IMPACT OF THE ADDITION OF FLY ASH ON THE MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR

OF ASPHALT MIXTURES

Aline Cavalcanti Fialho Vale1

Letícia Sousa de Oliveira1
Jorge Barbosa Soares1
Juceline Batista dos Santos Bastos2
Lucas Feitosa de Albuquerque Lima Babadopulos3
1: Programa de Pós-graduação em Engenharia de Transportes, Departamento de Engenharia de Transportes da
Universidade Federal do Ceará (PETRAN/DET/UFC)
2: Programa de Pós-graduação em Tecnologia e Gestão Ambiental (PGTGA) do Instituto Federal de Educação,
Ciência e Tecnologia do Ceará (PGTGA/IFCE)
3: Programa de Pós-graduação em Engenharia Civil: Estruturas e Construção Civil, Departamento de Engenharia
Estrutural e Construção Civil da Universidade Federal do Ceará (PEC/DEECC/UFC)

RESUMO
Existe uma necessidade global de otimizar a cadeia de reciclagem e a destinação final dos resíduos industriais.
Este artigo analisa o impacto da adição de cinzas volantes oriundas de usinas termelétricas em misturas
asfálticas. A resposta mecânica das misturas foi investigada por meio de ensaios laboratoriais de deformação
permanente, rigidez e fadiga. Os resultados indicaram que o uso de 5% de cinzas volantes na composição dos
agregados pode aumentar a resistência da mistura à deformação permanente. A rigidez sofreu pequenas
alterações, enquanto o trincamento por fadiga foi pouco aumentado na mistura asfáltica testada em laboratório,
sem impacto significante na previsão de trincamento em uma camada asfáltica durante a vida de serviço de uma
estrutura de pavimento simulada. Após todas as análises, indica-se que a reutilização da cinza volante na mistura
asfáltica pode ser benéfica tanto para o meio ambiente como contribuir para o desempenho do pavimento.

ABSTRACT
There is a global need to optimize the recycling chain and the industrial waste final disposals. There is a growing
concern over the matter within the pavement industry. This paper analyses the impact of the addition of fly ash
from thermoelectric powerplants into asphaltic mixtures. The mechanical response of the mixtures was
investigated by means of permanent deformation, stiffness and fatigue cracking laboratory tests. Results
indicated that using 5% of fly ash on aggregates structure can increase the mixture resistance to permanent
deformation. The stiffness was minorly impacted, whereas resistance to fatigue cracking was slightly enhanced
in the asphalt mixture tested, without significant impact on the predicted cracked area for an asphaltic layer
during the pavement service life. Upon the analysis, it is indicated that reusing fly ash on asphaltic mixture can
be beneficial both to the environment and to pavement performance.

1. INTRODUCTION
Environmental concerns have been growing, as well as the need to reuse industrial solid
wastes. In Brazil, the Law 12.305/10 (Brasil, 2010) constitutes the National Politics for solid
waste management. It was implemented to prevent and reduce waste generation, either
through the reuse of solid waste or its adequate destination. It also institutes the shared
responsibility of waste generators: manufacturers, importers, distributors, traders, citizens and
holders of urban solid waste management services in the reverse logistics of post-consumer
(reuse of supplies as feedstock). Therefore, everyone is responsible for minimizing the
volume of waste generated, as well as for reducing the impacts caused to human health and
environmental quality.

Meanwhile, thermoelectric power plants generate a large amount of fly ash, a solid waste that
requires special infrastructures to be stored. Energia Pecém I and II, two Brazilian
thermoelectric power plants, have a total capacity for producing 720MW. Vasconcelos (2018)
indicates that both plants produce together approximately 11,000 tons of ashes per/month. It is
estimated that 13% of that volume is bottom ash and 87% is fly ash. Cement companies

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nearby the plant consume 40% of the fly ash, which means that 60% is destined to the storage
cells. Fly ash has been successfully used as a construction material (Terzic et al., 2013) , and
may also be increasingly tested on roadway infrastructure, a system capable of using it in
substantial amounts.

When it comes to asphalt concrete surface layers, the main distresses in Brazilian roadways
are fatigue cracking and permanent deformation (rutting) (Bastos et al., 2016). They must be
considered in the analysis of the material mechanical behavior for proper pavement design.
Both rutting and fatigue cracking occur mainly due to repetitive traffic loads. To mitigate
those main distresses and develop more cost-effective roads, further investigation on rutting
and fatigue cracking is a constant pursue in the academia and in the pavement industry.

This paper aims to analyze mechanical properties of two mixtures, with the same aggregate
and binder, but one of them with the addition of fly ash. To identify whether the fly ash
produces relevant impact on the material properties, the research uses both rutting and fatigue
damage tests, contributing to the body of knowledge as an indication of the potential reuse
this specific waste on asphaltic layers.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Rutting in asphalt mixtures
The Uniaxial Repeated Load Permanent Deformation (URLPD) test applies repeated uniaxial
loading and provides a failure criterion, i.e., the number of cycles to reach failure which is the
so-called Flow Number (FN). FN is an indication of how resistant the mixture is to rutting
(Witczak et al., 2002; DNIT, 2018). Table 1 contains ranges (corresponding to different
traffic levels and test configurations) of this criterion for Brazilian asphalt mixtures (Bastos et
al., 2016). Today, URLPD is a standardized test in Brazil (DNIT, 2019).

Table 1: Limits for FN values and test protocols

Stress Traffic volumes (ESAL - Equivalent
Air Voids Temp.
level Single Axle Loads)
Researches Light Medium Heavy Ext. heavy
(%) (ºC) (kPa) [3×106; [1×107;
<3×106 > 3×107
1×107] 3×107]
Bonaquist (2012) 6.65± 0.65 49.6 600 15 50 135 415
Nascimento (2008) 7.0± 0.5 60.0 204 - 300 750 -
Bastos et al. (2016) 5.5± 0.5 60.0 204 - 100 300 >1000

Another test includes a confining pressure, hence producing a triaxial state of stress favoring a
more realistic analysis of the material, closer to its stress state in the field. Due to the
exhaustive testing protocol for the Triaxial Stress Sweep (TSS) test (Choi and Kim, 2013),
Kim and Kim (2017) proposed a simplified TSS test, the SSR (Stress Sweep Rutting). The
latter is more appropriate to simulate the volumetric distribution of viscoplastic deformations,
replicating more closely critical areas of the simulation of the surface layer when compared to
the URLPD. For this simplified version, the time of the test procedure has drastically
decreased by several factors, among which: (i) decrease of samples tested, reduced from 9 to
4; and (ii) consideration of only 2 testing temperatures (high and low), where the reference
curve is plotted from the first 200 loading cycles of the high temperature test.

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2.2. Fatigue cracking
Much effort is being placed in better understanding the evolution of fatigue cracking (Kim et
al., 2003; Tapsoba et al., 2015; Babadopulos et al., 2019). The fatigue life of an asphalt
material can be defined as the number of load repetitions required for the material to reach
failure (Nf)). During fatigue tests in asphalt materials, a decrease in stiffness is observed
(Mangiafico et al., 2015; Babadopulos et al., 2019), which is used in many models as an
indicator of the evolution of damage (Daniel and Kim, 2002), particularly the Simplified
Viscoelastic Continuum Damage (S-VECD) model (Underwood et al., 2012).

From fatigue test results of asphalt mixtures, it is possible to obtain the damage evolution
(related to the stiffness measured during the test, the absolute value of complex modulus -
|E*|) and the number of cycles to failure (Nf) for a given loading level. To model the fatigue
damage phenomenon, the viscoelastic continuum damage model can be used (Daniel and
Kim, 2002; Lundström and Ekblad, 2006), or its simplified version for the case of sinusoidal
loading, which is the S-VECD (Underwood et al., 2012; Babadopulos et al., 2016). This
model uses definitions such as the pseudostrain (which corresponds to the value of the
calculated undamaged stress obtained from convolution integrals divided by an arbitrary
reference modulus) to simplify the damage analysis in viscoelastic materials, relating the
material integrity (C, which varies from the totally sound material when C=1 to the totally
damaged material when C=0) to a Damage Internal State Variable (S), defined for a given
damage evolution equation.

In the S-VECD model, in addition to linear viscoelastic properties, two fatigue damage
material properties are used in the characterization: (i) the damage characteristic curve (C vs.
S), which relates integrity (C) and a damage internal state variable (S); and (ii) the failure
envelope, which relates a parameter from the pseudostrain energy release during the test to the
number of cycles at failure. In the research herein, the criterion proposed by Sabouri and Kim
(2014), which is the so-called GR vs. Nf criterion, is used. While the C vs. S curve will affect
how the apparent modulus will change during the test, the GR vs. Nf will be used in the
simulation to determine when failure occurs. It is noteworthy that in simulation this is
necessary since the S-VECD model does not predict changes in the phase angle due to
damage. This fact of not being able to use phase angle change in simulation is the reason why
a failure criterion based on the pseudostrain energy release is necessary.

3. MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1. Materials
On the present research, two asphalt mixtures were designed following Superpave, with the
grading curve defined according to Brazilian standards (DNIT, 2006), as presented in Figure
1. It corresponds approximately to a Superpave 12.5mm dense mix. Mixture M1 was used as
a reference, and for mixture M2, fly ash was added to the grading curve on the proportion of
5% by weight of the aggregate. Table 2 contains the mixture characterizations.

Table 2: Mix Design Parameters

Mixture Type of Binder content (%) Bulk density Air voids Fly ash content
ID binder (g/cm³) (%) (wt% of mixture)
M1 AC 50/70 4.8 2.460 5.0 0
M2 AC 50/70 5.3 2.408 4.2 4.74

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 Figure 1: Grading curves from mixtures M1 and M2

3.2. Fly ash chemical and environmental characterization

Figure 2 represents the results from the X-ray fluorescence analysis of the fly ash used on this
research. The sum of elements SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 represents 70% of the formulation.
According to ASTM 618 (2019) classification, the fly ash analyzed is from Class F,
originated from anthracite and bituminous coals and it has pozzolanic properties, but do not
have agglomerative and hydraulic properties.

Figure 2: X-ray fluorescence results

Regarding the environmental classification of the investigated fly ash, no specific pattern was
observed. It varies from Class I (dangerous) to II A (not inert), according to NBR 10004
(ABNT, 2004). Residues classified as dangerous can present inflammable, corrosive, toxic or
pathogenic properties. Barros (2015) indicates that residues from thermoelectric industries
usually are classified as dangerous due to the risks they can represent to environment and to
public health when disposed inadequately.

3.3. Methods
The linear viscoelastic properties for the asphalt mixtures can be obtained from complex
modulus tests (AASHTO T 342, 2011). The test gives the absolute value of the complex
modulus, known in the literature as the dynamic modulus (|E*|), and its phase angle (Φ). The
two material properties can be used for fitting linear viscoelastic models such as the 2S2P1D
model (Olard and Di Benedetto, 2003), and to model the thermomechanical response for
various loadings and temperatures.

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For uniaxial (complex modulus tests, fatigue tests, and URLPD) and triaxial tests (SSR), the
servo-hydraulic press used is an IPC UTM-25. For the triaxial test, a chamber designed to
apply confining stress is used. The protocol for obtaining the FN was proposed by
Nascimento (2008), adapted from Witczak et al. (2002). Test protocol is performed for 2
samples. Bastos et al. (2016) also applied this protocol and proposed to adapt the FN
parameters to better suit the Brazilian traffic demands and pavement specifications (cf. Table
1).

For the SSR test, similar deviatoric loading as in URLPD tests are performed, but in different
conditions and including the confining stress. Six hundred loading cycles are applied with a
continuous confining stress and different loading stress for each block of 200 cycles. From the
4 tested specimens, 2 are tested on the High Temperature (TH) and 2 on the Low Temperature
(TL). The original protocol, proposed by Kim and Kim (2017), indicates that the confining
stress should be 69kPa to better represent the confining state of the in-field asphalt layers.
Adjusting this stress to Brazilian pavement systems, the confining stress used herein is
138kPa, as proposed by Bastos et al. (2016).

The reference rutting prediction curve is obtained from the TH testing. At the TH test, for
each block of 200 cycles, the total maximum stress in the tested direction is of 758, 552 and
965kPa, meaning that, with a 138kPa confining stress, the maximum loading stresses applied
by the actuator are 620, 414 and 827kPa during 0.4s, with 3.6s of rest period. At the TL test,
the total stress applied is of 552, 758 and 965kPa, for each block of 200 cycles, meaning that
the maximum loading stresses applied by the actuator are 414, 620 and 827kPa during 0.4s,
and rest period of 1.6s (Bastos et al., 2016; Kim and Kim, 2017).

For URLPD test data treatment the Francken Model was used. It allows objectively
determining the FN value in a standardized procedure. For the SSR test, besides the use of the
Francken model, the procedure employed the shift model proposed by Choi and Kim (2013)
and Kim and Kim (2017).

In the fatigue test for asphalt mixtures, the procedure used is AASHTO TP 107 (2018).
Loading frequency of 10Hz and temperature of 19°C were considered. Three different strain
amplitudes were targeted in 9 different specimens. The fatigue test is performed with
sinusoidal loading and constant actuator displacement amplitude, while test analysis uses on-
specimen displacement measurements. The fatigue test is stopped when macro cracks are
visible on the surface of the sample, which is accompanied by sudden changes in the
measured signals. Nf of the mixture is obtained after signal processing and analysis of the
phase angle evolution (which changes when macrocracks coalesce). The damage internal state
variable and the material integrity evolution are calculated using AASHTO TP 107 and the
damage material parameters are fitted according to the standard procedure. Using the fitted
damage material parameters from the S-VECD model, fatigue life simulation at the material
level (Nascimento, 2016; Oliveira, 2018) was performed to build Whöler curves of the
mixture’s materials at different fixed strain amplitudes.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1. Complex Modulus test
The results obtained from the complex modulus test are presented through Isotherms that
consist of the representation of the dynamic modulus (|E*|) as a function of frequency, in

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different curves at different fixed temperatures, as presented in Figure 4.

(a) mixture M1 (b) mixture M2

Figure 3: Isothermal curves from dynamic modulus test: (a) M1 and (b) M2

Figure 5 shows the master curve that reflects the mixtures’ stiffness and it is identified that in
that aspect, the mixtures with and without fly ash have globally similar behavior, except for
measurements at very low reduced frequencies (higher temperatures). At very low reduced
frequency, while the static modulus of M1 is approximately 140MPa, the static modulus of
M2 is approximately 70MPa (50% lower), probably due to the increase in asphalt content
(0.5% higher) in the mixture with ash. It is often considered in the literature that the
accumulated strain at higher temperature, such as rutting, should be lower for stiffer mixtures
(Gouveia et al., 2016).

Figure 4: Master curve for mixtures M1 and M2

4.2. Uniaxial repeated load permanent deformation test and SSR test
The results from the uniaxial test treated with the Francken model are presented in Figure 6.
The average FN for M1 was 84 with Standard Deviation (SD) of 13, while for M2 it was 188
(80% higher) with SD of 12. It is possible to identify that the addition of 5% of fly ash on
aggregates weight proportion resulted on a more rutting resistant mixture. Specifically,
mixture M1 should be considered for low traffic volume roads, whereas M2 is indicated for
medium traffic volume.

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 Figure 5: Results from uniaxial repeated load test for M1 and M2 (Flow Number)

According to FN limits on Table 1, M1 is only indicated for use on light traffic volume.
Meanwhile, when fly ash is added to that same mixture, it becomes applicable for roads with
medium traffic volume.

For the SSR test, none of the mixtures completed the testing protocol, presenting premature
failure and permanent deformation higher than the 2% recommended for confined tests. For
M1, the inflection point was on cycle 37, and for M2 the inflection point was on cycle 226.
That way, for M1, the data treated with the Francken model resulted on 32 cycles to failure,
and for M2, 227 cycles to failure (confining stress of 138kPa in both cases). Data was treated
with both reference shift model and Francken fitting model. Curve fitting for the shift model
could adequately represent mixture results, but it was not possible to apply all the shift
factors, since it is necessary to execute the whole testing protocol to obtain the coefficients.

The fitted shift model enables the application of coefficients to predict rutting evolution over
pavement service. However, both mixtures tested presented the inflection point before
achieving the 600 load cycles necessary to apply the shift factors. From the obtained results
(Figures 7 and 8), it is possible to identify that the Francken model fitting was more accurate
and better represented the results of the conducted tests.

Figures 7 and 8 show “permanent deformation (%) × number of cycle” graphs of both tests
and modeling for M1 and M2, respectively. Graphs illustrate an increase in resistance with the
addition of fly ash. That is observed by an inflection point at significantly higher number of
cycles after addition of ash in the triaxial tests, 37 for M1 and 226 for M2 (600% higher).

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 (a) SSR - Francken model (b) SSR - Shift model
Figure 6: SSR test results for M1: (a) Francken model, and (b) shift model

(a) SSR - Francken model (b) SSR - Shift model

Figure 7: SSR test results for M2: (a) Francken model, and (b) shift model

4.2. Fatigue test

Figure 9 presents the damage characteristic curve (Figure 9a) and the failure envelopes
(Figure 9b) obtained for the tested materials using AASHTO TP 107 (2018).

(a) Damage characteristic curves (C vs. S) (b) Failure envelope (GR and Nf)
Figure 8: (a) Damage characteristic curves (C vs. S) and (b) failure envelope (relationship
between parameters GR and Nf) for M1 and M2

It is to be observed that the values for the material integrity at the failure cycle are
approximately the same (approximately 0.35). Also, material integrity for M1 (without fly
ash) is slightly higher than for M2 (with fly ash) for S>3×104. The last result for the damage
characterization is the determination of the failure criteria as proposed by Sabouri and Kim

1276
(2014), to relate pseudostrain energy dissipation and fatigue life. Figure 9b shows that the
linear regression of the model results showed very good agreement (R²>0.94 for both
mixtures). From the obtained results, it was possible to identify that the y-intercept of the GR
vs. Nf curve for both materials are quite similar. For M1, the slope is slightly more horizontal,
with higher Nf for the same average pseudostrain energy release rate for M1 in the ranges
between 1,000 and 30,000 cycles.

Alone, the actuator-controlled fatigue test results are not enough to describe the material
behavior, so it is necessary to first fit the damage model, and then simulate constant strain
amplitude fatigue results. These simulated results are presented as classical Whöler curves in
Figure 10 for 3 different temperatures. It is seen, as expected due to the similarities in the
damage characteristic curves (Figure 9a) and the failure envelopes (Figure 9b), that the
Wöhler curves are very similar (Figure 10). Considering 1 million cycles, and a temperature
of 20°C (Figure 10b), the strain amplitude for failure at 1 million cycles (known as ε6)
difference between the two mixtures is only approximately of 15% (compatible with
variability in typical fatigue tests). So, although results indicate slightly more fatigue
susceptibility on M2 (with fly ash), such difference is smaller than the typical variability
expected for a fatigue test.

(a) Temperature of 10°C (b) Temperature of 20°C

(c) Temperature of 40°C

Figure 9: Wöhler curves for fatigue test simulations at constant strain amplitudes: (a) 10°C;
(b) 20°C; and (c) 40°C

After the fatigue simulation on the material level, a simulation on a pavement structure scale
is also presented. This is performed using the pavement design software CAP 3D-D (Holanda
et al., 2006; Santiago et al., 2018). The software uses the simulated Wöhler curves at the
investigated temperature to calculate fatigue life consumption (ratio between the number of
loading passes and Nf, which is different in each point of the asphalt layer). Fatigue life
consumption is related to the field cracked area from 54 test sections recorded in a National

1277
Brazilian project during the past decade (Motta et al., 2018). The software uses a stress-strain
calculation considering elastic analysis, although the modulus of the asphalt mixture is taken
as the absolute value of the complex modulus at the investigated temperature and frequency
corresponding to the loading, then taking into account viscoelastic effects due to temperature
and loading frequency on the modulus of the material.

Since this paper focuses on mixture behavior, the pavement structure considered in the
simulation was a typical Brazilian roadway structure as illustrated in Figure 11. For the traffic
volume, the simulations considered 3×106 with an exponential growth of 2%.

Figure 10: Pavement structure considered for design

From simulations, considering the same temperature and 10 years of service for both
mixtures, M1 presented 30% of cracked area, while M2 presented 33%, which represents a
very small difference, again within the typical variability for fatigue analysis. Figure 12 shows
the evolution of the cracked area simulated for both mixtures.

Figure 11: Evolution of the percentage of cracked area for mixtures M1 and M2

5. CONCLUSIONS
From the results and analysis presented, it is possible to state the following conclusions:

 Fly ash incorporation did not significantly affect mixture stiffness. Both mixtures
investigated have similar stiffness over most of their master curves (only the modulus at
very low reduced frequency is approximately 20% higher for the mixture containing fly
ash).
 Fly ash incorporation considerably improved resistance to permanent deformation,
presenting higher values of FN on both uniaxial (about 80% higher) and triaxial (about
600% higher) tests.
 When it comes to fatigue, fly ash incorporation did not produce significant changes in the
material (i.e., less than 15% difference, which is compatible with fatigue test variability).
When the mixture is investigated within a pavement structure, the difference is even
smaller. Expected difference of cracked area after 10 years of service was around 2.7%
(compared to an expected cracked area of 30%).

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In conclusion, the use of the fly ash in asphalt mixtures may significantly increase resistance
to rutting without affecting other material properties, which may represent an increase in
pavement service life. Moreover, it is a potential solution for recycling an important industrial
waste that requires typically special and expensive infrastructures for disposal. On the other
hand, laboratory leaching tests should be applied for further investigation on the
environmental impact on use of fly ash on the pavement surface layer. The production chain
also needs to be carefully programed, since it involves transportation and storage of a toxic
material.

Acknowledgments
The research was funded by the cooperation between UFC and the refineries Energia Pecém and Pecém II to
investigate and validate the reuse of fly ash on pavement construction (Reinforcement of the practical application
of fly ashes on paving). Authors also thank CNPq for the scholarships of authors 1 and 3, and Funcap for the
scholarship of author 2. Acknowledgements are also due to UFC laboratories which provided results for fly ash
characterization, in particular Laboratório de Raios-X from the Physics Department.

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