ARQUEOLOGIA

BÍBLICA
PERÍODO DO I TEMPLO
MINIMALISTAS VERSUS MAXIMALISTAS
UM POUCO DE HISTÓRIA…
• "baixa cronologia“ - estudiosos que datam o “reino de Davi” (não a figura do próprio
Davi) como mais próximo do ano 900 a.C. do que do ano 1000 a.C.. Eles argumentam
que o reino dele era uma entidade não muito significativa, e que uma geração posterior de
israelitas, no século 7 a.C., decidiu transformá-lo em mito para servir a seus propósitos
nacionalistas.
• Existem monumentais estruturas atribuídas a Salomão e ao Reino Unificado no século 10
a.C. Mas se eu empurro a cronologia para 1 século depois (séc. 9) o material pobre do
século 11 passa a ser o contexto de Davi e Salomão e o material rico do século 10 passa a
ser posterior a eles.
ACHADOS TRADICIONAIS
• II Reis 20:2; II Cr 32:2-4;
II REIS 18:4; II REIS 10:27.
ANTES DO ATAQUE DA BABILÔNIA (JER. 34:7)

• Salutation (lines 1)
May Yahweh give you good news at this time.
• General Statement (lines 2–4)
And now, your servant has done everything my lord sent (me word to do). I have written
downj everything you sent me (word to do).
• Report on Bet-HRPD (lines 4–6)
As regards what my lord said about Bet-HRPD, there is no one there.
• The Semakyahu Situation (lines 6–12)
As for Semakyahu, Shemayahu has seized him and taken him upk to the city. Your servant
cannot send the witness there [today]; rather, it is during the morning tour that [he will
come (to you)]. Then it will be known that we are watching the (fire)-signals of Lachish
according to the code which my lord gave us, for we cannot see Azeqah.
• No ano V do rei Roboão, filho de Salomão,
Sisaque, invadiu Judá. Destruiu um certo
número de cidades e levou os tesouros do
templo (1ª Reis 14:25,26; 2ª Crónicas 12:4).
SARGÃO E SEU TARTÃ
• Isaias 20:1
• Três fragmentos encontrados em Asdod, (areas A e G)
presume-se que são de uma estela ded Sargão II pela
comparação com outra encontrada em seu palácio.
• “Sargão rei da Assiria, que conquistou Shinuhtu,
Samaria e toda a região de Israel e fez cativos de
Asdod” (ANET 284)
• “Eu cerquei e conquistei as cidades de Asdode, Gate e
Ashdudimmu (Asdode Marítima?) … eu reorganizei
essas cidades e assentei nelas povos de outras regiões
que eu mesmo conquistei. Instalei um oficial de
minha confiança ali” (ANET: 286)
• No começo de meu reinado, Eu …. A cidade de
Samaria eu sitiei, conquistei (duas linhas destruídas)
[para o deus … ] que me concedeu alcançar este meu
triunfo. … 27.290 moradores eu transferi …Depois a
reergui mais bela que antes e trouxe para ali pessoas de
outros países que também havia conquistador. (Nimrud
Prism IV 25-41)
• Museum number
• 99016
• Title (series)
• Library of Ashurbanipal

• Description
• Broken clay tablet, letter, 14 + 1 + 15
lines of inscription, Late Babylonian.
Probably a letter addressed to the king.
Reference is made to the "turtan", and to
troops and horses.
 KHORSABAD INSCRIPTIONS

• Property of Sargon, etc., king of Assyria, etc.)

conqueror of Samaria (Sa-mir-i-na) and of the entire
(country of) Israel (Bît-Hu-um-ri-a) who despoiled
Ashdod (and) Shinuhti, who caught the Greeks who
(live on islands) in the sea, like fish, who exterminated
Kasku, all Tabali and Cilicia (Hilakku), who chased
away Midas (Mi-ta-a) king of Musku, who defeated
Musur (Mu-u-ri) in Rapihu, who declared Hanno, king
of the country Ia', a district on Cyprus (Ia-ad-na-na),
(who) dwell (on an island) in the sea, at (a distance of)
a seven-day journey.
• Layard made a paper mache copy
(squeeze) of one summary (number four),
and then left the inscription where he
found it. The inscription later came up
missing. From Layard’s squeeze,
however, we know it read as follows:
“Israel (litearlly, Omri-land Bit-Humria)…
All its inhabitants (and) their possessions I
led to Assyria. They overthrew their king
Pekah and I placed Hoshea as king over
them. I received from them 10 talents of
gold, 1,000 (?) talents of silver as their
[tri]bute and brought them to Assyria.”
II Reis 3:4-27, locais (Dibon, Medeba, Queriote etc), a
vitoria de Omri sobre Moabe, tetragrama, deuses,
Quemós
• 2 Kings 16:7 So Ahaz sent
messengers to Tiglath-pileser
king of Assyria, saying, “I am
your servant and your son.
Come up and rescue me from
the hand of the king of Syria
and from the hand of the king
of Israel [Pekah], who are
attacking me.” (ESV) See also
Isaiah 7.
O QUE OS CRÍTICOS ADMITEM

• Onde há fontes históricas claras e disponíveis o texto é confirmado pelos achados. Ex. O
cerco de Babilônia, Acaz pagando tributo para a Assíria, Tiglat Pileser III. Só não
explicam porque a Bíblia é tão precisa nestes pontos confirmados e lendária nos
anteriores. Ausência de evidência não é evidência da ausência. Pela estatística a
probabilidade maior é de um livro histórico e não de um livro lendário.
• As descrições geográficas, de transações comerciais, códigos reais são muito precisas.
• Davi existiu.
QUE DIZEM OS CRÍTICOS

• Não havia atividade redacional nesta época (a Bíblia é posterior a isso 586 a.C. em diante –
destruição de Jerusalém. Os mais otimistas aceitam alguma coisa a partir de 700 a.C.).
• Não houve reino unificado de Davi e Salomão.
• A Bíblia não é um livro histórico. É um livro de mitos e exageros nacionalistas. Davi era apenas
um lider tribal.
• Minimalismo se alimenta da Alta Crítica que se alimenta do Minimalismo! Ex. Nota de
Finkelstein para refutar Garfinkel: “Mas o texto de 1 Samuel 17 é deuteronomista em sua
linguagem e parece descrever a influência homérica. É claro, portanto, que a história não
poderia ter sido escrita antes do final do século VII aC. “
ATIVIDADE ESCRITURISTICA EM JUDÁ E ISRAEL

• Os judeus costumam destruir manuscritos bíblicos quanto estão muito gastos.

• Escreviam em papiro e pergaminho e muita coisa não resistiu ao tempo
IZBET SARTAH OSTRACON
– 1200 A.C. (EBENEZER, I
SAMUEL 4:1)
ABC DE TEL ZAYIT (SÉC. 10 A.C.)
INSCRIÇÃO
ALFABÉTICA DE
JERUSALÉM SÉC. 10 A.C.
 OSTRACA DE TEL ARAD (600 A.C.)

• “We can now say that

writing is everywhere,
from the upper echelons of
the Judahite army, down to
the level of vice-
quartermaster of some
remote, isolated fort,”
.

• 7o. ;6o. sécu

• (1 Sam 17:52; 1 Cr 4:31)
• arqueólogos da Universidade Bar-llan afirmam que a estrutura
monumental e o assentamento ao redor descobertos perto das colinas
de Hebron, nas terras baixas centrais de Israel, representa uma
possível prova da existência de edifícios públicos da era de Davi
(século X a.C.).
• O mais parecido com isso era a “Residência do Governador”, uma
construção que foi destruída no século 8 diante da invasão Assíria.
As ruínas, porém, resguardam características da arquitetura típica
dos povos de Israel, sem influência dos Filisteus, por exemplo, o que
indica que só foi construída muitos séculos depois do Reino de Davi.
• Um estudo recém publicado pelos arqueólogos Avraham Faust e Yair
Sapir, no jornal Radiocabon, dá sobrevida à ideia da existência do
reino. “Surpreendentemente, as datas de radiocarbono da fundação
que foi colocado abaixo do piso indicam que o edifício já havia sido
erguido no século 10 a.C., entre o final do século 11 e o terceiro
quarto do século 10 a.C.”, afirma Faust.

Segundo os pesquisadores, o engano foi causado pelo que

conhecemos como “efeito casa velha”, no qual uma construção
antiga existe por muitos séculos, porém guardam registros somente
de sua última fase. “As fases anteriores são dificilmente
representadas nas pesquisas, pouco estudadas e raramente
publicadas”, diz o estudo.
I REIS 9:15
• I Sam. 4:18; Prov. 1:21;
• Laquis.
TEL MEGIDO
I REIS 10:26

• I Reis 10:26
TEL GEZER
TEL HAZOR
• Portais de seis vãos foram encontrados
também em Lachish, Kh.Qeiyafa. A
novidade desses três é a mesma datação,
século X a.C.
• Marfim de Samaria 2 Reis 9,30
• II Samuel 11:6-
10, 13;
• II Samuel 5:17.
• Sar ha ir ou sari’r governador da
cidade II Reis 23:7; II Cro. 34:8
JEREMIAS 1:11
• The Arad ostraca are a collection of military dispatches mostly addressed to the fort’s quartermaster,
Eliashiv, detailing troop movements and ordering distributions of provisions.
• The researchers selected 16 out of some 100 ostraca; photographed and digitized them; and wrote
software that could recognize and compare the handwriting on the most frequently-used letters of
the alphabet.
• "Through probability analysis, we eliminated the likelihood that the texts were written by a single
author.“
• In fact, the analysis found that just those 16 potsherds had been written by at least six different
hands, showing that literacy was widespread in Judah’s army.
• But the fact that one of the Arad letters was penned by Eliashiv’s deputy means that literacy trickled
down to the lower levels of society. It is unlikely that a member of a leading family would be given
such a relatively lowly post in a remote desert fort, he said.
• Finkelstein e outros que afirmavam não existir evidência de atividade escribal em Canaã
antes do século 9 a.C. teve novamente que engolir a língua com a descoberta de um caco
de cerâmica com aproximadamente 15 cm. O ostracon contém uma inscrição que data do
11º século a.C. e foi descoberto no sítio arqueológico de Khirbet Qeyafa. “Não se trata de
uma aglomerado de palavras desconexas”, explica Luiz. “É um texto que faz menção de
um juiz (shaphat), rei (melekh) e escravos (‘eved).” “Quando Frank Moore Cross – um
dos principais especialistas em inscrições proto-cananitas de Harvard – examinou o
ostracon e a inscrição, ele ficou duas noites sem dormir”, disse Lawrence Stager,
professor de Arqueologia Bíblica em Harvard.
• However the authors cannot escape from the ring of authenticity that is found in Bible
history. ‘The biblical narrative is filled with so many specific details about trade
transactions, monetary values, and complex royal administration that its authors seem to
be describing a reality they knew from personal experience’ (p. 153)
• Another interesting piece of evidence came to light in 2005. Goliath came from the
Philistine city of Gath (1 Samuel 17:4). Until recently nobody knew for sure where Gath
was but archaeologists excavating at Tell es-Safi found evidence that this was indeed
Gath. They found something else too—an ostracon (piece of pottery with writing on it)
on which was written the name ‘Goliath’. Nobody was claiming that this was the giant
whom David felled, but it did prove that the name Goliath was known in Gath. It was not
just some mythical name concocted by a scribe hundreds of years later
FINKELSTEIN BASEIA-SE MUITO MO MÉTODO
CRITIC HISTÓRICO DAS FONTES

In reply, here is the more sober judgment of Israel Finkelstein:

Making straight forward connection between this site and the biblical tradition on the duel between David and Goliath takes archaeology back a
century, to the days when archaeologists roamed the terrain with a Bible in one hand and a spade in the other. The story of David and Goliath is a
complex one. There could have been an ancient memory on conflicts between Judah and Philistine Gath in this region and the story of the slaying of
Goliath by a hero named David or Elhanan (2 Sam. 21:19) may be related to this ancient tradition. But the text in 1 Samuel 17 is Deuteronomistic in
its language, and it seems to depict Homeric influence. It is clear therefore that the story could not have been put in writing before the late 7th century
BCE. More than anything else the story portrays the theological goals of the authors and the historical reality of the time of the authors – centuries
after the high days of Khirbet Qeiyafa.
A final note on this issue: the eruption of the tradition biblical archaeology, characterized by a highly literal interpretation of the biblical text, should
not come as a surprise. It is an unavoidable phase in the now two-centuries-long battle between the advocators of a critical history of ancient Israel
and the supporters of a conservative approach that tells a basically biblically narrated history of ancient Israel in modern words. Following every
high-tide of critical studies comes a “counter-revolution” of the conservative school.
• Minimalismo alimenta metodo critic histórico e metodo critic histórico alimenta minimalismo
• In this case, “minimalism” is defined, apparently, as the belief that David and Solomon and their
“United Monarchy” did not exist. Well, “minimalists” have come to that conclusion, it is true,
though there is a great deal of historical methodology, archaeological data and textual exegesis
lying behind that conclusion, and no minimalist that I know would regard the existence of
David et al. as an essential tenet of minimalism. Without indulging in a detailed exposition, the
issue is about how, why and when the Biblical books were written—a rather larger and more
complex thesis than Garfinkel seems to appreciate, and a problem of which the historicity of
otherwise any individual person or event forms only a rather small part. Philip Davies BAR
• E também sofre de sérias divisões. Finkelstein está entre os mais proeminentes advogados
da escola conhecida como
• According to Finkelstein, the dating of early Israelite archaeological materials, especially
pottery, should be lowered by a century from their traditional and widely accepted
chronology.
• The Sargon Inscription says "In my first year I captured Samaria. I took captive 27,290
people. People of other lands who never paid tribute, I settled in Samaria."
• "Woe to Assyria, the rod of My anger And the staff in whose hand is My indignation.
Isaiah 10:5
• "In the year that Tartan came unto Ashdod, (when Sargon the king of Assyria sent him,)
and fought against Ashdod, and took it;" Isaiah 20:1
• "I will punish the fruit of the arrogant heart of the king of Assyria, and the glory of his
haughty looks."
THE PALACE CONTAINED RELIEFS OF SARGON. ONE RELIEF
PORTRAYS SARGON’S CAPTURE OF ASHDOD IN 711 BC. THE
INSCRIPTION IN ROOM 14 READS:

• iamani[1] from Ashdod, afraid of my armed force left his wife and children and fled to the
frontier of Musru which belongs to Meluhha (Ethiopia) and hid there like a thief. I
installed an officer of mine as governor over his entire large country and its prosperous
inhabitants, (thus) aggrandizing (again) territory belonging to Ashur, the king of the
gods. The terror inspiring glamor of the Ashur, my lord, overpowered the king of Meluhha
and he threw him (i.e. Iamani) in fetters on hands and feet, and sent him to me, at
Assyria. I conquered and sacked the towns Shinuhtu (and) Samaria, and all Israel (Omri-
Land Bit Hu-um-ri-ia). I caught, like a fish, the Greek (Ionians) who live on islands
amidst the Western Sea.
• Tartan - Assyrian writings indicate that the title Tartan applied to an officer of high rank,
probably second only to the king. Concerning the order of the titles in Assyrian eponym
lists, James B. Pritchard, editor of Ancient Near Eastern Texts (1974, p. 274), comments:
“Later on, the position of the official within the hierarchy was decisive for the sequence,
the highest official (tartanu) following the king immediately, while important palace
officers . . . and the governors of the foremost provinces took their turn in well-
established order.”
• Another relief portrays Sargon together with his Tartan, the chief commanding officer of
Sargon’s army. This is most likely the very same Tartan spoken of by Isaiah.
• In 1963 archaeologists also discovered fragments from a monument that was erected at
Ashdod reading, “Sargon, king of Assyria, who conquered Samaria and the entire region
of Israel, he who made captives of Ashdod.” This monument was probably erected at the
behest of Sargon himself.
• Defeat of Samaria/Israel
• This statement number seven dates to 729 BC and reads: “In all the countries which… [I
received] the tribute of… Jehoahaz (this is Ahaz with a theophoric prefix attached) of
Judah…(consisting of) gold, silver, tin, iron, antimony, linen garments with multicolored
trimmings….”
• See 2 Kings 15:29-30