem tambem alguns estudos
relativos a formas particulares de helices como, por exemplo, as series de helices contra-
rotativos do MARIN e SSPA, ou a serie de Wageningen de helices com tubeira.
50
Figura 3.12: Diagrama em aguas livres de um helice da serie sistematica

de Wageningen.
CAPITULO 3. PROPULSAO
3.5.3 Diagrama de 4 quadrantes

No caso dos helices de passo fixo, a forma convencional de operacao do helice, velocidade de
rotacao positiva e velocidade de avanco nula ou positiva, corresponde ao funcionamento no
primeiro quadrante do diagrama de funcionamento.
No diagrama completo, ver Fig. 3.13, necessario por exemplo para estudar a manobrabi-
lidade do navio ou o seu desempenho em marcha a re, estao definidos quatro quadrantes, de
acordo o angulo de avanco,

1 Va
= tan (3.25)
0, 7 n D
Figura 3.13: Notacao do diagrama com 4 quadrantes.
Como ja referido, o primeiro quadrante corresponde a:
- velocidade de rotacao do helice correspondente a marcha a vante;
- velocidade do navio a vante;
- ou seja, angulo de avanco 0 90 .
O segundo quadrante corresponde a:
- velocidade de rotacao do helice correspondente a marcha a re;
- velocidade do navio a vante;
- ou seja, angulo de avanco 90 < 180 .
No terceiro quadrante, as condicoes de operacao do helice sao:
- velocidade de rotacao do helice correspondente a marcha a re;

- velocidade do navio a re;
- ou seja, angulo de avanco 180 < 270 .
E, por fim, no quarto quadrante temos naturalmente:
- velocidade de rotacao do helice correspondente a marcha a vante;
- velocidade do navio a re;
- ou seja, angulo de avanco 270 < < 360 .
Se existirem dados experimentais suficientes torna-se possvel definir uma funcao para
estimar o desempenho do helice, no que diz respeito a forca propulsiva e ao binario, nos
quatro quadrantes do diagrama em aguas livres. Um exemplo de um diagrama deste tipo,
multi-quadrante, esta representado na Fig. 3.14, relativo aos helices da serie de Wageningen
B4-70 com relacao P/D entre 0, 5 e 1, 4.
Justifica-se a introducao de uma notacao para obter maior flexibilidade para trabalhar
nestes diagramas multi-quadrante. De notar que para = 90 ou = 270 , situacoes em
que a velocidade de rotacao do helice e nula, o coeficiente de avanco resultaria J = . De
forma semelhante, para prevenir o mesmo tipo de situacoes, sao tambem definidos os seguintes
coeficientes:
- coeficiente de forca propulsiva modificado,
T
CT = (3.26)
1 2
V A0
2 R
- coeficiente de binario modificado,
Q
CQ = (3.27)
1 2
V A0 D
2 R
em que VR e a velocidade relativa de avanco para 0, 7R, ou seja,
T
CT = h i (3.28)
Va + (0, 7nD)2 D2
2
8
e
Q
CQ = h i (3.29)
Va2 + (0, 7nD)2 D3
8
Na Fig. 3.14 pode-se ver o efeito que a razao P/D tem no coeficiente de binario CQ

para praticamente toda a gama de . Em particular, e nos intervalos 40 < < 140 e
230 < < 340 que a magnitude de CQ varia mais significativamente.

3.6. CAVITACAO 53
Figura 3.14: Diagrama em aguas livres de 4 quadrantes para os helices

Wageningen B-4.70.
3.6 Cavitacao
3.6.1 Origem da cavitacao
A velocidade elevada do escoamento de agua pelo helice provoca regioes com baixa pressao.
Se a pressao cair o suficiente, formar-se-ao cavidades preenchidas com vapor. Estas cavidades
desaparecerao quando a pressao aumentar. O crescimento e o colapso destas bolhas e
extremamente rapido.
A cavitacao envolve fenomenos fsicos complexos uma vez que se trata de escoamentos a
duas fases, com modelacao nao-linear. Nos helices dos navios, a velocidade em torno das pas
pode ser suficiente para reduzir a localmente a pressao e desencadear a cavitacao. Devido a
pressao hidrostatica, a pressao total sera superior nas imediacoes da pa que se encontre com
a maxima imersao (posicao 06:00) do que naquela que se encontra na posicao 12:00. Assim,
as pas dos helices em cavitacao alternadamente passarao por regioes em que tendencialmente
se formarao bolhas de cavitacao e regioes onde as mesmas tenderao a colapsar.
Esta rapida sucessao de explosoes e implosoes nas proximidades das pas do helice tem
varias consequencias nefastas. As principais sao:
- vibracao;
Figura 3.15: Efeito da cavitacao no valor dos parametros relativos a aguas

livres.
- rudo;
- erosao da superfcie das pas (sobretudo se o colapso das bolhas ocorrer na proximidade);
- reducao da forca propulsiva.
No diagrama em aguas livres da Fig. 3.15 esta assinalada a reducao que e tipicamente
provocada pela cavitacao nos coeficientes de forca propulsiva e binario.
3.6.2 Controle da cavitacao

Num meio ideal, agua sem impurezas ou ar dissolvido, a cavitacao ocorrera quando a pressao
total atingir localmente a pressao de vapor a essa temperatura. Na pratica, a cavitacao inicia-
se para valores de pressao superiores pela presenca de partculas microscopicas e da existencia
de ar dissolvido na agua que facilitam e precipitam o incio do processo de vaporizacao.
O numero de cavitacao e um parametro adimensional que estima a possibilidade de
aparecimento do fenomeno de cavitacao num escoamento,
p0 p
= (3.30)
1
V02
2
em que:
- p0 e a pressao ambiente de referencia;
- p e a pressao local;
- e V0 e a velocidade de referencia correspondente.

3.6. CAVITACAO 55
Figura 3.16: Pressao de vapor da agua em funcao da temperatura.
Para inferior a v , o numero de cavitacao avaliado para a pressao de vapor pv , nao

ocorrera cavitacao num fluido ideal. Na pratica, e necessario considerar um coeficiente de
seguranca, considerando uma pressao limite superior a pressao de vapor.
Para um helice e habitual definir o numero de cavitacao n como:
p0 p
n = (3.31)
1
n2 D2
2
adoptando-se como velocidade caracterstica nD.
3.6.3 Consideracao da cavitacao na seleccao do helice

O fenomeno da cavitacao e predominantemente dominado pelo campo de pressao no esco-
amento da agua pelo plano do helice. Prevenir a cavitacao passa consequentemente pelo
controlo da mnima pressao absoluta naquele escoamento. A possibilidade de ocorrencia de
cavitacao e evitada pela distribuicao da forca propulsiva por uma area maior, aumentando o
diametro do helice ou a razao da area expandida AE / A0 . A forma mais usual de estimar,
ainda que de uma forma nao completamente rigorosa, o perigo de ocorrencia da cavitacao
passa pela utilizacao do diagrama de Burrill (Fig. 3.17). O diagrama indica um limite inferior
para a area projectada do helice de um navio mercante. Nos eixos do diagrama de Burrill es-
tao o numero de cavitacao, em abcissas, e o coeficiente de Burrill nas ordenadas. O coeficiente
Figura 3.17: Diagrama de Burrill.
de Burrill e calculado por

T
c = (3.32)
q0,7R Ap
em que, Ap e a area projectada do helice, e o parametro q0,7R e dado por

1
q0,7R = VR2
2
em que VR e o valor absoluto da velocidade local a 0, 7 do raio do helice, ou seja,
q
VR = Va2 + (0, 7 nD )2
com Va a velocidade de entrada do escoamento no plano do helice.

Nos helices da serie de Wageningen, a area expandida esta relacionada com a area projec-
tada por
AP
AE = (3.33)
1, 067 0, 229P/D
3.6.4 Ensaios experimentais

Os ensaios de cavitacao, bem como frequentemente os ensaios em aguas livres, realizam-se em
instalacoes que compreendem um canal fechado na qual e imposta a circulacao da agua por
um impulsor. Na Fig. 3.18 esta representada esquematicamente uma instalacao deste tipo.
Estes tuneis sao concebidos por forma a proporcionar um escoamento tao uniforme quanto
possvel na seccao de teste. A seccao de teste, o troco horizontal superior, dispoe de visores
para inspeccao e vizualizacao do escoamento. O impulsor para a circulacao da agua esta
3.6. CAVITACAO 57
Figura 3.18: Instalacoes de ensaio do RINA.
colocado no troco inferior horizontal para garantir que, mesmo quando a pressao no tanque
for reduzida, a coluna hidrostatica vai impedir a cavitacao neste propulsor.
Normalmente, a pressao e reduzida por bombas de vacuo para ajuste do numero de cavi-
tacao e a instalacao dispoe de equipamento para reduzir o ar dissolvido na agua. Podem ser
instaladas grelhas metalicas para induzir a turbulencia desejada no escoamento.
Os helices em teste sao sujeitos a iluminacao estroboscopica por forma a serem vistos
sempre com as pas na mesma posicao. Obtem-se assim uma visualizacao do padrao de cavi-
tacao estacionaria.
O funcionamento do helice tem alguns pontos caractersticos que se passa a identificar. A
primeira destas situacoes acontece quando o motor electrico faz rodar o veio do helice a uma
velocidade n mantendo-se a velocidade de avanco nula, ou seja Va = 0. Nestas condicoes,
verifica-se J = 0 e = 0, e diz-se que o helice funciona a ponto fixo. Se em seguida se
fizer avancar o helice a uma velocidade Va , mantendo a mesma velocidade de rotacao, este
desenvolvera um impulso T e absorvera um certo momento Q. Esta fase e a fase propulsora,
utilizada para a propulsao dos navios. Continuando a aumentar o coeficiente de impulso por
diminuicao da velocidade de rotacao n, o impulso vai diminuindo ate o helice chegar ao ponto
de impulso nulo. Inicia-se a fase de travagem, ate um ponto, no qual o helice trabalha em
concordancia com o coeficiente de avanco J, com KQ = 0, helice livre. Um helice livre opoe
resistencia ao avanco. Continuando a reduzir a velocidade de rotacao do helice e mantendo
Va , entra-se na fase motora, em que o helice poderia fornecer energia. Quando a velocidade
do helice for nula, o helice diz-se bloqueado.
Figura 3.19: Imagem da cavitacao num helice.
3.7 Seleccao do helice

No calculo do helice procura-se a optimizacao das principais variaveis, numero e area das
pas, diametro, velocidade de rotacao e passo, por forma a que a propulsao se faca com bom
rendimento em todas as condicoes de carga do navio. E possvel obter uma boa estimativa
das caractersticas de funcionamento do helice utilizando uma das varias series sistematicas
referenciadas. As variaveis de optimizacao do helice sao descritas sucintamente nos paragrafos
seguintes.
3.7.1 Variaveis de optimizacao

Diametro
O rendimento do helice aumenta o diametro do mesmo, estando no entanto a dimensao
deste limitada pela geometria da popa. Deve-se referir no entanto que o aumento do diametro
de helice provoca vibracoes mais fortes e a reducao do rendimento do casco. As sociedades
classificadoras tem normas proprias para definir valores mnimos de folga entre o helice e o
casco do navio.
O diametro maximo do helice e normalmente considerado como uma fraccao do calado
maximo do navio,
Dmax = a T (3.34)
dependente do tipo de navio, conforme indicado na Tab. 3.2.

Para compensar a nao uniformidade do escoamento de aproximacao ao helice quando este
se encontra atras da querena, o diametro equivalente em aguas livres e considerado como:
D
D0 = (3.35)
1b
em que b toma os valores constantes na Tab. 3.3.
3.7. SELECCAO DO HELICE 59
Tipo de Navio a
Graneleiros/Petroleiros <0,65
Porta-contentores <0,74
Tabela 3.2: Coeficiente para atribuicao do diametro maximo do helice pela

Eq. (3.34).
Helice b
Simples 0.05
Duplo 0.03
Tabela 3.3: Constante para o calculo do diametro equivalente em agua

livres pela Eq. (3.35).
Velocidade de rotacao
Em instalacoes propulsoras com transmissao directa, a velocidade de rotacao do helice e
estabelecida pela velocidade do motor. Neste caso, o diametro e ajustado para se obter um
coeficiente de avanco apropriado para a velocidade pretendida e a potencia exigida. Quando
e utilizada uma caixa redutora, procura-se utilizar o maior diametro possvel, sendo depois
ajustada a velocidade de rotacao do helice ajustada de acordo com o coeficiente de avanco
pretendido. Devem evitar-se velocidades que multiplicadas pelo numero de pas do helice
sejam proximas das frequencias de ressonancia do casco e da instalacao propulsora. Do ponto
de vista da prevencao da cavitacao, sao favoraveis as velocidades de rotacao mais baixas.
Numero de pas
O factor determinante na seleccao do numero de pas e a irregularidade das forcas geradas
pelo helice. Estas forcas, aplicadas com a frequencia correspondente a velocidade de rotacao,
induzem vibracoes no casco e instalacao propulsora. O objectivo passa por obter um bom
compromisso entre a vibracao gerada e o rendimento obtido ja que este diminui com o aumento
do numero de pas do helice.
Distribuicao radial da pressao

A distribuicao da pressao nas pas esta relacionada com a susceptibilidade de ocorrencia da
cavitacao. Em particular, e normalmente vantajoso reduzir a pressao no extremo radial das
pas. Esta reducao e ainda vantajosa na perspectiva do esforco estrutural das pas e da pressao
irregular induzida no casco.
Geometria das pas

A formula de Keller permite escolher a razao de area expandida para evitar o fenomeno da
cavitacao,
Ae (1, 3 + 0, 3Z) T
= +k (3.36)
A0 (p0 pv ) D2
em que k e uma margem de seguranca, que variara entre k = 0 para navios de guerra e
k = 0, 2 para navios mercantes com helices muito carregados. Quanto maior a razao de areas,
menor sera o risco de cavitacao mas, em compensacao menor o rendimento do helice devido
ao atrito. A solucao sera a menor area que garanta o criterio de cavitacao.
No entanto, a curvatura, o angulo de ataque e a espessura das tem tambem uma grande
importancia no controle da cavitacao. A maior espessura das pas favorece a cavitacao nas cos-
tas das pas enquanto que as pas pouco espessas tem maior propensao para gerarem cavitacao
no bordo de ataque.
Quanto ao rendimento, ele e favorecido pela diminuicao da corda das pas, ou seja da sua
area, mas por razoes estruturais, esta reducao tem que ser acompanhada por um aumento de
espessura que vai provocar um aumento da resistencia de forma.
A utilizacao apropriada do desvio circunferencial das pas do helice (skew) permite con-
trolar muito eficazmente a cavitacao e a vibracao induzida tendo apenas como contrapartida
uma reducao do rendimento do helice em marcha a re.
3.7.2 Tipos de problema

E possvel obter uma boa estimativa das caractersticas de funcionamento do helice utilizando
uma das varias series sistematicas referenciadas. Uma vez determinado o numero e a area
das pas, resta a determinar a combinacao do passo e do coeficiente de avanco que permite
optimizar o rendimento do helice. De acordo com o tipo de problema em causa, podemos
considerar varias situacoes. Quando a potencia e a velocidade de rotacao sao conhecidas, da
eliminacao do diametro resulta a seguinte equacao:
KQ PD n2
= (3.37)
J5 2Va5
Quando a potencia e o diametro do helice estao determinados, a eliminacao da velocidade
de rotacao permite estabelecer:
KQ PD
3
= (3.38)
J 2D2 Va3
Sendo prescritas a forca propulsiva e a velocidade de rotacao, a eliminacao do diametro
conduz a equacao:
KT T n2
= (3.39)
J4 Va4
Por fim, quando sao conhecidos o diametro do helice e a forca propulsiva, a eliminacao da
velocidade de rotacao permite estabelecer a seguinte relacao:
KT T
2
= (3.40)
J D2 Va2
3.8 Interaccao entre casco e helice

Os ensaios de helices a escala reduzida em aguas livres, conseguindo efectuar uma avaliacao
preliminar das caractersticas propulsivas de um helice, nao permitem uma previsao do seu
desempenho numa dada aplicacao especfica, porque, na realidade, o helice nao vai operar em
aguas livres mas sim atras do navio.
As caractersticas de um helice trabalhando atras de um navio a uma dada velocidade
diferem consideravelmente das caractersticas obtidas em ensaios com modelos em aguas livres,
a velocidade correspondente, devido aos seguintes factores:
3.8. INTERACCAO ENTRE CASCO E HELICE 61
- a velocidade da agua na esteira do navio e menor que a velocidade do navio;
- a nao-uniformidade da esteira do navio afecta a distribuicao das forcas aplicadas nas

pas do helice;
- a aceleracao da agua pelo helice reduz a pressao sobre o casco e, consequentemente

aumentando a resistencia efectiva da querena.
3.8.1 Ensaios de propulsao

Os ensaios de propulsao tem por objectivo determinar, para cada velocidade de rotacao, a
potencia propulsiva e a consequente velocidade do navio. Os resultados dos ensaios permitem
tambem a determinacao dos coeficientes de deducao da forca propulsiva e da velocidade da
esteira necessarios para a seleccao ou projecto do helice. O modelo e equipado com um
helice pre-seleccionado de acordo com as necessidades operacionais previstas para o navio. A
optimizacao a partir deste helice-base decorrera a partir dos resultados obtidos neste ensaio
de auto-propulsao. O accionamento deste helice e normalmente realizado por um pequeno
motor electrico, conforme representado esquematicamente na Fig. 3.20.
Figura 3.20: Modelo para ensaios de propulsao.
As condicoes de realizacao do ensaio de propulsao contemplam:
- semelhanca geometrica;
- semelhanca cinematica;
- semelhanca de Froude;
- igual numero de cavitacao.
Pelas razoes apontadas anteriormente, nao e possvel acumular com aquelas condicionan-
tes a igualdade do numero de Reynolds. Assim, existem efeitos de escala a considerar na
extrapolacao dos resultados para a escala do navio.
O primeiro efeito de escala a considerar no ensaio de propulsao e o efeito de escala na
resistencia. O coeficiente de resistencia total e superior no teste do modelo ao que se verificara
no navio porque o coeficiente de resistencia de atrito diminui com o aumento do numero
de Reynolds. Este efeito resultante da variacao do numero de Reynolds e resolvido pela

aplicacao de uma forca de compensacao. A intensidade da forca de compensacao necessaria
FD e determinada por,
1
FD = Vm2 Sm ((1 + k) (cF m cF s ) cA cAA ) (3.41)
2
O helice tem portanto que produzir uma forca propulsiva igual a resistencia total RT menos
a forca de compensacao FD .
Outro efeito de escala a considerar no ensaio de propulsao diz respeito a esteira. A
espessura da camada limite e esteira do modelo e relativamente maior que a correspondente
espessura no navio. Ou seja, o coeficiente de esteira do modelo e maior que o do navio. A
velocidade media de aproximacao ao helice, adimensionalizada pela velocidade do modelo, e
menor que a correspondente velocidade adimensionalizada do navio.
Por ultimo, devera ser considerado o efeito de escala nas caractersticas propulsivas do
helice. De facto, o numero de Reynolds do helice no modelo e menor que no helice do navio
e os coeficientes de forca propulsiva e de binario sao diferentes.
Na realizacao dos ensaios de propulsao e normalmente mantida a velocidade do carro de
reboque constante e e variada a velocidade de rotacao do helice ate ser obtida uma condicao
de equilbrio. Sao assim obtidos dados de forca propulsiva e binario em funcao da velocidade.
Adicionalmente, podem ainda ser registados dados sobre o calado e o caimento do modelo
durante o ensaio.
O ponto de auto-propulsao do modelo e encontrado quando as forcas exteriores sobre o
modelo sao nulas. O ensaio e realizado com o numero de Froude do navio, fazendo variar a
velocidade de rotacao do helice ate que a forca de reboque se anule. Nesta situacao, a forca
propulsiva iguala a resistencia da querena, alterada pela presenca de helice. Para compensar
a diferenca no coeficiente de resistencia do navio e do modelo, e aplicada a forca adicional de
reboque FD determinada pela Eq. (3.41). E portanto mais correcto afirmar que no ponto de
auto-propulsao do modelo, a unica forca exterior aplicada ao modelo e a forca FD .
Para alem do chamado ensaio de auto-propulsao, realizam-se os ensaios em sobrecarga.
Cada ensaio em sobrecarga realiza-se tambem com o helice a operar atras do modelo com este
a ser rebocado a velocidade constante. Faz-se variar a velocidade de rotacao do helice e, para
cada uma das velocidades ensaiadas nm regista-se a forca de reboque Fm , a forca propulsiva
Tm e o binario Qm . Pode-se encontrar tambem o ponto de auto-propulsao do modelo por
interpolacao nos resultados dos ensaios em sobrecarga, mais concretamente interpolando na
curva da forca de reboque em funcao da velocidade de rotacao, para o valor requerido de FD .
3.8.2 Potencia e velocidade

A potencia efectiva PE , potencia necessaria para rebocar a querena, sem os apendices associ-
ados a propulsao, a velocidade Vs , e obtida por
PE = RT Vs (3.42)
em que:
- RT e a resistencia total em aguas livres excluindo a resistencia adicional dos apendices
associados a propulsao;
- e Vs e a velocidade do navio.
De forma analoga, a potencia propulsiva PT pode ser obtida por
PT = T V a
em que:
- T e a forca propulsiva calculada a partir dos ensaios de propulsao;
- e Va e a velocidade de avanco do helice.

A forca propulsiva T e superior a resistencia RT avaliada a partir do ensaio de resistencia
realizado sem helice. Isto significa, como referido antes, que a presenca do helice induz uma
resistencia adicional porque:
- a presenca do helice aumenta a velocidade do escoamento na zona da popa do navio e,
em consequencia a resistencia de atrito;
- a presenca do helice provoca uma diminuicao da pressao nos paineis da popa do navio.
O segundo destes factores e normalmente o mais significativo.
O aumento da resistencia devido ao efeito da presenca do helice e usualmente representado
por uma reducao da forca propulsora expressa como fraccao dessa forca. O coeficiente de
deducao da forca propulsiva t associa entao a forca propulsiva e a resistencia,
RT
t=1 (3.43)
T
em que t e normalmente considerado igual no modelo e no navio.
Depois de realizados os ensaios de propulsao e calculados os coeficientes de forca propul-
siva, KT m e KQm , o coeficiente de deducao da forca propulsiva e calculado por
Tm + FD RC
tm = (3.44)
Tm
em que RC e a resistencia corrigida para a diferenca de temperatura entre os dois ensaios,
resistencia e propulsao. O valor de RC sera,
(1 + k) cF mC + cR
RC = RT m (3.45)
(1 + k) cF m + cR
em que cF mC e o coeficiente da resistencia de atrito avaliado a temperatura da agua no ensaio
de propulsao.
Para corrigir o efeito da velocidade da esteira, define-se o coeficiente de deducao da esteira,
w, que permite relacionar a velocidade de avanco Va com a velocidade do navio V ,
Va
w =1 (3.46)
V
Considerando o diagrama em aguas livres do helice, com o valor de KT m avaliado com a
forca propulsiva experimental do ensaio de propulsao, pode obter-se atraves daquele diagrama
um valor para o coeficiente de avanco J0m . O coeficiente de esteira do modelo sera entao dado
por
J0m Dm nm
wm = 1 (3.47)
Vm
Ou seja, a velocidade media axial no plano do helice atras do navio a velocidade V , no

ensaio de resistencia sem helice, e a velocidade da esteira nominal,
Va = (1 wn ) V (3.48)
e, com o helice em operacao atras do navio, o escoamento devido a presenca da querena e

modificado obtendo-se a velocidade da esteira efectiva,
Ve = (1 we ) V (3.49)
A velocidade total sera a soma da velocidade da esteira efectiva e da velocidade axial induzida
pelo helice.
O rendimento rotativo relativo R e calculado por
KQ0m
R = (3.50)
KQm
em que KQ0m e obtido a partir do diagrama em aguas livres do helice e o coeficiente de binario
KQm e calculado com base nos resultados experimentais do ensaio de propulsao.
Designa-se por rendimento do casco a razao entre a potencia efectiva e a potencia propul-
siva, ou seja,
PE RT Vs 1t
H = = = (3.51)
PT T Va 1w
A determinacao de w, t e H e feita preferencialmente atraves de ensaios de modelos em
ensaios de auto-propulsao utilizando um helice de stock com caractersticas conhecidas, tao
aproximadas quanto possvel do helice optimo. Se nao for possvel utilizar um modelo, aqueles
parametros poderao ser estimados com base em dados estatsticos. Para navios com um ou
dois helices, o diagrama de Harvald permite estimar os valores de w, t e H em funcao do
coeficiente de finura total e da razao B/L, com correccoes associadas ao tipo de popa, cota do
veio e diametro do helice. Outros autores propuseram algumas expressoes para a estimativa
daqueles parametros. Destas, destacam-se as de Taylor, Schoenherr e Luke, para navios com
um helice,
w = 0, 5Cb + 0, 025 (3.52)
e,
t = 0, 5w (3.53)
com H = 1, 02. Para navios com dois helices,
w = 0, 4533Cb 0, 114 (3.54)
e,
t = 0, 7w + 0, 01 (3.55)
com H = 0, 985. Poderao aqui ser referidas as expressoes mais complexas apresentadas por
Holtrop, com base em mais de duzentos ensaios de auto-propulsao em modelos de navios de
diversos tipos.
A potencia absorvida pelo helice pode ser expressa em termos da velocidade de rotacao n
(em rps) e do binario Q por
PD = 2 n Q (3.56)
Devido as perdas mecanicas no veio e chumaceiras, a potencia recebida pelo helice PD e

inferior a potencia efectiva do motor (brake power ) PB ,
PD = s PB (3.57)
em que s e o rendimento da linha de veios. A eficiencia do propulsor atras do navio, avalia

as perdas desde a potencia recebida pelo helice PD e a potencia propulsiva PT ,
PT = B PD (3.58)
Esta eficiencia do propulsor atras do navio B e diferente da eficiencia em aguas livres 0

verificada experimentalmente. O rendimento rotativo relativo R avalia as perdas associadas
a diferenca entre o escoamento em aguas livres e o escoamento tridimensional nao-uniforme
no plano do propulsor,
B = R 0 (3.59)
Em resumo, verifica-se sempre a relacao,
PB > PD > PT > PE
em que os valores daquelas potencias sao calculadas por
PE = H PT = H B PD = H 0 R PD = H 0 R S PB
Se o rendimento quase-propulsivo D espressar o conjunto de eficiencias hidrodinamicas

consideradas,
D = H 0 R (3.60)
entao, a potencia efectiva pode ser dada por
PE = D S PB
As leis de semelhanca permitem a extrapolacao das medicoes efectuadas para a escala do

navio,

Vs = Vm , (3.61)

ns = nm / , (3.62)
Ts = Tm (s /m ) 3 (3.63)
e,
Qs = Qm (s /m ) 4 (3.64)
3.8.3 Extrapolacao dos resultados do ensaio de propulsao

O procedimento recomendado pela ITTC para o tratamento dos dados experimentais resul-
tantes dos ensaios de resistencia e de propulsao para a previsao do desempenho do navio esta
includo no Apendice A. Para alem dos ja referidos ensaios de reboque e propulsao, sao ainda
necessarios testes do helice em aguas livres. De uma forma sucinta, o referido procedimento
envolve os seguintes passos:
- prever a resistencia total do navio a partir da resistencia avaliada no modelo, corrigindo

de acordo com as resistencias adicionais que devam ser consideradas;
- estimar as caractersticas do helice propulsor com base nos coeficientes propulsivos de-
terminados para o modelo;
- estimar a esteira do navio e as condicoes de funcionamento do helice;
- estimar a velocidade de rotacao do helice e potencia necessaria com base em factores de

correlacao entre o modelo e o navio.
Os detalhes de cada um destes passos, bem como o formulario de calculo, devem ser
consultados no referido Apendice A.
As varias condicoes consideradas nos ensaios do modelo servirao para fazer uma previsao
do desempenho do navio numa gama de velocidades para as condicoes de lastro e carregado,
conforme representado na Fig. 3.21.
Figura 3.21: Resultados dos ensaios de propulsao.

Captulo 4
Instalacoes Propulsoras
4.1 Introducao
A escolha de uma maquina propulsora ou da configuracao mais apropriada para a instalacao
propulsora num projecto de nova construcao ou reconversao nao e actualmente uma decisao
simples. E imperioso que esta decisao seja precedida de uma analise rigorosa das varias opcoes
disponveis para o perfil de operacao futura definido para o navio.
Uma vez determinada a potencia absorvida pelo helice, torna-se necessario identificar as
solucoes que satisfazem os requisitos de potencia, velocidade de rotacao, consumo e dimensoes.
A sua avaliacao tecnico-financeira sera entao realizada por criterios baseados nos seguintes
factores:
- o investimento inicial;
- a fiabilidade;
- os custos de manutencao previstos;
- os custos de operacao previstos;
- a margem do motor, relacionada com a diferenca entre a potencia maxima e a potencia

de servico do motor.
Este processo de seleccao terminara sempre numa solucao de compromisso ja que nenhum
tipo de instalacao apresentara apenas vantagens comparativas.
No passado, o armador ou o projectista tinha como escolha imediata um motor diesel lento
acoplado directamente a um helice de passo fixo, ou um motor diesel de media velocidade,
a quatro tempos, accionando atraves de engrenagens redutoras um helice de passo fixo ou
controlavel.
Actualmente, a propulsao dos navios que entram em servico e obtida com o acoplamento
directo, muito esporadicamente com engrenagens redutoras, de motores a dois tempos a helices
de passo fixo ou controlavel, motores de media velocidade a quatro tempos e engrenagens
redutoras ou ainda por instalacoes diesel-electricas com recurso a motores diesel, a quatro
tempos, rapidos ou de media velocidade. Algumas variantes de instalacoes propulsoras estao
representadas nas Fig. 4.1 e 4.2.
67
68 CAPITULO 4. INSTALACOES PROPULSORAS
Figura 4.1: Variantes de instalacoes propulsoras diesel-mecanicas lentas e

de media velocidade.
Os motores diesel lentos predominam no sector do transporte de graneis, lquidos e solidos,

e contentores de longo curso. Motores de media velocidade sao preferidos em navios de
carga com menor dimensao, ferries, turismo de passageiros, RoRos, bem como em nichos de
mercado muito especficos como os quebra-gelos, navios de apoio a plataformas de exploracao
petrolfera, etc.
No passado recente, estas tradicionais zonas de influencia de cada um dos referidos tipos
de motores tem-se sobreposto. As novas geracoes de motores a quatro tempos, com cilindros
de grande diametro e media velocidade apresentam-se como solucoes competitivas para navios
a operar em viagens de longo curso. Em contrapartida, os motores lentos a dois tempos com
cilindros de pequeno diametro tambem se apresentam como solucoes validas para os mercados
costeiro e fluvial.
Um aspecto fundamental a considerar no processo de decisao na escolha da instalacao
propulsora sera necessariamente o custo. Nao so o custo inicial, o investimento a fazer na
aquisicao do motor, mas tambem os custos associados a operacao do navio ou, de uma forma
mais geral, os custos totais do ciclo de vida do navio. Naqueles custos de operacao deverao
ser tidos em conta, entre outros, os seguintes aspectos:
- o tipo de combustvel que a instalacao vai permitir consumir;
- uma previsao dos custos de manutencao;
- os recursos humanos exigidos para a operacao/conducao da instalacao;
- a disponibilidade e quantidade/custo dos sobressalentes.
4.2. PROPULSAO DIESEL-MECANICA 69
Figura 4.2: Instalacoes propulsoras diesel-mecanica (em cima) e diesel-

electrica (em baixo).
A avaliacao dos custos de operacao ao fim da vida de exploracao do navio pode variar de
forma muito significativa com o tipo de motor escolhido, e com a configuracao da instalacao
propulsora adoptada.
A dimensao da casa da maquina, a cujo aumento correspondera uma reducao do espaco
de carga disponvel para a exploracao do navio, e essencialmente condicionada pela dimensao
da maquina principal. A propria altura da casa da maquina e importante em alguns tipos de
navios como os ferries com conves para veculos.
4.2 Propulsao diesel-mecanica

Conforme ja referido, a propulsao por um helice de passo fixo accionado directamente por um
motor diesel lento a dois tempos continua a ser o sistema mais frequentemente encontrado em
navios de carga de longo curso. A ligeira reducao no rendimento de propulsao reconhecida e
admitida face a simplicidade da solucao obtida e, a introducao de motores de longo, super-,
e ultra-longo curso veio diminuir aquelas perdas. No entanto, a velocidade de 100/110 rpm
nao e necessariamente a mais adequada para a propulsao de um grande navio. Os motores
actualmente disponveis com maior curso desenvolvem a sua potencia nominal a velocidades
tao baixas como 55 rpm ate cerca de 250 rpm. Para um dado navio, e entao possvel prescrever
uma solucao de acoplamento directo motor/helice que permita optimizar o rendimento de
propulsao.
Um outro aspecto a considerar e o numero de cilindros do motor. Os motores lentos actu-
ais, com cilindros de grande diametro, permitem extrair a potencia necessaria a propulsao de
um navio de um motor com um reduzido numero de cilindros. Um motor com menos cilindros
influencia naturalmente de forma favoravel a dimensao da casa da maquina, o volume de tra-
balho afecto a sua manutencao e a quantidade de sobressalentes a manter no navio. Este tipo
de solucao e portanto bem acolhida desde que daqui nao resultem problemas de equilbrio
do motor e vibracoes. Estes motores com cilindros de grande diametro queimam bem com-
bustveis pesados de fraca qualidade e proporcionam um consumo especfico de combustvel
inferior ao obtido em motores com cilindros de menor diametro.

Neste tipo de instalacoes, a energia electrica necessaria ao funcionamento dos equipamen-
tos auxiliares e normalmente fornecida por geradores accionados por motores diesel rapidos
ou de media velocidade. A grande parte dos fabricantes de motores diesel para acciona-
mento de alternadores esta ja hoje em condicoes de oferecer solucoes capazes de consumir o
mesmo combustvel que a maquina principal, ou marine diesel-oil ou ainda uma mistura
(blended ) de combustveis pesado e destilado. Actualmente, sao ja comuns instalacoes pro-
pulsoras Unifuel , nas quais maquina principal e motores auxiliares consomem o mesmo tipo
de combustvel.
4.2.1 Accionamento de auxiliares

Os custos associados a producao da energia electrica necessaria ao funcionamento dos equi-
pamentos auxiliares da instalacao sao tambem um factor importante na seleccao da maquina
principal. O desenvolvimento das maquinas tem tido como principais objectivos nesta area:
- maximizar o aproveitamento de energia para permitir complementar a producao de

energia electrica durante as viagens;
- permitir o uso de alternadores accionados pela maquina principal atraves de engrenagens

multiplicadoras ou directamente montados na linha de veio;
- possibilitar o accionamento de equipamentos auxiliares directamente pela maquina prin-

cipal.
A principal motivacao para a producao de energia electrica a partir da maquina principal

resulta do seu superior rendimento termico, menor consumo especfico de combustvel e ca-
pacidade para consumir combustveis de inferior qualidade e custo. Outra vantagem resulta
naturalmente do menor consumo de oleo lubrificante, de menos intervencoes de manutencao e
inferiores custos com sobressalentes resultantes da reducao do tempo de funcionamento obtida
com a paragem dos diesel-geradores durante a viagem.
No caso de uma instalacao com helice de passo fixo, a utilizacao de um acoplamento por
engrenagens, que permita manter constante a velocidade de rotacao do alternador (Fig. 4.3),
possibilita a utilizacao do gerador a plena carga numa gama de velocidades da maquina
principal que habitualmente ronda os 70 a 100% da sua velocidade nominal.
A localizacao do alternador e tambem um aspecto importante para permitir a desejavel
reducao de espaco ocupado pela casa da maquina. Sao actualmente possveis diversos arranjos
que vao desde a colocacao lateral ao motor ou em qualquer uma das suas extremidades.
Em alternativa, quer no caso das instalacoes com helice de passo fixo, quer no caso daquelas
que dispoem de passo controlavel, podem ser utilizados sistemas baseados na conversao da
frequencia da energia electrica produzida (Fig. 4.4).
Mais recentemente, as opcoes para a producao de energia electrica a bordo alargaram-
se a utilizacao de turbinas movimentadas pelos gases de evacuacao do motor. O elevado
rendimento dos sobrealimentadores mais modernos torna excedentaria uma fraccao dos gases
de evacuacao. O aproveitamento destes gases de evacuacao em pequenas turbinas podera
integrar-se em sistemas, que contemplando ainda grupos diesel-geradores, geradores-ao-veio e
turbo-geradoras a vapor, de forma isolada ou combinada, permitirao a optimizacao dos custos
de producao da energia electrica para os varios estados de operacao do navio.
Figura 4.3: Acoplamento com relacao variavel de velocidades.
4.2.2 Engrenagens redutoras

Em muitas instalacoes propulsoras espera-se da caixa redutora:
- a determinacao da velocidade e do sentido de rotacao do helice, e a capacidade de
inversao;
- que proporcione uma forma de acoplamento, permitindo estabelecer e interromper a
transmissao de potencia entre o motor e o helice;
- que seja capaz de absorver o impulso recebido do helice.
O projecto de engrenagens, embraiagens ou outras formas de acoplamento usadas em ins-
talacoes navais tem de satisfazer varios, e por vezes conflituantes, requisitos quanto a sua
flexibilidade operacional, fiabilidade, rudo emitido e espaco ocupado. Os desenvolvimentos
nas areas do projecto, dos materiais e dos sistemas de controlo contriburam para solucoes
inovadoras para instalacoes propulsoras versateis com um ou mais motores, envolvendo toma-
das de extracao de potencia (Power Take-Off s - PTO) para accionamento de alternadores
e tomadas para recepcao de potencia (Power Take-Ins - PTI ) para aumentar a potencia
de propulsao.
A forma mais comum do accionamento indirecto do helice passa pela utilizacao de um
ou mais motores a quatro tempos de media velocidade, ligados atraves de embraiagens e
acoplamentos a uma caixa redutora, para movimentar um helice de passo fixo ou controlavel
(Fig. 4.5 e 4.6).
A utilizacao de helices de passo controlavel permite eliminar a necessidade da reversibili-
dade do motor. Por outro lado, a utilizacao da caixa redutora permite escolher a velocidade
de funcionamento do helice mais apropriada. De uma forma geral, pode-se afirmar que as per-
das mecanicas na transmissao sao compensadas por um maior rendimento propulsivo, quando
Figura 4.4: Conversao da frequencia da energia electrica.
comparado com um caso de acoplamento directo para a mesma potencia. Os custos adicio-
nais da transmissao sao tambem, pelo menos parcialmente, compensados pelo menor custo
do motor a quatro tempos, quando comparado com um motor lento a dois tempos.
Sao normalmente identificadas como principais vantagens das instalacoes propulsoras com
mais de um motor, rapido ou de media velocidade:
- a redundancia permite maior disponibilidade para a operacao do navio:
- no caso de avaria num motor, o outro ou os outros mantem a navegabilidade;

- o numero de motores em servico para a propulsao pode variar para garantir a forma
mais economica para uma viagem:
- quando o navio viaja em lastro, carga parcial ou a velocidade reduzida um
dos motores pode ser utilizado a sua potencia nominal, com bom rendimento,
enquanto outro ou outros podem ser parados;
- pelo contrario, em condicoes operacionais semelhantes, um motor unico, aco-
plado directamente ao helice, funcionaria durante longos perodos a carga par-
cial com pouco rendimento;
- A possibilidade de alterar o numero de motores em servico facilita o planeamento e a

execucao das tarefas de manutencao e reparacao uma vez que estas poderao ser realiza-
das em viagem.
- Esta flexibilidade de operacao e particularmente valorizada numa epoca em que se

pretende uma exploracao intensiva dos navios.
- As operacoes de manutencao e reparacao podem ainda decorrer em porto sem
preocupacoes particulares relativas a necessidade de mudanca de cais ou partida
antecipada.
- As instalacoes propulsoras de uma frota de navios pode ser baseada num so modelo
de motor, ajustando o numero de motores no navio e o numero de cilindros por motor
para as necessidades de propulsao de cada um dos navios, com reducao do custo de
Figura 4.5: Instalacao propulsora com quatro motores, engrenagens redu-

toras e dois helices.
sobressalentes e inventarios, para alem dos benefcios resultantes da familiarizacao das

tripulacoes.
Este conceito pode ainda ser alargado aos motores auxiliares (uniform machinery instal-
lations ), em que os motores principais e auxiliares sao do mesmo modelo.
4.2.3 Configuracao pai-e-filho

A flexibilidade de operacao e potenciada pela adopcao das instalacoes do tipo pai-e-filho.
Nestas instalacoes, motores a quatro tempos do mesmo modelo, ou de dois modelos muito
semelhantes, mas com diferente numero de cilindros, fazem o accionamento do veio do helice
acoplados a uma caixa redutora comum. Cada um daqueles motores pode ser ainda acoplado
a uma maquina electrica que pode funcionar como motor ou gerador.
Numa configuracao deste tipo, a propulsao pode ser assegurada:
- conjuntamente pelos dois motores diesel;
- apenas por qualquer um dos motores diesel.
Em qualquer dos casos, podem ser ainda utilizados os, nesta situacao, motores electricos
acoplados ao veio como motores propulsores, alimentados com energia electrica produzida
pelos geradores auxiliares.
Figura 4.6: Instalacao com dois motores diesel diferentes, engrenagens re-
dutoras, embraiagens e geradores acoplados aos veios.
4.3 Propulsao diesel-electrica

4.3.1 Propulsao por motor electrico
A propulsao diesel-electrica, baseada em grupos electrogeneos de media velocidade, e uma
forma de accionamento indirecto com crescente implantacao no mercado. Apos um perodo
em que a utilizacao deste tipo de sistemas esteve confinada a nichos de mercado de actividades
com elevada especificidade, como por exemplo os quebra-gelos, navios de investigacao etc.,
as mais recentes tecnologias para a conversao AC/DC alargaram o potencial de utilizacao da
propulsao electrica ao mercado dos navios de passageiros, shuttle tankers no Mar do Norte.
Estando ja estabelecido como uma boa solucao neste mercados, comecam a surgir refe-
rencias da aplicacao deste tipo de instalacoes propulsoras a navios de transporte de qumicos
(costeiro e longo curso), ferries e RoRos. Discute-se ainda as vantagens da sua aplicacao
pelo menos a algumas classes de porta-contentores. A propulsao diesel-electrica, combinada
com motores dual-fuel , esta tambem bem implantada no sector do transporte de LNG.
A propulsao diesel-electrica exige grandes motores electricos para accionamento dos he-
lices (Fig. 4.7) e grupos electrogeneos para fornecer a potencia electrica. Pode parecer em
primeira analise algo ilogico usar geradores electricos, conversores e motores electricos para o
accionamento quando um acoplamento directo ou uma engrenagem redutora pode ser sufici-
ente para cumprir aquela missao. As principais razoes que justificam a complexidade e custo
acrescidos daquele tipo de instalacao sao:
- maior flexibilidade na distribuicao dos equipamentos na casa da maquina;
- maior diversidade de condicoes de fundionamento;
- funcionamento mais economico a carga partial;
- facilidade de controlo;
- menor rudo;
- maior seguranca de operacao e proteccao ambiental.
Estes aspectos serao abordados nos paragrafos seguintes.

4.3. PROPULSAO DIESEL-ELECTRICA 75
Figura 4.7: Motor electrico de propulsao.
Flexibilidade na distribuicao dos equipamentos

A vantagem da transmissao electrica resulta de se poder escolher a localizacao em cada
caso mais apropriada para os grupos electrogeneos. E entao possvel colocar os motores, bem
como os respectivos auxiliares, afastados do veio propulsor. Sempre que seja adoptado este
tipo de instalacao, a referida flexibilidade permite aos arquitectos navais criar navios com a
casa da maquina muito compacta, libertando espaco para passageiros e/ou carga. O facto
de a casa da maquina ser mais compacta permite reduzir ainda a cablagem e a tubagem, em
particular a tubagem a instalar para a evacuacao dos gases do motor (ver Fig. 4.8).
A opcao por uma instalacao diesel-electrica facilita tambem ao estaleiro de construcao a
recepcao de modulos de grupos electrogeneos pre-testados e prontos para serem incorporados
na instalacao.
Deve aqui ser tambem referida a dificuldade de uma instalacao diesel-electrica atingir o
rendimento obtido com um motor lento, a dois tempos, acoplado directamente ao veio do
helice, quando a funcionar a sua carga ideal, tal como acontece numa viagem de longo curso
de um navio petroleiro. No entanto, alguns navios deste tipo tem um perfil de operacao
que inclui tambem largos perodos a carga parcial em lastro, navegacao em aguas restritas
e manobras. Numa instalacao diesel-electrica, a elevada disponibilidade para producao de
energia electrica pode ser aproveitada para movimentar as bombas de carga e impulsores de
proa/popa, conforme representado esquematicamente na Fig. 4.9.
Variedade de carga
Alguns tipos de navios necessitam de quantidades significativas de energia para auxiliares
quando as necessidades de propulsao sao reduzidas. Uma grande instalacao de producao
Figura 4.8: Instalacao diesel-electrica.
de energia electrica nos navios de passageiros/cruzeiros e exigida pela carga dos servicos de
hotelaria e pelos propulsores tranversais de manobra. A potencia electrica necessaria nestes
casos ronda os 30 a 40 % da potencia de propulsao instalada e ainda ha que contar com
significativa redundancia por motivos de seguranca.
Estes factores tem promovido um novo conceito de instalacao, a diesel-electrica power
station, nas quais varios grupos electrogeneo movidos por motores diesel de media velocidade
satisfazem as necessidades de energia para a propulsao, manobra e servicos de hotelaria nos
grandes navios de passageiros.
Funcionamento economico a carga parcial

Funcionamento economico a carga parcial e facilmente alcancado numa instalacao diesel-
electrica power station. Uma instalacao tpica inclui quatro grupos electrogeneos, podendo
ir no entanto ate aos nove, e, atraves do funcionamento em paralelo dos grupos, e facil ajustar
a capacidade de producao as necessidades de carga electrica. Por exemplo, no caso de quatro
geradores, aumentar o numero de grupos em funcionamento de dois, a carga maxima, para
tres a carga parcial resulta numa condicao de carga a 67 % que, nao sendo ideal tambem nao
e problematica.
Os sistemas de reducao instantanea da potencia propulsora tornam desnecessario colocar
em funcionamento geradores a carga parcial para prevenir a ocorrencia subita de avaria num
grupo electrogeneo. O sistema de controlo monitoriza a capacidade de producao de energia
electrica, e a sobrecarga de um gerador provoca um ajuste imediato no consumo dos motores
de propulsao.
4.3. PROPULSAO DIESEL-ELECTRICA 77
Figura 4.9: Representacao esquematica de uma instalacao diesel-electrica.
Facilidade de controlo
Os accionamentos electricos permitem alcancar, com larga margem, as necessidades de
controlo para um sistema de propulsao.
Baixo rudo
Um motor electrico proporciona um accionamento com vibracoes reduzidas, caracterstica
particularmente valorizada nalguns tipos de navios como, por exemplo, os navios para cru-
zeiros, navios de investigacao marinha e navios de guerra. A transmissao electrica permite
procurar a melhor localizacao para os motores por forma a minimizar os efeitos da vibracao
transmitida a estrutura do navio. A emissao de vibracoes pode ainda ser reduzida atraves do
recurso a montagem de amortecedores de vibracao.
Proteccao ambiental e seguranca de operacao

O controlo das emissoes de oxidos de azoto pelos motores diesel dos navios favorece tambem
a especificacao de instalacoes com transmissao electrica, uma vez que o funcionamento dos
motores a velocidade constante e carga optimizada permite obter menores emissoes.
O aumento da seguranca da navegacao e tambem obtido nestas instalacoes pela redun-
dancia dos seus elementos constituintes. A redundancia pode ser obtida nao apenas pela
existencia de dois propulsores mas ainda pode ser acrescida colocando os dois, ou mais, mo-
tores de propulsao em diferentes compartimentos e ligando-os por uma engrenagem redutora.
4.3.2 Propulsores azimutais

As vantagens tecnicas e economicas na concepcao, construcao e operacao de navios com
propulsao por azipods, inicialmente restritos a navios quebra-gelos e navios de passageiros,
tem vindo a alargar o seu campo de aplicacao a outro tipo de navios.
Um propulsor azimutal incorpora o motor electrico num alojamento submerso de formas
hidrodinamicas optimizadas que, podendo rodar 360 no plano horizontal, permite extraor-
dinaria capacidade de propulsao e manobra (ver Fig. 4.10). O motor electrico e acoplado
directamente a um helice de passo fixo. A energia electrica e provida pelos varios grupos
electrogeneos do navio.
Figura 4.10: Propulsores azimutais.
Este tipo de propulsores, quando comparados com instalacoes diesel-electricas com linha(s)
de veio(s) apresentam as seguintes vantagens:
- maior liberdade para a concepcao do casco e para o arranjo de maquinas no interior da
casa da maquina;
- o espaco no interior do casco destinado aos motores pode ser libertado para outras
finalidades;
- melhor capacidade de manobra quando comparado com o tradicional leme e possibidade
de eliminar propulsores transversais;
- excelente reversibilidade e capacidade de manobra com propulsao a re;
- menor rudo e vibracao, caractersticos da propulsao electrica, agora potenciados pela
posicao mais favoravel dos helices;
- na construcao do navio, as unidades de propulsao podem ser incorporadas mais tarde
reduzindo assim os custos de investimento;
- menor custo de producao do navio.
4.4 Seleccao do motor

Seleccionado o tipo de instalacao pretendido para a propulsao do navio, chega-se finalmente
a escolha do motor. Como as caractersticas de funcionamento das turbinas e dos motores
4.4. SELECCAO DO MOTOR 79
electricos sao bastante diferentes das caractersticas dos motores diesel, a abordagem tera de
ser tambem diferente.
Em qualquer dos casos, devera ser tida em conta a margem de servico M S. A margem
de servico tem em conta a diferenca entre a potencia requerida para nas condicoes ideais da
prova de mar e a potencia requerida pelas condicoes de servico. E pratica habitual definir-se
a margem de servico como uma fraccao da potencia na prova de mar, ou seja,
PDserv PDtrial
MS = (4.1)
PDtrial
O valor da margem de servico esta normalmente entre os 10 e os 25%, dependendo das opcoes
estrategicas do armador e da importancia da pontualidade do servico. Em princpio, a margem
de servico atribuda a um navio de linha sera superior a margem considerada para um navio
que vai operar no mercado do tramping. O valor estabelecido da margem de servico deve em
conta uma estimativa da degradacao de velocidade, para as condicoes de operacao do navio,
bem com as condicoes habituais de mar e vento e a degradacao do casco.
4.4.1 Turbinas e motores electricos

No caso da turbinas, de vapor ou gas, a potencia desenvolvida depende essencialmente do
caudal de fluido em circulacao, sendo portanto relativamente pouco sensvel a velocidade de
rotacao.
As caractersticas dos sistemas com transmissao electrica sao semelhantes as das turbinas,
independentemente de os geradores serem movidos por turbinas ou motores diesel, uma vez
que a velocidade destes pode ser mantida constante.
Neste tipo de situacao, em que a maquina propulsora pode trabalhar proximo da potencia
maxima em qualquer condicao de servico, a potencia instalada (PI ) pode ser proxima da
potencia de servico. Na pratica, a turbina e ajustada para operar com o maximo rendimento
a uma potencia 10% inferior a maxima potencia em contnuo (MCR, Maximum Continuous
Rating). Assim, a potencia instalada sera
PDserv 1 + MS
PI (M CR) = = PDtrial (4.2)
0, 9s 0, 9s
em que PDserv e PDtrial sao as potencias absorvidas pelo helice nas condicoes de servico e na
prova de mar, respectivamente, para a velocidade de servico e M S e a margem de servico.
4.4.2 Motores diesel

Ao contrario das turbinas e dos motores electricos, em que a potencia disponvel e pouco
sensvel a velocidade, os motores diesel caracterizam-se por ter uma curva do binario bastante
plana. Esta caracterstica faz com que a potencia varie de forma aproximadamente linear com
a velocidade de rotacao.
Para alem dos principais criterios considerados na avaliacao dos projectos, outros aspectos
que nao devem ser descurados na escolha do motor sao:
- a possibilidade de queimar combustvel pesado de baixa qualidade sem impacto nos

componentes do motor e consequentemente nos custos previstos para sobressalentes e
operacoes de manutencao;
- o volume de trabalho de manutencao, o numero de cilindros, valvulas, camisas, aros

e chumaceiras a necessitar de atencao periodica em relacao ao numero de tripulantes
embarcados;
- a adequabilidade para operacao nao assistida explorando sistemas de controlo automa-

tico e sistemas de monitorizacao;
- a dimensao e o peso da instalacao propulsora.
O valor maximo da potencia desenvolvida por um motor diesel e condicionada pela carga
termica. Este limite e normalmente expresso em termos da pressao media efectiva. Depen-
dendo das caractersticas do helice seleccionado e das condicoes operacionais, assim o valor
limite da pressao media efectiva sera atingido, ou nao, antes de o motor atingir a velocidade
de rotacao correspondente as condicoes M CR.
Figura 4.11: Diagrama de carga de um motor diesel
Os fabricantes de motores diesel incluem diagramas de carga nos guias de seleccao de

motores para auxiliar a escolha do ponto de funcionamento. Nestes diagramas, como o repre-
sentado na Fig. 4.11, estao marcados:
- o ponto L1 , que corresponde ao MCR do motor;
- a linha vertical L1 L2 , velocidade de rotacao maxima do motor, que limita a zona de

funcionamento do motor;
No Apendice D incluiu-se documentacao da Burmeister & Wain que permite ilustrar a

forma de seleccao do motor para uma aplicacao concreta, considerando varias hipoteses: com
ou sem gerador acoplado ao veio, com helice de passo fixo ou de passo controlavel.
4.4. SELECCAO DO MOTOR 81
Alguns fabricantes anunciam um valor de Normal Continuous Rating (N CR) cerca de

10% inferior ao valor M CR e a uma velocidade inferior, ao qual corresponde um desempenho
optimizado do motor em termos de consumo e de necessidades de manutencao. Pode ainda
definir-se uma Service Continuous Rating (SCR) que, dependendo da poltica do armador,
podera ser igual ou nao do N CR indicado pelo fabricante do motor.
A diferenca entre a M CR e a SCR, ou, caso nao esteja definida, a N CR, da origem a
chamada margem do motor (M M ). A margem do motor e avaliada por,
M CR SCR
MM = (4.3)
M CR
Valores tpicos desta margem de motor rondam os 10 a 15%. De notar que as margens de
servico e de motor surgem frequentemente combinadas numa so, a margem de servico, apesar
de as suas origens serem bem distintas.
Uma vez atribudas as margens de servico e de motor, a potencia instalada e calculada
por
1 + MS
PI (M CR) = PDtrial (4.4)
(1 M M ) s
Nas provas de mar, nas condicoes de imersao e caimento contratuais, a potencia absorvida
pelo helice, a velocidade de rotacao correspondente ao M CR, deve ser igual a potencia SCR,
deduzida das perdas na linha de veios. Como objectivo das provas, devera garantir-se que a
combinacao motor e helice permite que o anvio atinja a velocidade requerida sem ultrapassar
os limites impostos pelo diagrama de carga.
Sem prejuzo do exposto, o forte aumento do preco dos combustveis nos anos mais recen-
tes faz com que os custos operacionais dos navios sejam cada vez mais dominados por este
factor. Neste contexto, pode ser uma hipotese de trabalho interessante a opcao por um motor
com a mesma potencia, a potencia calculada como necessaria para a propulsao nas condi-
coes contratuais, mas com um cilindro extra. Esta tecnica, o chamado derating do motor,
exigindo maior valor de investimento inicial, pode apresentar um perodo de retorno atrac-
tivo. Wettstein e Brown apresentam as principais motivacoes para aplicacao desta tecnica e
discutem quatro casos de aplicacao numa publicacao da Wartsilla, includa no Apendice E.
Bibliografia
[1] Jose P. Saraiva Cabral. Arquitectura Naval, estabilidade, calculos, avaria e bordo livre.
Centro do Livro Brasileiro, 1979.
[2] Eric C. Tupper. Introduction to Naval Arquitecture. Elsevier, 2004.
[3] Volker Bertram. Practical Ship Hydrodynamics. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000.
[4] Jorge dAlmeida. Arquitectura Naval - o dimensionamento do navio. Prime Books, 2009.
[5] Editor Doug Woodyard. Pounders Marine Diesel Engines and Gas Turbines. Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2004.
[6] H. Schneekluth and V. Bertram. Ship Design for Efficiency and Economy. Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1998.
83
Indice Remissivo
Auto-propulsao, 62 de propulsao, 61
de resistencia, 26
Boca, 3 em sobrecarga, 62
Bolbo de proa, 22
Bordo livre, 3 Formula
de Alexander, 5
Calado, 3
de atrito da ATTC, 25
Camada limite, 24
de atrito da ITTC, 25
Cavitacao, 37, 53, 60
de Keller, 59
Coeficiente
do atrito de Froude, 24
de avanco, 46
do atrito de Hugues, 30
de binario, 46
Forca
de Burrill, 55
de compensacao, 62
de carga do helice, 44
de inercia, 15
de deducao da esteira, 63
de origem hidrodinamica, 16
de deducao da forca propulsiva, 63
gravtica, 16
de forca propulsiva, 46
propulsiva, 42
de resistencia, 28
de resistencia total, 13
Helice, 35
Comprimento
rendimento ideal, 45
entre perpendiculares, 3
a ponto fixo, 57
fora a fora, 3
bloqueado, 57
na linha de agua, 3
com tubeira, 36
Consumo especfico de combustvel, 69
contrarotativo, 37
Custos
de passo controlavel, 37, 67, 70, 71
de manutencao, 68
de passo fixo, 37, 67, 70, 71, 78
de operacao, 68, 69
diametro do, 58
totais, 68
distribuicao radial de pressao, 59
Diagrama geometria do, 40, 59
de Burrill, 55 ndice de qualidade do, 47
em aguas livres, 45, 46 interaccao com o casco, 60
Dual-fuel, 74 numero de pas do, 59
projecto do, 40
Engrenagens redutoras, 71 razao de area expandida, 41
Ensaios supercavitante, 37
de auto-propulsao, 62
de cavitacao, 56 Metodo
de helices em aguas livres, 45 de Hughes/Prohaska, 28
84
INDICE REMISSIVO 85
Geosim, 28, 31 Rendimento

Hughes-Prohaska, 29 aguas livres, 46
ITTC 1957, 28 da linha de veios, 65
ITTC 1978, 28, 30 do casco, 64
Margem do helice, 46
de servico, 79 rotativo relativo, 64
do motor, 81 Resistencia, 13
Maximum Continuous Rating, 79 adicional, 31
aerodinamica, 19
Numero de atrito, 24
de cavitacao, 54 de onda, 19
de Froude, 17, 23 decomposicao, 18
de Reynolds, 18, 27, 46 dos apendices, 32
Navio viscosa de pressao, 25
coeficientes de forma, 3 Rugosidade do casco, 28, 30, 31
de passageiros, 68, 74, 76, 77
deslocamento do, 3 Serie sistematica
dimensoes do, 3 60, 33
linhas de bordo livre do, 3 de helices, 47, 58
planos do, 1 de querenas, 32
quebra-gelos, 68, 77 de Taylor, 33
tipo ferry, 37, 38, 40, 68, 69, 74 de Wageningen, 48
tipo RoRo, 68, 74 Semelhanca
tipo shuttle tanker, 74 cinematica, 15
Normal Continuous Rating, 81 dinamica, 15
geometrica, 14
PC-cluster, 10 leis da, 14
Pontal, 3 Service Continuous Rating, 81
Potencia Sobrealimentadores, 70
absorvida, 65
Tanque
de reboque, 13
de cavitacao, 56
efectiva, 13, 62
de Froude, 7
efectiva do motor, 65
de reboque, 26
propulsiva, 63
Power Take Off/In, 71 Unifuel, 70
Profundidade restrita, 23, 32
Propulsao Velocidade
azimutal, 35, 38, 77 da querena, 22
cicloidal, 35, 39 de aproximacao, 42
diesel-electrica, 74 de rotacao do helice, 59
diesel-mecanica, 69 economica, 22
por jacto de agua, 35, 37 Vibracoes, 42, 53, 5860, 77
por motor electrico, 74
Provas
de mar, 34
de potencia, 121, 133
de velocidade, 121, 133
86 INDICE REMISSIVO
Apendice A
Procedimento Recomendado pela
ITTC para a Previsao do
Desempenho de Navios Baseada nos
Ensaios de Propulsao em Modelos
87
88 APENDICE A. PREVISAO BASEADA NOS ENSAIOS DE PROPULSAO
ITTC Recommended 7.5 02
03 01.4
Procedures Page 1 of 31
Performance, Propulsion
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Effective Date Revision
1999 00
Method
CONTENTS
1. PURPOSE OF PROCEDURE
2. DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURE
2.1.1 Introduction for the Original 1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Method
for Single Screw Ships
2.1.2 Introduction for the 1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Method as Modified
in 1984 and 1987
2.2 Model Tests
2.3 Analysis of the Model Test Results
2.4 Full Scale Predictions
2.4.1 Total Resistance of Ship
2.4.2 Scale Effect Corrections for Propeller Characteristics.
2.4.3 Full Scale Wake and Operating Condition of Propeller
2.4.4 Model-Ship Correlation Factors
2.5 Analysis of Speed Trial Results
2.6 Input Data
2.7 Output Data
2.8 Test Example
3. PARAMETERS
3.1 Parameters to be Taken into Account
3.2 Recommendations of ITTC for Parameters
3.3 Input Data
4. VALIDATION
4.1 Uncertainty Analysis
4.2 Comparison With Full Scale Results
5. ITTC- 1978 PERFORMANCE PREDICTION METHOD (COMPUTER CODE)
COMMENTS OF PROPULSION COMMITTE OF 22nd ITTC

In its original form the ITTC 1978 Performance Prediction Method offers a valuable and rea-
sonably accurate prediction tool for reference purposes and conventional ships.
Edited by 22nd ITTC QS Group 1999 Approved
15th ITTC 1978 pp388 402
15th ITTC 1978, 17th ITTC 1984
17th ITTC 1984 pp326 - 333 th
and 18 ITTC 1987
18th ITTC 1987 pp266 - 273
Date Date
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
1978 ITTC Performance Prediction Method
1. PURPOSE OF PROCEDURE more convenient use of the program. These

extensions are summarized as follows.
The method predicts rate of revolution and
delivered power of a ship from model results. (1) Inclusion of prediction of propeller revo-
lutions on the basis of power identity.
2. DESCRIPTION OF PROCEDURE (2) Temporary measure for wTS > wTM
2.1.1 Introduction for the Original 1978 (3) Extension to twin screw ships
ITTC Performance Prediction Method
for Single Screw Ships (4) Addition of speed trial data
The method predicts rate of revolution and (5) Extension for the case of a stock propel-
delivered power of a ship from model results. ler in the self-propulsion test
The procedure used can be described as fol-
lows: (6) Adaptation to the input of the non-
dimensional resistance coefficient and
The viscous and the residuary resistance of the self-propulsion factors.
ship are calculated from the model resistance
tests assuming the form factor to be independ- In recent years, many member organizations
ent of scale and speed. have been asked by their customers for a gen-
eral description of the method, viz., model test
The ITTC standard predictions of rate of revo- and analysis of their results, calculation of full-
lutions and delivered power are obtained from- scale power and rate of propeller revolutions,
the full scale propeller characteristics. These and the model-ship correlation factors used.
characteristics have been determined by cor- Considering the above, it was decided to pre-
recting the model values for drag scale effects pare a user's manual of the 1978 ITTC method
according to a simple formula. Individual which includes all of the extensions and modi-
corrections then give the final predictions. fications made.
2.1.2 Introduction for the 1978 ITTC Per- 2.2 Model Tests
formance Prediction Method as
Modified in 1984 and 1987 Model tests required for a full scale com-
prise the resistance test, the self-propulsion test
The 1978 ITTC Method developed to pre- and the propeller open-water test.
dict the rate of propeller revolutions and deliv- In the resistance test the model is towed at
ered power of a single screw ship from the speeds giving the same Froude numbers as for
model test results has been extended during the the full scale ship, and the total resistance of
last two terms of the ITTC for a better and the model RTM is measured. The computer pro-
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
gram accepts either RTM in Newton, or in a non- ler and the model similar to the full-scale pro-
dimensional form of residuary resistance coef- peller should be tested in open water.
ficient CR assuming the form factor 1 + k. In
the latter case, the friction formula used can
then be either of the ITTC 1957, Hughes, 2.3 Analysis of the Model Test Results
Prandtl-Schlichting or Schnherr's formulae.
Resistance RTM measured in the resistance
The form factor 1 + k is usually determined tests is expressed in the non-dimensional form
from the resistance tests at low speed range or
by Prohaskas plot of CFM against Fn4 R TM
C TM =
1
The ship model is not in general fitted with SV 2
2
bilge keels. In this case the total wetted surface
This is reduced to residual resistance coef-
area of them is recorded and their frictional
ficient CR by use of form factor k,
resistance is added in calculating the full-scale
resistance of the ship. viz.,
In the self-propulsion test the model is CR = CTM - CFM (1 + k)

towed at speeds giving the same Froude num-
bers as for the full-scale ship. Generally a tow-
ing force FD is applied to compensate for the Thrust, T, and torque Q, measured in the
difference between the model and the full-scale self-propulsion tests are expressed in the non-
resistance coefficient. dimensional forms
During the test, propeller thrust (TM), torque T Q

K TM = and K QM =
(OM) and rate of propeller rotation (nM) are D 4 n 2 D 5 n 2
measured.
With KTM as input data, JTM and KQTM are read
In many cases, stock propellers are used off from the model propeller characteristics,
which are selected in view of the similarity in and the wake fraction
diameter pitch and blade area to the full-scale
propeller. Then the diameter and the open- J TM D M
water characteristics of the stock propeller wTM = 1
V
have to be given as input data in the program.
In the open-water test, thrust, torque and rate of and the relative rotative efficiency
revolutions are measured, keeping the rate of K QTM
revolutions constant whilst the speed of ad- R =
K QM
vance is varied so that a loading range of the
propeller is examined. are calculated. V is model speed.
The thrust deduction is obtained from
In the case when a stock propeller is used in
the self-propulsion test, both the stock propel- T + FD RC
t=
T
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
with 1

k 3
C F = 105 S 0.6410 3
1 LWL
FD = M S M V M2 [C FM (C FS + C F )]
2
where RC is the resistance corrected for differ- where the roughness kS=150.10-6 m and
ences in temperature between resistance and
self-propulsion tests: - CAA, is the air resistance
A
C AA = 0.001. T
(1 + k ).C FMC + C R S
RC = RTM
(1 + k ).C FM + C R
If the ship is fitted with bilge keels the total
resistance is as follows:
where CFMC is the frictional resistance coeffi-
cient at the temperature of the self-propulsion
S + S BK
test. C TS = [(1 + k )C FS + C F ] + C R + C AA
S
2.4 Full Scale Predictions

2.4.2 Scale Effect Corrections for Propeller
2.4.1 Total Resistance of Ship Characteristics.
The total resistance coefficient of a ship The characteristics of the full scale propel-
without bilge keels is ler are calculated from the model characteris-
tics as follows
CTS =(1+k)CFS +CR+ CF +CAA
K TS = K TM K T
Where
K QS = K QM K Q
-k is the form factor determined from the where
resistance test
P c.Z
- CFS is the frictional coefficient of the ship K T = C D .0.3.
according to the ITTC-1957 ship-model D D
correlation line
c.Z
K Q = C D .0.25.
- CR is the residual resistance calculated from D
the total and frictional coefficients of the
model in the resistance tests: The difference in drag coefficient C D is
C R = C TM (1 + k )C FM
C D = C DM C DS
-. C F is the roughness allowance
where
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
(1 wTS )V S
nS = (r/s)
J TS D
t 0.04 5
C DM = 2 1 + 2
c (R ) 16 (R ) 23
nco nco
and - the delivered power:
2.5 K QTS
t c PDS = 2D 5 n S3 10 3 (kW)
C DS = 21 + 2 1.89 + 1.62. log R
c kp

- the thrust of the propeller:
In the formulae listed above c is the chord K
TS = T2 . J TS .D 4 .n S2
2
length, t is the maximum thickness, P/D is the (N)
J
pitch ratio and Rnco is the local Reynolds num-
ber at x=0.75. The blade roughness kp is put
- the torque of the propeller:
kp=30.10-6 m. Rnco must not be lower than 2.105
K QTS
at the open-water test. QS = D 5 n S2 : (Nm)
R
2.4.3 Full Scale Wake and Operating Con- - the effective power:
dition of Propeller PE = C TS 1 / 2 .V S3 .S .10 3 (kW)
The full scale wake is calculated from the - the total efficiency:
model wake, wTM, and the thrust deduction, t: P
D = DS
(1 + k )C FS + C F PE
wTS = (t + 0.04 ) + (wTM t 0.04 )
(1 + k )C FM
- the hull efficiency:
1 t
where 0.04 is to take account of rudder effect. H =
The load of the full scale propeller is obtained 1 wTS
from
KT S C TS 2.4.4 Model-Ship Correlation Factors

= .
J 2 2 D 2 (1 t )(1 wTS )2
Trial prediction of rate of revolutions and de-
livered power with CP - CN corrections
With this K T / J 2 as input value the full
scale advance coefficient JTS and the torque if CHOICE=0 the final trial predictions will be
coefficient KQTS are read off from the full scale calculated from
propeller characteristics and the following
quantities are calculated nT = CN.nS (r/s)
- the rate of revolutions:
for the rate of revolutions and
PDT = CP.PDS (kW)
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
2.5 Analysis of Speed Trial Results

for the delivered power.
The analysis of trials data is performed in a
Trial prediction with CFC - wC corrections way consistent with performance prediction but
starting PD and n backwards, i.e. from
If CHOICE=1 the final trial predictions are
calculated as follows: PD
KQ = . RM .10
2 . .D 5 .n 3
KT S C TS + C FC
= .
J 2 2 D 2 (1 t )(1 wTS + wC )2 JS is obtained from the full-scale open-water
characteristics KQ JS then
With this KT/J as input value, JTS and KQTS
are read off from the full scale propeller char- wT = 1 J S .n.D / V
acteristics and
Further from KT JS characteristics
(1 wTS + wC )V S
nT = (r/s)
J TS .D T = K T . .n D 4
K QTS T .(1 t )
PDT = 2 . .D 5 .n T3 . .10 3 (kW) CT =
RM 1
. .V .S
2
Trial prediction with CNP correction Then we obtain

C FC = C T C TS
If CHOICE = 2 the shaft rate of rotation is pre- wC = wTS wT
dicted on the basis of power identity as fol-
lows.
2.6 Input Data
KQ 1000.C P .PDS
=
T 2 . .D V S (1 wTS )
3 Input data sheets are given in ENCL.1
J
K Q0 KQ 2.7 Output Data

= . RM
J J T
- Output data I gives ITTC Standard Pre-
diction with CP = CN = 1.0, together with
n S = V S (1 wTS ) / J TS .D
model and full scale propulsive coeffi-
cients (ENCL. 4).
nT = C NP n S - Output data II gives the final ship predic-
tion (ENCL. 5).
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
- Output data III gives the analysis of the propeller diameter D = 8.2m
speed trial results (ENCL. 6).
Calculations were carried out with the
ITTC Trial Prediction Test Program with:
2.8 Test Example
CP = 1.01
To illustrate the program a prediction was CN = 1.02
made for a hypothetical ship with the following
particulars: The input data were taken as shown in
length between ENCL. 1 and the printout of the input data and
perpendiculars Lpp = 251.5m results are given in ENCL. 4 - 6.
breadth B = 41.5m
draft T = 16.5m
03 01.4
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Method
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
3. PARAMETERS "F" format requires the data to be input with a

decimal point; the number can appear
3.1 Parameters to be Taken into Account anywhere in the field indicated.
"A" format indicates that alphanumeric char-
acters must be entered in the appropriate
Froude scaling law
card columns.
ship-model correlation line ,friction line
kinematic viscosity
mass density The card order of the data deck must fol-
low the order in which they are described
blockage
below.
form factor
propeller loading
hull roughness
Card No. 1 Identifications
see also 3.3 Input Data
Card Form CC Definition
column at Symbol
1- 8 A - Project No.
3.2 Recommendations of ITTC for Pa- 9-16 A - Ship model No
rameters Propeller model No.
see 4.9-03-03-01.1 Propulsion Test 17-24 A -
1987 p.263 In using the 1978 ITTC Method 25-32 F SCALE Scale ratio
it is recommended that the rudder(s) be fitted
in hull resistance experiments for barge type Card No. 2 Ship particulars
forms where inflow velocity is relatively
large. Card For- CC Definition
column mat Symbol
9-16 F LWL Length of waterline
17-24 F TF Draft, forward
3.3 Input Data
25-32 F TA Draft, aft
33-40 F B Breadth
All data are either non-dimensional or 41-48 F S Wetted surface, with-
given in SI-units. out bilge keels
49-56 F DISW Displacement
Every data card defines several parameters 157-64 F SBK Wetted surface of
which are required by the program; each of bilge keels
these parameters must be input according to a 65-72 F AT Transverse projected
specific format. area of ship above
waterline
"I" format means that the value is to be input 72-80 F C3 Form factor deter-
without a decimal point and packed to the mined at resistance
right of the specified field. tests
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
Card No. 3 Particulars of full scale Mean values of the trial correction figures,
Card For- CC Definition Cp and CN can be obtained from the trial test
column mat Symbol material of the individual institutions by run-
8- 8 I NOPROP Number of propellers
ning the ITTC Trial Prediction Test Program.
should be 1 since method
is valid only for single If an institution wishes to give predictions
screw ships with a certain margin the input CP-CN-values
15-16 I NPB Number of propeller must be somewhat higher than these mean
blades values.
17-24 F DP Diameter of propeller
25-32 F PD075 Pitch ratio at x=0.75
33-40 F CH075 Chord length of Propeller Cards Nos. 5-14 Result of resistance and self-
blade at x=0.75 propulsion tests and model propeller charac-
41-48 F TMO75 Maximum blade thick- teristics.
ness of propeller at
x=0.75 Card Format CC Definition
49-56 F RNCHM Reynolds number at column Symbol
open-water test based on 1- 8 F VS Ship speed in knots
chord length and local 9-16 F RTM Resistance of ship
velocity .0.75

V = VA 1 +

2
model
J
17-24 F THM Thrust of propeller
at x-0.75. 25-32 F QM Torque of propel-
Card No. 4 General ler:QM:100
Card For- CC Sym- Definition 33-40 F NM Rate of revolution
column mat bol 41-48 F FD Skin friction correc-
tion force
2.- 4 I NOJ Number of J-values in the 49-56 F ADVC Advance coefficient,.
open-water characteristics open water
(J NOJ 10) 57-64 F KT Thrust coefficient,
7- 8 I NOSP Number of speeds in the open water
self- propulsion tests 65-72 F KQ Torque coefficient,
(NOSPmax=10) open water
9-16 F RHOM Density of tank water
17-24 F RHOS Density of sea water
The J-margin in the open-water character-
25-30 F TEMM Temperature of resistance
test
istics must be large enough to cover the
31-36 F TEMP Temperature at self- model and full scale J-values with some mar-
propulsion test - gin.
36-41 F TEMS Temperature of sea water Input data sheets are given in ENCL. 1.
48-48 I CHOICE CHOICE=0 C C
P N
trial corr.
CHOICE==1:
C FC wC trial corr.
49-56 F CP Trial correction for shaft
power.
57-64 F CN Trial correction for rpm
65-72 F DELT Trial correction for C F
CFC
72-80 F DELTWC Trial correction for w
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
(13th 1972 pp.155-180) Empirical Power

4. VALIDATION Prediction Factor ( 1+X )
4.1 Uncertainty Analysis 2) Propeller Dynamics Comparative Tests
not yet available (13th 1972 pp.445-446 )
3) Comparative Calculations with the ITTC

4.2 Comparison With Full Scale Results Trial Prediction Test Programme
(14th 1975 Vol.3 pp.548-553)
The data that led to t ITTC-78 method can
be found in the following ITTC proceedings:
4) Factors Affecting Model Ship Correlation
(17th 1984 Vol. 1, pp274-291)
1) Proposed Performance Prediction Factors
for Single Screw Ocean Going Ships
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
5. ITTC- 1978 PERFORMANCE PREDICTION METHOD (COMPUTER CODE)
C
C ****************************************************************************************************
C * *
C * 1978 ITTC PERFORMANCE PREDICTION METHOD FOR SINGLE SCREW *
C * SHIPS *
C * (REVISED 1983 TO INCLUDE TRIAL ANALYSIS AND TWIN SCREW SHIPS* *
C * *
C ****************************************************************************************************
C
C DECLARATIONS
C
COMMON /A/ FILE(2),MODELS(2), MODELP(2), LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S,
* SCALE,RNCHM,DISW,NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,CH075.
* TM075,C3,SBK,AT,CP,CN,DELCF,DELWC,KSI,KPI,
* RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,VS(10),RTM(10),THM(10),
* QM(10),NM(10),ADVC(10),KT(10),KQ(10),THD(10),
* FD(10),IC,NOJ,NOSP,PI
C
COMMON /B/ ETARM(10),ETAO(10),ETAH(10),ETAD(10),AWTM(10),
* AWTS(10),ACFM(10),ACTM(10),AVS(10),AVM(10),
* ATS(10),AQS(10),APDS(10),APE(10),APDT(10),
* ANS(10),ANT(10),BPDT(10),BNT(10),KTSJ2(10),
* KQS(10),KTS(10),ACTS(10)
DIMENSION FILE1(2),MODLS1(2),MODLP1(2)
C
REAL LPP, LWL, KS1, KS, KP1, KP, NM1, NM, KT, KQ, KTM, KQ0, JTM,
* KTSJ2, JTS, NS, KQTS, KTS, KQS, KQM
DATA TRIAL /TRIA/
500 FORMAT(6A4,F8.0)
501 FORMAT(10F8.0)
502 FORMAT(2I4,9F8.0)
503 FORMAT(2I4,2F8.0,3F6.0,I6,4F8.0)
504 FORMAT(9F8.0)
600 FORMAT(/5X,NUMBER OF ADV,KT AND KQ POINTS =,15/
* 5X,NUMBER OF SPEEDS =,15/
* 5X,NUMBER OF SPEEDS OR ADVC POINTS >10/)
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C CONSTANTS
C
G=9.81
PI=3.14159
KP1=30.0
KS1=150.0
KS=1.5E-4
KP=0.3E-4
C
C READ INPUT DATA
C
1000 CONTINUE
READ(5,500,END=999) FILE,MODELS,MODELP,SCALE
READ(5,501) LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S,DISW,SBK,AT,C3
READ(5,502) NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,CH075,TM075,RNCHM
READ(5,503) NOJ,NOSP,RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS
* IC,CP,CN,DELCF,DELWC
NMAX=MAX0(NOJ,NOSP)
IF(FILE(1).EQ.TRIAL) GOTO 100
READ(5,504)(VS(I),RTM(I),THM(I),QM(I),NM(I),FD(I),
* ADVC(I),KT(I),KQ(I);I=1,NMAX)
C
C WRITE INPUT DATA
C
CALL OUTPUT(1)
C
C CHECK
C
IF(NOJ.LE.10.AND.NOSP.LE.10) GOTO 2
WRITE(6,600) NOJ.NOSP
GOTO 1000
2 CONTINUE
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C RECALCULATION OF INPUT DATA
C
DO 3 I=1,NOJ
KT(I)=KT(I)*0.1
KQ(I)=KQ(I)*0.01
....3 CONTINUE
DELCF=DELCF*0.001
RNCHM=RNCHM*100000.
VISCP=((0.585E-3*(TEMP-12.0)-0.03361)*(TEMP-12.0)+
* 1.2350)*1.0E-6
VISCM=((0.585E-3*(TEMM-12.0)-0.0361)*(TEMM-12.0)+
* 1.2350)*1.0E-6
VISCS=((0.659E-3*(TEMS-1.0)-0.05076)*(TEMS-1.0)+
* 1.7688)*1.0E-6
C
C CORRECTION OF PROPELLER CHARACTERISTICS
C
CDM=2.0*(1.0+2.0*TM075/CH075)*(0.044/RNCHM**0.16667-
* 5.0/RNCHM**0.66667)
CDS=2.0*(1.0+2.0*TM075/CH075)/(1.89+1.62*ALOG10(CH075
* /KP))**2.5
DCD=CDM-CDS
DKT=-0.3*DCD*PD075*CH075*NPB/DP
DKQ=0.25*DCD*CH075*NPB/DP
DO 4 I=1,NOJ
KTS(I)=KT(I)-DKT
KQS(I)=KQ(I)-DKQ
KTSJ2(I)=KTS(I)/ADVC(I)**2
4 CONTINUE
DO 5 I=1,NOSP
VS1=VS(I)*0.15444
VM1=VS1/SQRT(SCALE)
NM1=NM(I)
C
C
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
C CALCULATE ROUGHNESS ALLOWANCE AND SHIP TOTAL RESISTANCE

C
RNLP=LWL*VM1/(VISCP*SCALE)
RNLM=LWL*VM1/(VISCM*SCALE)
RNLS=LWL*VS1/VISCS
CFMC=0.075/(ALOG10(RNLP)-2)**2
CFM=0.075/(ALOG10(RNLM)-2)**2
CFS=0.075/(ALOG10(RNLS)-2)**2
CTM=RTM(I)*SCALE**3/(0.5*RHOM*VS1**2*S)
CR=CTM-(1.0+C3)*CFM
RTMC=RTM(I)*(1.0+C3)*CFMC+CR)/((1.0+C3)*CFM+CR)
THD(I)=(THM(I)+FD(I)-RTMC)/THM(I)
DELCF=(105.0*(KS/LWL)**0.33333-0.64)*0.001
CAA=0.001*AT/S
CTS=((1.0+C3)*CFS*DELCF)*(S+SBK)/S+CR+CAA
C
C MODEL PROPULSIVE COEFFICIENTS
C
FNOP=NPROP
KTM=(THM(I)/FNOP)/(RHOM*(DP/SCALE)**4*NM1*NM1)
KQM=(QM(I)*0.01/FNOP)/(RHOM*(DP/SCALE)**5*NM1*NM1)
JTM=APOL(0,KT,ADVC,NOJ,KTM,IX)
KQ0=APOL(0,ADVC,KQ,NOJ,JTM,IX)
WTM=1.0-JTM*DP*NM1/(VM1*SCALE)
C
C FULL SCALE WAKE
C
IF(JRUDER) 6,5,6
5 WTS=(THD(I)+0.04)+(WTM-THD(I)-0.04)*((1.0+C3)*CFS+DELCF)/
* ((1.0+C3)*CFM)
GOTO 7
6 WTS=(THD(I) )+(WTM-THD(I) )*((1.0+C3)*CFS+DELCF)/
* ((1.0+C3)*CFM)
GOTO 7
7 IF(WTS.GT.WTM) WTS=WTM
ETARM(I)=KQ0/KQM
C
C SAVE AREAS
C
ACTM(I)=CTM
ACFM(I)=CFM
AWTM(I)=WTM
AWTS(I)=WTS
ACTS(I)=CTS
AVS(I)=VS1
AVM(I)=VM1
8 CONTINUE
C
C ITTC STANDARD PREDICTION
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
CALL IP
C
C RETURN FOR NEW INPUT
C
DO 20 I=1,2
FILE1(I)=FILE(I)
MODLS1(I)=MODELS(I)
20 MODELP1(I)=MODELP(I)
SCALE1=SCALE
GOTO 1000
C
100 CONTINUE
DO 110 I=1,2
FILE(I)=FILE1(I)
MODELS(I)=MODLS1(I)
110 MODELP(I)=MODLP1(I)
SCALE=SCALE1
C
CALL ANLSYS
C
C RETURN FOR NEW INPUT
C
C
GOTO 1000
999 STOP
END
C
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C
*****************************************************************************************************
***
C
C OUTPUT IS USED FOR PRINTING INPUT DATA AND RESULTS
C
C IOUT= 1 INPUT DATA IS PRINTED
C 2 RESULT PAGE 1
C 3 RESULT PAGE 2
C
C
*****************************************************************************************************
***
C
SUBROUTINE OUTPUT(IOUT)
COMMON /A/ FILE(2),MODELS(2),MODELP(2),LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S

* SCALE,RNCHM,DISW,NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,CH075,
* TM075,C3,SBK,AT,CP,CN,DELCFC,DELWC,KSI,KPI,
* RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,VS(10),RTM(10);THM(10),
C
COMMON /B/ ETARM(10),ETA0(10),ETAH(10),ETAD(10),AWTM(10),
* KQS(10),KTS(10),ACTS(10)
C
REAL LPP,LWL,KS1,KS,KP1,KP,NM1,NM,KT,KQ,KTM,KQ0,JTM,
KTSJ2,JTS,NS,KQTS,KTS,KQS
DIMENSION TEXT (16)
DATA TEXT /INPU,T DA,TA , ,
* OUTP,UT D,ATA ,1 ,
* OUTP,UT D,ATA..,2 ;
* `TRIA`,`L AN`,LYS`,S `/
600 FORMAT(1,19X,1978 ITTC PERFORMANCE PREDICTION,10X,
* ENCL:/
C?? * 20X,METHOD ,8X,
* REPORT:/20X,4A4/)
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
601 FORMAT(5X,IDENTIFICATION :,18X,SHIP://

* 5X,PROJECT :,2A4,
* 10X,LENGTH PP :,F8.2, (M)/
* 5X,SHIP MODEL :,2A4,
* 10X,LENGTH WL :,F8.2, (M)/
* 5X,PROPELLER MODEL :,2A4,
* 10X,DRAFT FWD :,F8.2, (M)/
* 5X,SCALE FACTOR :,F8.2,
* 10X,DRAFT AFT :,F8.2, (M)/
* 43X,BREADTH :,F8.2, (M)/
* 5X,PROPELLER:,
* 28X,WETTED SURFACE :,F8.0, (M**2)/
* 43X,DISPLACEMENT :,F8.0, (M**3))
602 FORMAT(5X,NUMBER OF PROPELLERS:,I8/
* 5X,NUMBER OF BLADES :,I8,
* 6X,FRICTION COEFFICIENT CF/
* 5X,DIAMETER :,F8.3, (M),
* 2X,CALCULATED ACCORDING TO ITTC-57/
* 5X,PITCH RATIO 0.75R :,F8.4,
* 6X,FORM FACTOR :,F6.3, (BASED ON ITTC-57)/)
603 FORMAT(5X,HULL ROUGHN.*10**6 :,F6.1, (M),
* 2x,BILGE KEEL AREA :,F6.1, (M**2),
* 5X,PROPELLER BLADE ROUGHN.*10**6:,F6.1, (M),
* 2X,PROJ.AREA ABOVE WL. :,F6.1, (M**2)/)
604 FORMAT(5X,CHORD LENGTH OF PROP.BLADE AT X=0.75:,
* F7.4, (M)/
* 5X,THICKNESS OF PROP.BLADE AT X=0.75:,
* F7.4 (M)/)
605 FORMAT(5X,DENSITY OF WATER (TANK ) :F7.1,
* (KG/M**3)/
* DENSITY OF WATER (SEA ) :F7.1,
* (KG/M**3)/
* 5X,TEMP. OF WATER (RESISTANCE TEST) :F7.2,
* (CENTIGRADES)/
* 5X,TEMP. OF WATER (SELF PROP. TEST) :F7.2,
* (CENTIGRADES)/
* 5X,TEMP. OF WATER (SEA ) :F7.2,
* (CENTIGRADES)//
* 5X,MODEL TEST RESULTS:,
* 30X,OPEN WATER CHARACT.;/
* 54X,RNC :F5.2,*10**5/)
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
606 FORMAT(5X,SHIP RESIS- FRICT. THRUST TORQUE RATE OF ,

* 2X,ADVANCE THRUST TORQUE/
* 20X,REVS. RATIO COEFF. COEFF./
* 5X,KNOTS N N N NM RPS ,
* 7X,J 10*KT 100*KQ/)
607 FORMAT(1X)
608 FORMAT(+,3X,F5.1,1X,F7.1,1X,F7.2,2X,2F7.1,F9.2)
609 FORMAT(+,49X,F10.3,F7.3,F8.3)
610 FORMAT(5X,SHIP MODEL://
* 8X,SPEED RES. COEFF. FRICT. COEFF. THRUST DED.,
* 2X,MEAN REL.ROT./
* 6X,VS VM TOTAL,32X, WAKE EFFIC./
* 5X,KNOTS M/S CTM*1000 CFM*1000,8X,TM,
* 7X,WTM ETARM/)
611 FORMAT(4X,F5.1,F7.3,F8.3,6X,F7.3,7X,F7.3,3X,F7.3,F8.3)
612 FORMAT(/5x,ITTC STANDARD PREDICTION CP=CN=1.0 ://
* 5X,SPEED EFF. POWER DELIV. POWER RSATE OF REVS,
* 2X, THRUST TORQUE/
* 6X,VS,7X,PE,10X,PD,12X,N,10X,T,8X,Q/
* 5X,KNOTS,5X,KW,10X,KW,11X,RPS,9X,KN,
* 6X,KNM/)
613 FORMAT(4X,F5.1,F10.0,3X,F9.0,4X,F9.3,3X,F9.0,F8.0)
614 (FORMAT(/5X,SPEED TOT. EFF. PROP.EFF. HULL EFF. SHIP WAKE,
* 3X,OPEN WATER CHAR. FULL SCALE:/
* 5X,KNOTS ETAD ETA0 ETAH,/X,WTS,
* 9X,J 10*KT 100*KQ/)
615 FORMAT(+,3X,F5.1,F8.3,3(3X,F7.3))
616 FORMAT(+,50X,3F7.3)
617 FORMAT(/5X,SHIP DELIVERED POWER RATE OF REVS./
* 5X, SPEED --------------------------- ---------------------/
* 5X,KNOTS KW HP RPS RPM/)
618 FORMAT(4X,F5.1,2X,2F8.0,3X,F7.3,F8.2)
619 FORMAT(/5X,SHIP TRIALS PREDICTION CP=,F7.3, CN=,F7.3)
620 FORMAT(/5X,SHIP TRIALS PREDICTION DELCFC*1000=,
* F6.3, DELCW=,F6.3)
ITEX=ICUT*4-4
WRITE(6,600) (TEXT(ITEX+1),I=1,4)
WRITE(6,601) FILE,LPP,MODELS,LWL,MODELP,TF,SCALE,TA,B,S,DISW
WRITE(6,602) NOPROP,NPB,DP,PD075,C3
C
GOTO(10,20,30,40) , IOUT
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C INPUT DATA IS LISTED
C
10 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,603) KS1,SBK,KP1,AT
WRITE(6,604) CH075,TM075
WRITE(6,605) RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,RNCHM
WRITE(6,606)
NMAX=MAX0(NOJ,NOSP)
DO 1 I=1,NMAX
WRITE(6,607)
IF(I. LE. NOSP) WRITE(6,608) VS(I);RTM(I);FD(I),THM(I),
QM(I),NM(I)
IF(I. LE.NOJ) WRITE(6,609) ADVC(I),KT(I),KQ(I)
1 CONTINUE
RETURN
C
C RESULTS PAGE 1
C
20 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,610)
DO 21 I=1,NOSP
CFM=ACFM(I)*1000.0
CTM=ACTM(I)*1000.0
WRITE(6,611) VS(I),AVM(I),CTM,CFM,THD(I),AWTM(I),ETARM(I)
21 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,612)
DO 22 i=1,NOSP
WRITE(6,613) VS(I),APE(I),APDS(I),ANS(I),ATS(I),AQS(I)
22 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,614)
DO 23 i=1,NMAX
WRITE(6,607)
IF(I.LE.NOSP) WRITE(6,615) VS(I),ETAD(I),ETA0(I),ETAH(I);
AWTS(I)
XKTS=KTS(I)*10.0
XKQS=KQS(I)*100.0
IF(I.LE.NOSP) WRITE(6,616) ADVC(I),XKTS,XKQS
23 CONTINUE
RETURN
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C RESULTS PAGE 3
C
30 CONTINUE
DCFC=DELCFC*1000.0
IF(IC.EQ.1) WRITE(6,620)DCFC,DELWC
IF(IC.NE.1) WRITE (6,619) CP,CN
WRITE(6,617)
DO 31 I=1,NOSP
WRITE(6,618)VS(I),APDT(I),BPDT(I),ANT(I),BNT(I)
31 CONTINUE
....40 RETURN
END
C
C
*****************************************************************************************************
***
C
C IRAT= 0 INTERPOLATION WITH A 2:ND DEGREE POLYNOMIAL
C =1 INTERPOLATION WITH A RATIONAL FUNCTION OF 2:ND DEGREE
C X = ARGUMENT ARRAY
C Y = VALUE ARRAY
C N = NUMBER OF ARGUMENTS
C EX = ARGUMENT
C IFEL = ERROR RETURN CODE
C
C
*****************************************************************************************************
***
C
REAL FUNCTION APOL(IRAT,X,Y,N,EX,IFEL)
DIMENSION X(1),Y(1)
C
C CHECK NUMBER OF POINTS > 2
C
IFEL=0
IF(X(1).GT.X(N)) GOTO 2
IF(X(1).GT.EX.OR.X(N).LT.EX) GOTO 7
DO 1 I=1,N
L=1
IF(EX-X(I)) 4,4,1
1 CONTINUE
GOTO 4
2 CONTINUE
IF(X(1).LT.EX.OR.X(N).GT.EX) GOTO 7
DO 3 I=1,N
L=I
IF(EX-X(I)) 3,4,4
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
3 CONTINUE
4 CONTINUE
M=2
IF(L.EQ.1) M=1
IF(L.EQ.3) M=3
LM=L-M
X1=X(LM+1)
X2=X(LM+2)
X3=X(LM+3)
Y1=Y(LM+1)
Y2=Y(LM+2)
Y3=Y(LM+3)
C
C INTERPOL. 2:ND DEGREE POLYNOMIAL
C
X21=X2-X1
X31=X3-X1
X32=X3-X2
IF(IRAT.EQ.1) GOTO 6
C1=Y1
C2=(Y2-C1)/X21
C3=(Y3-C1-C2*X31)/(X31*X32)
APOL=C1+(EX-X1)*(C2+C3*(EX-X2))
RETURN
6 CONTINUE
C
C INTERPOL. RAT. FUNCTION
C
Y21=Y2*X2*X2-Y1*X1*X1
Y32=Y3*X3*X3-Y2*X2*X2
A0=(Y32-X32*Y21/X21)/(X32*X31)
B0=(Y21/X21-A0*(X1+X2)
C0=((Y1-A0)*X1-B0)*X1
APOL=(C0/EX+B0)/EX+A0
RETURN
7 CONTINUE
WRITE(6,8)
8 FORMAT(/5X,INCREASE THE J-RANGE)
STOP
END
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C ********************************************************************
C
C ITTC PREDICTIONS
C
C ********************************************************************
C
SUBROUTINE IP
COMMON /A/ FILE(2),MODELS(2),MODELP(2),LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S,

* TM075,C3,SBK,AT,CP,CN,DELCFC,DELWC,KSI,KPI,
* RHOM,RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,VS(10),RTM(10),THM(10),
C
COMMON /B/ ETARM(10),ETA0(10),ETAR(10),ETAD(10),AWTM(10),
* KQS(10),KTS(10),ACTS(10)
C
REAL LPP,LWL,KS1,KS,KPI,KP,NM1,NM,KT,KQ,KTM,KQD,JTM,
* KTSJ2,JTS,NS,KQTS,KTJT2,KQOS,KQS,KTS
DO 3 I=1,NOSP
VS1=AVS(I)
CTS=ACTS(I)
WTS=AWTS(I)
C
C CALCULATE THE FULL SCALE LOAD ADVANCE COEFF: AND
C TORQUE COEFF.
C
FNOP=NOPROP
KTJT2=S*CTS*0.5/((DP*(1.0-WTS))**2*(1.0-THD(I))) /FNOP
JTS=APOL(1,KTSJ2,ADVC,NOJ,KT,KTJT2,IX)
KQOS=APOL(0,ADVC,KQS,NOJ,JTS,IX)
C
C THE RATE OF REV. AND THE DELIVERED POWER
C
NS=(1.0-WTS)*VS1/(JTS*DP)
APDS(I)=2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**5*NS**3*KQOS/ETARM(I)*0.001
ANS(I)=NS
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C THE THRUST AND TORQUE OF THE PROPELLER
C
ATS(I)=KTJT2*JTS**2*RHOS*DP**4*NS*NS*0.001
AQS(I)=KQOS*RHOS*DP**5*NS*NS/ETARM(I)*0.001
C
C THE EFFECTIVE POWER, TOTAL AND HULL EFFICIENCY
C
APE(I)=CTS*0.5*RHOS*VS1**3*S*0.001
ETAD(I)=APE(I)/APDS(I)
ETAH(I)=(1.0-THD(I))/(1.0-WTS)
IF(IC.EQ.1) GOTO 1
C
IC1=IC-1
IF(IC1)10,11,12
C
C TRIAL PREDICTION WITH CP-CN CORRECTIONS (ITTC1978 ORIGINAL)
C
10 ANT(I)=CN*NS
BNT(I)=ANT(I)*60.0
APDT(I)=CP*APDS(I)
BPDT(I)=1.36*APDT(I)
GOTO 100
C
C TRIAL PREDICTION WITH CP-CN CORRECTIONS
C CN BASED ON POWER IDENTITY
C
12 APDT(I)=CP*APDS(I)
KQJ3T=1000.0*APDT(I)/(2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**2) /FNOP
KQJ3T=KQJ3T/(VS1**3*(1.0-WTS)**3)
KQ0J3=KQJ3T*ETARM(I)
JTS=APOL(1,KQSJ3,ADVC,NOJ,KQ0J3,IX)
NS=(1.0-WTS)*VS1/(JTS*DP)
ANT(I)=CN*NS
BNT(I)=ANT(I)*60.0
GOTO 100
11 CONTINUE
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
C TRIAL PREDICTION WITH DELCF-DELWC CORRECTIONS
C
KTJT2=S*(CTS+DELCFC)/(2.0*(1.0-THD(I))*(DP*
* (1.0-(WTS-DELWC)))**2)
JTS=APOL(1,KTSJ2,ADVC,NOJ,KTJT2,IX)
KQOS=APOL(0,ADVC,KQS,NOJ,JTS,IX)
ANT(I)=(1.0-WTS+DELWC)*VS1/(JTS*DP)
BNT(I)=ANT(I)*60.0
APDT(I)=2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**5*ANT(I)**3*KQOS/ETARM(I)*0.001
2 CONTINUE
ETAD(I)=KTJT2*JTS**3/(2.0*PI*KQOS)
3 CONTINUE
C
C WRITE OUTPUT
C
CALL OUTPUT(2)
CALL OUTPUT(3)
RETURN
SUBROUTINE ANLSYS
C
C***********************************************************************************************************
****
C * *
C * ANALYSIS ACCORD1NG TO 1978 ITTC PREDICTION METHOD *
C * *
C***********************************************************************************************************
****
C
C
DIMENSION VST(10),XNT(10),XPD(10),
* THDT(10),WTMT(10),WTST(10),ETART(10),CRWT(10),
* YNT(10),YPD(10),CPT(10),CNT(10),CNPT(10),ZNT(10)
* DCFT(10),WTSS(10),DWT(10),DCFM(10),DWM(I0),
* KQJ3(10)
C
COMMON /A/ FILE(2),MODELS(2),MODELP(2),LPP,LWL,TF,TA,B,S,
* TM075,C3,SBK,AT,CP,CN,DELCFC,DELWC,KS1,KP1,
* RHOM, RHOS,TEMM,TEMP,TEMS,VS(10),RTM(10),THM(10),
* RA(10),IC,NOJ,NOSP,PI
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
C
COMMON /B/ ETARM(10), ETA0(10),ETAH(10),ETAD(10),AWTM(10),
* KQS(10),KTS(10),ACTS(10)
C
REAL LPP,LWL,KS1,KS,KP1,KP,NM1,NM,KT,KQ,KTM,KQ0,JTM,
* KTSJ2,JTS,NS,KQTS,KTJT2,KQOS,KTS,KQS,KQM,
* KQJ3,KQJ3T
C
C
DO 5 I = 1,NOJ
5 KQJ3(I) = KQS(I) /ADVC(I)**3
C
NOST=10
READ(5,510) (VST(I), I=1,NOST)

READ(5,510) (XNT(I), I=1,NOST)
READ(5,510) (XPD(I), .I=1,NOST)
510 FORMAT (10F8.0)

C
C COUNT NO. OF TRIAL RUNS
NOST = 0
DO 8 I = 1, 10
IF (VST(I).GT.0. ) NOST=NOST+1
8 CONTINUE
IF(XNT(1).GT.20.) GOTO 20
DO 10 I=1, NOST
XNT(I) = XNT(I)*60.0
10 XPD(I) = XPD(I)*1.36
20 CONTINUE
DO 50 I=1, NOST
VST1=VST(I)*1852.0/3600.0
CTST = APOL(0,AVS, ACTS, NOSP,VST1, IX)
THDT(I)= APOL(0,AVS, THD, NOSP,VST1, IX)
WTMT(I)= APOL(0,AVS, AWTM, NOSP,VST1, IX)
WTST(I)= APOL(0,AVS, AWTS, NOSP,VST1, IX)
ETART(I)= APOL(0,AVS, ETARM,NOSP,VST1, IX)
CF =APOL(0,AVS, ACFM, NOSP,VST1, IX)
CT =APOL(0,AVS, ACTM, NOSP,VST1, X)
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
CRWT(I)= CT - (1.0+C3)*CF
FNOP =NOPROP
KTJT2 =S*(CTST/FNOP )*0.5 / ((DP*(1.0-WTST(I)))**2*(1.0-THDT(I)))
JTS =APOL(1, KTSJ2, ADVC, NOJ, KTJT2, IX)
KQOS=APOL (0, ADVC, KQS, NOJ, JTS, IX)
NS=(1.0-WTST(I))*VST1/(JTS*DP)
PDS = 2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**5*NS**3*KQ0S/ETART(I)*0.001*FNOP
YNT(I)= NS*60.0
YPD(I) = PDS*1.36
CPT(I)= XPD(I)/YPD(I)
CNT(l)=XNT(I)/YNT(I)
PDT1 = XPD(I) /1.36
XNT1 = XNT(I) / 60.0
FKQ = PDT1*START(I)*1000.0 / (2.0*PI*RHOS*DP**5*XNT1**3) / FNOP
FJT = APOL(0,KQS,ADVC,NOJ,FKQ,IX)
FKT = APOL(0,ADVC, KTS,NOJ,FJT,IX)
KQJ3T=FKQ * (DP*XNT1)**3 / ((1-WTST(I))*VST1)**3
FJQ= APOL( 1,KQJ3,ADVC,NOJ,KQJ3T,IX)
ZNT(I)=(1.0 -WTST(I)) * VST1 / (FJQ*DP) * 60.0
CNPT(I)=XNT(I) / ZNT(I)
THS= FKT * RHOS * DP**4*XNT1**2
CTS=THS*(1.0 - THDT(I)) / (0.5*RHOS*VST1**2*S) * FNOP
DCFT(I)=(CTS - CTST)*1000.0
WTSS(I)= 1.0 - FJT*DP*XNT1/VST1
DWT(I) = WTST(I) - WTSS(I)
DWM(I) = WTMT(I) - WTSS(I)
C
C CALCULATION OF FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE ~COEFF. OF SHIP
C
T = TEMS
FNU = ((0.659E-3*(T-l.0)-0.05076)*(T-1)+1.7688)*1.0E-6
RNLS= ALOG10(LWL*VST1/FNU)
CFS = 0.075 / (RNLS-2.0)**2
C
DCFM(I) = CTS - (l.0+C3)*CFS - ( CRWT(I)+0.001*AT / S )*S / (S+SBK)
DCFM(I) = DCFM(I) * 1000.0
CRWT(I) = CRWT(I) * 1000.0
50 CONTINUE
C
CALL OUTPUT(4)
WRITE(6,600)
03 01.4
1999 00
Method
600 FORMAT(' ',19X,'TRIAL ANALYSIS ACCORDING TO ITTC 1978 METHOD',///)

WRITE(6,610) ( VST(I), I=1, NOST)
610 FORMAT(5X.. ' SHIP SPEED - TRTAL',7(F10.2, 2X) /)
WRITE(6,620) ( XNT(I), I=1, NOST)
620 FORMAT(5X, PROP, RPM TRTAL ',7(F10.2, 2X) /)
WRITE(6,630) ( XPD(I), I=1, NOST)
630 FORMAT(4X, 'DELIV.POWER-TRIAL ',7(F11.0,1X) //)
WRITE(6,640) ( YNT(I), I=1, NOST)
640 FORMAT(/5X, PROP. RPM -CN=1 ',7(F10.2,2X) /)
WRITE~(6,650) ( ~YPD(I), I=1,NOST)
650 FORMAT(4X, ' DELIV. POWER -CP =1',7(F11.0,1X) /)
WRITE(6,660) ( ZNT(I), I=1, NOST)
660 FORMAT(5X, PROP. RPM -CNP=1 ',7(F10.2,2X), //)
WRITE(6,670) ( CPT(I), I=1, NOST)
670 FORMAT(/5X, CP ,7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,680) (CNT(I), I=1, NOST)
680 FORMAT(5X, CN ,7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,690) (CNPT(I), I=1,NOST)
690 FORMAT(5X, CNP ',7(F10.3,2X) //)
WRITE(6,700) (DCFT(I), I=1,NOST)
700 FORMAT(/5X, DCFC*1000 -CP=CN=1,7(F10.3,2x) /)
WRITE(6,710) ( DWT(I), I=1, NOST)
710 FORMAT(5X, ' DWC CP=CN=1,7(F10.3,2X) //)
WRITE(6,715) ( DCFM(I), I=1, NOST)
715 FORMAT(/5X, 'DCF *1000 ITTC-57,7(F10.3,2x) /)
WRITE(6,717) ( DWM(I), I=1,NOST)
717 FORMAT(5X, DW = WM-WTRIAL ',7(F10.3,2X) //)
WRITE(6,720) ( CRWT(I) ,I=1, NOST)
720 FORMAT(/5X, CR*1000 ,7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE (6,730) ( THDT(I), I=1, NOST)
730 FORMAT(5X, THDM ',7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,740) ( WTMT(I), I=1, NOST)
740 FORMAT(5X, WTM ',7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,750) ( WTST(I), I=1, NOST)
750 FORMAT(5X, WTS CP=CN=1 ,7(F10.3,2x) /)
WRITE(6,760) ( WTSS(I), I=1, NOST)
760 FORMAT(5X, WTS TRIAL ,7(F10.3,2X) /)
WRITE(6,770) ( ETART(I), I=1, NOST)
770 FORMAT(5X, ETARM ,7(F10.3,2X) /)
RETURN
END
120 APENDICE A. PREVISAO BASEADA NOS ENSAIOS DE PROPULSAO
Apendice B
Procedimentos Recomendados pela
ITTC para a Preparacao e
Realizacao das Provas de Velocidade
e Potencia
121
122 APENDICE B. PROVAS DE VELOCIDADE E POTENCIA
ITTC Recommended 7.5-04
-01-01.1
Procedures and Guidelines Page 1 of 10
Full Scale Measurements
Speed and Power Trials Effective Date Revision
2005 03
Preparation and Conduct of
Speed/Power Trials
Table of Contents
1. PURPOSE ..............................................2
4.3 Hull- and Propulsor Survey..............5
2. DEFINITIONS.......................................2
4.4 Instrumentation Installation and
3. RESPONSIBILITIES............................3 Calibration .........................................5
3.1 Shipbuilders Responsibilities............3 4.4.1 Instrumentation Installation.............5
4.4.2 Instrumentation Calibration Check .6
3.2 The Trial Team ..................................4
4. PROCEDURES......................................4 4.5 Trial Conditions.................................6
4.5.1 Wind: ...............................................8
4.1 Trial Preparation...............................4
4.5.2 Sea State: .........................................8
4.1.1 Shipbuilders Support Requirement:4
4.5.3 Current:............................................8
4.1.2 Space Requirements ........................4
4.6 Trial Conduct: ...................................8
4.2 Ship Inspection...................................5
4.2.1 Preparation for the trials ..................5 5. REFERENCES ....................................10
4.2.2 Ship Inspection ................................5
4.2.3 Reporting of Results and
Distribution of Information .............5
Updated / Edited by Approved

Specialist Committee on Powering Perform-
24th ITTC 2005
ance of 24th ITTC
Date 2005 Date 2005
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
Preparation and Conduct of Speed/Power Trials
recommended to allow an evaluation of

the trial results for scientific purposes),
1. PURPOSE
to install and calibrate trial instrumenta-
The general purpose of this procedure is to tion for full scale Speed/Power trials,
define basic requirements for the preparation to define acceptable limits for trial con-
and conduct of speed trials. ditions needed to validate hydrody-
namic design and/or satisfy contractual
The primary purpose of speed trials is to
requirements,
determine ship performance in terms of speed,
power and propeller revolutions under pre- for acceptable conduct of each speed trial.
scribed ship conditions, and thereby verify the
satisfactory attainment of the contractually
stipulated ship speed. 2. DEFINITIONS
The applicability of this procedure is lim-
ited to commercial ships of the displacement Ship Speed is that realized under the con-
type. tractually stipulated conditions. Ideal condi-
tions to which the speed would be corrected
The procedure is would be
to provide guidelines to document the no wind (or maximum wind speed ac-
trial preparation prior to the conduct of cording to Beaufort 2)
a full scale Speed/Power trial, no waves (or waves with maximum
to define the responsibility sharing wave heights and wave periods accord-
among the parties who take part in the ing to Beaufort 1)
sea trial for the smooth preparation and no current
execution of the speed trial
deep water
to establish a guideline for conducting
inspections for the purpose of installing smooth hull and propeller surfaces
instrumentation prior to the conduct of Docking Report: Report that documents
a full scale Speed/Power trial, the condition of the ship hull and propul-
to establish a baseline of the ship hull sors (available from the most recent dry -
and propulsor condition prior to the docking).
conduct of a full-scale Speed/Power Trial Agenda: Document outlining the
trial;(hull and propulsor surveys are scope of a particular Speed/Power trial.
This document contains the procedures on
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
how to conduct the trial and table(s) por- The Shipbuilder has to provide all permits
traying the runs to be conducted. and certificates needed to go to sea.
Trial Log: For each run, the log contains The Shipbuilder is responsible to ensure
the run number, type of maneuver, ap- that all qualified personnel, needed for op-
proach speed by log, approach shaft speed, erating the ship and all engines, systems
times when the maneuvers start and stop, and equipment during the trials have been
and any comments about the run. ordered.
Propeller Pitch: the design pitch also for The Shipbuilder is responsible to ensure
controllable pitch propellers. that all regulatory bodies, Classification
Society, Ship Owner, ship agents, suppliers,
Running Pitch: the operating pitch of a
subcontractors, harbor facilities, delivering
CPP
departments of provisions, fuel, water, tow-
Brake Power: Power delivered by the out- ing, etc., needed for conducting the sea tri-
put coupling of the propulsion machinery als, have been informed and are available
before passing through any speed reducing and on board, if required.
and transmission devices and with all con-
tinuously operating engine auxiliaries in It is the Shipbuilders responsibility that all
use. safety measures have been checked and all
fixed, portable and individual material (for
Shaft Power: Net power supplied by the crew, trial personnel and guests) is on
propulsion machinery to the propulsion board and operative.
shafting after passing through all speed-
reducing and other transmission devices It is the Shipbuilders responsibility that
dock trials of all systems have been exe-
and after power for all attached auxiliaries
cuted as well as all alarms, warning and
has been taken off.
safety systems.
It is the Shipbuilders responsibility that an
3. RESPONSIBILITIES inclining test has been performed and/or at
least a preliminary stability booklet has
3.1 Shipbuilders Responsibilities
been approved, covering the sea trial condi-
tion, in accordance with the 1974 SOLAS
The Shipbuilder has the responsibility for Convention.
planning, conducting and evaluating the tri-
The Shipbuilder is responsible for the over-
als.
all trial coordination between the ship's
Speed Power - Trials may be conducted crew, trial personnel, and the owner repre-
by institutions acknowledged as competent sentative. A pre-trial meeting between the
to perform those trials, as agreed between trial team, owner and the ships crew will
the Shipbuilder and the Ship owner be held to discuss the various trial events
and to resolve any outstanding issues.
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
The Shipbuilder has, if necessary, to ar- 4. PROCEDURES

range for divers to inspect the ships hull
and propellers. 4.1 Trial Preparation
The Trial Leader is the duly authorized 4.1.1 Shipbuilders Support Requirement:
(shipbuilders representative) person re-
sponsible for the execution of all phases of
the Speed/Power trials including the pre- Prior to the trials the required instrumenta-
trial preparation. tion has to be installed. The assistance of the
ships or shipbuilders crew will be required
3.2 The Trial Team when making electrical connections to the
ship's systems and circuits such as heading,
The trial team is responsible for correct wind speed, wind direction, and rudder angle
measurements and analysis of the measured synchronous repeaters. The following support
data according to the state of the art. is requested from the Shipbuilder to properly
prepare for the trials:
The trial team is responsible for the follow-
ing: a. Provide access to the ship for trial in-
strumentation.
a. Conduct ship inspection, if possible or
necessary. b. Assistance is required for the following
electrical connections:
b. Provide, install and operate all required
Gyrocompass
trial instrumentation and temporary ca-
bling. Wind meter
Rudder angle indicator
c. If previously arranged, provide the ship Log Speed
master and owners representative with Propeller Pitch
a preliminary data package before de-
barking. The contents of the data pack- c. Vary the output level of each of the
age will be determined in consultation above measurement sources to ensure
with the owners representative at the the proper operation and alignment of
initial pre-trial briefing. the test instrumentation
d. Provide a final report after completion 4.1.2 Space Requirements

of the trials in accordance with any
agreement between the shipbuilder and Spaces and an electric supply adequate for
the ship owner. the trial equipment will be required for the trial
instrumentation and computers.
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
4.2 Ship Inspection along the blades, and existing physical

damage.
There are three stages of a ship inspection:
d) For a clean hull; documentation indi-
in-house preparation, the actual inspection, and
cating manufacturer and kind of paint
the reporting of results and distribution of in-
formation to the various parties involved in the used, paint layer thickness and, if avail-
able, roughness measurements (average,
trial.
standard deviation, and distribution
4.2.1 Preparation for the trials along the hull) should be provided. The
majority of this information may be
Review shafting dimensions, propulsion contained in the docking report.
plant specifications, etc.
e) For a dirty hull, documentation indi-
Review trials agenda, if available. cating visual observations of any foul-
ing and date of last dry-docking should
be provided.
4.2.2 Ship Inspection
Inspect hull- and propeller surface con- 4.3 Hull- and Propulsor Survey
dition, if possible.
A roughness survey is recommended to
Inspect ships instrumentation for ac- document the conditions of the ship hull, ap-
cessibility. pendages, and propulsor(s) prior to the start of
the full-scale speed/ power trial. Cleaning may
Determine routes for cable runs/data
be required if fouling is found to be such that it
transfer conduits between trial room
would bias the trial data.
and bridge or control area.
Contact the Engineer on duty to discuss Ideally, roughness surveys should be con-
trial instrumentation requirements. In- ducted prior to the trials. The average hull
spect machinery spaces as applicable. roughness should not exceed 250 m ( =
1x10-6 m) (6.35 mils) and the average propul-
sor roughness level should not be greater than
4.2.3 Reporting of Results and Distribution 150 m (3.81 mils).
of Information
4.4 Instrumentation Installation and Cali-
Document all pertinent information related bration
to the ship inspection
4.4.1 Instrumentation Installation
a) Last date of cleaning.
b) Means of cleaning. The installation of instrumentation should
be scheduled at a time of minimal conflict with
c) Propeller roughness measurement, if
ship operations.
available, which should include aver-
age, standard deviation, distribution
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
The bias limits of the instrumentation used measurement of the rates of revolutions must
for the measurements should be known and as- be checked before the trial runs start and after
sessed. they have been finished.
The instrumentation used for the on-board- As part of the pre-trial calibration, the tor-
measurements must be calibrated before appli- sion meters zero torque readings must be de-
cation on board. If this is not possible, for some termined since there is a residual torque in the
reason, the consequences of this should be shaft, which is resting on the line shaft bearings.
highlighted in the final trial report. Electrical This might be done in different ways; one pos-
calibration is recommended for the torque sible way is to use the jacking motors. The
measurement device and, in case of use during shaft is jacked both ahead and astern and the
the sea trials, for the thrust measurement device. average of the readings noted. The zeroes are
Further a calibration should be done for the set at the midpoint of the torque required to
pick ups and the respective amplifiers used for jack each shaft ahead and the torque required to
the measurement of the rate of revolutions. A jack each shaft astern. An allowance is nor-
calibration of a (differential) GPS-System is mally made for frictional losses in the stern
not possible without excessive measures, but at tube bearings.
least the function of the device should be
checked before use on board. As part of the pre-trial calibration for a ship
equipped with controllable pitch propellers,
If portable radar tracking or (differential) maximum ahead pitch, the design pitch and the
GPS is utilized, a Receiver/Transmitter (R/T) maximum astern pitch should be determined
unit or GPS antenna is to be installed. In case and then the ship indicators should be adjusted
the soft ware program used for the evaluation to reflect the measurement.
of the data received does not allow for varying
positions on the uppermost deck of the ship the 4.5 Trial Conditions
antenna should be placed in a location along
the ships centerline as close to the ships CG Speed/Power trials require accurate position
as possible. This location will ideally be lo- data. The use of (D) GPS provides great lati-
cated on a mast or site that is clear of obstruc- tude in choosing a trial site. Regardless of the
tions, such as the ships superstructure. instrumentation utilized for obtaining posi-
tional data, the operational area should be free
4.4.2 Instrumentation Calibration Check from substantial small boat traffic.
All shipboard signals to be recorded during The tracking range should be agreed be-
the trials must be adjusted to zero or should tween the Trial Director and the ships master.
have their zero value checked (e.g. for a (D)
GPS-device) after the instrumentation installa- Draft, trim and displacement of the ship on
tion is completed and prior to the trials. The trials should be obtained by averaging the ship
zero values of the torsiometers, the thrust draft mark readings. The ship should be
measurement devices and the devices for the brought into a condition that is as close as pos-
sible to the contract condition and/or the condi-
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
tion on which model tests have been carried out. greater than 5, corrections to the trials
This will allow for the correction of the dis- data can be applied but are not consid-
placement and trim with respect to the trials ered reliable from a scientific stand-
that were conducted and will be applicable to point.
the suggestions outlined in the ITTC Procedure
The local seawater temperature and spe-
for the Analysis of Speed/Power Trial Data.
cific gravity at the trial site are recorded
Draft, trim and displacement should be ob- to enable the calculation of ship's dis-
tained at the beginning and at the end of the placement.
trial. This may be accomplished using a load- An acceptable minimum water depth
ing computer or by taking a second draft read- for the trials where the data do not need
ing. The accuracy of the draft readings and the to be corrected for shallow water can be
method used to establish draft and displace- calculated using:
ment underway will be compared in port by di- h > 6.0(Am)0.5 and h > 0.5 V2 (1)
rect draft readings both port and starboard in with
conjunction with a liquid load calculation. Am= midship section area, [m2]
V= ship speed, [m/s]
Displacement should be derived from the The larger of the 2 values obtained
hydrostatic curves by utilizing the draft data from the two equations should be used.
and the density of the water.
Current speed and direction should be
Environmental factors may significantly in- determined in the test area by prognos-
fluence the data obtained during sea trials; con- tic analysis. When current speed and di-
sequently, these factors should be monitored rection is unknown, the ships global
and documented to the greatest extent possible: drift (also including wind effect) in
some cases might be determined by a
High wind and sea states can force the 360 turning test conducted at low
use of excessive rudder to maintain ahead speed to magnify any environ-
heading, and thus cause excessive fluc- mental effect.
tuations in shaft torque, shaft speed and
ship speed. The runs should be conducted into and
against the waves; i.e., head and follow-
Sea states of 3 or less and a true wind ing seas, respectively. To ensure that
speed below Beaufort 6 (20 Kn) are the tests are performed in comparable con-
desired conditions for sea trials. When ditions, the data between reciprocal
working under the time constraints of a runs should be reviewed for consistency
contract, corrections to the trials data and/or anomalies. Individual speed runs
can be made in accordance with the rec- conducted in the same conditions
ommendations provided in the ITTC should be averaged with their reciprocal
Procedure for the Analysis of runs to take into account global drift.
Speed/Power Trial Data for sea states
less than or equal to 5. For sea states
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
In accordance with ISO 15016 the follow- During the trial runs the total wave height
ing, general recommendations can be given: (double amplitude), which allows for the wave
heights of seas and swell (see ISO 15016),
4.5.1 Wind: should not exceed
Wind speed and direction shall be measured 3m for ships of 100m length and more
as relative wind; continuous recording of rela- and
tive wind during each run is recommended. 1,5m for ships with lengths smaller than
Care has to be taken whether the data derived 100m
from the wind indicator are reliable; checks,
such as parallel measurements with a portable 4.5.3 Current:
instrument, comparison of the data received
from the wind indicator with wind speeds and Current speed and direction shall be ob-
directions received from local weather stations tained either as part of the evaluation of run
sufficiently close to the actual position of the and counter-run of each double run, by direct
ship or, if possible, calibration of the wind in- measurement with a current gauge buoy or by
dicator (taking into consideration the effects of use of nautical charts of the respective trial area.
boundary layers of the superstructure on the It is recommended to compare measured data
measured values) in a wind tunnel are recom- with those included on the nautical charts.
mended.
4.6 Trial Conduct:
It is suggested that wind force during the
trial runs under no conditions should be higher All speed trials shall be carried out using
than double runs, i.e. each run is followed by a re-
turn run in the opposite direction, performed
Beaufort 6 for ships with lengths equal with the same engine settings.
or exceeding 100m and
Beaufort 5 for ships shorter than 100m. The number of such double runs should not
be less than three. This three runs should be at
different engine settings.
4.5.2 Sea State:
The time necessary for a speed run depends
If possible, instruments such as buoys or in- on the ships speed, size and power. Steady
struments onboard ships (e.g. seaway analysis state conditions should be achieved before the
radar) should be used to determine the wave speed runs start. It is recommended that the
height, wave period and direction of seas and time of one run should be as long as possible
swell. Considering usual practice the wave but should at least be 10 min.
heights may be determined from observations
by multiple, experienced observers, including The ideal path of a ship in a typical
the nautical staff on board. speed/power maneuver is shown in Figure 1:
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
Min. 10 min
Steady Approach
Steady Approach
Min 10 min
Figure 1
Prior to the trial, the data specified below The following data should be monitored
shall be recorded, based on measurements and recorded on each run:
where relevant:
Date Clock time at commencement
Trial area Time elapsed over the measured dis-
Weather conditions tance
Air temperature Ship heading
Mean water depth in the trial area Ships speed over ground
Water temperature and density
Propeller rate of revolutions
Draughts
Corresponding displacement Propeller shaft torque and/or brake
Propeller pitch in the case of a CPP power
Water depth
It is recommended to retain a record of the Relative wind velocity and direction
following factors, which should prove useful
for verifying the condition of the ship at the Air temperature
time of the speed trial: Observed wave height (or: wave height
corresponding to observed and/or
Time elapsed since last hull and propel-
agreed wind conditions)
ler cleaning
Rudder angle
Surface condition of hull and propeller.
Ship position and track
-01-01.1
2005 03
Speed/Power Trials
Data such as ships speed, rate of revolu- 5. REFERENCES

tions of the propeller, torque, rudder angle and
drift angle to be used for the analyses shall be (1) ISO 15016, Ships and marine technology
the average values derived on the measured Guidelines for the assessment of speed and
distance. power performance by analysis of speed
trial data
(2) ITTC Procedure for the Analysis of

Speed/Power Trial Data
(3) ISO 19019

Apendice C
Condicoes de Realizacao das Provas
de Velocidade e Potencia
Recomendadas pela ITTC
133
134 APENDICE C. CONDICOES DAS PROVAS DE VELOCIDADE E POTENCIA
ITTC Recommended 7.5 0.4
01 01.5
Effective Date Revision
Speed and Power Trials 2002 01
Trial Conditions
CONTENTS
1. PURPOSE
2. SCOPE
3. RESPONSIBILITIES
4. DEFINITIONS
5. PROCEDURE
6. REFERENCES
7. RECORDS
8. ATTACHMENTS
Updated by Approved
Specialist Committee of 23rd ITTC on
23rd ITTC 2002
Speed and Powering
Date Date 2002
01 01.5
Trial Conditions
Trial Conditions
b. Collect and record seawater tempera-
1. PURPOSE ture and specific gravity during trial,
daily.
The purpose of this procedure is to estab-
lish guidelines for the definition of acceptable
limits for trial conditions needed to validate 4. DEFINITIONS
hydrodynamic design and/or satisfy contractual
requirements. None
2. SCOPE 5. PROCEDURE
This procedure applies to the documenta- 1. Speed/Power trials require accurate posi-
tion of trial conditions (environmental and tion data and therefore will ideally be con-
ship) in which the full-scale Speed/Power trial ducted at an instrumented tracking range
are performed. located in a sheltered body of water. Lack-
ing availability of an instrumented tracking
range, the use of DGPS provides great lati-
3. RESPONSIBILITIES tude in choosing a trial site. Regardless of
the instrumentation utilized for obtaining
The Trial Director is the duly authorized positional data, the operational area should
shipbuilders representative responsible for be free from substantial small boat traffic.
the execution of all phases of the 2. If an instrumented tracking range is util-
Speed/Power trials. When unforeseen prob- ized, the ships master will receive a formal
lems, such as weather or technical difficul- briefing on tracking range procedures by
ties require that the trial schedule or trial the Trial Director prior to the conduct of
logistics be modified, the Trial Director the trials. During the briefing, specific trial
shall make the final decision, subject to the runs will be reviewed. The trial team will
concurrence of the ships master and the provide an on-shore observer to monitor
owners representative. data collection by the tracking range facil-
The shipbuilder is responsible for the over- ity. If DGPS is utilized, the Trial Director
all trial coordination between the ship's will brief the ships master on specific trial
crew, trial personnel, and the owner repre- runs and procedures.
sentative. A pre-trial meeting between the 3. Ship characteristics and environmental fac-
trial team, owner and the ships crew will tors are carefully monitored and docu-
be held to discuss the various trial events mented throughout the trials (see Table 1).
and to resolve any outstanding issues. Accurate quantification of these conditions
The trial team is responsible for the follow- is necessary because a ship's speed and
ing: powering characteristics are extremely sen-
a. Operate and maintain all required trial sitive to conditions such as ship and propel-
instrumentation and temporary cabling. ler condition, ship displacement, shallow
water effects, sea state and wind velocity.
01 01.5
Trial Conditions
4. Speed/Power Trials are normally scheduled b. Displacement must be derived from the
within 30 days of undocking to minimize hydrostatic curves by utilizing the draft
the adverse effects of hull and propulsor data and the density of the water. When
fouling and provide a more "standard" con- dealing with Froude numbers higher
dition for testing. In situations where the than 0.5 (e.g. a Fast Ferry with 100 m
ship has become fouled after undocking, a length and speed over 30 kn) intermedi-
hull cleaning, propeller polishing and hull ate ship loading conditions must be
and propeller roughness survey should be documented. This is better accom-
performed within 30 days of the plished through tank soundings.
Speed/Power trial date. Guidance may be 6. Environmental factors can significantly in-
found in Hull and Propulsor Survey Proce- fluence the data obtained during sea trials.
dure 7.5-04-01-01.3. At a minimum, the Consequently, these factors must be moni-
ships latest docking report and diver in- tored and documented to the greatest extent
spection should be provided to fulfill this possible.
requirement. Guidance may be found in a. High wind and sea states can force the
Speed/Power Trial Ship Inspection Proce- use of excessive rudder to maintain
dure 7.5-04-01-01.2. heading, and thus cause excessive fluc-
5. Draft, trim and displacement of the trials tuations in shaft torque, shaft speed and
must be obtained by averaging the ship ship speed.
draft mark readings. The ship should be b. Sea states of 3 or less and a true wind
brought into a condition that is as close as speed below Beaufort 6 (20 kn) are the
possible to the contract condition and/or the desired conditions for sea trials. When
condition by which model tests have been working under the time constraints of a
carried out. This will allow for the correc- contract, corrections to the trials data
tion of the displacement and trim with re- can be made in accordance with the rec-
spect to the trials that were conducted and ommendations provided in the 23rd
will be applicable to the suggestions out- ITTC Speed and Powering Trials Spe-
lined in the 23rd ITTC Speed and Powering cialist Committee final report for sea
Trials Specialist Committee final report. states less than or equal to 5. For sea
a. Draft, trim and displacement must be states greater than 5, corrections to the
obtained at the beginning and at the end trials data can be applied but are not
of the trial. This may be accomplished considered reliable from a scientific
using a loading computer or by taking a standpoint.
second draft reading. The accuracy of c. The local seawater temperature and spe-
the ship's draft marks and the method cific gravity at the trial site are recorded
used to calculate draft and displacement to enable the calculation of ship's dis-
underway will be compared in port by placement.
direct draft readings both port and star- d. Air temperature and atmospheric pres-
board in conjunction with a liquid load sure should be measured at the trial lo-
calculation. The trial team will verify cation using a calibrated thermometer
and document the results prior to the and barometer.
Speed/Power trials. e. An acceptable minimum water depth for the
trials where the data do not need to be cor-
01 01.5
Trial Conditions
rected for shallow water can be calculated 3. 22nd ITTC Trials & Monitoring
using: Specialist Committee/12th ITTC
based on ship section and Froude
h > 6.0(Am)0.5 and h > 0.5 V2 (1) Number.
Use the larger of the 2 values obtained from h > 3.0(BT)0.5 and h > 2.75 V2/g
the two equations. (5)
Use the larger of the 2 values ob-
Other accepted formulae are: tained from the two equations.
1. SNAME 1973/21st ITTC Powering h = depth in appropriate length

Performance Committee units
B = beam in appropriate length
d 10TV/(L)0.5 (2) units
T = draft in appropriate length
d = water depth, ft units
T =trial draft, ft V = speed in system of units con-
V = speed, kn sistent with the above dimension
L = length between perpendicu- g = acceleration due to gravity in
lars, ft units consistent with the above di-
mension
2. SNAME 1989 from Det Norske
Veritas 4. ISO/FDIS 15016:(E) based on Lack-
Nautical Safety- Additional Classes enbys Formula
NAUT-A, NAUT-B AND NAUT-
0.5
C, July 1986 V A gh
= 0.1242 2m 0.05 + 1 tanh( 2 )
V h V
h > 5.0(Am)0.5 and h > 0.4 V2 (3)
for h (Am/0.05)0.5 (6)
Use the larger of the 2 values ob- V
tained from the two equations. 0.02
V
h = water depth, m h = water depth, m
Am = midship section area, m2 Am = midship section area under
V = ship speed, m/s water, m2
V = ship speed, m/s
or V = speed loss due to shallow wa-
ter effect, m/s
h > 5 (T) (4) g = acceleration due to gravity,
m/s2
T = Mean draft, m
01 01.5
Trial Conditions
f. Current speed and direction should be 2. 22nd ITTC Trials & Monitoring Specialist
determined in the test area by prognos- Committee Final Report
tic analysis. When current speed is sus- 3. Ships and marine technology Guidelines
pected to be varying and direction is for the assessment of speed and power per-
unknown, the ships global drift (also formance analysis of speed trial data, Final
including wind effect) should be deter- Draft International Standard ISO/FDIS
mined by a 360 turning test conducted 15016: (E), ISO/TC 8/SC 9/WG 2 of 2001
at low ahead speed to magnify any en- 4. 23rd ITTC Speed and Powering Trials Spe-
vironmental effect. Test runs should be cialist Committee Final Report
conducted against and with global drift. 5. Speed/Power Trial Ship Inspection Proce-
It should be noted that this method of dure 7.5-04-01-01.2
determining the direction of the trial 6. Hull and Propulsor Survey Procedure 7.5-
runs is extremely important in the case 04-01-01.3
of small ships whose performance is
strongly effected by environmental con-
ditions. For large ships, such as ULCCs, 7. RECORDS
performance is not impacted as greatly
by environmental conditions. If time is 1. Ship conditions displacement, draft, pro-
a critical factor, then the runs can be pulsor and hull roughness
conducted into and against the waves; 2. Environmental conditions water depth,
i.e., head and following seas, re- water temperature, wind direction and
spectively. To ensure that tests are per- speed, sea state, specific gravity, air tem-
formed in comparable conditions, the perature, atmospheric pressure, current
data between reciprocal runs should be speed and direction
reviewed for consistency and/or anoma-
lies. Individual speed runs conducted in
8. ATTACHMENTS
the same conditions should be averaged
with their reciprocal runs to take into 1. Table 1. Documented Ship and Trial Con-
account global drift. ditions Reported
6. REFERENCES
1. SNAME 1973/21st ITTC Powering Per-

formance Committee Final Report
01 01.5
Trial Conditions
Table 1. Documented Ship and Trial Conditions Reported
Description
Ship Hull
Draft
Trim
Displacement and Load
Hull Condition
Roughness of shell and bottom paint
Height of welding beads
Waviness of hull
Size, number and position of zinc anodes
Size, number and position of openings of sea water inlets and outlets
Paint system
Hull Appendages and Rudder

Geometry, deviations, roughness
Type
Rate of movement
Propeller(s)
Geometry, deviations, roughness
Pitch
Direction of rotation
Number of blades
Propeller Shaft(s)
Geometry
Material
Trial Site
Water depth
Water temperature
Air temperature
Sea State
Specific gravity of water
Environmental Conditions
Wind
Waves
Current
Atmospheric pressure
Apendice D
Utilizacao dos Diagramas na
Seleccao de Motores Propulsores
141
142 APENDICE D. SELECCAO DE MOTORES PROPULSORES
Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion
Contents: Page
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Scope of this Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Chapter 1
Ship Definitions and Hull Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Ship types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
A ships load lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Indication of a ships size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Description of hull forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Ships resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Chapter 2
Propeller Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Propeller types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Flow conditions around the propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Efficiencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Propeller dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Operating conditions of a propeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Chapter 3
Engine Layout and Load Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Power functions and logarithmic scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Propulsion and engine running points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Engine layout diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Load diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Use of layout and load diagrams examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Influence on engine running of different types
of ship resistance plant with FPpropeller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Influence of ship resistance
on combinator curves plant with CPpropeller . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Closing Remarks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Basic Principles of Ship Propulsion
Introduction Scope of this Paper followed up by the relative heavy/light

running conditions which apply when
For the purpose of this paper, the term This paper is divided into three chapters the ship is sailing and subject to different
ship is used to denote a vehicle em which, in principle, may be considered as types of extra resistance, like fouling,
ployed to transport goods and persons three separate papers but which also, heavy sea against, etc.
from one point to another over water. with advantage, may be read in close
Ship propulsion normally occurs with connection to each other. Therefore, Chapter 3, elucidates the importance
the help of a propeller, which is the some important information mentioned in of choosing the correct specified MCR
term most widely used in English, al one chapter may well appear in another and optimising point of the main engine,
though the word screw is sometimes chapter, too. and thereby the engines load diagram
seen, inter alia in combinations such as in consideration to the propellers design
a twinscrew propulsion plant. Chapter 1, describes the most elemen point. The construction of the relevant
tary terms used to define ship sizes load diagram lines is described in detail
Today, the primary source of propeller and hull forms such as, for example, by means of several examples. Fig. 24
power is the diesel engine, and the power the ships displacement, deadweight, shows, for a ship with fixed pitch pro
requirement and rate of revolution very design draught, length between per peller, by means of a load diagram, the
much depend on the ships hull form pendiculars, block coefficient, etc. important influence of different types of
and the propeller design. Therefore, in Other ship terms described include the ship resistance on the engines contin
order to arrive at a solution that is as effective towing resistance, consisting uous service rating.
optimal as possible, some general of frictional, residual and air resistance,
knowledge is essential as to the princi and the influence of these resistances
pal ship and diesel engine parameters in service.
that influence the propulsion system.
Chapter 2, deals with ship propulsion
This paper will, in particular, attempt to and the flow conditions around the pro
explain some of the most elementary peller(s). In this connection, the wake
terms used regarding ship types, fraction coefficient and thrust deduc
ships dimensions and hull forms and tion coefficient, etc. are mentioned.
clarify some of the parameters pertain
ing to hull resistance, propeller condi The total power needed for the propel
tions and the diesel engines load ler is found based on the above effec
diagram. tive towing resistance and various
propeller and hull dependent efficien
On the other hand, it is considered be cies which are also described. A sum
yond the scope of this publication to mary of the propulsion theory is shown
give an explanation of how propulsion in Fig. 6.
calculations as such are carried out, as
the calculation procedure is extremely The operating conditions of a propeller
complex. The reader is referred to the according to the propeller law valid for
specialised literature on this subject, for a propeller with fixed pitch are described
example as stated in References. for free sailing in calm weather, and
3
Category Class Type
Oil tanker Crude (oil) Carrier CC
Ship Definitions and Hull Tanker
Resistance Very Large Crude Carrier VLCC
Ultra Large Crude Carrier ULCC
Product Tanker
Ship types
Gas tanker Liquefied Natural Gas carrier LNG
Depending on the nature of their cargo,
and sometimes also the way the cargo Chemical tanker Liquefied Petroleum Gas carrier LPG
is loaded/unloaded, ships can be divided
into different categories, classes, and OBO Oil/Bulk/Ore carrier OBO
types, some of which are mentioned in
Table 1. Bulk carrier Bulk carrier
Container carrier
Container ship Container ship
The three largest categories of ships Roll OnRoll Off RoRo
are container ships, bulk carriers (for General cargo
bulk goods such as grain, coal, ores, General cargo ship
etc.) and tankers, which again can be Coaster
divided into more precisely defined Reefer Reefer Refrigerated cargo vessel
classes and types. Thus, tankers can
Ferry
be divided into oil tankers, gas tankers Passenger ship
Cruise vessel
and chemical tankers, but there are
also combinations, e.g. oil/chemical
tankers. Table 1: Examples of ship types
Table 1 provides only a rough outline.

In reality there are many other combi the risk of bad weather whereas, on the tropical seas is somewhat higher than
nations, such as Multipurpose bulk other hand, the freeboard draught for the summer freeboard draught.
container carriers, to mention just one
example.
A ships load lines
Painted halfway along the ships side

is the Plimsoll Mark, see Fig. 1. The
lines and letters of the Plimsoll Mark,
which conform to the freeboard rules D
laid down by the IMO (International
Maritime Organisation) and local au
thorities, indicate the depth to which
the vessel may be safely loaded (the
depth varies according to the season Freeboard deck
D: Freeboard draught
and the salinity of the water).
There are, e.g. load lines for sailing in

freshwater and seawater, respectively, TF
with further divisions for tropical condi
tions and summer and winter sailing. F T Tropical
D L
According to the international freeboard S Summer
rules, the summer freeboard draught W Winter
for seawater is equal to the Scantling WNA Winter - the North Atlantic
draught, which is the term applied to Danish load mark
the ships draught when dimensioning
Freshwater Seawater
the hull.
The winter freeboard draught is less

than that valid for summer because of Fig. 1: Load lines freeboard draught
4
Indication of a ships size
Displacement and deadweight

When a ship in loaded condition floats at
an arbitrary water line, its displacement is
equal to the relevant mass of water dis AM
placed by the ship. Displacement is thus D
equal to the total weight, all told, of the
relevant loaded ship, normally in seawa
ter with a mass density of 1.025 t/m3. BWL
Displacement comprises the ships

light weight and its deadweight, where
the deadweight is equal to the ships
loaded capacity, including bunkers and
other supplies necessary for the ships
propulsion. The deadweight at any time DF
DA
thus represents the difference between
the actual displacement and the ships
light weight, all given in tons: LPP
LWL
deadweight = displacement light weight.
LOA
Incidentally, the word ton does not
always express the same amount of Length between perpendiculars: LPP
weight. Besides the metric ton (1,000 Length on waterline: LWL
kg), there is the English ton (1,016 kg), Length overall: LOA
which is also called the long ton. A Breadth on waterline: BWL
short ton is approx. 907 kg. Draught: D = 1/2 (DF +DA)
Midship section area: Am
The light weight of a ship is not normally
used to indicate the size of a ship,
whereas the deadweight tonnage Fig. 2: Hull dimensions
(dwt), based on the ships loading ca
pacity, including fuel and lube oils etc.
for operation of the ship, measured in
tons at scantling draught, often is. dwt/light Displ./dwt is the part of the ships hull which is
Ship type under the water line. The dimensions
weight ratio ratio
Sometimes, the deadweight tonnage below describing the hull form refer
may also refer to the design draught of Tanker and to the design draught, which is less
6 1.17
the ship but, if so, this will be mentioned. Bulk carrier than, or equal to, the scantling
Table 2 indicates the ruleofthumb rela Container ship
draught. The choice of the design
2.53.0 1.331.4
tionship between the ships displacement, draught depends on the degree of
deadweight tonnage (summer freeboard/ load, i.e. whether, in service, the ship
scantling draught) and light weight. Table 2: Examples of relationship between dis will be lightly or heavily loaded. Gen
placement, deadweight tonnage and light weight erally, the most frequently occurring
A ships displacement can also be ex draught between the fullyloaded and
pressed as the volume of displaced These measurements express the size the ballast draught is used.
water , i.e. in m3. of the internal volume of the ship in ac
cordance with the given rules for such Ships lengths LOA, LWL, and LPP
Gross register tons measurements, and are extensively The overall length of the ship LOA is
Without going into detail, it should be used for calculating harbour and canal normally of no consequence when
mentioned that there are also such dues/charges. calculating the hulls water resistance.
measurements as Gross Register Tons The factors used are the length of the
(GRT), and Net Register Tons (NRT) Description of hull forms waterline LWL and the socalled length
where 1 register ton = 100 English cubic between perpendiculars LPP. The di
feet, or 2.83 m3. It is evident that the part of the ship mensions referred to are shown in
which is of significance for its propulsion Fig. 2.
5
The length between perpendiculars is
the length between the foremost per
pendicular, i.e. usually a vertical line
through the stems intersection with
the waterline, and the aftmost perpen Waterline plane AM D
dicular which, normally, coincides with
AWL
the rudder axis. Generally, this length is
slightly less than the waterline length,
and is often expressed as: L PP
L WL
LPP = 0.97 LWL BW
L
Draught D
The ships draught D (often T is used in :
Volume of displacement
literature) is defined as the vertical dis
tance from the waterline to that point of Waterline area : A WL
the hull which is deepest in the water,
see Figs. 2 and 3. The foremost draught Block coefficient, LWL based : CB =
DF and aftmost draught DA are normally LWL x BWL x D
the same when the ship is in the loaded Midship section coefficient : CM = AM
condition. BWL x D
Longitudinal prismatic coefficient : CP =
Breadth on waterline BWL AM x LWL
Another important factor is the hulls Waterplane area coefficient AWL
: CWL = LWL x BWL
largest breadth on the waterline BWL,
see Figs. 2 and 3.
Block coefficient CB Fig. 3: Hull coefficients of a ship

Various form coefficients are used to
express the shape of the hull. The most
important of these coefficients is the AWL
block coefficient CB, which is defined service speeds, on different types of CWL =
as the ratio between the displacement ships. It shows that large block coeffi LWL BWL
volume and the volume of a box with cients correspond to low speeds and
dimensions LWL BWL D, see Fig. 3, i.e.: vice versa. Generally, the waterplane area coeffi
cient is some 0.10 higher than the block
Approxi coefficient, i.e.:
CB = Block
LWL BWL D Ship type coefficient
mate ship
CWL CB + 0.10.
speed V
CB
in knots
In the case cited above, the block co This difference will be slightly larger on
efficient refers to the length on water Lighter 0.90 5 10 fast vessels with small block coefficients
line LWL. However, shipbuilders often use Bulk carrier where the stern is also partly immersed
0.80 0.85 12 17
block coefficient CB, PP based on the in the water and thus becomes part of
length between perpendiculars, LPP, in Tanker 0.80 0.85 12 16 the waterplane area.
which case the block coefficient will, as a
General cargo 0.55 0.75 13 22
rule, be slightly larger because, as previ Midship section coefficient CM
ously mentioned, LPP is normally slightly Container ship 0.50 0.70 14 26 A further description of the hull form is
less than LWL. provided by the midship section coeffi
Ferry boat 0.50 0.70 15 26
cient CM, which expresses the ratio be
C B ,PP = tween the immersed midship section
LPP BWL D Table 3: Examples of block coefficients area AM (midway between the foremost
and the aftmost perpendiculars) and the
A small block coefficient means less re Water plane area coefficient CWL product of the ships breadth BWL and
sistance and, consequently, the possibil The water plane area coefficient CWL draught D, see Fig. 3, i.e.:
ity of attaining higher speeds. expresses the ratio between the ves
sels waterline area AWL and the product AM
Table 3 shows some examples of block of the length LWL and the breadth BWL of CM =
coefficient sizes, and the pertaining BWL D
the ship on the waterline, see Fig. 3, i.e.:
6
For bulkers and tankers, this coefficient in the selection of the correct propeller and resistance coefficients C and, thus, the
is in the order of 0.980.99, and for in the subsequent choice of main engine. pertaining sourceresistances R. In
container ships in the order of 0.970.98. practice, the calculation of a particular
General ships resistance can be verified by
Longitudinal prismatic coefficient CP A ships resistance is particularly influ testing a model of the relevant ship in
The longitudinal prismatic coefficient enced by its speed, displacement, and a towing tank.
CP expresses the ratio between dis hull form. The total resistance RT, con
placement volume and the product sists of many sourceresistances R Frictional resistance RF
of the midship frame section area AM which can be divided into three main The frictional resistance RF of the hull
and the length of the waterline LWL, groups, viz.: depends on the size of the hulls wet
see also Fig. 3, i.e.: ted area AS, and on the specific fric
1) Frictional resistance tional resistance coefficient CF. The
CB 2) Residual resistance friction increases with fouling of the
Cp = = = 3) Air resistance hull, i.e. by the growth of, i.a. algae,
AM LWL C M BWL D LWL CM sea grass and barnacles.
The influence of frictional and residual
As can be seen, CP is not an independ resistances depends on how much of An attempt to avoid fouling is made by
ent form coefficient, but is entirely de the hull is below the waterline, while the the use of antifouling hull paints to
pendent on the block coefficient CB influence of air resistance depends on prevent the hull from becoming
and the midship section coefficient CM. how much of the ship is above the wa longhaired, i.e. these paints reduce
terline. In view of this, air resistance will the possibility of the hull becoming
Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy LCB have a certain effect on container ships fouled by living organisms. The paints
The Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy which carry a large number of contain containing TBT (tributyl tin) as their
(LCB) expresses the position of the ers on the deck. principal biocide, which is very toxic,
centre of buoyancy and is defined as have dominated the market for decades,
the distance between the centre of Water with a speed of V and a density but the IMO ban of TBT for new appli
buoyancy and the midpoint between of r has a dynamic pressure of: cations from 1 January, 2003, and a
the ships foremost and aftmost perpen full ban from 1 January, 2008, may in
diculars. The distance is normally stated r V 2 (Bernoullis law) volve the use of new (and maybe not
as a percentage of the length between as effective) alternatives, probably cop
the perpendiculars, and is positive if Thus, if water is being completely perbased antifouling paints.
the centre of buoyancy is located to stopped by a body, the water will react
the fore of the midpoint between the on the surface of the body with the dy When the ship is propelled through the
perpendiculars, and negative if located namic pressure, resulting in a dynamic water, the frictional resistance increases
to the aft of the midpoint. For a ship force on the body. at a rate that is virtually equal to the
designed for high speeds, e.g. container square of the vessels speed.
ships, the LCB will, normally, be nega This relationship is used as a basis
tive, whereas for slowspeed ships, when calculating or measuring the Frictional resistance represents a con
such as tankers and bulk carriers, it will sourceresistances R of a ships hull, siderable part of the ships resistance,
normally be positive. The LCB is gener by means of dimensionless resistance often some 7090% of the ships total
ally between 3% and +3%. coefficients C. Thus, C is related to the resistance for lowspeed ships (bulk
reference force K, defined as the force carriers and tankers), and sometimes
Fineness ratio CLD which the dynamic pressure of water less than 40% for highspeed ships
The length/displacement ratio or fine with the ships speed V exerts on a (cruise liners and passenger ships) [1]. The
ness ratio, CLD, is defined as the ratio surface which is equal to the hulls wet frictional resistance is found as follows:
between the ships waterline length LWL, ted area AS. The rudders surface is
and the length of a cube with a volume also included in the wetted area. The R F = CF K
equal to the displacement volume, i.e.: general data for resistance calculations
is thus: Residual resistance RR
LWL Residual resistance RR comprises wave
C LD = Reference force: K = r V 2 AS resistance and eddy resistance. Wave
3

and source resistances: R = C K resistance refers to the energy loss
caused by waves created by the vessel
Ships resistance On the basis of many experimental during its propulsion through the water,
tank tests, and with the help of pertain while eddy resistance refers to the loss
To move a ship, it is first necessary to ing dimensionless hull parameters, caused by flow separation which cre
overcome resistance, i.e. the force work some of which have already been dis ates eddies, particularly at the aft end
ing against its propulsion. The calculation cussed, methods have been estab of the ship.
of this resistance R plays a significant role lished for calculating all the necessary
7
Wave resistance at low speeds is pro through the water, i.e. to tow the ship The right column is valid for lowspeed
portional to the square of the speed, at the speed V, is then: ships like bulk carriers and tankers, and
but increases much faster at higher the left column is valid for very highspeed
speeds. In principle, this means that a P E = V RT ships like cruise liners and ferries. Con
speed barrier is imposed, so that a fur tainer ships may be placed in between
ther increase of the ships propulsion The power delivered to the propeller, the two columns.
power will not result in a higher speed PD, in order to move the ship at speed
as all the power will be converted into V is, however, somewhat larger. This is The main reason for the difference
wave energy. The residual resistance due, in particular, to the flow conditions between the two columns is, as earlier
normally represents 825% of the total around the propeller and the propeller mentioned, the wave resistance. Thus,
resistance for lowspeed ships, and up efficiency itself, the influences of which in general all the resistances are pro
to 4060% for highspeed ships [1]. are discussed in the next chapter portional to the square of the speed,
which deals with Propeller Propulsion. but for higher speeds the wave resis
Incidentally, shallow waters can also tance increases much faster, involving
have great influence on the residual Total ship resistance in general a higher part of the total resistance.
resistance, as the displaced water un When dividing the residual resistance
der the ship will have greater difficulty into wave and eddy resistance, as earlier This tendency is also shown in Fig. 5
in moving aftwards. described, the distribution of the total ship for a 600 teu container ship, originally
towing resistance RT could also, as a designed for the ship speed of 15 knots.
The procedure for calculating the spe guideline, be stated as shown in Fig. 4. Without any change to the hull design,
cific residual resistance coefficient CR is
described in specialised literature [2]
and the residual resistance is found as
follows:
Type of resistance % of RT
R R = CR K High Low
speed speed
Air resistance RA ship ship
In calm weather, air resistance is, in prin
ciple, proportional to the square of the RF = Friction 45 90
ships speed, and proportional to the RW = Wave 40 5
crosssectional area of the ship above the RE = Eddy 5 3
waterline. Air resistance normally repre RA = Air 10 2
sents about 2% of the total resistance.
RA
For container ships in head wind, the
air resistance can be as much as 10%.
The air resistance can, similar to the V
foregoing resistances, be expressed as
RA = CA K, but is sometimes based
on 90% of the dynamic pressure of air
with a speed of V, i.e.:
RA = 0.90 rair V 2 Aair Ship speed V RW

where rair is the density of the air, and
Aair is the crosssectional area of the
vessel above the water [1].
Towing resistance RT
and effective (towing) power PE RE
V
The ships total towing resistance RT is
thus found as: RF
RT = RF + R R + RA
The corresponding effective (towing)

power, PE, necessary to move the ship
Fig. 4: Total ship towing resistance RT = RF + RW + RE + RA
8
kW Propulsion power Estimates of average increase in
"Wave wall"
resistance for ships navigating the
8,000
main routes:
North Atlantic route,

navigation westward 2535%
6,000 New service point
North Atlantic route,
navigation eastward 2025%
4,000 EuropeAustralia 2025%

EuropeEast Asia 2025%
Normal service point
The Pacific routes 2030%
2,000
Table 4: Main routes of ships
0 On the North Atlantic routes, the first

15 20 knots
percentage corresponds to summer
10
navigation and the second percentage
Ship speed to winter navigation.
Power and speed relationship for a 600 TEU container ship
However, analysis of trading conditions
for a typical 140,000 dwt bulk carrier
shows that on some routes, especially
Fig. 5: The wave wall ship speed barrier JapanCanada when loaded, the in
creased resistance (sea margin) can
reach extreme values up to 220%, with
an average of about 100%.
the ship speed for a sister ship was re which means that the frictional resist
quested to be increased to about 17.6 ance will be greater. It must also be
knots. However, this would lead to a considered that the propeller surface Unfortunately, no data have been pub
relatively high wave resistance, requir can become rough and fouled. The to lished on increased resistance as a fun
ing a doubling of the necessary propul tal resistance, caused by fouling, may ction of type and size of vessel. The
sion power. increase by 2550% throughout the larger the ship, the less the relative in
lifetime of a ship. crease of resistance due to the sea.
On the other hand, the frictional resis
A further increase of the propulsion
tance of the large, fullbodied ships will
power may only result in a minor ship Experience [4] shows that hull fouling
very easily be changed in the course of
speed increase, as most of the extra with barnacles and tube worms may
time because of fouling.
power will be converted into wave en cause an increase in drag (ship resis
ergy, i.e. a ship speed barrier valid for tance) of up to 40%, with a drastical
the given hull design is imposed by reduction of the ship speed as the con In practice, the increase of resistance
what we could call a wave wall, see sequence. caused by heavy weather depends on
Fig. 5. A modification of the hull lines, the current, the wind, as well as the
suiting the higher ship speed, is neces wave size, where the latter factor may
Furthermore, in general [4] for every 25
sary. have great influence. Thus, if the wave
m (25/1000 mm) increase of the aver
size is relatively high, the ship speed
age hull roughness, the result will be a
will be somewhat reduced even when
Increase of ship resistance in service, power increase of 23%, or a ship
sailing in fair seas.
Ref. [3], page 244 speed reduction of about 1%.
During the operation of the ship, the
paint film on the hull will break down. In principle, the increased resistance
Resistance will also increase because
Erosion will start, and marine plants caused by heavy weather could be
of sea, wind and current, as shown in
and barnacles, etc. will grow on the related to:
Table 4 for different main routes of
surface of the hull. Bad weather, per ships. The resistance when navigating
haps in connection with an inappropri in headon sea could, in general, in a) wind and current against, and
ate distribution of the cargo, can be a crease by as much as 50100% of the b) heavy waves,
reason for buckled bottom plates. The total ship resistance in calm weather.
hull has been fouled and will no longer but in practice it will be difficult to dis
have a technically smooth surface, tinguish between these factors.
9
Chapter 2
Velocities Power
Propeller Propulsion Ships speed : V Effective (Towing) power : PE = R T x V
Arriving water velocity to propeller : VA Thrust power delivered
The traditional agent employed to (Speed of advance of propeller)
by the propeller to water : PT = PE / H
move a ship is a propeller, sometimes Effective wake velocity : VW = V _ V A

Power delivered to propeller : PD = P T / B
two and, in very rare cases, more than V _ VA

Wake fraction coefficient : w= Brake power of main engine : PB = PD / S
two. The necessary propeller thrust T V
required to move the ship at speed V
Forces Efficiencies
is normally greater than the pertaining
towing resistance RT, and the flowrelated Towing resistance : RT 1_t
Hull efficiency : H =
reasons are, amongst other reasons, Thrust force : T 1_w
explained in this chapter. See also Fig. 6, Thrust deduction fraction : F = T _ RT Relative rotative efficiency : R
where all relevant velocity, force, power _ Propeller efficiency open water :
: t = T RT
0
Thrust deduction coefficient
and efficiency parameters are shown. T Propeller efficiency behind hull : B = 0 x R
Propulsive efficiency : D = H x B
Shaft efficiency : S
Propeller types V W VA Total efficiency : T
V PE PE PT PD
Propellers may be divided into the follow T = = x x = H x Bx S = H x 0 x R x S
PB PT PD P B
ing two main groups, see also Fig. 7:
Fixed pitch propeller (FPpropeller)

V
Controllable pitch propeller
(CPpropeller) F RT
T
Propellers of the FPtype are cast in
one block and normally made of a copper
alloy. The position of the blades, and
thereby the propeller pitch, is once and
for all fixed, with a given pitch that can PT PD PB PE
not be changed in operation. This
means that when operating in, for ex
ample, heavy weather conditions, the Fig. 6: The propulsion of a ship theory
propeller performance curves, i.e. the
combination of power and speed
(r/min) points, will change according to
the physical laws, and the actual pro
peller curve cannot be changed by the
crew. Most ships which do not need a
particularly good manoeuvrability are
Fixed pitch propeller (FPPropeller) Controllable pitch propeller (CPPropeller)
equipped with an FPpropeller.
Propellers of the CPtype have a rela

tively larger hub compared with the
FPpropellers because the hub has to
have space for a hydraulically activated
mechanism for control of the pitch (an
gle) of the blades. The CPpropeller is
relatively expensive, maybe up to 34 Monobloc with fixed
times as expensive as a corresponding propeller blades Hub with a mechanism
FPpropeller. Furthermore, because of (copper alloy) for control of the pitch
the relatively larger hub, the propeller of the blades
efficiency is slightly lower. (hydraulically activated)
CPpropellers are mostly used for

RoRo ships, shuttle tankers and simi
lar ships that require a high degree of Fig. 7: Propeller types
10
manoeuvrability. For ordinary ships like Thrust deduction coefficient t
container ships, bulk carriers and crude VW V V A The rotation of the propeller causes the
w= =
oil tankers sailing for a long time in nor V V water in front of it to be sucked back
mal sea service at a given ship speed, VA towards the propeller. This results in an
( you get =1 w )
it will, in general, be a waste of money V extra resistance on the hull normally
to install an expensive CPpropeller in called augment of resistance or, if re
stead of an FPpropeller. Furthermore, a The value of the wake fraction coefficient lated to the total required thrust force T
CPpropeller is more complicated, invol depends largely on the shape of the on the propeller, thrust deduction frac
ving a higher risk of problems in service. hull, but also on the propellers location tion F, see Fig. 6. This means that the
and size, and has great influence on thrust force T on the propeller has to
the propellers efficiency. overcome both the ships resistance RT
Flow conditions around the propeller and this loss of thrust F.
The propeller diameter or, even better,
Wake fraction coefficient w the ratio between the propeller diameter The thrust deduction fraction F may be
When the ship is moving, the friction of d and the ships length LWL has some expressed in dimensionless form by
the hull will create a socalled friction influence on the wake fraction coeffi means of the thrust deduction coeffi
belt or boundary layer of water around cient, as d/LWL gives a rough indication cient t, which is defined as:
the hull. In this friction belt the velocity of the degree to which the propeller
of the water on the surface of the hull is works in the hulls wake field. Thus, the F T RT
equal to that of the ship, but is reduced larger the ratio d/LWL, the lower w will t= =
with its distance from the surface of the be. The wake fraction coefficient w in T T
RT
hull. At a certain distance from the hull creases when the hull is fouled. ( you get =1 t )
and, per definition, equal to the outer T
surface of the friction belt, the water For ships with one propeller, the wake
velocity is equal to zero. fraction coefficient w is normally in the The thrust deduction coefficient t can
region of 0.20 to 0.45, corresponding be calculated by using calculation
The thickness of the friction belt increases to a flow velocity to the propeller VA of models set up on the basis of research
with its distance from the fore end of 0.80 to 0.55 of the ships speed V. The carried out on different models.
the hull. The friction belt is therefore larger the block coefficient, the larger is
thickest at the aft end of the hull and the wake fraction coefficient. On ships In general, the size of the thrust deduc
this thickness is nearly proportional to with two propellers and a conventional tion coefficient t increases when the
the length of the ship, Ref. [5]. This aftbody form of the hull, the propellers wake fraction coefficient w increases.
means that there will be a certain wake will normally be positioned outside the The shape of the hull may have a sig
velocity caused by the friction along the friction belt, for which reason the wake nificant influence, e.g. a bulbous stem
sides of the hull. Additionally, the ships fraction coefficient w will, in this case, can, under certain circumstances (low
displacement of water will also cause be a great deal lower. However, for a ship speeds), reduce t.
wake waves both fore and aft. All this twinskeg ship with two propellers, the
involves that the propeller behind the coefficient w will be almost unchanged The size of the thrust deduction coeffi
hull will be working in a wake field. (or maybe slightly lower) compared cient t for a ship with one propeller is,
with the singlepropeller case. normally, in the range of 0.12 to 0.30,
Therefore, and mainly originating from as a ship with a large block coefficient
the friction wake, the water at the pro Incidentally, a large wake fraction co has a large thrust deduction coefficient.
peller will have an effective wake veloc efficient increases the risk of propeller For ships with two propellers and a
ity Vw which has the same direction as cavitation, as the distribution of the conventional aftbody form of the hull,
the ships speed V, see Fig. 6. This water velocity around the propeller is the thrust deduction coefficient t will be
means that the velocity of arriving water generally very inhomogeneous under much less as the propellers sucking
VA at the propeller, (equal to the speed such conditions. occurs further away from the hull.
of advance of the propeller) given as However, for a twinskeg ship with two
the average velocity over the propellers A more homogeneous wake field for propellers, the coefficient t will be almost
disk area is Vw lower than the ships the propeller, also involving a higher unchanged (or maybe slightly lower)
speed V. speed of advance VA of the propeller, compared with the singlepropeller case.
may sometimes be needed and can be
The effective wake velocity at the pro obtained in several ways, e.g. by hav
peller is therefore equal to Vw = V VA ing the propellers arranged in nozzles, Efficiencies
and may be expressed in dimensionless below shields, etc. Obviously, the best
form by means of the wake fraction method is to ensure, already at the de Hull efficiency hH
coefficient w. The normally used wake sign stage, that the aft end of the hull is The hull efficiency hH is defined as the
fraction coefficient w given by Taylor is shaped in such a way that the opti ratio between the effective (towing)
defined as: mum wake field is obtained. power PE = RT V, and the thrust power
11
which the propeller delivers to the water
PT = T VA, i.e.: Propeller Large tankers Small tankers Reefers
efficiency >150,000 DWT 20,000 DWT Container ships
PE RT V RT / T 1 t
hH = = = = o
PT T V A V A / V 1 w 0.7
For a ship with one propeller, the hull

efficiency H is usually in the range of 0.6
1.1 to 1.4, with the high value for ships
with high block coefficients. For ships n ( revs./s )
with two propellers and a conventional 0.5 1.66
aftbody form of the hull, the hull effi
ciency H is approx. 0.95 to 1.05, again 2.00
with the high value for a high block co 0.4
efficient. However, for a twinskeg ship
with two propellers, the hull coefficient
H will be almost unchanged compared 0.3
with the singlepropeller case.
Open water propeller efficiency O 0.2

Propeller efficiency O is related to
working in open water, i.e. the propel
ler works in a homogeneous wake field 0.1
with no hull in front of it.
The propeller efficiency depends, es 0

pecially, on the speed of advance VA, 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
thrust force T, rate of revolution n, di VA
Advance number J =
ameter d and, moreover, i.a. on the de nxd
sign of the propeller, i.e. the number of
blades, disk area ratio, and pitch/diam
eter ratio which will be discussed Fig. 8: Obtainable propeller efficiency open water, Ref. [3], page 213
later in this chapter. The propeller effi
ciency O can vary between approx.
0.35 and 0.75, with the high value be
ing valid for propellers with a high
speed of advance VA, Ref. [3]. affected by the R factor called the ter, and the power PD, which is deliv
propellers relative rotative efficiency. ered to the propeller, i.e. the propeller
Fig. 8 shows the obtainable propeller efficiency B for a propeller working
efficiency O shown as a function of the On ships with a single propeller the behind the ship, is defined as:
speed of advance VA, which is given in rotative efficiency R is, normally, around
dimensionless form as: 1.0 to 1.07, in other words, the rotation PT
of the water has a beneficial effect. The hB = = ho hR
PD
VA rotative efficiency R on a ship with a
J= conventional hull shape and with two
n d
propellers will normally be less, approx. Propulsive efficiency D
0.98, whereas for a twinskeg ship with The propulsive efficiency D, which
where J is the advance number of the two propellers, the rotative efficiency R must not be confused with the open
propeller. will be almost unchanged. water propeller efficiency O, is equal to
the ratio between the effective (towing)
Relative rotative efficiency R In combination with w and t, R is prob power PE and the necessary power
The actual velocity of the water flowing ably often being used to adjust the re delivered to the propeller PD, i.e.:
to the propeller behind the hull is nei sults of model tank tests to the theory.
ther constant nor at right angles to the PE PE PT
propellers disk area, but has a kind of Propeller efficiency B working behind hD = =
PD PT PD
rotational flow. Therefore, compared the ship
with when the propeller is working in The ratio between the thrust power PT, = H B = H O R
open water, the propellers efficiency is which the propeller delivers to the wa
12
As can be seen, the propulsive efficiency Propeller dimensions Twobladed propellers are used on
D is equal to the product of the hull small ships, and 4, 5 and 6bladed
efficiency H, the open water propeller Propeller diameter d propellers are used on large ships.
efficiency O, and the relative rotative With a view to obtaining the highest Ships using the MAN B&W twostroke
efficiency R, although the latter has possible propulsive efficiency D, the engines are normally largetype vessels
less significance. largest possible propeller diameter d which use 4bladed propellers. Ships
will, normally, be preferred. There are, with a relatively large power requirement
In this connection, one can be led to however, special conditions to be con and heavily loaded propellers, e.g. con
believe that a hull form giving a high sidered. For one thing, the aftbody form tainer ships, may need 5 or 6bladed
wake fraction coefficient w, and hence of the hull can vary greatly depending on propellers. For vibrational reasons, pro
a high hull efficiency H, will also provide type of ship and ship design, for another, pellers with certain numbers of blades
the best propulsive efficiency D. the necessary clearance between the may be avoided in individual cases in
tip of the propeller and the hull will de order not to give rise to the excitation
However, as the open water propeller pend on the type of propeller. of natural frequencies in the ships hull
efficiency O is also greatly dependent or superstructure, Ref. [5].
on the speed of advance VA, cf. Fig. 8, For bulkers and tankers, which are often
that is decreasing with increased w, sailing in ballast condition, there are Disk area coefficient
the propulsive efficiency D will not, frequent demands that the propeller The disk area coefficient referred to in
generally, improve with increasing w, shall be fully immersed also in this con older literature as expanded blade area
quite often the opposite effect is obtained. dition, giving some limitation to the pro ratio defines the developed surface
peller size. This propeller size limitation area of the propeller in relation to its
Generally, the best propulsive efficiency is not particularly valid for container disk area. A factor of 0.55 is considered
is achieved when the propeller works in ships as they rarely sail in ballast condi as being good. The disk area coefficient
a homogeneous wake field. tion. All the above factors mean that an of traditional 4bladed propellers is of
exact propeller diameter/design draught little significance, as a higher value will
Shaft efficiency S ratio d/D cannot be given here but, as only lead to extra resistance on the
The shaft efficiency S depends, i.a. on a ruleofthumb, the below mentioned propeller itself and, thus, have little ef
the alignment and lubrication of the approximations of the diameter/design fect on the final result.
shaft bearings, and on the reduction draught ratio d/D can be presented,
gear, if installed. and a large diameter d will, normally, For ships with particularly heavyloaded
result in a low rate of revolution n. propellers, often 5 and 6bladed pro
Shaft efficiency is equal to the ratio be pellers, the coefficient may have a
tween the power PD delivered to the Bulk carrier and tanker: higher value. On warships it can be as
propeller and the brake power PB deliv high as 1.2.
ered by the main engine, i.e. d/D < approximately 0.65
Pitch diameter ratio p/d
PD Container ship: The pitch diameter ratio p/d, expresses
hS = the ratio between the propellers pitch
PB p and its diameter d, see Fig. 10. The
d/D < approximately 0.74
pitch p is the distance the propeller
The shaft efficiency is normally around For strength and production reasons, screws itself forward through the wa
0.985, but can vary between 0.96 and the propeller diameter will generally not ter per revolution, providing that there
0.995. exceed 10.0 metres and a power out is no slip see also the next section
put of about 90,000 kW. The largest and Fig. 10. As the pitch can vary
Total efficiency T diameter propeller manufactured so far along the blades radius, the ratio is
The total efficiency T, which is equal to is of 11.0 metres and has four propeller normally related to the pitch at 0.7 r,
the ratio between the effective (towing) blades. where r = d/2 is the propellers radius.
power PE, and the necessary brake
power PB delivered by the main engine, Number of propeller blades To achieve the best propulsive efficiency
can be expressed thus: Propellers can be manufactured with 2, for a given propeller diameter, an optimum
3, 4, 5 or 6 blades. The fewer the num pitch/diameter ratio is to be found,
PE PE PD ber of blades, the higher the propeller which again corresponds to a particu
hT = = efficiency will be. However, for reasons lar design rate of revolution. If, for
PB PD PB of strength, propellers which are to be instance, a lower design rate of revolution
= D S = H O R S subjected to heavy loads cannot be is desired, the pitch/diameter ratio has
manufactured with only two or three to be increased, and vice versa, at the
blades. cost of efficiency. On the other hand, if
a lower design rate of revolution is de
sired, and the ships draught permits,
the choice of a larger propeller diame
13
ter may permit such a lower design rate ISO 484/1 1981 (CE) The price of the propeller, of course,
of revolution and even, at the same time, depends on the selected accuracy
increase the propulsive efficiency. Mean pitch class, with the lowest price for class III.
Manufacturing
Class for propel However, it is not recommended to
accuracy
Propeller coefficients J, KT and KQ ler use class III, as this class has a too
Propeller theory is based on models, S Very high accuracy +/ 0.5 % high tolerance. This again means that
but to facilitate the general use of this I High accuracy +/ 0.75 % the mean pitch tolerance should nor
theory, certain dimensionless propeller mally be less than +/ 1.0 %.
coefficients have been introduced in re II Medium accuracy +/ 1.00 %
lation to the diameter d, the rate of rev III Wide tolerances +/ 3.00 % The manufacturing accuracy tolerance
olution n, and the waters mass density corresponds to a propeller speed toler
r. The three most important of these ance of max. +/ 1.0 %. When also in
Table 5: Manufacturing accuracy classes
coefficients are mentioned below. of a propeller
corporating the influence of the tolerance
on the wake field of the hull, the total
The advance number of the propeller J propeller tolerance on the rate of revo
is, as earlier mentioned, a dimensionless Manufacturing accuracy of the propeller lution can be up to +/ 2.0 %. This tol
expression of the propellers speed of Before the manufacturing of the propeller, erance has also to be borne in mind
advance VA. the desired accuracy class standard of when considering the operating condi
the propeller must be chosen by the tions of the propeller in heavy weather.
VA customer. Such a standard is, for ex
J= ample, ISO 484/1 1981 (CE), which Influence of propeller diameter and
n d pitch/diameter ratio on propulsive
has four different Accuracy classes,
see Table 5. efficiency D.
The thrust force T, is expressed As already mentioned, the highest pos
dimensionless, with the help of the Each of the classes, among other de sible propulsive efficiency required to
thrust coefficient KT, as tails, specifies the maximum allowable provide a given ship speed is obtained
tolerance on the mean design pitch of with the largest possible propeller dia
T the manufactured propeller, and meter d, in combination with the corre
KT = thereby the tolerance on the correspond
r n d4
2 sponding, optimum pitch/diameter ra
ing propeller speed (rate of revolution). tio p/d.
and the propeller torque
PD
Q= Shaft power 80,000 dwt crude oil tanker
2p n
kW Design draught = 12.2 m
9,500 Ship speed = 14.5 kn
is expressed dimensionless with the
help of the torque coefficient KQ, as 9,400 p/d
d = Propeller diameter
d 0.50
p/d = Pitch/diameter ratio p/d
9,300 p/d 6.6 m
Q
KQ = 1.00
0.67
r n2 d 5 9,200
6.8 m
9,100 0.95 0.68
0.55
The propeller efficiency hO can be cal 0.90
culated with the help of the abovemen 9,000 7.0 m
0.69 Power and speed curve
tioned coefficients, because, as previously 8,900
0.85 0.60 for the given propeller
mentioned, the propeller efficiency hO is 0.80 7.2 m diameter d = 7.2 m with
defined as: 8,800 0.75 0.65 different p/d
0.70
PT T VA KT J 8,700 7.4 m
0.71 Power and speed curve
hO = = = for various propeller
PD Q 2 p n K Q 2 p 8,600 d
p/d diameters d with
8,500 optimum p/d
Propeller speed
With the help of special and very com
plicated propeller diagrams, which 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 r/min
contain, i.a. J, KT and KQ curves, it is
possible to find/calculate the propellers
dimensions, efficiency, thrust, power, etc. Fig. 9: Propeller design influence of diameter and pitch
14
As an example for an 80,000 dwt crude Pitch p
oil tanker, with a service ship speed of
14.5 knots and a maximum possible Slip
propeller diameter of 7.2 m, this influence
is shown in Fig. 9.
According to the blue curve, the maxi

mum possible propeller diameter of 7.2 0.7 x r
m may have the optimum pitch/diame d
ter ratio of 0.70, and the lowest possi
ble shaft power of 8,820 kW at 100
r/min. If the pitch for this diameter is r n
changed, the propulsive efficiency will
be reduced, i.e. the necessary shaft
power will increase, see the red curve.
The blue curve shows that if a bigger V or VA Sxpxn

propeller diameter of 7.4 m is possible,
the necessary shaft power will be re pxn
duced to 8,690 kW at 94 r/min, i.e. the
bigger the propeller, the lower the opti pxn_V V
The apparent slip ratio : SA = =1_
mum propeller speed. pxn pxn
p x n _ VA VA
The real slip ratio : SR = =1_
The red curve also shows that propul pxn pxn
sionwise it will always be an advan
tage to choose the largest possible
propeller diameter, even though the Fig. 10: Movement of a ships propeller, with pitch p and slip ratio S
optimum pitch/diameter ratio would
involve a too low propeller speed (in rela The apparent slip ratio SA, which is
tion to the required main engine speed). The apparent slip ratio SA, which is cal
dimensionless, is defined as: culated by the crew, provides useful
Thus, when using a somewhat lower
pitch/diameter ratio, compared with the knowledge as it gives an impression of
p nV V the loads applied to the propeller under
optimum ratio, the propeller/ engine SA = =1
speed may be increased and will only p n p n different operating conditions. The ap
cause a minor extra power increase. parent slip ratio increases when the
Operating conditions of a propeller

Pitch p
Velocity of corkscrew: V = p x n
Slip ratio S
If the propeller had no slip, i.e. if the
water which the propeller screws
itself through did not yield (i.e. if the
water did not accelerate aft), the pro
peller would move forward at a speed
of V = p n, where n is the propellers
rate of revolution, see Fig. 10. V
The similar situation is shown in Fig. 11 n

for a cork screw, and because the cork
is a solid material, the slip is zero and,
therefore, the cork screw always moves
forward at a speed of V = p n. How
ever, as the water is a fluid and does
yield (i.e. accelerate aft), the propellers Corkscrew Cork Wine bottle
apparent speed forward decreases
with its slip and becomes equal to the
ships speed V, and its apparent slip
can thus be expressed as p n V. Fig. 11: Movement of a corkscrew, without slip
15
vessel sails against the wind or waves, sonable relationship to be used for esti and heavy weather). These diagrams us
in shallow waters, when the hull is mations in the normal ship speed range ing logarithmic scales and straight lines
fouled, and when the ship accelerates. could be as follows: are described in detail in Chapter 3.
Under increased resistance, this in
volves that the propeller speed (rate of For large highspeed ships like con Propeller performance in general at
revolution) has to be increased in order tainer vessels: P = c V 4.5 increased ship resistance
to maintain the required ship speed. The difference between the abovemen
For mediumsized, mediumspeed tioned light and heavy running propeller
The real slip ratio will be greater than ships like feeder container ships, curves may be explained by an exam
the apparent slip ratio because the real reefers, RoRo ships, etc.: P = c V 4.0 ple, see Fig. 12, for a ship using, as ref
speed of advance VA of the propeller is, erence, 15 knots and 100% propulsion
as previously mentioned, less than the For lowspeed ships like tankers and power when running with a clean hull in
ships speed V. bulk carriers, and small feeder con calm weather conditions. With 15% more
tainer ships, etc.: P = c V 3.5 power, the corresponding ship speed
The real slip ratio SR, which gives a truer may increase from 15.0 to 15.6 knots.
picture of the propellers function, is: Propeller law for heavy running propeller
The propeller law, of course, can only As described in Chapter 3, and com
VA V (1 w ) be applied to identical ship running pared with the calm weather conditions,
SR =1 =1 conditions. When, for example, the it is normal to incorporate an extra
p n p n
ships hull after some time in service power margin, the socalled sea mar
has become fouled and thus become gin, which is often chosen to be 15%.
At quay trials where the ships speed is more rough, the wake field will be different This power margin corresponds to ex
V = 0, both slip ratios are 1.0. Incidentally, from that of the smooth ship (clean hull) tra resistance on the ship caused by
slip ratios are often given in percentages. valid at trial trip conditions. the weather conditions. However, for
very rough weather conditions the influ
Propeller law in general A ship with a fouled hull will, conse ence may be much greater, as de
As discussed in Chapter 1, the resis quently, be subject to extra resistance scribed in Chapter 1.
tance R for lower ship speeds is pro which will give rise to a heavy propeller
portional to the square of the ships condition, i.e. at the same propeller In Fig. 12a, the propulsion power is
speed V, i.e.: power, the rate of revolution will be lower. shown as a function of the ship speed.
When the resistance increases to a
R = c V2 The propeller law now applies to an level which requires 15% extra power
other and heavier propeller curve to maintain a ship speed of 15 knots,
where c is a constant. The necessary than that applying to the clean hull, the operating point A will move towards
power requirement P is thus propor propeller curve, Ref. [3], page 243. point B.
tional to the speed V to the power of
three, thus: The same relative considerations apply In Fig. 12b the propulsion power is
when the ship is sailing in a heavy sea now shown as a function of the propeller
P = R V = c V3 against the current, a strong wind, and speed. As a first guess it will often be as
heavy waves, where also the heavy sumed that point A will move towards B
For a ship equipped with a fixed pitch waves in tail wind may give rise to a because an unchanged propeller speed
propeller, i.e. a propeller with unchange heavier propeller running than when implies that, with unchanged pitch, the
able pitch, the ship speed V will be pro running in calm weather. On the other propeller will move through the water
portional to the rate of revolution n, thus: hand, if the ship is sailing in ballast at an unchanged speed.
condition, i.e. with a lower displace
P = c n3 ment, the propeller law now applies to If the propeller was a corkscrew moving
a lighter propeller curve, i.e. at the through cork, this assumption would
which precisely expresses the propeller same propeller power, the propeller be correct. However, water is not solid
law, which states that the necessary rate of revolution will be higher. as cork but will yield, and the propeller
power delivered to the propeller is pro will have a slip that will increase with in
portional to the rate of revolution to the As mentioned previously, for ships with creased thrust caused by increased
power of three. a fixed pitch propeller, the propeller law hull resistance. Therefore, point A will
is extensively used at part load running. move towards B which, in fact, is very
Actual measurements show that the It is therefore also used in MAN B&W close to the propeller curve through A.
power and engine speed relationship Diesels engine layout and load diagrams Point B will now be positioned on a
for a given weather condition is fairly to specify the engines operational propeller curve which is slightly heavy
reasonable, whereas the power and curves for light running conditions (i.e. running compared with the clean hull
ship speed relationship is often seen clean hull and calm weather) and heavy and calm weather propeller curve.
with a higher power than three. A rea running conditions (i.e. for fouled hull
16
Power 12.3 knots 15.0 knots
15.0 knots 15.0 knots Power
100% power 100% power
115% power 115% power
Slip B Slip
B D D A Power
B
15.6 knots
115% power 15.6 knots Propeller
15% 15% 115% power curve for
Sea Sea fouled hull
margin margin and heavy
seas
Propeller curve
for clean hull and
calm weather
Propeller curve for clean 10.0 knots
Propeller curve for clean 50% power
hull and calm weather hull and calm weather
12.3 knots
15.0 knots 50% power
15.0 knots 100% power C
100% power HR HR = Heavy running
A A LR LR = Light running
Ship speed Propeller speed Propeller speed
(Logarithmic scales) (Logarithmic scales) (Logarithmic scales)
Fig. 12a: Ship speed performance at 15% Fig. 12b: Propeller speed performance at Fig. 12c: Propeller speed performance at
sea margin 15% sea margin large extra ship resistance
Sometimes, for instance when the hull a ducted propeller, the opposite effect can be up to 78% heavier running
is fouled and the ship is sailing in heavy is obtained. than in calm weather, i.e. at the same
seas in a head wind, the increase in propeller power, the rate of revolution
resistance may be much greater, cor Heavy waves and sea and wind against may be 78% lower. An example valid
responding to an extra power demand When sailing in heavy sea against, with for a smaller container ship is shown in
of the magnitude of 100% or even higher. heavy wave resistance, the propeller Fig. 13. The service data is measured
An example is shown in Fig. 12c.
In this example, where 100% power

BHP Shaft power
will give a ship speed of 15.0 knots, 21,000
point A, a ship speed of, for instance, Heavy Ap
12.3 knots at clean hull and in calm running 10% pare
weather conditions, point C, will require C 6% nt s
Extremely bad weather 6% 2% lip
about 50% propulsion power but, at B 18,000 2%
Average weather 3%
the abovementioned heavy running A
conditions, it might only be possible to Extremely good weather 0%
obtain the 12.3 knots by 100% propulsion 15,000
power, i.e. for 100% power going from
point A to D. Running point D may now
be placed relatively far to the left of point
A, i.e. very heavy running. Such a situ 12,000
ation must be considered when laying
out the main engine in relation to the C
layout of the propeller, as described in 9,000 13 B
Clean hull and draught D 16 A
Chapter 3. DMEAN = 6.50 m Sh
ip
s 19
DF = 5.25 m kn pee
A scewed propeller (with bent blade DA = 7.75 m ots d
6,000 22
tips) is more sensitive to heavy running 76 80 84 88 92 96 100 r/min
than a normal propeller, because the Source: Lloyd's Register Propeller speed
propeller is able to absorb a higher
torque in heavy running conditions. For
Fig. 13: Service data over a period of a year returned from a single screw container ship
17
Shallow waters
Shaft power SMCR: 13,000 kW x 105 r/min When sailing in shallow waters, the re
% SMCR Wind velocity : 2.5 m/s Head wind
sidual resistance of the ship may be in
105 Wave height : 4 m creased and, in the same way as when
the ship accelerates, the propeller will
Tail wind
be subjected to a larger load than dur
SMCR *22.0 ing free sailing, and the propeller will be
100 7 heavy running.
5 22.3 *
1 Influence of displacement
95 4 ve
" When the ship is sailing in the loaded
c ur Propeller design condition, the ships displacement vol
r
le light running Heavy ume may, for example, be 10% higher
el
op running or lower than for the displacement valid
90 " pr 20.5
e 21.8 for the average loaded condition. This,
g in * * 20.5 *
En
of course, has an influence on the ships
21.5 resistance, and the required propeller
21.1 * power, but only a minor influence on
85 20.8*
* 3 the propeller curve.
ve
ur
rc *21.2 On the other hand, when the ship is
e lle 21.1 *
sailing in the ballast condition, the dis
op ve
80 Pr ur placement volume, compared to the
c
ll er loaded condition, can be much lower,
e and the corresponding propeller curve
op
Pr may apply to, for example, a 2% lighter
propeller curve, i.e. for the same power
96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 % SMCR to the propeller, the rate of revolution
will be 2% higher.
(Logarithmic scales) Propeller/engine speed
Parameters causing heavy running
propeller
Together with the previously described
operating parameters which cause a
Fig. 14: Measured relationship between power, propeller and ship speed during seatrial of heavy running propeller, the parame
a reefer ship ters summarised below may give an in
dication of the risk/sensitivity of getting
a heavy running propeller when sailing
in heavy weather and rough seas:
over a period of one year and only measurements indicate approx. 1.5%
includes the influence of weather con heavy running when sailing in head 1 Relatively small ships (<70,000 dwt)
ditions! The measuring points have wind out, compared with when sailing such as reefers and small container
been reduced to three average weather in tail wind on return. ships are sensitive whereas large ships,
conditions and show, for extremely bad such as large tankers and container
weather conditions, an average heavy Ship acceleration ships, are less sensitive because the
running of 6%, and therefore, in prac When the ship accelerates, the propel waves are relatively small compared
tice, the heavy running has proved to ler will be subjected to an even larger to the ship size.
be even greater. load than during free sailing. The power
required for the propeller, therefore, will 2 Small ships (Lpp < 135 m 20,000 dwt)
In order to avoid slamming of the ship, be relatively higher than for free sailing, have low directional stability and,
and thereby damage to the stem and and the engines operating point will be therefore, require frequent rudder
racing of the propeller, the ship speed heavy running, as it takes some time corrections, which increase the ship
will normally be reduced by the navigat before the propeller speed has reached resistance (a selfcontrolled rudder
ing officer on watch. its new and higher level. An example will reduce such resistance).
with two different accelerations, for an
Another measured example is shown engine without electronic governor and 3 Highspeed ships
in Fig. 14, and is valid for a reefer ship scavenge air pressure limiter, is shown are more sensitive than lowspeed
during its sea trial. Even though the in Fig. 15. The load diagram and scav ships because the waves will act on
wind velocity is relatively low, only 2.5 enge air pressure limiter are is described the fastgoing ship with a relatively
m/s, and the wave height is 4 m, the in Chapter 3.
18
Engine shaft power, % A power will be needed but, of course,
this will be higher for running in heavy
A 100% reference point weather with increased resistance on
110 M Specified engine MCR the ship.
O Optimising point A=M
100
Direction of propeller rotation (side thrust)
O When a ship is sailing, the propeller
90 blades bite more in their lowermost po
sition than in their uppermost position.
The resulting sidethrust effect is larger
80
the more shallow the water is as, for
mep example, during harbour manoeuvres.
70 110%
Therefore, a clockwise (looking from aft
100% to fore) rotating propeller will tend to
push the ships stern in the starboard
60 90% direction, i.e. pushing the ships stem
to port, during normal ahead running.
80% This has to be counteracted by the
rudder.
50 70%
When reversing the propeller to astern
running as, for example, when berthing
60% alongside the quay, the sidethrust ef
fect is also reversed and becomes fur
40 ther pronounced as the ships speed
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 decreases. Awareness of this behav
iour is very important in critical situa
(Logarithmic scales) Engine speed, % A
tions and during harbour manoeuvres.
According to Ref. [5], page 153, the

Fig. 15: Load diagram acceleration
real reason for the appearance of the
side thrust during reversing of the pro
peller is that the upper part of the pro
pellers slip stream, which is rotative,
strikes the aftbody of the ship.
larger force than on the slowgoing 7 Sailing in shallow waters
ship. increases the hull resistance and re
Thus, also the pilot has to know pre
duces the ships directional stability.
cisely how the ship reacts in a given
4 Ships with a flat stem situation. It is therefore an unwritten
may be slowed down faster by waves 8 Ships with scewed propeller law that on a ship fitted with a fixed
than a ship with a sharp stem. are able to absorb a higher torque pitch propeller, the propeller is always
Thus an axeshaped upper bow may under heavy running conditions. designed for clockwise rotation when
better cut the waves and thereby sailing ahead. A direct coupled main
reduce the heavy running tendency. Manoeuvring speed engine, of course, will have the same
Below a certain ship speed, called the rotation.
5 Fouling of the hull and propeller manoeuvring speed, the manoeuvra
will increase both hull resistance and bility of the rudder is insufficient be In order to obtain the same sidethrust
propeller torque. Polishing the pro cause of a too low velocity of the water
effect, when reversing to astern, on
peller (especially the tips) as often as arriving at the rudder. It is rather difficult
to give an exact figure for an adequate ships fitted with a controllable pitch
possible (also when in water) has a
manoeuvring speed of the ship as the propeller, CPpropellers are designed
positive effect. The use of effective
antifouling paints will prevent fouling velocity of the water arriving at the rud for anticlockwise rotation when sailing
caused by living organisms. der depends on the propellers slip ahead.
stream.
6 Ship acceleration
will increase the propeller torque, Often a manoeuvring speed of the
and thus give a temporarily heavy magnitude of 3.54.5 knots is men
running propeller. tioned. According to the propeller law,
a correspondingly low propulsion
19
Propulsion and engine running
points see Fig. 17. On the other hand, some
Engine Layout and shipyards and/or propeller manufactur
Load Diagrams Propeller design point PD ers sometimes use a propeller design
Normally, estimations of the necessary point PD that incorporates all or part of
propeller power and speed are based the socalled sea margin described be
Power functions and logarithmic on theoretical calculations for loaded low.
scales ship, and often experimental tank tests,
both assuming optimum operating Fouled hull
As is wellknown, the effective brake conditions, i.e. a clean hull and good When the ship has been sailing for
power PB of a diesel engine is propor weather. The combination of speed some time, the hull and propeller be
tional to the mean effective pressure and power obtained may be called the come fouled and the hulls resistance
(mep) pe and engine speed (rate of rev ships propeller design point PD placed will increase. Consequently, the ship
olution) n. When using c as a constant, on the light running propeller curve 6, speed will be reduced unless the engine
PB may then be expressed as follows: delivers more power to the propeller, i.e.
the propeller will be further loaded and
PB = c pe n will become heavy running HR.
y
y = ax + b Furthermore, newer highefficiency ship
or, in other words, for constant mep
the power is proportional to the speed: 2 types have a relatively high ship speed,
and a very smooth hull and propeller
surface (at sea trial) when the ship is
PB = c n1 (for constant mep)
a delivered. This means that the inevitable
1 buildup of the surface roughness on
As already mentioned when running the hull and propeller during sea service
with a fixed pitch propeller the power after seatrial may result in a relatively
may, according to the propeller law, be b
heavier running propeller, compared
expressed as: with older ships born with a more rough
0 X hull surface.
P B = c n3 (propeller law) 0 1 2
A. Straight lines in linear scales Heavy weather and sea margin used
Thus, for the above examples, the brake for layout of engine
power PB may be expressed as a func If, at the same time, the weather is
tion of the speed n to the power of i, i.e. y = log (PB)
y = log (PB) = log (c x ni ) bad, with head winds, the ships resis
tance may increase much more, and
PB = c n i=0
i
lead to even heavier running.
Fig. 16 shows the relationship between When determining the necessary en
the linear functions, y = ax + b, see (A), i=1 gine power, it is normal practice to add
using linear scales and the power func an extra power margin, the socalled
tions PB = c n , see (B), using logarith
i
sea margin, which is traditionally about
mic scales. 15% of the propeller design PD power.
i=2
However, for large container ships,
The power functions will be linear when 2030% may sometimes be used.
using logarithmic scales, as:
i=3 x = log (n)
When determining the necessary en
log (PB) = i log (n) + log (c) gine speed, for layout of the engine, it
PB = engine brake power
is recommended compared with the
which is equivalent to: y = ax + b c = constant
clean hull and calm weather propeller
n = engine speed
curve 6 to choose the heavier propel
Thus, propeller curves will be parallel to log(PB) = i x log(n) + log(c) ler curve 2, see Fig. 17, corresponding
PB = c x ni
lines having the inclination i = 3, and y = ax + b to curve 6 having a 37% higher rate of
lines with constant mep will be parallel revolution than curve 2, and in general
to lines with the inclination i = 1. B. Power function curves
in logarithmic scales with 5% as a good choice.
Therefore, in the layout and load diagrams Note that the chosen sea power mar
for diesel engines, as described in the gin does not equalise the chosen
following, logarithmic scales are used, Fig. 16: Relationship between linear functions heavy engine propeller curve.
making simple diagrams with straight using linear scales and power functions
lines. using logarithmic scales
20
the engine operating curve in service,
curve 2, whereas the light propeller
curve for clean hull and calm weather,
Power curve 6, may be valid for running con
ditions with new ships, and equal to
the layout/design curve of the propel
ler. Therefore, the light propeller curve
for clean hull and calm weather is said
to represent a light running LR pro
MP peller and will be related to the heavy
propeller curve for fouled hull and
Engine margin heavy weather condition by means of a
(10% of MP) light running factor fLR, which, for the
SP same power to the propeller, is defined
PD as the percentage increase of the rate
Sea margin of revolution n, compared to the rate of
(15% of PD) revolution for heavy running, i.e.
PD
nlight nheavy
fLR = 100%
nheavy
Engine margin
Besides the sea margin, a socalled
LR(5%) engine margin of some 1015% is
2 6 frequently added as an operational
HR
Engine speed margin for the engine. The correspond
ing point is called the specified MCR
for propulsion MP, see Fig. 17, and
refers to the fact that the power for
2 Heavy propeller curve _ fouled hull and heavy weather point SP is 1015% lower than for
6 Light propeller curve _ clean hull and calm weather point MP, i.e. equal to 9085% of MP.
MP: Specified propulsion point
Specified MCR M
SP: Service propulsion point The engines specified MCR point M is
PD: Propeller design point the maximum rating required by the
yard or owner for continuous operation
Pd: Alternative propeller design point of the engine. Point M is identical to the
LR: Light running factor specified propulsion MCR point MP un
HR: Heavy running less a main engine driven shaft genera
tor is installed. In such a case, the extra
power demand of the shaft generator
must also be considered.
Fig. 17: Ship propulsion running points and engine layout
Note:
Light/heavy running, fouling and sea
margin are overlapping terms.
Continuous service propulsion point SP Continuous service rating S Light/heavy running of the propeller re
The resulting speed and power combi The continuous service rating is the fers to hull and propeller deterioration,
nation when including heavy propeller power at which the engine, including and bad weather, and sea margin, i.e.
running and sea margin is called the the sea margin, is assumed to operate, extra power to the propeller, refers to
continuous service rating for propulsion and point S is identical to the service the influence of the wind and the sea.
SP for fouled hull and heavy weather. propulsion point SP unless a main en
The heavy propeller curve, curve 2, for gine driven shaft generator is installed. Based on feedback from service, it
fouled hull and heavy weather will nor seems reasonable to design the pro
mally be used as the basis for the en Light running factor fLR peller for 37% light running. The de
gine operating curve in service, and the The heavy propeller curve for a fouled gree of light running must be decided
propeller curve for clean hull and calm hull and heavy weather, and if no shaft upon, based on experience from the
weather, curve 6, is said to represent a generator is installed may, as mentioned actual trade and hull design, but 5%
light running LR propeller. above, be used as the design basis for is often a good choice.
21
gine may be drawnin. The specified
MCR point M must be inside the limita
Engine shaft power, % A tion lines of the layout diagram; if it is
110
not, the propeller speed will have to be
A 100% reference point
changed or another main engine type
M Specified engine MCR A=M
100 must be chosen. Yet, in special cases,
O Optimising point 5
7
point M may be located to the right of
line L1L2, see Optimising/Matching
90 O
Point below.
80 Optimising point O
10 The Optimising (MC)/Matching (ME)
mep
110% point O or, better, the layout point of
70 the engine is the rating at which the
8 4 1 6
100% engine (timing and) compression ratio
are adjusted, with consideration to the
60 90% 2 scavenge air pressure of the turbocharger.
80% As mentioned below, under Load dia
3 gram, the optimising point O (later on
50 70% in this paper also used in general
9 where matching point for ME engines
60%
was the correct one) is placed on line 1
(layout curve of engine) of the load dia
40 gram, and the optimised power can be
60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 from 85 to 100% of point Ms power.
Overload running will still be possible
Engine speed, % A (110% of Ms power), as long as consid
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O) _ layout curve for engine eration to the scavenge air pressure has
Line 2: Heavy propeller curve _ fouled hull and heavy seas been taken.
Line 3: Speed limit
The optimising point O is to be placed
Line 4: Torque/speed limit inside the layout diagram. In fact, the
Line 5: Mean effective pressure limit specified MCR point M can be placed
Line 6: Light propeller curve _ clean hull and calm weather _ layout curve for propeller outside the layout diagram, but only by
Line 7: Power limit for continuous running
exceeding line L1L2, and, of course,
only provided that the optimising point
Line 8: Overload limit O is located inside the layout diagram.
Line 9: Sea trial speed limit
Line 10: Constant mean effective pressure (mep) lines It should be noted that MC/MCC en
gines without VIT (variable injection tim
ing) fuel pumps cannot be optimised at
partload. Therefore, these engines are
Fig. 18: Engine load diagram always optimised in point A, i.e. having
point Ms power.
Load diagram
Engine layout diagram which is optimum for the ship and the
operating profile. Please note that the Definitions
An engines layout diagram is limited by lowest specific fuel oil consumption for The load diagram (Fig. 18) defines the
two constant mean effective pressure a given optimising point O will be ob power and speed limits for continuous
(mep) lines L1L3 and L2L4, and by two tained at 70% and 80% of point Os as well as overload operation of an in
constant engine speed lines L1L2 and power, for electronically (ME) and me stalled engine which has an optimising
L3L4, see Fig. 17. The L1 point refers to chanically (MC) controlled engines, point O and a specified MCR point M
the engines nominal maximum contin respectively. that conforms to the ships specification.
uous rating. Within the layout area
there is full freedom to select the en Based on the propulsion and engine Point A is a 100% speed and power
gines specified MCR point M and rele running points, as previously found, the reference point of the load diagram,
vant optimising point O, see below, layout diagram of a relevant main en and is defined as the point on the pro
22
peller curve (line 1) the layout curve of 105% of A, however, maximum 105% Line 5:
the engine through the optimising point of L1. During sea trial conditions the Represents the maximum mean effec
O, having the specified MCR power. maximum speed may be extended to tive pressure level (mep) which can be
107% of A, see line 9. accepted for continuous operation.
Normally, point M is equal to point A,
but in special cases, for example if a The above limits may, in general, be Line 7:
shaft generator is installed, point M extended to 105% and, during sea trial Represents the maximum power for
may be placed to the right of point A conditions, to 107% of the nominal L1 continuous operation.
on line 7. The service points of the in speed of the engine, provided the tor
stalled engine incorporate the engine sional vibration conditions permit. Line 10:
power required for ship propulsion and Represents the mean effective pressure
for the shaft generator, if installed. The overspeed setpoint is 109% of (mep) lines. Line 5 is equal to the 100%
the speed in A, however, it may be mepline. The meplines are also an
During shoptest running, the engine will moved to 109% of the nominal speed expression of the corresponding fuel
always operate along curve 1, with in L1, provided that torsional vibration index of the engine.
point A as 100% MCR. If CPpropeller conditions permit.
and constant speed operation is re Limits for overload operation
quired, the delivery test may be fin Running at low load above 100% of The overload service range is limited as
ished with a constant speed test. the nominal L1 speed of the engine is, follows, see Fig. 18:
however, to be avoided for extended
Limits to continuous operation periods. Line 8:
The continuous service range is limited Represents the overload operation limi
by the four lines 4, 5, 7 and 3 (9), see Line 4: tations.
Fig. 18: Represents the limit at which an ample
air supply is available for combustion and The area between lines 4, 5, 7 and the
Line 3 and line 9 imposes a limitation on the maximum dashed line 8 in Fig. 18 is available for
Line 3 represents the maximum accept combination of torque and speed. overload running for limited periods
able speed for continuous operation, i.e. only (1 hour per 12 hours).
M: Specified MCR of engine M: Specified MCR of engine

S: Continuous service rating of engine S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram A: Reference point of load diagram
Power
7
3.3% A 5% A
A=M=MP 5
7
O 4
S=SP Power 1 2 6
2 6 A=M
7
1 5
O 5% L1
S
Propulsion and
engine service curve 4 1 6
for heavy running 2
3
Engine speed
Point A of load diagram
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O)
Propulsion and engine service
Line 7: Constant power line through specified MCR (M)
curve for heavy running
Engine speed
Point A: Intersection between lines 1 and 7
Fig. 19a: Example 1 with FPP engine layout without SG (normal case) Fig. 19b: Example 1 with FPP load diagram without SG (normal case)
23
Electronic governor with load limitation pressure limiter is to ensure that the ship and clean hull, the propeller/engine
In order to safeguard the diesel engine engine is not being overfuelled during may run along or close to the propeller
against thermal and mechanical overload, acceleration, as for example during design curve 6.
the approved electronic governors include manoeuvring.
the following two limiter functions: After some time in operation, the ships
The scavenge air pressure limiter hull and propeller will become fouled,
Torque limiter algorithm compares the calculated resulting in heavier running of the pro
The purpose of the torque limiter is fuel pump index and measured peller, i.e. the propeller curve will move
to ensure that the limitation lines of scavenge air pressure with a refer to the left from line 6 towards line 2, and
the load diagram are always observed. ence limiter curve giving the maxi extra power will be required for propulsion
The torque limiter algorithm compares mum allowable fuel pump index at a in order to maintain the ship speed.
the calculated fuel pump index (fuel given scavenge air pressure. If the
amount) and the actually measured calculated fuel pump index is above At calm weather conditions the extent
engine speed with a reference limiter this curve, the resulting fuel pump of heavy running of the propeller will
curve giving the maximum allowable index will be reduced correspondingly. indicate the need for cleaning the hull
fuel pump index at a given engine and, possibly, polishing the propeller.
speed. If the calculated fuel pump The reference limiter curve is to be
index is above this curve, the result adjusted to ensure that sufficient air The area between lines 4 and 1 is avail
ing fuel pump index will be reduced will always be available for a good able for operation in shallow water,
correspondingly. combustion process. heavy weather and during acceleration,
i.e. for nonsteady operation without
The reference limiter curve is to be Recommendation any actual time limitation.
adjusted so that it corresponds to the Continuous operation without a time
limitation lines of the load diagram. limitation is allowed only within the area
limited by lines 4, 5, 7 and 3 of the
Scavenge air pressure limiter load diagram. For fixed pitch propeller
The purpose of the scavenge air operation in calm weather with loaded

7
5 3.3% A 5% A
Power
4
A 1 2 6
7 Power
O M=MP
S=SP
A 7
5 M
1 2 6 O 5% L1
S
Propulsion and
4 1 2 6
engine service curve
for heavy running 3
Engine speed
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O) Propulsion and engine service
curve for heavy running
Point A: Intersection between lines 1 and 7 Engine speed
Fig. 20a: Example 2 with FPP engine layout without SG (special case) Fig. 20b: Example 2 with FPP load diagram without SG (special case)
24
The recommended use of a relatively In this respect the choice of the optimi Example 2:
high light running factor for design of sing point O has a significant influence. Special running conditions, without
the propeller will involve that a relatively shaft generator
higher propeller speed will be used for Examples with fixed pitch propeller
layout design of the propeller. This, in When the ship accelerates, the propel
turn, may involve a minor reduction of Example 1: ler will be subjected to an even larger
the propeller efficiency, and may possi Normal running conditions, without load than during free sailing. The same
bly cause the propeller manufacturer to shaft generator applies when the ship is subjected to
abstain from using a large light running an extra resistance as, for example,
margin. However, this reduction of the Normally, the optimising point O, and when sailing against heavy wind and
propeller efficiency caused by the large thereby the engine layout curve 1, will sea with large wave resistance.
light running factor is actually relatively be selected on the engine service
insignificant compared with the improved curve 2 (for heavy running), as shown In both cases, the engines operating
engine performance obtained when in Fig. 19a. point will be to the left of the normal
sailing in heavy weather and/or with operating curve, as the propeller will
fouled hull and propeller. Point A is then found at the intersection run heavily.
between propeller curve 1 (2) and the
Use of layout and load constant power curve through M, line In order to avoid exceeding the
diagrams examples 7. In this case, point A will be equal to lefthand limitation line 4 of the load
point M. diagram, it may, in certain cases, be
In the following, four different examples necessary to limit the acceleration
based on fixed pitch propeller (FPP) Once point A has been found in the and/or the propulsion power.
and one example based on controllable layout diagram, the load diagram can
pitch propeller (CPP) are given in order be drawn, as shown in Fig. 19b, and If the expected trade pattern of the
to illustrate the flexibility of the layout hence the actual load limitation lines ship is to be in an area with frequently
and load diagrams. of the diesel engine may be found. appearing heavy wind and sea and

Power A=M 7 7
O SG 5
S 3.3% A 5% A
4
SG MP
Power 1 2 6
A=M
SP 7
5
o r
O 5% L1
at
er
S
en
1 2 6 MP
tg
af
Sh
SP
or
at
er
4 1 2 6
en
Propulsion curve
tg
for heavy running

af
3
Sh
Engine service curve

for heavy running
Engine speed
Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O) Propulsion curve
Engine service curve for heavy running
for heavy running Engine speed
Point A: Intersection between lines 1 and 7
Fig. 21a: Example 3 with FPP engine layout with SG (normal case) Fig. 21b: Example 3 with FPP load diagram with SG (normal case)
25
large wave resistance, it can, therefore, for the shaft generators electrical One solution could be to choose a
be an advantage to design/move the power production. diesel engine with an extra cylinder,
load diagram more towards the left. but another and cheaper solution is to
In Fig. 21a, the engine service curve reduce the electrical power production
The latter can be done by moving the shown for heavy running incorporates of the shaft generator when running in
engines optimising point O and thus this extra power. the upper propulsion power range.
the propeller curve 1 through the opti
mising point towards the left. How The optimising point O, and thereby the If choosing the latter solution, the re
ever, this will be at the expense of a engine layout curve 1, will normally be quired specified MCR power of the en
slightly increased specific fuel oil con chosen on the propeller curve (~ en gine can be reduced from point M to
sumption. gine service curve) through point M. point M as shown in Fig. 22a. Therefore,
when running in the upper propulsion
An example is shown in Figs. 20a and Point A is then found in the same way power range, a diesel generator has to
20b. As will be seen in Fig. 20b, and as in example 1, and the load diagram take over all or part of the electrical
compared with the normal case shown can be drawn as shown in Fig. 21b. power production.
in Example 1 (Fig. 19b), the lefthand
limitation line 4 is moved to the left, giv Example 4: However, such a situation will seldom
ing a wider margin between lines 2 and Special case, with shaft generator occur, as ships rather infrequently op
4, i.e. a larger light running factor has erate in the upper propulsion power
been used in this example. Also in this special case, a shaft gener range. In the example, the optimising
ator is installed but, unlike in Example point O has been chosen equal to
Example 3: 3, now the specified MCR for propul point S, and line 1 may be found.
Normal case, with shaft generator sion MP is placed at the top of the lay
out diagram, see Fig. 22a. This involves Point A, having the highest possible
In this example a shaft generator (SG) that the intended specified MCR of the power, is then found at the intersection
is installed, and therefore the service engine (Point M) will be placed outside of line L1L3 with line 1, see Fig. 22a,
power of the engine also has to incor the top of the layout diagram. and the corresponding load diagram is
porate the extra shaft power required

S: Continuous service rating of engine M S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine A O: Optimising point of engine
A: Reference point of load diagram 7 A: Reference point of load diagram
M
O=S
Power 3.3% A 5% A
SG MP
7
SP M
5
A 7
4 5 M
O=S
o r
Power 1 2 6
at
er
1 2 6 SG MP
en
5% L1
tg
SP
af
Sh
3
or
at
er
4 1 2 6
en
tg
Propulsion curve for heavy running

af
Sh
Engine service curve

for heavy running Engine speed
Point A and M of load diagram Propulsion curve

Line 1: Propeller curve through optimising point (O) for heavy running
Point A: Intersection between line 1 and line L1 L3
Point M: Located on constant power line 7 through point A Engine service curve
and at MPs speed for heavy running Engine speed
Fig. 22a: Example 4 with FPP engine layout with SG (special case) Fig. 22b: Example 4 with FPP load diagram with SG (special case)
26
drawn in Fig. 22b. Point M is found on Therefore, it is recommended to use a applied for engines with CPP running
line 7 at MPs speed. light running combinator curve (the dotted on a combinator curve.
curve), as shown in Fig. 23, to obtain an
Example with controllable pitch propeller increased operating margin for the diesel The optimising point O for engines with
engine in heavy weather to the load limits VIT can be chosen on the propeller curve
Example 5: indicated by curves 4 and 5. 1 through point A = M with an optimised
With or without shaft generator power from 85 to 100% of the specified
Layout diagram with shaft generator MCR as mentioned before in the section
Layout diagram without shaft generator The hatched area in Fig. 23 shows the dealing with optimising point O.
If a controllable pitch propeller (CPP) recommended speed range between
is applied, the combinator curve (of 100% and 96.7% of the specified MCR Load diagram
the propeller with optimum propeller speed for an engine with shaft generator Therefore, when the engines specified
efficiency) will normally be selected for running at constant speed. MCR point M has been chosen including
loaded ship including sea margin. engine margin, sea margin and the
The service point S can be located at power for a shaft generator, if installed,
For a given propeller speed, the com any point within the hatched area. point M can be used as point A of the
binator curve may have a given propeller load diagram, which can then be drawn.
pitch, and this means that, like for a fixed The procedure shown in Examples 3
pitch propeller, the propeller may be and 4 for engines with FPP can also be The position of the combinator curve
heavy running in heavy weather. ensures the maximum load range
within the permitted speed range for
engine operation, and it still leaves a
reasonable margin to the load limits
indicated by curves 4 and 5.
M: Specified MCR of engine
S: Continuous service rating of engine
O: Optimising point of engine Influence on engine running of
A: Reference point of load diagram different types of ship resistance
plant with FPpropeller
Power
3.3%A 5%A
7 In order to give a brief summary regard
ing the influence on the fixed pitch
5 propeller running and main engine opera
4 tion of different types of ship resistance,
an arbitrary example has been chosen,
1 see the load diagram in Fig. 24.
A=M
5
7 The influence of the different types of
resistance is illustrated by means of
O 5%L 1
S corresponding service points for propul
sion having the same propulsion power,
4 1 using as basis the propeller design
point PD, plus 15% extra power.
3 Propeller design point PD

The propeller will, as previously described,
Recommended range normally be designed according to a
for shaft generator specified ship speed V valid for loaded
operation with ship with clean hull and calm weather
constant speed conditions. The corresponding engine
speed and power combination is
Min Max shown as point PD on propeller curve
Combinator curve speed speed 6 in the load diagram, Fig. 24.
for loaded ship
and incl. sea margin Engine speed Increased ship speed, point S0
If the engine power is increased by, for
example, 15%, and the loaded ship is
still operating with a clean hull and in
Fig. 23: Example 5 with CPP with or without shaft generator calm weather, point S0, the ship speed
27
V and engine speed n will increase in Point S0 will be placed on the same resistance from heavy seas, an extra
accordance with the propeller law (more propeller curve as point PD. power of, for example, 15% is needed
or less valid for the normal speed range): in order to maintain the ship speed V
Sea running with clean hull and 15% (15% sea margin).
V S 0 = V 3 .5 115
. = 1041
. V sea margin, point S2
Conversely, if still operating with loaded As the ship speed VS2 = V, and if the
nS 0 = n 3 .0 115
. = 1048
. n
ship and clean hull, but now with extra propeller had no slip, it would be expected
that the engine (propeller) speed would
also be constant. However, as the water
does yield, i.e. the propeller has a slip,
the engine speed will increase and the
PD: Propeller design point, clean hull and calm weather running point S2 will be placed on a
Continuous service rating for propulsion with propeller curve 6.2 very close to S0, on
a power equal to 90% specified MCR, based on: propeller curve 6. Propeller curve 6.2
will possibly represent an approximate
S0: Clean hull and calm weather, loaded ship 0.5% heavier running propeller than
S1: Clean hull and calm weather, ballast (trial) curve 6.
S2: Clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship Depending on the ship type and size,
SP: Fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship the heavy running factor of 0.5% may
be slightly higher or lower.
S3: Very heavy sea and wave resistance
For a resistance corresponding to
Engine shaft power % of A about 30% extra power (30% sea mar
gin), the corresponding relative heavy
100% ref. point (A)
110 running factor will be about 1%.
Specified MCR (M)
105 Sea running with fouled hull, and
A=M heavy weather, point SP
100 7
5 When, after some time in service, the
95 ships hull has been fouled, and thus
S0 becomes more rough, the wake field
S1 will be different from that of a smooth
90
S2 ship (clean hull).
SP
85
S3 A ship with a fouled hull will, conse
8 4 1 6
80
quently, be subject to an extra resis
2 PD tance which, due to the changed
3 9 wake field, will give rise to a heavier
75 running propeller than experienced
6.3 6.2 6.1 during bad weather conditions alone.
70 When also incorporating some aver
80 85 90 95 100 105 110 age influence of heavy weather, the
propeller curve for loaded ship will
Engine speed, % of A move to the left, see propeller curve
2 in the load diagram in Fig. 24. This
Line 1: Propeller curve through point A=M, layout curve for engine propeller curve, denoted fouled hull
Line 2: Heavy propeller curve, fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship and heavy weather for a loaded ship,
is about 5% heavy running compared
Line 6: Light propeller curve, clean hull and calm weather, to the clean hull and calm weather
loaded ship, layout curve for propeller propeller curve 6.
Line 6.1: Propeller curve, clean hull and calm weather, ballast (trial)
In order to maintain an ample air
Line 6.2: Propeller curve, clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship
supply for the diesel engines com
Line 6.3: Propeller curve, very heavy sea and wave resistance bustion, which imposes a limitation
on the maximum combination of
torque and speed, see curve 4 of the
load diagram, it is normal practice to
Fig. 24: Influence of different types of ship resistance on the continuous service rating match the diesel engine and turbo
28
charger etc. according to a propeller seldom loaded during sea trials and Influence of ship resistance on
curve 1 of the load diagram, equal to more often is sailing in ballast, the ac combinator curves plant with
the heavy propeller curve 2. tual propeller curve 6.1 will be more CPpropeller
light running than curve 6.
Instead of point S2, therefore, point SP This case is rather similar with the FP
will normally be used for the engine lay For a power to the propeller equal to propeller case described above, and
out by referring this service propulsion 90% specified MCR, point S1 on the therefore only briefly described here.
rating to, for example, 90% of the engines load diagram, in Fig. 24, indicates an
specified MCR, which corresponds to example of such a running condition. In The CPpropeller will normally operate
choosing a 10% engine margin. order to be able to demonstrate opera on a given combinator curve, i.e. for a
tion at 100% power, if required, during given propeller speed the propeller
In other words, in the example the pro sea trial conditions, it may in some pitch is given (not valid for constant
pellers design curve is about 5% light cases be necessary to exceed the pro propeller speed). This means that
running compared with the propeller peller speed restriction, line 3, which heavy running operation on a given
curve used for layout of the main engine. during trial conditions may be allowed propeller speed will result in a higher
to be extended to 107%, i.e. to line 9 power operation, as shown in the ex
Running in very heavy seas with of the load diagram. ample in Fig. 25.
heavy waves, point S3
When sailing in very heavy sea against,
with heavy waves, the propeller can be S=PD Propeller design point incl. sea margins, and continuous service rating of engine
78% heavier running (and even more)
than in calm weather, i.e. at the same Line 1 Propeller curve for layout of engine
propeller power, the rate of revolution Line 1 Combinator curve for propeller design, clean hull and 15% sea margin, loaded ship
may be 78% lower.
Line 6.1 Light combinator curve, fouled hull and calm weather, loaded ship
For a propeller power equal to 90% of Line 2 Heavy combinator curve, fouled hull and heavy weather, loaded ship
specified MCR, point S3 in the load
diagram in Fig. 24 shows an example Line 2.1 Very heavy combinator curve, very heavy sea and wave resistance
of such a running condition.
Engine shaft power % of A
In some cases in practice with strong
wind against, the heavy running has 110 100% ref. point (A)
proved to be even greater and even to Specified MCR (M)
be found to the left of the limitation line 105
A=M
4 of the load diagram. 100 7
5
95
In such situations, to avoid slamming of S=PD
the ship and thus damage to the stem 90
and racing of the propeller, the ship 85
speed will normally be reduced by the
navigating officers on watch. 80
8 4 1 6 3
75
Ship acceleration and operation in
shallow waters 70
When the ship accelerates and the
propeller is being subjected to a larger 65
load than during free sailing, the effect
on the propeller may be similar to that 60
illustrated by means of point S3 in the 2 6.1
load diagram, Fig. 24. In some cases in 2.1
practice, the influence of acceleration 55
on the heavy running has proved to be
even greater. The same conditions are 50
valid for running in shallow waters.
65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Sea running at trial conditions, point S1 Engine speed, % of A
Normally, the clean hull propeller curve
6 will be referred to as the trial trip pro
peller curve. However, as the ship is
Fig. 25: Influence of ship resistance on combinator curves for CPpropeller
29
Closing Remarks References
In practice, the ships resistance will [1] Technical discussion with
frequently be checked against the results Keld Kofoed Nielsen,
obtained by testing a model of the ship Burmeister & Wain Shipyard,
in a towing tank. The experimental tank Copenhagen
test measurements are also used for
optimising the propeller and hull design. [2] Ship Resistance
H.E. Guldhammer and
When the ships necessary power re Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1974
quirement, including margins, and the
propellers speed (rate of revolution) [3] Resistance and Propulsion of Ships,
have been determined, the correct Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1983
main engine can then be selected, e.g.
with the help of MAN B&W Diesels [4] Paint supplier International
computerbased engine selection Coatings Ltd., 2003
programme.
[5] Fartygspropellrar och Fartygs Framdrift,
In this connection the interaction between Jan Tornblad, KaMeWa Publication,
ship and main engine is extremely im 1985
portant, and the placing of the engines
load diagram, i.e. the choice of engine Furthermore, we recommend:
layout in relation to the engines (ships)
operational curve, must be made care [6] Prediction of Power of Ships
fully in order to achieve the optimum Sv. Aa. Harvald, 1977 and 1986
propulsion plant. In order to avoid over
loading of the main engine for excessive [7] Propulsion of SingleScrew Ships
running conditions, the installation of an Sv. Aa. Harvald & J.M. Hee, 1981
electronic governor with load control may
be useful.
If a main engine driven shaft generator

producing electricity for the ship is in
stalled, the interaction between ship and
main engine will be even more complex.
However, thanks to the flexibility of the
layout and load diagrams for the MAN
B&W engines, a suitable solution will
nearly always be readily at hand.
1
1
174 APENDICE D. SELECCAO DE MOTORES PROPULSORES
Apendice E
Derating para Reduzir Consumo de
Combustvel
175
176 APENDICE E. DERATING
Derating: a solution for
high fuel savings and lower emissions
Rudolf Wettstein1 & David Brown2

Wrtsil Switzerland Ltd, Winterthur
Summary
This paper sets out ways to achieve worthwhile reductions in the fuel consumption of Wrtsil low-speed engines
when designing newbuildings. The key approach is to use the exibility oered by the full power/speed layout eld to
select a better layout point at a derated power with a lower BSFC and also possibly a higher propeller eciency.
Introduction
Engine power, %R1
Fuel eciency and environmental friendliness are
high on the list of requirements for ship propulsion Higher propulsive R1
100 0
engines from todays shipping- and shipbuilding efficiency
-1 BSFC
e
-2 g/kWh
lin
industries. Thus Wrtsil is committed to creating -3
e
qu
better technology in these areas that will benet both 90 or
tt -4
Rx
an
the customers and the environment. -5

st
on
C
Yet it is often forgotten by many ship designers -6

R3
and those specifying low-speed main engines that 80
-7
advantage can be taken of the power/speed layout Lower
specific
eld of Wrtsil low-speed engines to select an engine fuel
rating point with a still lower fuel consumption. 70
R4 R2
consumption
The concept of the power/speed layout eld for

low-speed marine diesel engines originated in the
1970s. The layout options were step-by-step widened
60
until, in 1984, our low-speed engines began to be 70 80 90 100
oered with a broad power/speed layout eld. An Engine speed, %R1
engines contracted maximum continuous rating
(CMCR) can be selected at any point in the power/ Fig. 1: Typical layout eld for RTA and RT-ex engines. The
speed eld dened by the four corner points: R1, contracted maximum continuous rating (CMCR) can be
R2, R3 and R4 (Fig. 1). The rating point R1 is the selected at any point, such as Rx, within the layout eld. The
maximum continuous rating (MCR) of the engine. BSFC is the reduction in full-load BSFC for any rating
Most recently, the layout elds for certain point Rx relative to that at the R1 rating.
engines, the RT-ex82C, RTA82C, RT-ex82T and [08#044]
RTA82T, are extended to increased speeds for the
R1+ and R2+ points (Fig. 2). The extended elds namely the propeller, shafting, etc.
oer widened exibility to select the most ecient One basic principle of the engine layout eld is
propeller speed for lowest daily fuel consumption, that the same maximum cylinder pressure (Pmax)
and the most economic propulsion equipment, is employed at all CMCR points within the layout
eld. Thus the reduced brake mean eective pressure
1
Rudolf Wettstein is Director, Marketing & (BMEP) obtained at the reduced power outputs in
Application Development, Ship Power, Wrtsil the eld results in an increased ratio of Pmax/BMEP
Switzerland Ltd. and thus lower brake specic fuel consumption
2
David Brown is Manager, Marketing Support, (BSFC).
Wrtsil Switzerland Ltd. The other principle behind the layout eld is
1 Wrtsil Corporation, June 2008
Engine power, %R1
Engine power, %R1
R1
100
R1 R1+
100
90 Rating line
Rx2
slope =
Rx1
R3
90 R3
80
70
80 R4 R2
R4 R2 R2+
80 90 100 60
Engine speed, %R1 70 80 90 100
Engine speed, %R1
Fig. 2: For the RT-ex82C, RTA82C, RT-ex82T and Fig. 3: For a given ship, a rating line (slope ) can be applied
RTA82T engines the layout elds are extended to the ratings to the layout eld so that all rating points on that line would
R1+ and R2+ at the same powers as R1 and R2 respectively give the same ship speed with a suitably optimized propeller.
but with increased shaft speed. Rating points at lower speeds on the rating line require
[08#049] a larger propeller diameter and give a greater propulsive
eciency.
that the lower CMCR speeds allow exibility in line (Fig. 3). This is the line through a CMCR rating
selection of the optimum propeller with consequent point such that any point on the line represents
benets in propulsion eciency and thus lower fuel a new power/speed combination that will give
consumption in terms of tonnes per day. the same ship speed in knots. The points on the
One feature to be borne in mind when selecting rating line all require the same propeller type but
the rating point for the derated engine is the rating with dierent adaptations to suit the power/speed
combination. In general, lower speeds of rotation
Fig. 4: Since the 1980s engine ratings have been selected over require larger propeller diameters and thereby
a steadily smaller area of the layout eld.
increase the total propulsive eciency. Usually the
[08#051]
selected propeller speed depends on the maximum
permissible propeller diameter. The maximum
Engine power, %R1
diameter is often determined by operational
R1 requirements, such as design draught and ballast
100 Area of recent
CMCR selection draught limitations, as well as class recommendations
concerning propellerhull clearance (pressure
90 impulse induced by the propeller on the hull).
The slope of the rating line () depends broadly
Area of CMCR upon the ship type. It can range from 0.15 for
selection in
80
R3
the 1980s
tankers, bulk carriers and general cargo ships up to
about 10,000 tdw to 0.22 for container ships larger
than 3000 TEU and 0.25 for tankers and bulk
carriers larger than 30,000 tdw.
70
R4 R2
Changing engine selection strategies
When the broad layout eld was introduced in
RTA engines in 1984 it was widely welcomed by
60
70 80 90 100 shipowners and shipbuilders. Afterwards RTA
Engine speed, %R1 engines were frequently selected at ratings in the
lower part of the layout eld to gain the benets of
Bunker price, US$/tonne
380cSt HFO
500
400
300
200
100
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Fig. 5: Bunker prices have considerably increased in recent times. The chart shows the average price of 380 cSt heavy fuel oil (HFO)
from various ports around the world from 2004 to 2008. The green bars indicate the mean price for each year.
[08#045]
lower fuel consumption. scheme is imposed on shipping it would give further

However, under the pressure of rst costs and economic advantage to reducing fuel consumption
softening bunker prices the strategy was changed and and further help to pay for any necessary extra
the selected power/speed combination has, during investment costs.
the past 15 years or so, been selected to be closer to In addition it is important to bear in mind that
the R1 rating (Fig. 4). the fuel savings measures discussed here will also
Yet, more recently, bunker prices have steadily result in lower NOX emissions in absolute terms.
climbed, rising by some 85 per cent in the course of
2007 from US$ 270 to US$ 500 per tonne (Fig. 5).
The result is that bunkers are now the dominant part Derating engines for greater fuel savings
of ship operating costs. In the following pages are some case studies for ship
Such drastic increases in bunker prices give a installations for which an engine is selected with an
strong impetus to reduce fuel costs. They can also extra cylinder without increasing the engines power.
justify additional investment cost such as selecting These cases demonstrate that such engine derating
an engine with an extra cylinder. The consequent can be an advantageous solution with remarkable
fuel saving may make for an acceptable payback time saving potential. Depending on bunker costs, such a
on the additional investment cost. It would justify strategy can have a very attractive pay-back time.
any eorts to increase the overall eciency of the The four case studies are for a Suezmax tanker,
complete propulsion system. a Capesize bulk carrier, a Panamax container ship
Further impetus to implementing such changes and a Post-Panamax container ship. They include
in engine selection strategy will come from a future estimations of the respective pay-back times for the
need to cut CO2 emissions. If a carbon trading additional engine costs.

Case 1: Suezmax tanker & Capesize bulk carrier
In this case, a typical Suezmax tanker might be costing US$ 500 per tonne.
specied with a six-cylinder Wrtsil RT-ex68-D The resulting payback time for the extra cost
main engine. However, if a seven-cylinder engine is associated with the additional engine cylinder is
employed instead, the daily fuel consumption can be estimated to be between 3.5 and six years depending
reduced by some 3.4 per cent. on the bunker price of US$ 600400 per tonne
In the engine/propeller layout for this ship as respectively (Fig. 7). The calculations of the payback
shown in gure 6, the CMCR points for the two are based on an interest rate of eight per cent.
alternative engines are on the same rating line A similar case may be made for a Capesize bulk
( = 0.3) through a common design point for the carrier as it would be similar in size and speed to a
same ship service speed (knots). Suezmax tanker and would thus require a similar
The calculation of annual fuel costs given in table engine.
2 is based on 6000 hours running with heavy fuel oil
Table 1: Typical ship parameters for a Suezmax tanker
Length overall: about 274 m

Beam: 4650 m
Design draught: 16 m
Scantling draught: 17 m
Sea margin: 15 %
Engine service load: 90 %
Table 2: Main engine options
Alternative engines: 6RT-ex68-D 7RT-ex68-D

Cylinder bore, mm: 680 680
Piston stroke, mm: 2720 2720
Stroke/bore ratio: 4:1 4:1
MCR, kW / rpm: 18,780/95 21,910/95
CMCR, kW / rpm: 18,780/95 18,460/89.7
BMEP at CMCR, bar: 20.0 17.9
CSR at 90% CMCR, kW/rpm: 16,902/91.7 16,614/86.6
BSFC at CMCR, g/kWh:
100% load: 169.0 164.8
90% load: 165.6 162.6
Daily fuel consumption, tonnes/day:
ISO fuel, LCV 42.7 MJ/kg: 67.2 64.8
LCV 40.5 MJ/kg: 70.8 68.4
As percentage, %: 100 96.6 3.4%
Annual fuel costs, US$: 8,853,000 8,544,000
Fuel saving, US$: 0 309,000
Engine length, mm: 8690 9870

Engine mass, tonnes: 472 533

Case 1: Suezmax tanker & Capesize bulk carrier
Engine power, kW
22,000
7RT-flex68-D
20,000 Design point

Constant ship speed CMCR = R1
CMCR
= 0.3 18,780 kW, 95 rpm
18,460 kW
89.7 rpm
6RT-flex68-D
Fig. 6: Engine/propeller layouts for 18,000
a typical Suezmax tanker with a
derated seven-cylinder RT-ex68-D
engine compared with a six-cylinder CSR
engine at the full MCR power and CSR 16,902 kW
16,000 16,614 kW 91.7 rpm
speed. 86.6 rpm
[08#052]
75 80 85 90 95 100
Engine speed, rpm
Millions US$
Bunker price, HFO:

3.0 $600/tonne
$500/tonne
$400/tonne
2.0
Fig. 7: Variation of payback times
from fuel savings according to Investment approx. ($)
bunker costs for the derated engine 1.0
with an extra cylinder for a typical
Suezmax tanker.
[08#144] 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Years

Case 2: Panamax container ship
In this case, a typical Panamax container ship with The calculation of annual fuel costs given in table
a container capacity of up to 5000 TEU might be 4 is based on 6000 hours running with heavy fuel oil
specied with an eight-cylinder Wrtsil RT-ex82C costing US$ 500 per tonne.
main engine. However, if a nine-cylinder engine is The resulting payback time for the extra cost
employed instead, the daily fuel consumption can be associated with the additional engine cylinder
reduced by some two per cent. is estimated to be between four and seven years
In the engine/propeller layout for this ship as depending on the bunker price of US$ 600400 per
shown in gure 8, the CMCR points for the two tonne respectively (Fig. 9). The calculations of the
alternative engines are on the same rating line payback are based on an interest rate of eight per
( = 0.2) through a common design point for the cent.
same ship service speed (knots).
Table 3: Typical ship parameters for a Panamax

container ship

Beam: 32.2 m
Scantling draught: 13.5 m
Sea margin: 15 %
Alternative engines: 8RT-ex82C 9RT-ex82C

Stroke/bore ratio: 3.2:1 3.2:1
MCR, kW / rpm: 36,160/102 40,680/102
CMCR, kW / rpm: 36,160/102 35,480/97.5
CSR at 90% CMCR, kW / rpm: 32,544/98.5 32,250/94.3
100% load: 169.0 166.6
90% load: 166.5 164.6
ISO fuel, LCV 42.7 MJ/kg: 130.0 127.4
LCV 40.5 MJ/kg: 137.1 134.3
As percentage, %: 100 98 2.0%
Engine length, mm: 14,055 16,500


Case 2: Panamax container ship
Engine power, kW
42,000
40,000
9RT-flex82C
38,000
CMCR Design point
35,850 kW CMCR = R1+
Fig. 8: Engine/propeller layouts for a Constant ship speed 97.5 rpm 36,160 kW, 102 rpm
= 0.2
typical Panamax container ship with 36,000
a derated nine-cylinder RT-ex82C
engine compared with an eight-
cylinder engine at the full MCR 8RT-flex82C
power and speed. 34,000
CSR CSR
[08#062] 32,250 kW 32,544 kW
94.3 rpm 98.5 rpm
32,000
85 90 95 100 105
Engine speed, rpm
Millions US$
4.0
Bunker price, HFO:
$600/tonne
$500/tonne
3.0
$400/tonne
Fig. 9: Variation of payback times 2.0

from fuel savings according to
bunker costs for the derated engine Investment approx. ($)
1.0
with an extra cylinder for a typical
Panamax container ship.
[08#145] 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Years

Case 3: Post-Panamax container ship
In this case, a typical Post-Panamax container The calculation of annual fuel costs given in table
ship with a container capacity of around 7000 6 is based on 6000 hours running with heavy fuel oil
TEU might be specied with an eleven-cylinder costing US$ 500 per tonne.
Wrtsil RT-ex96C main engine. However, if a The resulting payback time for the extra cost
12-cylinder engine is employed instead, the daily fuel associated with the additional engine cylinder is
consumption can be reduced by some 2.4 per cent. estimated to be between two-and-a-half and four
In the engine/propeller layout for this ship as years depending on the bunker price of US$ 600
shown in gure 10, the CMCR points for the two 400 per tonne respectively (Fig. 11). The calculations
alternative engines are on the same rating line of the payback are based on an interest rate of eight
( = 0.2) through a common design point for the per cent.
same ship service speed (knots).
Table 5: Typical ship parameters for a Post-Panamax

container ship

Beam: 42.8 m
Scantling draught: 14.5 m
Sea margin: 15 %
Alternative engines: 11RT-ex96C 12RT-ex96C

Stroke/bore ratio: 2.6:1 2.6:1
MCR, kW / rpm: 66,330/102 72,360/102
CMCR, kW / rpm: 66,330/102 65,919/98.9
CSR at 90% CMCR, kW / rpm: 59,697/98.5 59,327/95.5
100% load: 171.0 168.0
90% load: 166.8 163.8
ISO fuel, LCV 42.7 MJ/kg: 239 233.2
LCV 40.5 MJ/kg: 252 245.9
As percentage, %: 100 97.6 2.4%
Engine length, mm: 21,550 23,230


Case 3: Post-Panamax container ship
Engine power, kW
72,000
12RT-flex96C
70,000
68,000 Design point

CMCR CMCR = R1
Constant ship speed
= 0.2 65,919 kW 66,330 kW, 102 rpm
98.9 rpm
66,000
Fig. 10: Engine/propeller layouts for 11RT-flex96C
a typical Post-Panamax container
64,000
ship with a derated 12-cylinder RT-
ex96C engine compared with an
11-cylinder engine at the full MCR 62,000
power and speed.
[08#127]
60,000 CSR
59,327 kW CSR
95.5 rpm 59,697 kW
98.5 rpm
58,000
90 95 100 105
Engine speed, rpm
Millions US$
8.0 Bunker price, HFO:

$600/tonne
$500/tonne
6.0
$400/tonne
Fig. 11: Variation of payback times 4.0

from fuel savings according to
bunker costs for the derated engine Investment approx. ($)
with an extra cylinder for the typical 2.0
Post-Panamax container ship.
[08#146] 0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Years

Case 4: Derating without adding an a modest increase in cost of the D version for the
higher-eciency turbochargers used, but the extra
engine cylinder
cost would soon be repaid by the fuel cost savings.
It is also feasible to apply a derated engine to obtain
fuel savings in such a way that an additional engine
cylinder is not required. Derating with exibility to full rating
An example of this can be seen with the Wrtsil Although derating oers attractive economics, it
RT-ex50 engine. In October 2007, the D version can be frustrating to buy more engine than seems
of this engine was announced, in which the engine necessary. Yet there is an interesting option to retain
power was increased by 5.1 per cent and the BSFC an ability to utilise the full available installed engine
at full-load was reduced by 2 g/kWh compared with power, even up to the full R1 rating for future use to
the B version. obtain higher ship service speeds.
Thus if a -D engine is derated to the same The concept would be to set up the engine for
cylinder power output as the original version of the the derated output at the chosen reduced service
RT-ex50, then the BSFC at full load is reduced speed. Then for a later date, the engine could be
by 4.5 g/kWh, or 2.7 per cent (see Table 7). For a re-adapted to the higher output. However, this needs
typical bulk carrier with a six-cylinder RT-ex50 corresponding provisions in the selection and design
engine this can translate into annual savings of of the propeller, shafting and ancillary equipment to
US$ 124,000 when operating for 6000 running meet the requirements of the envisaged higher power.
hours a year with heavy fuel oil costing US$ 500 Furthermore the engine would need to be tested
per tonne. Even greater savings are possible if the and approved by the Classication Society for both
engine is derated to a lower running speed (rpm) ratings with all the necessary emissions certication.
at the derated power to gain the benets of a better
propulsion eciency. RT-ex technology as an important
There are already a number of standard ship
designs delivered and on order with RT-ex50-B or contribution to fuel saving
even the original RT-ex50 engine. So it would be Wrtsil RT-ex technology plays an important role
perfectly feasible to install a derated RT-ex50-D in fuel saving. Wrtsil RT-ex low-speed engines
in further newbuildings to the same ship designs incorporate the latest electronically-controlled
and obtain the benet of the substantial savings in common-rail technology for fuel injection and valve
operating costs. The overall dimensions of the D actuation. The result is great exibility in engine
version are identical to those of the B and original setting, bringing benets in lower fuel consumption,
versions of the RT-ex50. There would, however, be lower minimum running speeds, smokeless operation
Table 7: Options for the Wrtsil RT-ex50 engine type
Alternative engines: 6RT-ex50 6RT-ex50-D

S/B ratio: 4.1:1 4.1:1
MCR, kW / rpm: 9720/124 10,470/124
CMCR, kW / rpm: 9720/124 9720/124
CSR at 90% CMCR, kW / rpm: 8748/119.7 8748/119.7
100% load: 171 165.7
90% load: 167.6 163.0
ISO fuel, LCV 42.7 MJ/kg: 35.2 34.2
LCV 40.5 MJ/kg: 37.1 36.2
As percentage, %: 100 97.3 2.7%

at all running speeds, and better control of other also possibly a higher propeller eciency.
exhaust emissions. It must also not be forgotten that any fuel savings
Not only do RT-ex engines have a lower part- achieved at the ship design stage will have benets in
load fuel consumption than RTA engines but they also reducing exhaust emissions.
can be adapted through Delta Tuning so that their If you have a project for which you wish to
part-load fuel consumtion is even lower. [1] explore the fuel-saving possibilities through derating
Owing to the interaction between fuel economy as set out in this paper, then please contact your
and NOX emissions, there is always the possibility nearest Wrtsil oce. Our experts will be delighted
that fuel saving measures will have an impact on to calculate various alternatives for your evaluation.
NOX emissions. As with all new marine engines
nowadays, Wrtsil RTA and RT-ex engines are all References
fully compliant with the NOX emission regulation of
1. German Weisser, Fuel saving with RT-ex,
Annexe VI of the MARPOL 1973/78 convention.
Wrtsil Switzerland Ltd, July 2004.
Moreover, the engines in the Wrtsil portfolio will
be adapted to meet the coming IMO NOX reduction
level Tier II.
Conclusion
The paper shows that there are techniques to achieve
worthwhile reductions in the fuel consumption
of Wrtsil low-speed engines when designing
newbuildings. The key approach is to use the
exibility oered by the full power/speed layout eld
to select a better layout point with a lower BSFC and
Published June 2008 by:

Wrtsil Switzerland Ltd
PO Box 414
CH-8401 Winterthur
Tel: +41 52 262 49 22
Fax: +41 52 262 07 18
www.wartsila.com

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Hidrodinamica e Propulsao

Engenharia de Maquinas Martimas

3.3.2 Coeficiente de carga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

A Previsao Baseada nos Ensaios de Propulsao 87

B Provas de velocidade e Potencia 121

C Condicoes das Provas de Velocidade e Potencia 133

D Seleccao de Motores Propulsores 141

1.1 Plano de flutuacao, longitudinal e transversal de um navio. . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.1 Decomposicao da resistencia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3.1 Helice com tubeira. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.8 Geometria do helice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

4.1 Variantes de instalacoes propulsoras diesel-mecanicas lentas e de media veloci-

1.1 Valores de K na formula de Alexander. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.1 Valores do coeficiente de correccao cA em funcao do comprimento do navio. . . 29

3.1 Series sistematicas de propulsores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

- deformacao de um navio de referencia;

- modelo matematico para definicao de forma em funcao de parametros do navio;

- utilizacao das series sistematicas.

1.1.1 Principais dimensoes dos navios

- o plano de flutuacao de projecto;

Figura 1.1: Plano de flutuacao, longitudinal e transversal de um navio.

O plano longitudinal, unico plano de simetria do navio, e o plano de referencia. A forma

Figura 1.2: Plano geometrico de um navio.

1.1.2 Coeficientes de forma do navio

Figura 1.3: Principais dimensoes dos navios.

- o coeficiente de finura total (block coeficient):

- o coeficiente de finura da flutuacao:

- Awp e a area do plano de flutuacao;

Figura 1.4: Marcacao no costado das linhas de carga do navio.

- Lwp o comprimento na linha de flutuacao;

Tabela 1.1: Valores de K na formula de Alexander.

1.2 Comportamento hidrodinamico do navio

- o comportamento do navio no mar;

O calculo do escoamento e o projecto de helices pode ser considerado como um sub-topico do

- experimentais em modelos a escala reduzida, ou a escala real;

- numericas, atraves de solucoes analticas ou com recurso a mecanica de fluidos compu-

Os princpios fundamentais destas metodologias sao sumariamente descritos nas seccoes

1.3 Metodos empricos

Figura 1.5: Tanque de provas utilizado

1.4 Metodos experimentais

- as tecnicas experimentais nao-intrusivas, como a Laser-Doppler Velocimetry, que per-

Figura 1.9: Escoamento num helice.

1.5 Simulacoes numericas

- Equacao de conservacao da quantidade de movimento,

- Equacao de conservacao da energia (forma simplificada),

em que xi e a coordenada na direccao i, ui e a componente da velocidade na direccao i,

Figura 1.10: Malha colocada a esquerda e desfasada a direita.

algumas vantagens e desvantagens. As mais importantes estao relacionadas com:

- o tratamento das fronteiras do problema;

- a solucao para o acoplamento pressao-velocidade (formato xadrez na solucao da pressao).

Figura 1.12: Um PC-cluster

- SIMPLE / metodo de projeccao;

- volume finito / diferencas finitas;

- aproximacao dos termos convectivos/difusivos das equacoes;

- o metodo de integracao para a evolucao temporal;

- 2 a 8 GB RAM por no;

- comunicacao em rede com velocidade superior a 1 Gbps;

- elevada capacidade para armazenamento de dados;

- sistema operativo estavel.

Para a solucao de um problema de mecanica de fluidos num PC-cluster e necessario pro-

Figura 1.13: Decomposicao 1D, 2D ou 3D do domnio espacial de um pro-

Figura 1.14: Troca de valores nas fronteiras dos sub-domnios.

em que V e a velocidade do navio e RT a sua resistencia total.