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Carma Simbolo Ou Nó Do Infinito
Carma Simbolo Ou Nó Do Infinito
O nó sem fim simboliza a interdependência dos darmas em cossurgimento, incluindo o ciclo de renascimento,
segundo os princípios de "Método e Sabedoria", ou Compaixão (Karuṇā) e Sabedoria (Prajna).[1][2]
Definição
O termo karma (em sânscrito: कर्म; em
páli: kamma) refere-se tanto à 'ação,
obra, ação, ato' executado quanto ao
'objeto, intenção'.[6]
Princípio do carma
Carma também se refere a um princípio
conceitual que se originou na Índia,
muitas vezes chamado descritivamente
de princípio do carma, e às vezes a teoria
do carma ou a lei do carma.[16]
Causalidade
Carma como ação e reação: uma representação na arte indiana de que se mostrarmos bondade, colheremos
bondade
— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,
século VII a.C.[21][22]
Renascimento
Carma coletivo
Desenvolvimento inicial
O lótus pode representar simbolicamente o carma em muitas tradições asiáticas. Uma flor de lótus desabrochando é
uma das poucas flores que simultaneamente carrega sementes dentro de si enquanto floresce. A semente é vista
simbolicamente como causa; a flor, o efeito. Lótus também é considerado como uma recordação de que se pode
crescer, compartilhar bom carma e permanecer imaculado mesmo em circunstâncias lamacentas.[57]
"Verdadeiramente, a pessoa se
torna boa por meio de boas
ações, e má por meio de más
ações."
No hinduísmo
O conceito de carma no hinduísmo se
desenvolveu e evoluiu ao longo dos
séculos. As primeiras Upanixades
começaram com as perguntas sobre
como e por que o homem nasce e o que
acontece após a morte. Como respostas
a esta última, as primeiras teorias
nesses antigos documentos sânscritos
incluem pancagni vidya (a doutrina dos
cinco fogos), pitryana (o caminho cíclico
dos pais) e devayana (o caminho dos
deuses que transcende o ciclo).[69]
Aqueles que fazem rituais superficiais e
buscam ganho material, afirmavam
esses antigos estudiosos, viajam pelo
caminho de seus pais e reciclam de volta
para outra vida; aqueles que renunciam a
estes, vão para a floresta e buscam o
conhecimento espiritual, foram
reivindicados como subindo no caminho
superior dos deuses. São estes que
quebram o ciclo e não renascem.[70] Com
a composição dos Épicos – a introdução
do homem comum ao darma no
hinduísmo – as ideias de causalidade e
elementos essenciais da teoria do carma
foram sendo recitados em histórias
folclóricas. Por exemplo:
"Conforme o próprio homem
semeia, ele mesmo colhe;
nenhum homem herda o ato
bom ou mau de outro homem.
O fruto é da mesma qualidade
que a ação."
— Mahabharata, xii.291.22[71]
No budismo
Carma e karmaphala são conceitos
fundamentais no budismo,[84][85] que
explicam como nossas ações
intencionais nos mantêm ligados ao
renascimento no samsara, enquanto o
caminho budista, como exemplificado no
Nobre Caminho Óctuplo, nos mostra a
saída do samsara.[86][87]
O ciclo de renascimento é determinado
pelo carma, literalmente 'ação'.[88][nota 1]
Karmaphala (onde phala significa 'fruto,
resultado')[94][95][96] refere-se ao 'efeito' ou
'resultado' do carma.[97][98] O termo
similar karmavipaka (onde vipāka
significa 'amadurecimento') refere-se à
'maturação, amadurecimento' do
carma.[95][99][100]
No jainismo
]
O jainismo defende que uma alma
atrai matéria cármica mesmo com os
pensamentos, e não apenas com as
ações. Assim, até mesmo pensar mal
de alguém seria suportar um karma-
bandha ou um incremento no mau
carma. Por esta razão, o jainismo
enfatiza o desenvolvimento de
Ratnatraya (As Três Joias): samyak
darśana ('Fé Correta'), samyak jnāna
('Conhecimento Correto') e samyak
charitra ('Conduta Correta').[carece de
fontes
]
Na teologia jainista, uma alma é
liberada dos assuntos mundanos
assim que é capaz de se emancipar do
karma-bandha.[131] No jainismo, nirvana
e moksha são usados de forma
intercambiável. Nirvana representa a
aniquilação de todos os carmas por
uma alma individual e moksha
representa o estado de bem-
aventurança perfeito (livre de toda
escravidão). Na presença de um
Tirtancara, uma alma pode atingir
Kevala Jnana ('onisciência') e
subsequentemente o nirvana, sem
qualquer necessidade de intervenção
do Tirtancara.[131]
A teoria cármica no jainismo opera
endogenamente. Mesmo os próprios
Tirtancaras têm que passar pelos
estágios de emancipação, para atingir
esse estado.[carece de fontes
?
1. Gyanavarniya (obstrutivo do
conhecimento): como um véu
impede que um rosto e seus traços
sejam vistos, esse carma impede a
alma de conhecer um objeto junto
com detalhes sobre esse objeto.
Esse carma impede a alma de
perceber sua qualidade essencial
de conhecimento. Na sua ausência,
uma alma é onisciente. Existem
cinco subtipos de carmas
gyanavarniya que impedem os cinco
tipos de conhecimento: mati gyan
(conhecimento sensorial), shrut
gyan (conhecimento articulado),
avadhi gyan (clarividência), mana
paryay gyan (telepatia) e keval gyan
(onisciência).
2. Darshanavarniya (obstrutivo da
percepção): como um porteiro
impede a visão do rei, esse carma
impede que um objeto seja
percebido, escondendo-o. Esse
carma impede a alma de perceber
sua qualidade essencial de
percepção. Na sua ausência, uma
alma percebe completamente todas
as substâncias do universo.
Existem nove subtipos deste carma.
Quatro deles impedem os quatro
tipos de percepção; percepção
visual, percepção não-visual,
percepção clarividente e percepção
onisciente. Os outros cinco
subtipos de escravidão do carma
darshanavarniya induzem cinco
tipos de sono causando redução na
consciência: sono leve, sono
profundo, sonolência, sonolência
pesada e sonambulismo.
3. Vedaniya (produtor de sensações):
como lamber o mel de uma espada
dá um sabor doce, mas corta a
língua, esse carma faz a alma
experimentar prazer e dor. A bem-
aventurança da alma é
continuamente perturbada por
experiências de prazer e dor
sensual externa. Na ausência do
carma vedaniya, a alma
experimenta bem-aventurança
imperturbável. Existem dois
subtipos deste carma; produtor de
prazer e produtor de dor.
4. Mohniya (ilusório): como uma
abelha se apaixona pelo cheiro de
uma flor e é atraída por ela, esse
carma atrai a alma para os objetos
que considera favoráveis, enquanto
a repele dos objetos que considera
desfavoráveis. Cria uma ilusão na
alma de que objetos externos
podem afetá-la. Este carma obstrui
a qualidade essencial da felicidade
da alma e impede que a alma
encontre a felicidade pura em si
mesma.
5. Ayu (determinante do tempo de
vida): como um prisioneiro
permanece preso por correntes de
ferro (em torno de suas pernas,
mãos, etc.), esse carma mantém
uma alma presa em uma
determinada vida (ou nascimento).
6. Naam (produtor de corpos): como
um pintor cria vários quadros e lhes
dá vários nomes, esse carma dá às
almas vários tipos de corpos (que
são classificados com base em
vários atributos). É o naamkarma
que determina o corpo do
organismo vivo no qual a alma deve
entrar.
7. Gotra (determinante de status):
como um oleiro faz vasos curtos e
altos, esse carma confere um
status baixo ou alto (social) ao
corpo da alma. Cria desigualdades
sociais e, na sua ausência, todas as
almas são iguais. Existem dois
subtipos de carma gotra: status alto
e status baixo.
8. Antaray (obstrutivo do poder): como
um tesoureiro impede um rei de
gastar sua riqueza, esse carma
impede a alma de usar seu poder
inato para atos de caridade, lucro,
prazer, satisfação repetida e força
de vontade. Ele obstrui e impede
que a qualidade essencial do poder
infinito da alma se manifeste. Na
sua ausência, uma alma tem poder
infinito.
Recepção em outras
tradições
Siquismo
]
Esta vida é comparada a um campo no
qual nosso carma é a semente. Colhe-se
exatamente o que se planta; nem menos,
nem mais. Essa lei infalível do carma
responsabiliza todos pelo que a pessoa é
ou será. Com base na soma total do
carma passado, alguns se sentem
próximos do Ser Puro nesta vida e outros
se sentem separados. Esta é a lei do
carma em Gurbani (Seri Guru Granth
Sahib). Como outras escolas de
pensamento indianas e orientais, o
Gurbani também aceita as doutrinas do
carma e da reencarnação como fatos da
natureza.[135]
Taoismo
Carma é um conceito importante no
taoismo. Cada ação é rastreada por
divindades e espíritos. Recompensas ou
retribuições apropriadas seguem o
carma, assim como uma sombra segue
uma pessoa.[9]
Xintoísmo
Interpretado como musubi, uma visão do
carma é reconhecida no xintoísmo como
um meio de enriquecimento,
empoderamento e afirmação da vida.[138]
Discussões
Indeterminação psicológica
Transferibilidade
O problema do mal
Conceitos comparáveis
Filosofia grega
Judaísmo
Modernidade ocidental
Psicologia
Ver também
Amor fati
Boas obras
Carma no budismo tibetano
Consequencialismo
Ética da reciprocidade
Hipótese do mundo justo
Justiça poética
Carmaioga
Moinhos de Deus
Profecia autorrealizável
Retribuição divina
Sistema de crédito social
Sorte
Notas
1. No budismo inicial, o renascimento é
atribuído ao desejo ou à
ignorância,[89][90] e a teoria do carma
pode ter sido de menor importância
na soteriologia budista
inicial.[91][92][93]
2. Citação de Rupert Gethin: "[Karma is]
a being's intentional 'actions' of body,
speech, and mind—whatever is done,
said, or even just thought with
definite intention or volition";[103] "[a]t
root karma or 'action' is considered a
mental act or intention; it is an
aspect of our mental life: 'It is
"intention" that I call karma; having
formed the intention, one performs
acts (karma) by body, speech and
mind.'"[104]
3. Existem muitas traduções diferentes
da citação acima para o inglês. Por
exemplo, Peter Harvey traduz a
citação da seguinte forma: "It is will
(cetana), O monks, that I call karma;
having willed, one acts through body,
speech, and mind." (A.III.415).[107]
4. Citação de Dargray: "When [the
Buddhist] understanding of karma is
correlated to the Buddhist doctrine of
universal impermanence and No-Self,
a serious problem arises as to where
this trace is stored and what the
trace left is. The problem is
aggravated when the trace remains
latent over a long period, perhaps
over a period of many existences.
The crucial problem presented to all
schools of Buddhist philosophy was
where the trace is stored and how it
can remain in the ever-changing
stream of phenomena which build up
the individual and what the nature of
this trace is."[108]
5. Citação de Thanissaro Bhikkhu:
"Unlike the theory of linear causality
— which led the Vedists and Jains to
see the relationship between an act
and its result as predictable and tit-
for-tat — the principle of this/that
conditionality makes that
relationship inherently complex. The
results of kamma ("kamma" is the
Pali spelling for the word "karma")
experienced at any one point in time
come not only from past kamma, but
also from present kamma. This
means that, although there are
general patterns relating habitual
acts to corresponding results [MN
135], there is no set one-for-one, tit-
for-tat, relationship between a
particular action and its results.
Instead, the results are determined
by the context of the act, both in
terms of actions that preceded or
followed it [MN 136] and in terms
one's state of mind at the time of
acting or experiencing the result [AN
3:99]. [...] The feedback loops
inherent in this/that conditionality
mean that the working out of any
particular cause-effect relationship
can be very complex indeed. This
explains why the Buddha says in AN
4:77 that the results of kamma are
imponderable. Only a person who
has developed the mental range of a
Buddha—another imponderable itself
—would be able to trace the
intricacies of the kammic network.
The basic premise of kamma is
simple—that skillful intentions lead to
favorable results, and unskillful ones
to unfavorable results—but the
process by which those results work
themselves out is so intricate that it
cannot be fully mapped. We can
compare this with the Mandelbrot
set, a mathematical set generated by
a simple equation, but whose graph
is so complex that it will probably
never be completely explored."[110]
6. Citação de Khandro Rinpoche:
"Buddhism is a nontheistic
philosophy. We do not believe in a
creator but in the causes and
conditions that create certain
circumstances that then come to
fruition. This is called karma. It has
nothing to do with judgement; there
is no one keeping track of our karma
and sending us up above or down
below. Karma is simply the
wholeness of a cause, or first action,
and its effect, or fruition, which then
becomes another cause. In fact, one
karmic cause can have many
fruitions, all of which can cause
thousands more creations. Just as a
handful of seed can ripen into a full
field of grain, a small amount of
karma can generate limitless
effects."[113]
7. Dasgupta explica que, na filosofia
indiana, acintya é "aquilo que deve
ser inevitavelmente aceito para
explicar os fatos, mas que não
suporta o escrutínio da lógica".[118]
Ver também o Aggi-Vacchagotta
Sutta "Discurso a Vatsagotra sobre o
[Simile do] Fogo," Majjhima Nikaya
72,[119][120] no qual o Buda é
questionado por Vatsagotra sobre as
"dez questões indeterminadas",[119] e
o Buda explica que um Tathagata é
como um fogo que foi extinto, e que
é "profundo, ilimitado, difícil de
sondar, como o mar".[121]
Referências
1. Namgyal, Tseten (2016).
«Significance of 'Eight Traditional
Tibetan Buddhist Auspicious
Symbols /Emblems' (bkra shis rtags
brgyad) in day to day Rite and
Rituals» (https://www.jstor.org/stabl
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(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0970
-5368) . Consultado em 16 de julho
de 2022
2. Yakar, Jak (31 de outubro de 2017).
«Probable Reasons for the
Occurrence of Comparable Abstract
and Figurative Designs in the Art
Invetories of Different Ancient
Cultures since Prehistory». In:
Avetisyan, Pavel S.; Grekyan, Yervand
H. Bridging Times and Spaces:
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Mediterranean and Armenian
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Areshian on the occasion of his sixty-
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3. S.A, Priberam Informática. «Consulte
o significado / definição de karma no
Dicionário Priberam da Língua
Portuguesa, o dicionário online de
português contemporâneo.» (https://
dicionario.priberam.org/karma) .
dicionario.priberam.org. Consultado
em 31 de dezembro de 2018
4. Ver: Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th
Edition, Volume 15, New York, pp
679–680, Artigo sobre "Karma";
Citação: "Karma meaning deed or
action; in addition, it also has
philosophical and technical meaning,
denoting a person's deeds as
determining his future lot." The
Encyclopedia of World Religions,
Robert Ellwood & Gregory Alles, ISBN
978-0-8160-6141-9, pp 253; Citação:
"Karma: Sanskrit word meaning
action and the consequences of
action." Hans Torwesten (1994),
Vedanta: Heart of Hinduism, ISBN
978-0-8021-3262-8, Grove Press New
York, pp 97; Citação: "In the Vedas
the word karma (work, deed or
action, and its resulting effect)
referred mainly to..."
5. "Karma" (https://www.britannica.co
m/EBchecked/topic/312474/karma)
. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2012.
6. Halbfass, Wilhelm. Karma und
Wiedergeburt im indischen Denken.
[S.l.]: Diederichs. ISBN 978-
3896313850
7. Lawrence C. Becker & Charlotte B.
Becker, Encyclopedia of Ethics, 2nd
Edition, ISBN 0-415-93672-1, Hindu
Ethics, pp 678
8. Singla, Parvesh. The Manual of Life –
Karma (https://archive.org/details/bu
b_gb_1mXR35jX-TsC) . [S.l.]: Parvesh
singla. pp. 5–7.
GGKEY:0XFSARN29ZZ
9. Eva Wong, Taoism, Shambhala
Publications, ISBN 978-1-59030-882-
0, pp. 193
10. "Karma" in: John Bowker (1997), The
Concise Oxford Dictionary of World
Religions, Oxford University Press.
11. James Lochtefeld (2002), The
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism,
Rosen Publishing, New York, ISBN 0-
8239-2287-1, pp 351–352
12. Lipner, Julius (2010). Hindus: Their
religious beliefs and practices. 2ª ed.
Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7.
pp 261–262.
13. Ver: Kaufman, W. R. (2005), Karma,
rebirth, and the problem of evil,
Philosophy East and West, pp 15–32;
Sharma, A. (1996), On the distinction
between Karma and Rebirth in
Hinduism, Asian Philosophy, 6(1), pp
29–35; Bhattacharya, R. (2012),
Svabhāvavāda and the
Cārvāka/Lokāyata: A Historical
Overview, Journal of Indian
Philosophy, 40(6), pp 593–614
14. Ver artigo sobre "Karma" em Coward,
Harold (2003). Encyclopedia of
Science of Religion. MacMillan
Reference. ISBN 978-0-02-865704-2.
15. Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma
and Rebirth in Classical Indian
Traditions, University of California
Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0, pp
xi–xxv (Introduction)
16. Karl Potter (1964), The Naturalistic
Principle of Karma, Philosophy East
and West, Vol. 14, No. 1 (Apr. 1964),
pp. 39–49
17. Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma
and Rebirth in Classical Indian
Traditions, University of California
Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0, pp
3–37
18. Karl Potter (1980), in Karma and
Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions
(O'Flaherty, Editor), University of
California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-
03923-0, pp 241–267
19. See:
20. Bruce R. Reichenbach, The Law of
Karma and the Principle of
Causation, Philosophy East and
West, Vol. 38, No. 4 (Oct. 1988), pp.
399–410
21. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5–6
(https://web.archive.org/web/20130
413042723/http://berkleycenter.geor
getown.edu/resources/quotes/briha
daranyaka-upanishad-4-4-5-6)
Berkley Center for Religion Peace &
World Affairs, Georgetown University
(2012)
22. The words "deed", "acts" above are
rendered from karma; see
Brihadaranyaka (https://archive.toda
y/20140107061016/https://mywebs
pace.wisc.edu/jrblack/web/SKT/DL/
upanishads.html) James Black,
Original Sanskrit & Muller Oxford
English Translations, University of
Wisconsin, United States (2011)
23. Anguttara-Nikaya 3.4.33, Translator:
Henry Warren (1962), Buddhism in
Translations, Atheneum Publications,
New York, pp 216–217
24. Ver: James McDermott, Karma and
Rebirth in Early Buddhism, in Editor:
Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma
and Rebirth in Classical Indian
Traditions, University of California
Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0, pp
165–192 Padmanabh Jaini, Karma
and the problem of rebirth in Jainism,
in Editor: Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980),
Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian
Traditions, University of California
Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0, pp
217–239 Ludo Rocher, Karma and
Rebirth in the Dharmasastras, in
Editor: Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980),
Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian
Traditions, University of California
Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0, pp
61–89
25. Damien Keown (1996), Karma,
character, and consequentialism, The
Journal of Religious Ethics, pp 329–
350.
26. Mahony, William K. (1987). "Karman:
Hindu and Jain Concepts" (https://w
ww.encyclopedia.com/environment/
encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-
and-maps/karman-hindu-and-jain-co
ncepts) . In Jones, Lindsay (ed.)
(2005). Encyclopedia of religion (em
inglês). [S.l.]: Macmillan Reference
USA
27. A sugestão de Karl Potter é apoiada
pelo Bhagavad-Gita, que liga a boa e
a má escravidão aos bons e maus
hábitos, respectivamente. Também
lista vários tipos de hábitos – como
o bem (sattva), a paixão (rajas) e o
indiferente (tamas) – ao explicar o
carma. Veja a referência de Potter
citada; em outros lugares, nos Yoga
Sutras, o papel do karma na criação
de hábitos é explicado com Vāsanās
– ver Ian Whicher, The Integrity of the
Yoga Darsana: A Reconsideration of
Classical Yoga, State University of
New York, ISBN 0-7914-3816-3,
Capítulo 3, em particular pp 102–105
28. Ian Whicher (1998), The final stages
of purification in classical yoga,
Asian Philosophy, 8(2), pp 85–102
29. Harold Coward (1983), "Psychology
and Karma", Philosophy East and
West 33 (Jan): 49–60.
30. Brown, C. Mackenzie (17 de
dezembro de 2020). «Karmic Versus
Organic Evolution: The Hindu
Encounter with Modern Evolutionary
Science». In: Brown, C. Mackenzie.
Asian Religious Responses to
Darwinism: Evolutionary Theories in
Middle Eastern, South Asian, and
East Asian Cultural Contexts (https://
books.google.com.br/books?id=atQP
EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115&lpg=PA115&
dq=%22such+events+as+earthquake
s+are+indicators+of+good+and+evi
l%22) (em inglês). [S.l.]: Springer
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31. Francis X. Clooney, Evil, Divine
Omnipotence, and Human Freedom:
Vedānta's Theology of Karma, The
Journal of Religion, Vol. 69, No. 4
(Oct. 1989), pp. 530–548
32. Wilhelm Halbfass (1998),
Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
Routledge, London, ver artigo sobre
"Karma and Rebirth (Indian
Conceptions)"
33. Ver: James Hastings et al. (1915),
Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics
(Hymns-Liberty), Volume VII, artigo
sobre "Jainism", pp 469–471;
Chapple, Christopher (1975), Karma
and the path of purification, in
Virginia Hanson et al. (Editors) –
Karma: Rhythmic Return to Harmony,
ISBN 978-0-8356-0663-9. capítulo 23;
Krishan, Y. (1988), The Vedic origins
of the doctrine of karma, South Asian
Studies, 4(1), pp 51–55
34. Almond, Philip C. (26 de agosto de
1988). The British Discovery of
Buddhism (https://books.google.co
m.br/books?id=Qj3zdIeEVNIC&pg=P
A84&lpg=PA84&dq=karma) (em
inglês). [S.l.]: Cambridge University
Press
35. Ames, Roger T.; Dissanayake, Wimal;
Kasulis, Thomas P. (1 de janeiro de
1994). Self as Person in Asian
Theory and Practice (https://books.g
oogle.com.br/books?id=vcWIAwAAQ
BAJ&pg=PA275&lpg=PA275&dq=%2
2unfortunately,+the+concept+of+kar
ma+has+been+interpreted+largely+in
+terms+of+fatalism%22) (em
inglês). [S.l.]: SUNY Press
36. Gayley, Holly (6 de dezembro de
2016). Love Letters from Golok: A
Tantric Couple in Modern Tibet (http
s://books.google.com.br/books?id=O
UhmDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA86) (em
inglês). Nova Iorque: Columbia
University Press. pp. 86–87
37. Weber, Max (1958). The Religion of
India. The Sociology of Hinduism and
Buddhism. Glencoe: The Free Press.
p. 121.
38. Berger, Peter L. (1990). The Sacred
Canopy: Elements of a Sociological
Theory of Religion (https://books.goo
gle.com.br/books?id=WcC-AYOq6Q4
C&pg=PT79&lpg=PT79&dq=%22on+t
he+other+pole+of+the+rational-irrati
onal+continuum+of+theodicies,+the
+most+rational+one%22) (em
inglês). [S.l.]: Anchor Books. pp. 65–
67
39. Keyes, Charles F.; Daniel, E. Valentine
(1 de janeiro de 1983). Karma: An
Anthropological Inquiry (https://book
s.google.com.br/books/about/Karm
a.html?id=49GVZGD8d4oC) (em
inglês). [S.l.]: University of California
Press
40. Obeyesekere 2005, p. 1-2, 108, 126–
128.
41. James Lochtefeld (2002), The
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism,
Volume 2, Rosen Publishing, New
York, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, pp 589
42. Harold Coward (2003), Encyclopedia
of Science of Religion, Karma
43. M. Hiriyana (1949), Essentials of
Indian Philosophy, George Allen
Unwin, London, pp 47
44. M Yamunacharya (1966), Karma and
Rebirth, Indian Philo. Annual, 1, pp 66
45. Austin Creel (1986), in Editor: Ronald
Wesley Neufeldt, Karma and Rebirth:
Post Classical Developments, State
University of New York Press, ISBN
978-0-87395-990-2, Chapter 1
46. Ver: Wilhelm Halbfass (1998),
Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
Routledge, London, see article on
Karma and Rebirth (Indian
Conceptions) Ronald Wesley
Neufeldt, Karma and Rebirth: Post
Classical Developments, State
University of New York Press, ISBN
978-0-87395-990-2
47. A. Javadekar (1965), Karma and
Rebirth, Indian Philosophical Annual,
1, 78
48. Damien Keown (2013), Buddhism: A
very short introduction, Oxford
University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-
966383-5
49. Étienne Lamotte(1936), Le traité de
l'acte de Vasubandhu:
Karmasiddhiprakarana, in Mélanges
chinois et bouddhiques 4, pp 151–
288
50. Potter, Karl H. (1980). «The Karma
Theory and Its Interpretation in Some
Indian Philosophical Systems». In:
O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. Karma
and Rebirth in Classical Indian
Traditions (em inglês). Berkeley; Los
Angeles; Londres: University of
California Press. Citado também em
Scharf, Peter M. (2008). «Karma». In:
Cush, Denise; Robison, Catherine;
York, Michael. The Encyclopedia of
Hinduism (https://books.google.co
m.br/books?id=kzPgCgAAQBAJ&pg=
PA412) . Abindgon: Routledge. p.
412.
51. Halfbass, Wilhelm (1980). «Karma,
Apūrva and "Natural Causes"». In:
O'Flaherty, Wendy Doniger. Karma
and Rebirth in Classical Indian
Traditions (em inglês). Berkeley; Los
Angeles; Londres: University of
California Press.
52. Harvey, Peter (8 de março de 2018).
«Karma». In: Cozort, Daniel; Shields,
James Mark. The Oxford Handbook
of Buddhist Ethics (https://books.go
ogle.com.br/books?id=-mZRDwAAQ
BAJ&pg=PA17) (em inglês). [S.l.]:
Oxford University Press
53. Dermott, James P. Mc (1976). «Is
There Group Karma in Theravāda
Buddhism?» (https://www.jstor.org/s
table/3269557) . Numen (1): 67–80.
ISSN 0029-5973 (https://www.worldc
at.org/issn/0029-5973) .
doi:10.2307/3269557 (https://dx.doi.
org/10.2307%2F3269557) .
Consultado em 15 de julho de 2022
54. Thakchoe, Sonam (2022). Zalta,
Edward N., ed. «The Theory of Two
Truths in India» (https://plato.stanfor
d.edu/archives/sum2022/entrieswot
ruths-india/) . Metaphysics Research
Lab, Stanford University. Consultado
em 15 de julho de 2022
55. Dhammajoti, Bhikkhu K. L. (2009).
Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma. Centre of
Buddhist Studies, The University of
Hong Kong. ISBN 978-988-99296-5-7.
p. 426.
56. Seaford, Richard (5 de dezembro de
2019). The Origins of Philosophy in
Ancient Greece and India: A
Historical Comparison (https://book
s.google.com.br/books?id=cG_CDwA
AQBAJ&pg=PA203&lpg=PA203&dq
=%22also+be+collectively+owned,+a
nd+there+eventually+occurred+the+i
dea+of+collective+karma%22) (em
inglês). [S.l.]: Cambridge University
Press
57. Maria I. Macioti, The Buddha Within
Ourselves: Blossoms of the Lotus
Sutra, Translator: Richard Maurice
Capozzi, ISBN 978-0-7618-2189-2, pp
69–70
58. Krishan, Y. (1988). «The Vedic Origins
of the Doctrine of Karma». South
Asian Studies. 4 (1): 51–55.
doi:10.1080/02666030.1988.962836
6 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F026
66030.1988.9628366) ; Yuvraj
Krishan (1997). The Doctrine of
Karma: Its Origin and Development in
Brāhmaṇical, Buddhist, and Jaina
Traditions (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=_Bi6FWX1NOgC) . [S.l.]:
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. pp. 4, 12,
17–19, for context see 1–27.
ISBN 978-81-208-1233-8
59. uma raiz-n neutra, कर्म da raiz √kṛ कृ
"fazer, realizar, cumprir, causar,
efetuar, preparar" kṛ,कृ (http://www.ibi
blio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0300/
mw__0334.html) Monier Monier-
Williams, Monier Williams Sanskrit-
English Dictionary (http://www.sansk
rit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/monier/)
(1899).
60. Krishan, Y. (1988). «The Vedic Origins
of the Doctrine of Karma». South
Asian Studies. 4 (1): 51–55.
doi:10.1080/02666030.1988.962836
6 (https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F026
66030.1988.9628366) ; Yuvraj
Krishan (1997). The Doctrine of
Karma: Its Origin and Development in
Brāhmaṇical, Buddhist, and Jaina
Traditions (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=_Bi6FWX1NOgC) . [S.l.]:
Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. pp. 4, 12,
17–19, for context see 1–27.
ISBN 978-81-208-1233-8
61. Mark Juergensmeyer & Wade Clark
Roof 2011, p. 653.
62. Ver: Y. Masih (2000) In : A
Comparative Study of Religions,
Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi,
ISBN 81-208-0815-0, p. 37. Citação:
"This confirms that the doctrine of
transmigration is non-aryan and was
accepted by non-vedics like
Ajivikism, Jainism and Buddhism.
The Indo-aryans have borrowed the
theory of re-birth after coming in
contact with the aboriginal
inhabitants of India. Certainly
Jainism and non-vedics [..] accepted
the doctrine of rebirth as supreme
postulate or article of faith." Gavin D.
Flood (1996), An Introduction to
Hinduism, Cambridge University
Press: UK ISBN 0-521-43878-0, p. 86.
Citação: "The origin and doctrine of
Karma and Saṃsāra are obscure.
These concepts were certainly
circulating amongst sramanas, and
Jainism and Buddhism developed
specific and sophisticated ideas
about the process of transmigration.
It is very possible that the karmas
and reincarnation entered the
mainstream brahaminical thought
from the sramana or the renouncer
traditions." Bimala Law (1952, Reprint
2005), The Buddhist Conception of
Spirits, ISBN 81-206-1933-1, Asian
Educational Services; in particular,
ver capítulo II Y. Krishan, The
doctrine of Karma and Śraddhas,
Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental
Research Institute, Vol. 66, No. 1/4
(1985), pp. 97–115
63. Yuvraj Krishan (1985), The doctrine
of Karma and Śraddhas, Annals of
the Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institute, Vol. 66, No. 1/4, pages 97–
115
64. Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma
and Rebirth in Classical Indian
Traditions, University of California
Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0, pp
xvii–xviii; Citação: "There was such
constant interaction between Vedism
and Buddhism in the early period that
it is fruitless to attempt to sort out
the earlier source of many doctrines,
they lived in one another's pockets,
like Picasso and Braque (who, in later
years, were unable to say which of
them had painted certain paintings
from their earlier, shared period)."
65. Wendy Doniger (1980). Karma and
Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions
(https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_4
WZTj3M71y0C) . [S.l.]: University of
California Press. pp. xii–xxiii.
ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0
66. James McDermott (1980). Wendy
Doniger, ed. Karma and Rebirth in
Classical Indian Traditions (https://ar
chive.org/details/bub_gb_4WZTj3M7
1y0C) . [S.l.]: University of California
Press. pp. 165 (https://archive.org/d
etails/bub_gb_4WZTj3M71y0C/pag
e/n188) –192. ISBN 978-0-520-
03923-0
67. Padmanabh Jaini (1980). Wendy
Doniger, ed. Karma and Rebirth in
Classical Indian Traditions (https://ar
chive.org/details/bub_gb_4WZTj3M7
1y0C) . [S.l.]: University of California
Press. pp. 217 (https://archive.org/d
etails/bub_gb_4WZTj3M71y0C/pag
e/n240) –239. ISBN 978-0-520-
03923-0
68. Ludo Rocher (1980). Wendy Doniger,
ed. Karma and Rebirth in Classical
Indian Traditions (https://archive.org/
details/bub_gb_4WZTj3M71y0C) .
[S.l.]: University of California Press.
pp. 61 (https://archive.org/details/bu
b_gb_4WZTj3M71y0C/page/n86) –
89. ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0
69. Colebrooke, H. T. (1829), Essay on
the Philosophy of the Hindus, Part V.
Transactions of the Royal Asiatic
Society of Great Britain and Ireland,
2(1), 1–39
70. William Mahony (1987), Karman:
Hindu and Jain Concepts, in Editor:
Mircea Eliade, Encyclopedia of
Religion, Collier Macmillan, New York
71. E. Washburn Hopkins, Modifications
of the Karma Doctrine, The Journal
of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great
Britain and Ireland, (Jul., 1906), pp.
581–593
72. Chapple, Christopher (1986). Karma
and Creativity. State University of
New York Press, ISBN 0-88706-251-
2. Ver capítulo 3 e apêndice 1.
73. Chapple, Christopher (1986). Karma
and Creativity. State University of
New York Press, ISBN 0-88706-251-
2. pp 60–64.
74. Long, J. Bruce (1980). The concepts
of human action and rebirth in the
Mahabharata. In: Wendy D.
O'Flaherty. Karma and Rebirth in
Classical Indian Traditions. University
of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-
03923-0. Capítulo 2
75. Ver:
Chapple, Christopher (1986),
Karma and creativity, State
University of New York Press,
ISBN 0-88706-251-2;
Manmatha Nath Dutt (1896),
Vana Parva – in multivolume
series: A prose English
translation of the Mahabharata,
Elysium Press, pp. 46-47; Para
um arquivo do Google Books da
Stanford University Library, ver
this (https://books.google.com/
books?id=Wy0MAAAAIAAJ&pg=
RA2-PA46#v=onepage&q=%22fr
uits%20of%20their%20acts%22&
f=false)
Há um extenso debate no épico
Mahabharata sobre carma, livre
arbítrio e destino em diferentes
capítulos e livros. Diferentes
personagens do Épico tomam
partido, alguns afirmam que o
destino é supremo, alguns
afirmam que o livre-arbítrio é.
Para uma discussão, ver: Daniel
H. H. Ingalls, Dharma and
Moksa, Philosophy East and
West, Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul.
1957), pp. 44–45; Citação: "(...)
In the Epic, free will has the
upper hand. Only when a man's
effort is frustrated or when he is
overcome with grief does he
become a predestinarian
(believer in destiny)."; Quote –
"This association of success
with the doctrine of free will or
human effort (purusakara) was
felt so clearly that among the
ways of bringing about a king's
downfall is given the following
simple advice: 'Belittle free will
to him, and emphasize destiny.' "
(Mahabharata 12.106.20)
76. Harold Coward (2003) Encyclopedia
of Science of Religion, MacMillan
Reference, see Karma
77. Sharma, C. (1997). A Critical Survey
of Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0365-5,
pp. 209–10
78. Wilhelm Halbfass, The concepts of
human action and rebirth in the
Mahabharata, in Wendy D. O'Flaherty
(1980), Karma and Rebirth in
Classical Indian Traditions, University
of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-
03923-0, Chapter 11
79. William Mahony (1987), Karman:
Hindu and Jain Concepts, in Editor:
Mircea Eliade, Encyclopedia of
Religion, Collier Macmillan, New York
80. Francis X Clooney (1993), Theology
After Vedanta: An Experiment in
Comparative Theology, State
University of New York Press, ISBN
978-0791413654, pages 68-71
81. Brahma Sutras (Shankara Bhashya)
(5 de março de 2014). «Chapter III,
Section II, Adhikarana VIII» (https://w
ww.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/br
ahma-sutras/d/doc74952.html) .
www.wisdomlib.org (em inglês).
Consultado em 8 de maio de 2022
82. Eli Franco (1981), Lokayata La
Philosophie Dite Materialiste de
l'Inde Classique (http://www.sudoc.f
r/041081900) , Nanterre-Paris,
France
83. Franco, Eli (1998), Nyaya-Vaisesika,
Routledge Encyclopedia of
Philosophy, London
84. Kragh 2006, p. 11.
85. Lamotte 1987, p. 15.
86. P. T. Raju (1985). Structural Depths of
Indian Thought (https://archive.org/d
etails/structuraldepths0000raju) .
[S.l.]: State University of New York
Press. pp. 147 (https://archive.org/d
etails/structuraldepths0000raju/pag
e/147) –151. ISBN 978-0-88706-139-
4
87. Charles Eliot (2014). Japanese
Buddhism (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=EIzsAgAAQBAJ) . [S.l.]:
Routledge. pp. 39–41. ISBN 978-1-
317-79274-1
88. Buswell 2004, p. 712.
89. Vetter 1988, p. xxi.
90. Buswell 2004, p. 416.
91. Matthews 1986, p. 124.
92. Schmithausen 1986, p. 206-207.
93. Bronkhorst 1998, p. 13.
94. Kalupahana 1992, p. 166.
95. Keown 2000, p. 36-37.
96. Gombrich 2009, p. 19.
97. Kopf 2001, p. 141.
98. Kragh 2001, p. 11.
99. Keown 2000, p. 810-813.
100. Klostermaier 1986, p. 93.
101. Bronkhorst 1998.
102. Gethin 1998, p. 119-120.
103. Gethin 1998, p. 119.
104. Gethin 1998, p. 120.
105. Gombrich 1997, p. 55.
106. Thanissaro Bhikkhu, trans. (1997).
Nibbedhika Sutta: Penetrative (http
s://web.archive.org/web/201408130
42845/http://www.accesstoinsight.or
g/tipitaka/an/an06/an06.063.than.h
tml) , AN 6.63, PTS: A iii 410
107. Harvey 1990, pp. 39–40.
108. Dargyay 1986, p. 170.
109. Kalupahana 1975, p. 127.
110. Bhikkhu Thanissaro 2010, pp. 47–48.
111. Harvey 1990, p. 42.
112. Kalupahana 1975, p. 131.
113. Khandro Rinpoche 2003, p. 95.
114. Gombrich 2009, p. 21-22.
115. Vetter 1988, p. 79-80.
116. Buswell & Lopez Jr. 2013, p. 14.
117. accesstoinsight, Acintita Sutta:
Unconjecturable, Anguttara Nikaya
4.77 (http://www.accesstoinsight.or
g/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.077.than.h
tml)
118. Dasgupta 1991, p. 16.
119. Buswell & Lopez Jr. 2013, p. 852.
120. :to
insight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.072.than.
html accesstoinsight, Aggi-
Vacchagotta Sutta: To Vacchagotta
on Fire, translated by Thanissaro
Bhikkhu (http://www.access) [ligação
inativa]
121. accesstoinsight, Aggi-Vacchagotta
Sutta: To Vacchagotta on Fire,
translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu (htt
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a/mn/mn.072.than.html)
122. Fowler, Jeaneane and Merv (2009).
Chanting in the Hillsides. [S.l.: s.n.]
123. Hermann Kuhn, Karma, the
Mechanism, 2004
124. «dravya—Jainism» (https://www.brita
nnica.com/topic/dravya) .
Encyclopædia Britannica
125. Acharya Umasvati, Tattvartha Sutra,
Ch VIII, Sutra 24
126. Pujyapada, Acharya (1992). Reality (h
ttps://archive.org/details/Reality_J
MT) . Traduzido por S. A. Jain. [S.l.]:
Jwalamalini Trust
127. Jaini, Padmanabh, ed. (2000).
Collected papers on Jaina studies
1st ed. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Publishers. 137 páginas
128. Jaini 1998, p. 107.
129. Jaini 1998, pp. 107–115.
130. Jaini 1998, pp. 117–118.
131. Jaini, Padmanabh S. (2003). «From
Nigoda to Moksa: The Story of
Marudevi». In: Qvarnström, Olle.
Jainism and Early Buddhism: Essays
in Honor of Padmanabh S. Jaini. I.
Fremont CA: Asian Humanities Press
(an imprint of Jain Publishing
Company). pp. 1–28
132. Sancheti Asoo Lal, Bhandari Manak
Mal, First Steps to Jainism (Part
Two): Doctrine of Karma, Doctrine of
Anekant and Other Articles with
Appendices, Catalogued by Library of
U.S. Congress, Washington, Card No.
90-232383
133. Sharma, Shiv (30 de março de 2016).
The Soul of Jainism: Philosophy and
Teachings of Jain Religion (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=JDPjCw
AAQBAJ&q=eight+karmas+in+jainis
m&pg=PT109) . [S.l.: s.n.]
ISBN 9788128813436
134. Jaini, Padmanabh S. (2000).
Collected Papers on Jaina Studies (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=
HPggiM7y1aYC&q=eight+karmas+in
+jainism) . [S.l.: s.n.]
ISBN 9788120816916
135. «Gurbani.org» (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20070129135407/http://ww
w.gurbani.org/webart40.htm) .
Consultado em 5 de outubro de
2008. Arquivado do original (http://w
ww.gurbani.org/webart40.htm) em
29 de janeiro de 2007
136. Livia Kohn (1998), Steal holy food
and come back as a Viper –
Conceptions of Karma and Rebirth in
Medieval Daoism (http://www.langua
ges.ufl.edu/EMC/subscribers/vol4/v
ol4kohn.pdf) Arquivado em (https://
web.archive.org/web/201401090630
52/http://www.languages.ufl.edu/EM
C/subscribers/vol4/vol4kohn.pdf)
2014-01-09 no Wayback Machine,
Early Medieval China, 4, pp 1–48
137. Erik Zurcher (1980), Buddhist
influence on early Taoism, T'oung
Pao, Vol. 66, pp 84–147
138. Aidan Rankin (3 fevereiro de 2011).
Shinto: A Celebration of Life (https://
books.google.com/books?id=rg8UW
WZPxw4C&pg=PA133) . [S.l.: s.n.]
133 páginas. ISBN 978-1-84694-438-
3
139. Kaufman, W. R. (2005), Karma,
rebirth, and the problem of evil,
Philosophy East and West, pp 15–32
140. [Moral responsibility] Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford
University (2009); Quote – "Can a
person be morally responsible for her
behavior if that behavior can be
explained solely by reference to
physical states of the universe and
the laws governing changes in those
physical states, or solely by reference
to the existence of a sovereign God
who guides the world along a divinely
ordained path?"
141. Herman, Arthur (1976), The Problem
of Evil in Indian Thought, Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidas
142. Harold Coward (2003) Encyclopedia
of Science of Religion, Macmillan
Reference, see Karma
143. Reichenbach, Bruce (1990), The Law
of Karma, University of Hawai'i Press,
Honolulu, ISBN 978-0-333-53559-2
144. Matthew Dasti e Edwin Bryant
(2013), Free Will, Agency, and
Selfhood in Indian Philosophy, Oxford
University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-
992275-8
145. G. Obeyesekere (1968), Theodicy, sin
and salvation in a sociology of
Buddhism, Practical religion, Editor:
E.R. Leach, Cambridge University
Press
146. Ronald Wesley Neufeldt, Karma and
Rebirth: Post Classical
Developments, State University of
New York Press, ISBN 978-0-87395-
990-2
147. Ver: Keyes, Charles (1983), "Merit-
Transference in the Kammic Theory
of Popular Theravada Buddhism". In:
Keyes, Charles; Daniel, Valentine.
Karma. Berkeley: University of
California Press; e Woodward, F. L.
(1914). "The Buddhist Doctrine of
Reversible Merit". The Buddhist
Review. 6. pp 38–50
148. Ronald Wesley Neufeldt, Karma and
Rebirth: Post Classical
Developments, State University of
New York Press, ISBN 978-0-87395-
990-2, pp 226, see Footnote 74
149. Wendy D. O'Flaherty (1980), Karma
and Rebirth in Classical Indian
Traditions, University of California
Press, ISBN 978-0-520-03923-0,
Chapter 1
150. R Green (2005), Theodicy, in The
Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd Edition
(Editor: Lindsay Jones), Volume 12,
Macmillan Reference, ISBN 978-0-02-
865733-2
151. Max Weber (Translated by Fischoff,
1993), The Sociology of Religion,
Beacon Press, ISBN 978-0-8070-
4205-2, pp. 129–153
152. Clooney, Francis (2005). In: Flood,
Gavin. The Blackwell Companion to
Hinduism. Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 0-
631-21535-2. pp. 454–455.
153. Francis Clooney (1989), "Evil, Divine
Omnipotence and Human Freedom:
Vedanta's theology of Karma",
Journal of Religion, Vol. 69, pp 530–
548
154. P. Bilimoria (2007), Karma's suffering:
A Mimamsa solution to the problem
of evil, in Indian Ethics (Editors:
Bilimoria et al.), Volume 1, Ashgate
Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-3301-3,
pp. 171–189
155. Ver Slokavarttika de Kumarila; para a
tradução em inglês de partes e
discussões: P. Bilimoria (1990),
"Hindu doubts about God – Towards
a Mimamsa Deconstruction",
International Philosophical Quarterly,
30(4), pp. 481–499
156. P. Bilimoria (2013), Toward an Indian
Theodicy, in The Blackwell
Companion to the Problem of Evil
(Editors: McBrayer and Howard-
Snyder), 1st Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, ISBN 978-0-470-67184-9,
Chapter 19
157. Emily Hudson (2012), Disorienting
Dharma: Ethics and the Aesthetics of
Suffering in the Mahabharata, Oxford
University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-
986078-4, pp. 178–217
158. Manmatha Nath Dutt (1895), English
translation of The Mahabharata,
Udyoga Parva, Chapter 159, verse 15
159. Gregory Bailey (1983), Suffering in
the Mahabharata: Draupadi and
Yudhishthira, Purusartha, No. 7, pp.
109–129
160. Hiltebeitel, Alf (2001). Rethinking the
Mahabharata: A Reader's Guide to
the Education of the Dharma King.
University of Chicago Press, ISBN
978-0-226-34053-1. Capítulos 2 e 5
161. P.B. Mehta (2007), The ethical
irrationality of the world – Weber and
Hindu Ethics, in Indian Ethics
(Editors: Billimoria et al.), Volume 1,
Ashgate, ISBN 978-0-7546-3301-3,
pp. 363–375
162. Ursula Sharma (1973), Theodicy and
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Ligações externas
O que é Karma? (https://super.abril.co
m.br/mundo-estranho/o-que-e-karm
a/) - Revista Superinteressante
Obtida de "https://pt.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Carma&oldid=64244385"