Vocabulary II

Prof. John Whitlam

Lexicology & Lexicography

Lexicology the study of words and
the lexicon

Lexicography the cataloguing of the

lexicon in dictionaries

Lexicology
What is a word? the nature of words
Morphology - the forms and elements of
words
Lexical semantics the meaning of words
Semantic relations how words relate to
one another
Collocation and phraseology how words
combine with one another
The lexicon as a system

What is a word?
Single indivisible unit* of language with a
discrete meaning
*unit = combination of sounds
NB: A single word in the
semantic/phonetic sense may correspond
to more than one written word:
e.g. washing machine, cara de pau

One word or more?

English:
to the man
Portuguese: ao homem
Danish: til manden
Arabic: lir-rajul (li+al+rajul)

Turkish:
Brezilyallatramadklarmzdan msnz?
Voc um daqueles que no conseguimos
abrasileirar?

Brezilyallatramadklarmzda
n msnz?
Brezilya - Brasil
Brezilyal brasileiro
Brezilyalla virar brasileiro
Brezilyallatr fazer virar brasileiro > abrasileirar
Brezilyallatrama no possvel abrasileirar
Brezilyallatramadk que no possvel abrasileirar
Brezilyallatramadklar aqueles que no possvel abrasileirar
Brezilyallatramadklarmz aqueles que no possvel ns abrasileirarmos > que no conseguimos
abrasileirar
Brezilyallatramadklarmzdan um daqueles que no conseguimos abrasileirar
Brezilyallatramadklarmzdan m? um daqueles que no conseguimos abrasileirar?
Brezilyallatramadklarmzdan msnz? Voc um daqueles que no conseguimos abrasileirar?

Lexemes
Are dog and dogs the same word, or two
different words?
Are speak, speaks, speaking, spoke and
spoken five different words, or one?
Lexeme DOG has two word forms: dog,
dogs
Lexeme SPEAK has five word forms:
speak, speaks, speaking, spoke, spoken

Morphemes
Morpheme: minimal meaningful unit of
language
dogs consists of two morphemes:
root morpheme dog
inflectional morpheme -s
independently consists of four
morphemes:
root morpheme depend
derivational morphemes in- -ent -ly

Inflectional Morphemes
Inflectional morphemes produce
different forms of the same lexeme
e.g. speaks, speaking, spoke, spoken
Use of inflectional morphemes is
determined by inflectional rules,
which in turn are determined by
syntax the role of the word in the
sentence: morphosyntactics

Derivational Morphemes
Derivational morphemes produce new
lexemes
e.g. write > writer, rewrite, writings
Use of derivational morphemes are
determined by rules of word formation
Derivational morphemes (affixes: prefixes
and suffixes) have a meaning. These
meanings can be difficult to describe in
words, but are instinctively understood by
native speakers through ANALOGY

Prefixes in English 1
Prefixes

Examples

Portuguese

unzip, illegal, nonsmoker, decode,

dislike

des-, in-, no, dis- ,

pouco

A. Negative prefixes
un-, in-, non-, de-, dis-

B. Latin prefixes
anti-, co-, inter-, post-, anti-American, copre-, pro-, re-, semi-,
pilot, international,
sub-, super-, etc.
post-war,
prefabricated, proNB:
Chinese, rebuild,
archsemicircle,
hypersubconscious,
hyposupersonic

anti-, co-, inter-, ps-,

pr-, pr-, re-, semi-,
sub-, super-, etc.
NB:
arqui-, arque-, arcehiperhipo-

Prefixes in English 2
C. English prefixes

Examples

Portuguese

mis-

misjudge, misspell,
mistake

mal, de forma errada

out-

outgrow, outlive,
outnumber, outwit

(superar, exceder,
ultrapassar)

over-

1. overeat, overdo,
overweight
2. overcome,
overtake
3. overfly, overpass

1. (em excesso, de
forma exagerada)
2. (superao)
3. (por cima)

under-

1. undernourished,
underfunded
2. undergo,
undertake
3. underline,
underpin

1. (insuficincia) sub2. (incumbncia,

submisso)
3. (por baixo)

Exercise 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

hipermercado
ps-operatrio
desadicionar (no orkut, FB)
pouco convincente
arquirrival

6. misinformation
7. Not to be outdone, our neighbors also bought a
new car.
8. Dont overdo it.
9. John Lewis never knowingly undersold
10.The apartment had to be deroached.

English Suffixes 1
Suffix

Examples

Portuguese
equivalent

-able, -ible

probable, horrible

-vel, -vel

-al

1. national, natural
1. -al
2. proposal, approval 2. proposta,
aprovao

-dom

boredom, kingdom

(qualidade; domnio)

-ee

employee,
interviewee

-ado, -ido

-er

1. writer, smoker
2. stapler, printer

-dor, -nte
-dor, -dora

-ess

actress, waitress

-a, -iz, -esa etc.

-ful

1. fearful, powerful
2. teaspoonful,
cupful

1. -oso
2. (quantidade)

-hood

childhood,
motherhood

-dade etc.

-ic

tragic, logic

-ico, -ica

Suffix

Examples

Portuguese
equivalent

-ify

identify, modify

-ificar

-ish

greenish, smallish

(mais ou menos)

-ism

Leninism, feminism

-ismo

-ist

artist, saxophonist

-ista

-ity

immunity, paternity

-idade

-ize

Americanize,
nationalize

-izar

-less

homeless, useless

in-, sem-

-ly

1. quietly,
importantly
2. friendly, monthly

-mente
-al etc.

-ness

kindness, closeness

-eza, -dade, -ncia

etc.

-ship

ownership,
professorship

(qualidade/cargo de)
-ado

-sion, -tion

decision, creation,
nation

-so/-o

-th

depth, width, strength (qualidade)

English Suffixes 2

Productive Affixes in English

Productive prefixes:
un-, non-, de-, disreColloquial: hyper-, mega-, super-, uber Productive suffixes:
-able/-ible, -ee, -er, -hood, -ify, -ish,
-ism, -ist, -ize, -less, -ly, -ness, -ship,
-sion/-tion, -y

Words ending in -ic

academic, acoustic, acrobatic, (a)esthetic, agnostic, alcoholic, algebraic,
altruistic, an(a)emic, an(a)esthetic, angelic, antarctic, antibiotic, antiSemitic, antiseptic, apathetic, apologetic, aquatic, Arabic, archaic, arctic,
aristocratic, aromatic, arthritic, artistic, athletic, atmospheric, atomic,
authentic, autocratic, automatic, ballistic, basic, bombastic, bureaucratic,
cathartic, catholic, caustic, ceramic, chaotic, characteristic, chronic, civic,
concentric, cosmetic, cosmic, cryptic, cubic, democratic, demonic,
despotic, diabetic, didactic, diplomatic, dogmatic, domestic, dramatic,
drastic, dynamic, eccentric, eclectic, ecstatic, elastic, electronic, emphatic,
encyclop(a)edic, endemic, energetic, enigmatic, enthusiastic, epic,
epidemic, epileptic, erotic, erratic, ethnic, euphoric, exotic, fantastic,
frantic, gastric, generic, genetic, geriatric, gigantic, Gothic, graphic, hectic,
heroic, hieroglyphic, Hispanic, histrionic, hydraulic, hydroelectric, hygienic,
hypnotic, Icelandic, idiomatic, idiotic, idyllic, intrinsic, italic, journalistic,
laconic, lethargic, linguistic, lunatic, magnetic, majestic, melodramatic,
metallic, microscopic, monolithic, mosaic, narcotic, neurotic, nomadic,
obstetric, oceanic, Olympic, operatic, optimistic, organic, paralytic,
pathetic, patriotic, pedantic, pessimistic, phlegmatic, phonetic,
photogenic, photographic, plastic, pneumatic, prolific, prosaic, psychic,
public, romantic, rustic, sadistic, scenic, scientific, semantic, septic, Slavic,
specific, sporadic, static, supersonic, symbolic, sympathetic, synthetic,
systematic, therapeutic, tragic, vitriolic, volcanic

Words ending in -ical

allegorical, analytical, anatomical,
anthropological (all -logical words),
astronomical, Biblical, biographical, botanical,
chemical, cyclical, cylindrical, cynical,
diabolical, ecumenical, empirical, evangelical,
farcical, geological, grammatical, hypocritical,
hypothetical, hysterical, identical, illogical,
lackadaisical, metaphorical, methodical,
mythical, mythological, nautical, nonsensical,
numerical, paradoxical, pharmaceutical,
physical, physiological, practical, psychological,
quizzical, radical, satirical, spherical, surgical,
technical, technological, typical, tyrannical,
umbilical, vertical, zoological

Words ending in -ic/-ical 1

Either -ic or -ical with no change of meaning:
ecclesiastistic(al), geographic(al), geometric(al), ironic(al),
logistic(al), philosophic(al), poetic(al), rhythmic(al), stoic(al),
symmetric(al), typographic(al)
Noun ends in ic(s), adjective ends in ical:
aeronautics/aeronautical, arithmetic/arithmetical,
cleric/clerical, clinic/clinical, critic/critical, ethics/ethical,
fanatic/fanatical, heretic/heretical, logic/logical, lyric/lyrical,
mathematics/ mathematical, mechanic/mechanics/mechanical,
medic/medical, music/musical, mystic/mystical, optics/optical,
rhetoric/rhetorical, sceptic/sceptical,
statistic/statistics/statistical, tactic/tactical, theatrics/theatrical,
topic/topical, tropic/tropical
NB: periodical/periodic(al)

Words ending in -ic/-ical 2

Both forms exist with distinct meanings:
classic (tpico, consagrado, admirado) x classical (relativo
msica clssica ou antiguidade romana e grega)
comic (escrito como comdia) x comical (muito engraado)
economic (relativo economia) x economical (barato,
parcimonioso)
electric (movido eletricidade, eletrizante) x electrical
(relativo eletricidade ou a aparelhos eletricos)
historic (muito antigo; marcante, que faz histria) x historical
(relativo histria)
magic (que tem poder mgico ou que envolve mgica) x
magical (irreal, onrico)
metric (relativo ao sistema mtrico de medidas) x metrical
(relativo ao metro potico)
politic (prudente, diplomtico) x political (relativo poltica)

Exercise 2
1. um erro clssico
2. prdios histricos
3. uma noite mgica
4. um fogo eltrico
5. um pianista clssico
6. um estudo histrico
7. um anel mgico
8. um defeito eltrico
9. uma vitria histrica
10.uma cena cmica

How does the lexicon develop

and expand?
Existing words take on new meanings
e.g. mouse, to click, to like, bookmark
New words are created
e.g. internet, dongle, docudrama
Words are borrowed from other
languages
e.g. samba, capoeira, favela, caipirinha
Words and meanings fall into disuse
and die out

How are new words

created?
Conversion (e.g. from noun to verb: to
hand, to book, to house, to friend)
Derivation (write > writer, rewrite,
writing)
Composition (toothbrush, ghost-writer
etc.; write back, write in, write off, write
out)
Invention (dongle, docudrama,
edutainment)

Word types
Root words (house, book, hand, car,
write etc.)
Derived words (handy, writer,
rewrite, bookish etc.)
Compound words (houseboat,
bookshelf, race car, ghost-write etc.)
Shortenings and abbreviations (lab,
flu, photo, MP, OK etc.)

Content Words vs. Form

Words
Content words most of the words of the
language which have a more or less
clearly defined meaning even in isolation
e.g. car, house, impossible, to create etc.
Form words words which are almost
empty of meaning in isolation, but which
structure the relations between content
words
e.g. the, that, not, a(n), of, will etc.

The meaning of words

Until 1930s, people only interested in
the development of words over time:
etymology and evolution of meaning
Synchronic study of meaning only
began in 20th century with Saussure
Saussure took structuralist approach:
the meaning of a word is understood
by how it differs from the meaning of
other words in the lexicon

Ferdinand de Saussure
Swiss linguist 1857-1913
Each word is a sign
Each sign consists of a signifier (phonetic
or written representation) and a signified
(the thing, action or quality referred to)
Signifiers are arbitrary thats why there
are different languages
Signified is also arbitrary how the world
is classified is not fixed, but done using
language, so native speakers of different
languages see the world in different ways

Signifier vs. Signified

The signified is also

arbitrary 1
c siniy

goluboy

The signified is also

arbitrary 2
English
Bonfire Night, homecoming queen,
letter jacket, root beer, sorority,
binge drinking
Portuguese
feijoada, roda de samba, forr
universitrio, farofeiro, favela

What is meaning?
The meaning of a word is made up of:
denotative component
connotative components

Denotative components
lonely -------- [alone, without company]
notorious -------- [widely known]
celebrated -------- [widely known]
to glare -------- [to look]
to glance -------- [to look]
to shiver -------- [to tremble]
to shudder-------- [to tremble]

Connotative components
lonely -------- [alone , without company] {sad}
solitary -------- [alone , without company] {out of choice}
notorious -------- [widely known] {for doing bad things}
celebrated -------- [widely known] {for outstanding
achievement}
to glare -------- [to look] {angrily}
to glance -------- [to look] {briefly}
to stare -------- [to look] {insistently, for some time}
to shiver -------- [to tremble] {continuously, usually with
cold}
to shudder-------- [to tremble] {once, with fear or disgust}

Connotation Types
Connotation Type

Examples

Intensity

surprise, astonish, amaze,

astound

Duration

stare, gaze, peer vs. glance, peep

Emotive

lonely vs. solitary

Evaluative (value judgement)

notorious vs. celebrated, eyes

sparkle vs. eyes glint/glitter

Causative

shiver (with cold) vs. shudder

(with disgust), to blush (with
embarrassment) vs. to redden
(with anger)

Manner

walk vs. stroll, amble, trot etc.

Attendant circumstances

peep (secretly, from a hiding

place) vs. peer (in darkness, at a
distance)

Attendant features

beautiful vs. handsome vs. pretty

Stylistic (register)

meal vs. bite to eat, repast, blow-

Exercise 3
What are the connotations of the
following words:
think, ponder, reflect, deliberate,
meditate, muse, ruminate, brood
laugh, chuckle, chortle, guffaw,
giggle, titter, snicker (Brit: snigger),
roar, crack up, piss yourself

Register
Neutral words that do not have a particular
register (e.g. toilet, bottom)
Colloquial words that are only appropriate in
informal speech/writing (e.g. loo, bum/butt/buns)
Slang words restricted to certain groups and/or
certain very informal situations (e.g. bog, arse/ass)
Taboo swear words (e.g. shitter, arsehole/asshole)
Formal words that are only used in formal
contexts (e.g. lavatory, WC; buttocks, rear)
Literary words that are only used in literary
contexts (e.g. privy, derrire)
Specialist words relating to a specific field (e.g.
toilet bowl, glutes)

Euphemism
Euphemism

Non-euphemism

public convenience, bathroom,

restroom, comfort station

toilet

backside, behind, derrire

buttocks

pass away

die

family planning

contraception

privates, private parts

genitals

overweight

fat

homely, plain

unattractive

differently abled

disabled, handicapped

sleep with, go to bed with

have sex with

tired and emotional

drunk

freaking, frigging, flipping

fucking

Exercise 4
1. to be economical with the truth
2. intellectually challenged
3. to powder your nose
4. to see a man about a dog
5. bathroom tissue
6. correctional facility
7. enhanced interrogation
8. adult entertainment
9. sanitation worker
10.gentlemens club

Synonyms
Ideographic synonyms same
denotation, different connotation (e.g.
arremessar, jogar, tacar)
Stylistic synonyms same denotation,
different register (e.g. colocar x botar)
Absolute synonyms identical in
denotation, connotation and register
(e.g. colocar, pr)

Synonymic Groups
Dominant (unmarked)
synonym
no connotations

Marked synonyms
with connotations

surprised

astonished, amazed, astounded,

stunned, flabbergasted,
gobsmacked

shout

yell, bellow, roar, scream, shriek

look

stare, glare, gaze, peer, peep,

gawp

tremble

shiver, shudder, quiver, shake,

quake

make

create, manufacture, turn out,

fabricate, produce

shine

flash, blaze, gleam, glisten,

sparkle, glitter, shimmer, glimmer

angry

furious, enraged, mad, apoplectic,

pissed

fear

panic, terror, dread, apprehension

Conclusions
Languages have a neutral core vocabulary which is
purely denotative and unmarked
Absolute syonyms are a temporary phenomenon in
language generally, no two words share exactly the
same denotation and connotation
One element of meaning is the contrast with other
words in the lexicon
Translators should match not only the denotative
meaning of a word or expression, but also the
connotative elements. Bilingual dictionaries only do
this to a certain extent.
Teachers should teach not only the denotative
meaning of a word or expression, but also make
students aware of its connotations. Translation helps
here.

False Friends 1
1.
These days, environmental concerns are high on the agenda.
O primeiro-ministro tem uma agenda muito cheia.
2.
The president had not anticipated the outcry the decision
would cause.
O presidente antecipou para segunda-feira sua reunio com
ministros.

3.
The man was charged with assault.
O homem foi condenado por assalto mo armada.

4.
This cannot be done without Her Majestys assent.
Um rapaz cedeu o assento senhora idosa.

5.
The magician asked a member of the audience to assist him
with the trick.
O senador assistiu ao casamento da filha de um aliado poltico.

False Friends 2
6. It is safe to assume that the phone company is to blame for the
mistake.
No vou assumir a culpa por uma coisa que eu no fiz.

7. Im not sure Im going to be able to attend tomorrows meeting.

Voc acha que ela vai atender ao nosso pedido?

8. The party was a very casual affair and I felt rather overdressed.
No passou de um encontro casual.

9. The casualties were taken to a nearby hospital.

O gol contra pode ter sido uma casualidade, mas j o terceiro
marcado por este jogador.

10.
The government is proposing a comprehensive set of reforms.
Eu achei que voc fosse ser mais compreensivo.

False Friends 3
11.
How can peace be achieved when neither side is prepared to
compromise?
Os dois pases se comprometeram a encontrar uma soluo
pacfica.

12.
Do you already have your costume for the Carnival parade?
O casamento foi combinado pelos pais, como o costume do pas.

13.
He was charged with obtaining money by deception.
Ela no conseguiu esconder sua decepo.

14.
Security cameras are supposed to deter intruders.
Os seguranas resolveram deter o intruso.

15.
Its a disgrace the way people are treated in public hospitals.
No sou de me comprazer com a desgraa alheia.

False Friends 4
16.
One of the robbers creates a diversion while the other steals the
bag.
A Internet pode ser uma fonte inesgotvel de conhecimentos e
diverso.

17.
Shes very well educated.
Ela muito bem-educada.

18.
The couple exchanged e-mails and eventually arranged to meet.
Os participantes trocam e-mails e eventualmente marcam um
encontro.

19.
The ministers exit from office has sparked a political crisis.
O ministro no obteve xito com a nova poltica.

20.
The policeman was exonerated of any blame for the shooting.
O policial foi exonerado por ter atirado contra o suspeito.

False Friends 5
21.
It felt more secure to be in familiar surroundings.
Muitas crianas no vivem num ambiente familiar estvel.

22.
There are many grand buildings and monuments in Paris.
um prdio grande com uma agncia de viagens no trreo.

23.
Environmental protection should be an integral part of all
government policy.
As famlias tm assistncia mdica integral.

24.
You cant buy liquor unless you have ID.
Depois do jantar, pedimos um licor.
25.
I dont think I can manage another piece of cake.
Massa maneja o carro com grande habilidade.

False Friends 6
26.
There was a notice on the door saying Back in 5 mins.
Foi uma notcia que surpreendeu a todos.

27.
I like reading historical novels.
Gosto de novelas de poca.

28.
Its an offence to park on a double-yellow line.
Nos pases rabes, uma ofensa mostrar a sola do p.

29.
Heres a photo of my parents.
Essa uma foto de alguns dos meus parentes.

30.
He has a peculiar accent. Wheres he from?
Os sul-africanos tm um sotaque peculiar.

False Friends 7
31.
The price of petrol has gone up again.
O preo do petrleo voltou a subir.
32.
Many gay teenagers have suffered prejudice at school.
Muitos comerciantes sofreram prejuzo com o quebra-quebra.

33.
She doesnt call me anymore now shes preoccupied with
her new baby.
A me estava preocupada com o beb, que no mamava
direito.

34.
This cake contains no preservatives or artificial flavorings.
A Igreja catlica condena o uso do preservativo.

35.
He pretends to be a professional footballer.
Ele pretende ser jogador profissional.

False Friends 8
36. Shes a physics professor.
Ela professora de Fsica.

37. The discussion was resumed after lunch.

A discusso foi resumida na ata.

38. It was an emotional reunion.

Foi uma reunio acalorada.

39. I was robbed as I was coming out of the bank.

A minha carteira foi roubada dentro do banco!

40. I dont know how he supports that family of his.

No sei como ele suporta aquela famlia dele.

41. She was very sympathetic and said she would try to help me.
Ela foi muito simptica e disse que ia me ajudar.

42. The government introduced a tax on financial transactions.

O banco cobra uma taxa por cada movimento da conta.