Interfacial Drag and the Growth of Martensite

F.J. S C H O E N A N D W . S. O W E N

A n e w m o d e l f o r t h e g r o w t h o f m a s s i v e - m a r t e n s i t e in F e - N i - C a l l o y s is p r e s e n t e d a n d p r e -
d i c t i o n s f r o m i t a r e c o m p a r e d w i t h the r e s u l t s o f h o t - s t a g e m e t a l l o g r a p h i c e x p e r i m e n t s o n
f i v e F e - 1 0 N i - C a l l o y s . T h e c o m p a r i s o n i n v o l v e s s i x s t e p s : 1) D e v e l o p m e n t o f a s p e c i f i c
m o d e l o f the i n t e r f a c e f o r a p a r t i c u l a r c r y s t a l l o g r a p h y . T h e s i n g l e a r r a y o f p a r a l l e l d i s l o -
c a t i o n s c a l c u l a t e d f o r t h i s i n t e r f a c e is c o m p a t i b l e in e v e r y w a y w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e
crystallographic t h e o r i e s ; 2) c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e e l a s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n e n e r g y b e t w e e n t h e s t r a i n
f i e l d s of d i s s o l v e d c a r b o n a t o m s i n t h e m a r t e n s i t e l a t t i c e a n d t h e s t r e s s f i e l d of t h e d i s l o c a -
t i o n a r r a y i n t h e i n t e r f a c e ; 3) d e v e l o p m e n t o f d i f f u s i o n m o d e l s f o r t h e d r a g f o r c e c r e a t e d by
t h i s i n t e r a c t i o n o n a m o v i n g i n t e r f a c e d u r i n g t h e f o r m a t i o n of t h e m a r t e n s i t e p h a s e ; 4) e s t a b -
l i s h m e n t o f a b a l a n c e of f o r c e s a t t h e m o v i n g i n t e r f a c e ; 5) p r e d i c t i o n o f g r o w t h r a t e s o f t h e
p r o d u c t ; a n d 6) c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s w i t h the e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . T h e r a t e o f
g r o w t h of the p r o d u c t a n d i t s s t r o n g d e p e n d e n c e o n c a r b o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a n b o t h be e x p l a i n e d
i f i t i s a s s u m e d that the r a t e c o n t r o l l i n g m e c h a n i s m f o r i s o t h e r m a l g r o w t h i s t h e d r a g c a u s e d
by t h e m o v e m e n t o f C o t t r e l l a t m o s p h e r e s w i t h t h e m i g r a t i n g i n t e r f a c e . T h e Z e n e r - H i l l e r t
m o d e l f o r g r o w t h c o n t r o l by t h e d i f f u s i o n o f c a r b o n a w a y f r o m the t i p o f a g r o w i n g m a r t e n s i t e
p l a t e i s s h o w n t o be i n c o r r e c t i n p r i n c i p l e b e c a u s e i t i g n o r e s t h e g e o m e t r i c a l p r e r e q u i s i t e s
o f t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . In t h e p r e s e n t m o d e l g r o w t h i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e s i d e w i s e m o v e m e n t
o f t h e p l a n a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t e r f a c e , a n d l e n g t h g r o w t h is a g e o m e t r i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s
m o t i o n . T h i s v i e w i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e o b s e r v a t i o n that t h e a c t i v a t i o n e n t h a l p i e s f o r l e n g t h a n d
w i d t h g r o w t h in t h e s e a l l o y s a r e a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l . P o s s i b l e i m p r o v e m e n t s to t h e m o d e l a r e
d i s c u s s e d , and t h e i r predicted effects o n the r e s u l t s are indicated.

M A R T E N S I T I C transformations utilize t h e coopera- p a r e n t p h a s e be c o o l e d t o a t e m p e r a t u r e ( Ms) s o m e -

tive m o t i o n of m a n y a t o m s over s h o r t distances and
a r e t h u s c o n s i d e r e d t o be d i f f u s i o n l e s s . S i n c e m o s t o f
t h e a t o m s retain t h e i r n e a r e s t neighbors, although dif-
f e r e n t l y a r r a n g e d , a c h a n g e in s h a p e r e s u l t s f r o m t h e
e f f e c t i v e h o m o g e n e o u s d e f o r m a t i o n of o n e p h a s e into
t h e o t h e r . T h e s e two criteria--short coordinated m o v e -
m e n t s of lattice a t o m s and macroscopic s h e a r or s h a p e
change--and t h e i r ramifications, are the b a s i s for the
description of martensitic transformations. Marten-
s i t i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o c c u r by t h e m i g r a t i o n o f d i s l o -
cation interfaces w h i c h b e c o m e g l i s s i l e u n d e r the ap-
plication o f a suitable c h e m i c a l o r mechanical d r i v i n g
f o r c e . A l t h o u g h , in g e n e r a l , t h e r m a l l y a c t i v a t e d p r o c -
e s s e s a r e not e s s e n t i a l t o i n t e r f a c e m o v e m e n t , g r o w t h
of martensitic products u n d e r some conditions may
i n v o l v e r a t e c o n t r o l by a t o m i c m i g r a t i o n a t t h e i n t e r -
f a c e r e q u i r i n g t h e r m a l a c t i v a t i o n . T h i s p a p e r will de-
s c r i b e martensitic g r o w t h u n d e r such conditions.
KINETICS OF MARTENSITIC TRANSFORMATION
T h e r m o d y n a m i c a l l y , m a r t e n s i t e will f o r m in a n a l l o y
w h e n t h e f r e e - e n e r g y o f t h e m a r t e n s i t e p h a s e is l o w e r
than that of t h e p a r e n t p h a s e . T o n u c l e a t e t h e n e w
p h a s e a d d i t i o n a l e n e r g y m u s t be s u p p l i e d t o o v e r c o m e
the b a r r i e r due t o n o n c h e m i c a l t e r m s s u c h a s i n t e r -
f a c i a l a n d s t r a i n e n e r g i e s . T h i s r e q u i r e s that t h e
F. J. SCHOEN, formerly with Department of Materials Science and
Engineering, Cornell University,Ithaca, N.Y., is now Associate Sci-
entist, Gulf General Atomic Co., San Diego, Calif. W. S. OWEN,
formerly Chairman, Department of Materials Science and Engineering,
Cornell University,is now Dean, T h e Technological Institute, North-
western University,Evanston,Ill.
This paper is based on an invited talk presented at a symposium on
Formation of Martensite in Iron Alloys sponsored by the IMD Ferrous
Metallurgy Committee and held at the Spring Meeting of T h e Metal-
lurgical Society of AIME, May 1 9 7 0 , in Las Vegas, Nev.
w h a t b e l o w t h a t a t w h i c h the f r e e - e n e r g i e s of t h e
p a r e n t a n d m a r t e n s i t e p h a s e s a r e e q u a l (To). M a n y
martensitic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a p p e a r t o be a t h e r m a l
a n d t h e f r a c t i o n o f p a r e n t p h a s e t r a n s f o r m e d is a f u n c -
t i o n o n l y of t h e d e g r e e o f c o o l i n g b e l o w M s . G r o w t h o f
p l a t e s o f t h i s type of m a r t e n s i t e i s v e r y f a s t . It h a s
been estimated that the interface p r e s e n t d u r i n g the
f o r m a t i o n o f a c i c u l a r m a r t e n s i t e in s t e e l s m o v e s w i t h
a v e l o c i t y o f about l0 s cm p e r sec 1 a p p r o a c h i n g t h e
s p e e d o f a n e l a s t i c s h e a r w a v e in t h e s o l i d . B e c a u s e
t h e g r o w t h is v e r y r a p i d t h e o v e r a l l k i n e t i c s o f a t h e r -
real martensite a r e p r i m a r i l y dependent o n the n u c l e -
ation frequency.
In s o m e a l l o y s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e f i r s t r e c o g n i z e d by
K u r d j u m o v and Maximova,~ i s o t h e r m a l transformation
o c c u r s within t h e r a n g e o f t e m p e r a t u r e - 8 0 ° to - 1 6 0 ° C .
T h e k i n e t i c s of t h e s e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a r e c o n t r o l l e d
by a s t r o n g l y t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n t n u c l e a t i o n f r e -
q u e n c y . I n c o n t r a s t , in s o m e o t h e r a l l o y s m a r t e n s i t e
f o r m s i s o t h e r m a l l y a t a r a t e c o n t r o l l e d by t h e g r o w t h
p r o c e s s . D i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n of t h e s l o w g r o w t h of m a s -
s i v e - m a r t e n s i t e p l a t e s a b o v e the M s t e m p e r a t u r e i n
F e - 2 8 . 8 N i h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d by Y e o 3 w h i l e M a r d e r
a n d M a r d e r h a v e r e p o r t e d m u c h m o r e r a p i d g r o w t h in
F e - 2 4 . 5 N i a t a n d b e l o w t h e Ms t e m p e r a t u r e . 4 A l t h o u g h
all t h e k i n e t i c f e a t u r e s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n in t h e s e a l -
l o y s h a v e not b e e n r e s o l v e d , t h e i n f l u e n c e of c a r b o n i s
c l e a r l y significant. T h e addition of the f i r s t s m a l l
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c a r b o n to a l l o y s w h i c h t r a n s f o r m to
massive-martensite p r o d u c e s a l a r g e d e p r e s s i o n in
t h e Ms t e m p e r a t u r e , s ' 6 T h i s e f f e c t c a n be r e l a t e d d i -
r e c t l y t o t h e g r o w t h o f t h e p l a t e s a s s e e n by h o t - s t a g e
m i c r o s c o p y o f t h e g r o w i n g p l a t e s in F e - 9 N i a l l o y s
w i t h s m a l l a d d i t i o n s of c a r b o n . 7 S i n c e t h e e f f e c t i s
m u c h s t r o n g e r t h a n c a n be e x p l a i n e d by t h e c h a n g e i n
d r i v i n g f o r c e a s c a r b o n is a d d e d at a c o n s t a n t t e m p e r -
a t u r e , i t m u s t be c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e r e t a r d a t i o n of

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971-2431

g r o w t h is directly r e l a t e d to t h e p r e s e n c e o f c a r b o n .
B a i n i t e h a s b e e n variously d e s c r i b e d in t e r m s o f i t s
microstructural, k i n e t i c , o r s u r f a c e r e l i e f f e a t u r e s ,s
It e x h i b i t s m o r p h o l o g i c a l a n d c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c s i m -
ilarities to m a r t e n s i t e , a l t h o u g h s p e c i f i c c r y s t a l l o -
g r a p h i c p a r a m e t e r s a r e d i f f e r e n t , but t h e k i n e t i c s o f
i t s f o r m a t i o n a r e i n s h a r p c o n t r a s t t o that o f t h e c l a s -
s i c a l martensite transformation. Bainite f o r m s iso-
t h e r m a l l y a n d s l o w l y . T h e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e in w h i c h
b a i n i t e f o r m s i s o f t e n d i v i d e d into two r e g i o n s o n t h e
b a s i s of both structural and kinetic considerations, 7'9-~
w i t h u p p e r b a i n i t e , s i m i l a r in a p p e a r a n c e to m a s s i v e -
martensite, b e i n g f o r m e d above 350°C, and l o w e r b a i n -
i t e , a n a l o g o u s to a c i c u l a r m a r t e n s i t e , f o r m i n g b e l o w
350°C. Structurally, u p p e r and l o w e r bainite contain
p a r t i c l e s b e a r i n g a c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c r e l a t i o n s h i p to
p a r e n t a u s t e n i t e a n d b a i n i t i c f e r r i t e r e s p e c t i v e l y . 9'~°
A l t h o u g h the m o s t s a t i s f a c t o r y d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n
m a r t e n s i t e s a n d b a i n i t e s i s the o n e b a s e d o n t h e p r e s -
e n c e of c a r b i d e s i n b a i n i t e s , 8 it i s n o t c l e a r w h e t h e r
c a r b i d e p r e c i p i t a t i o n is o f p r i m a r y o r s e c o n d a r y i m -
p o r t a n c e t o the g r o w t h p r o c e s s . It i s c l e a r , h o w e v e r ,
that the s l o w i s o t h e r m a l g r o w t h , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
diffusion controlled nucleation and g r o w t h t r a n s f o r m a -
t i o n s , a n d the s h a p e d e f o r m a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of
m a r t e n s i t i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , a r e b o t h i m p o r t a n t fea-
t u r e s of the k i n e t i c s of b a i n i t e f o r m a t i o n .
The morphological transition from m a s s i v e - m a r t e n -
site to u p p e r b a i n i t e h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d b y G o o d -
e n o w a n d H e h e m a n n . ~4 A d o p t i n g the c r i t e r i o n that c a r -
bide particles associated with ferrite plates denotes
the p r e s e n c e of b a i n i t e ,s the t r a n s i t i o n in the 9 N i
a l l o y s o c c u r s at a b o u t 0.i w t pct c a r b o n . T h u s , t h e r e
is a r a n g e of c o m p o s i t i o n s , at a n y g i v e n t e m p e r a t u r e
of i s o t h e r m a l d e c o m p o s i t i o n of a u s t e n i t e , w i t h i n w h i c h
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n to m a r t e n s i t e is l i m i t e d b y s l o w iso-
t h e r m a l g r o w t h . T h e d i s c u s s i o n w h i c h f o l l o w s is a d -
d r e s s e d to t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of e v e n t s c o n t r o l l i n g the
g r o w t h of m a r t e n s i t e in this r a n g e .
T H E MARTENSITIC INTERFACE
Interfacial Structure
C h r i s t i a n ~5'~ h a s p r o p o s e d that t h e n a t u r e of t h e
i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n t h e p a r e n t p h a s e a n d the m a r t e n -
sitic product determines t h e growth mechanism, and
that f o r a l l m a r t e n s i t e s the e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s of t h i s
interface are t h e s a m e . T h e s h a p e change c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c of the transformation i m p l i e s some continuity
a c r o s s the interface and, consequently, this interface
m u s t be s u b s t a n t i a l l y c o h e r e n t . H o w e v e r , a c o m p l e t e l y
c o h e r e n t p l a n e c a n e x i s t o n l y i n t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e that
t h e d e f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i n g a n y p a i r o f unit c e l l s in t h e
two s t r u c t u r e s c o n t a i n s o n e p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n w h i c h is
z e r o . S i n c e t h i s c o n d i t i o n i s not o r d i n a r i l y m e t , t h e
c u r r e n t t h e o r y v i s u a l i z e s t h e m i s m a t c h t o be p e r i o d i c -
a l l y c o r r e c t e d by d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s ( d i s l o c a t i o n s o r t w i n
b o u n d a r i e s ) w h i c h e n s u r e that the s t r a i n s do not a c -
cumulate over l a r g e distances. T h e interface thus con-
s i s t s of r e g i o n s of f o r c e d elastic coherence separated
by r e g i o n s o f m i s f i t .
T h e m i s f i t i n the i n t e r f a c e i s b e s t d e s c r i b e d i n t e r m s
of a s u r f a c e dislocation. A method for finding the
t e n s o r e x p r e s s i n g t h e d i s l o c a t i o n c o n t e n t o f the s u r f a c e
dislocation between parent and martensite c r y s t a l s of
2432-VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971
known lattice s t r u c t u r e and orientation has been g i v e n
by B u l l o u g h a n d B i l b y ,17 a n d m o d i f i e d by W i n c h e l l . TM
Coherency over a substantial fraction of t h e interface
a l l o w s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n t o o c c u r by t h e c o o r d i n a t e d
m o v e m e n t s o f a t o m s o v e r d i s t a n c e s l e s s than t h e n o r -
mal i n t e r a t o m i c spacing. A t high t e m p e r a t u r e s r a p i d
a t o m i c m o t i o n i s p o s s i b l e a n d i t m a y be s u f f i c i e n t t o
eliminate the correspondence (and h e n c e the s h a p e
c h a n g e ) by r a n d o m - w a l k d i f f u s i v e f l o w o f t h e a t o m s .
I n a n a l l o y in w h i c h o n e c o m p o n e n t is s i g n i f i c a n t l y
m o r e m o b i l e t h a n t h e o t h e r , long-range diffusion of
one component may o c c u r d u r i n g the transformation
w h i l e the o t h e r component r e m a i n s fixed on the lattice.
T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m a y o c c u r by m a r t e n s i t i c r e a r -
rangement o f t h e i m m o b i l e c o m p o n e n t w h i l e t h e dif-
f u s i n g c o m p o n e n t c a n r e s u l t in t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f a
s e c o n d p h a s e . T h i s i s t h e m e c h a n i s m p r o p o s e d by
C h r i s t i a n ls'16 f o r b a i n i t i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n . C l e a r l y , t h e
i n t e r f a c e i s i m p o r t a n t in b a i n i t i c a s w e l l a s i n m a r t e n -
s i t i c transformations.
T h e f o r m a l theories of the crystallography a s s u m e
the l a t t i c e i n v a r l a n t s h e a r t o be p r o d u c e d by f a m i l i a r
deformation m o d e s . T h u s , the interface dislocations
have a s e c o n d function: to p r o d u c e the r e q u i r e d d e f o r -
m a t i o n w h e n t h e y a r e m o v e d . It i s c o n v e n i e n t t o a s s u m e
that t h e s u r f a c e d i s l o c a t i o n i s r e s o l v e d into a p a r a l l e l
a r r a y of d i s c r e t e d i s l o c a t i o n s 19 o f a k i n d w h i c h p r o d u c e
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s l i p o r t w i n n i n g . It h a s b e e n d e m o n -
s t r a t e d e l s e w h e r e2 ° ' z l that t h e d i s l o c a t i o n a r r a y r e -
q u i r e d t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e m i s f i t b e t w e e n the s t r u c -
t u r e s i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h the a r r a y n e e d e d t o p r o d u c e
the appropriate lattice invariant s h e a r and thus pro-
duce t h e m a r t e n s i t e s t r u c t u r e . T h a t is, t h e long-range
s t r a i n s of the r e s o l v e d dislocation a r r a y exactly can-
c e l the l a t t i c e m i s m a t c h . T h e d i s l o c a t i o n s i n t h e i n t e r -
face a r e o f spacing h a n d lie a l o n g t h e invariant line o f
t h e pure lattice deformation l. T h e b u r g e r s v e c t o r b
o f t h e s e d i s l o c a t i o n s i s p a r a l l e l t o d 2 , t h e d i r e c t i o n of
t h e l a t t i c e i n v a r i a n t s h e a r . If t h e l a t t i c e i n v a r i a n t
s h e a r i s a s i m p l e s h e a r a s a s s u m e d i n a l l but t h e m o s t
r e c e n t t h e o r i e s , t h e r e c a n be no c r o s s g r i d . I n t h e
c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c t h e o r y f o r m u l a t i o n s by A c t o n a n d
B e v i s ,2~ a n d R o s s a n d C r o c k e r , 2 3 how e v e r , c o m p o u n d
s h e a r s a r e postulated and more complex dislocation
a r r a y s a r e allowed. T h e p r e s e n t t r e a t m e n t is r e -
s t r i c t e d to t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g a s i m p l e l a t t i c e
invariant s h e a r .
Motion of the Interface
T h e difference b e t w e e n the free e n e r g y of the p a r e n t
p h a s e and the martensite provides the d r i v i n g f o r c e
f o r m o v e m e n t of t h e i n t e r f a c e a n d g e n e r a t i o n o f the
m a r t e n s i t i c s t r u c t u r e . R e s i s t a n c e to f o r w a r d m o t i o n
o f t h e i n t e r f a c e d e p e n d s o n t h e g e o m e t r y of t h e d i s l o -
cations and the rate controlling m e c h a n i s m s for d e f o r -
m a t i o n . M o v e m e n t o f c o h e r e n t r e g i o n s i s not o p p o s e d .
O n t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e e n e r g y r e l e a s e d by t h e s t r u c t u r a l
c h a n g e p r o d u c e d as t h e c o h e r e n t boundary sections
pass through t h e c r y s t a l provides t h e f o r w a r d d r i v i n g
f o r c e for the transformation.
I f o n l y n o n c o n s e r v a t i v e m o t i o n o f t h e i n t e r f a c e dis-
l o c a t i o n s is p o s s i b l e as w i t h , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e e p i t a x i a l
b o u n d a r y d e s c r i b e d by C h r i s t i a n , 24 m o v e m e n t a t m e a s -
u r a b l e s p e e d s will o c c u r o n l y at t e m p e r a t u r e s c l o s e to
t h e m e l t i n g p o i n t b e c a u s e e x t e n s i v e c l i m b o f t h e dis-
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

Fo rce
Velocity
Fig. 1---Schematic force-velocity c u r v e f o r a r a t e controlling
p r o c e s s l e a d i n g t o s t a b l e i s o t h e r m a l g r o w t h u n d e r low d r i v i n g
f o r c e a n d r a p i d u n s t a b l e g r o w t h when a c r i t i c a l driving f o r c e
is exceeded.
l o c a t i o n s is n e c e s s a r y . A t t h e s e t e m p e r a t u r e s diffu-
sive flow w o u l d wipe out t h e s h a p e change. M a n y mar-
tensitic t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o c c u r at low temperatures
( d o w n t o 4 ° K ) ,25 a n d , c l e a r l y , m o t i o n o f t h e i n t e r f a c e
m u s t be c o n s e r v a t i v e . T h e n e c e s s a r y g e o m e t r i c a l
c o n d i t i o n f o r c o n s e r v a t i v e m o t i o n is t h a t t h e b u r g e r s
v e c t o r o f t h e i n t e r f a c e d i s l o c a t i o n s d o e s n o t l i e i n the
i n t e r f a c e . A l t h o u g h r e s i s t a n c e to d i s l o c a t i o n m o t i o n
will i n c r e a s e as t h e magnitude o f t h e b u r g e r s v e c t o r
i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e r e i s r e a l l y no n e c e s s i t y f o r the dis-
l o c a t i o n s i n t h e i n t e r f a c e t o be o f t h e t y p e r e q u i r e d f o r
conventional deformation of a single-phase material.
T h e c r y s t a l g e o m e t r y of t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n m a y d i c t a t e
the selection of a b u r g e r s vector l a r g e r than that re-
q u i r e d for m i n i m u m elastic self-energy of t h e d i s l o -
cations.
In a n e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n , O w e n , S c h o e n , a n d S r i n i -
v a s a n2° p o i n t e d o u t that r a p i d g r o w t h o f m a r t e n s i t e
p l a t e s in s o m e a l l o y s a n d s l o w g r o w t h in o t h e r s i m -
p l i e s that t h e a p p l i e d f o r c e - v e l o c i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p d e -
s c r i b i n g m o t i o n o f the i n t e r f a c e i s o f t h e f o r m i l l u s -
t r a t e d s c h e m a t i c a l l y in Fig. 1. T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p must
contain an instability. In a c i c u l a r martensite, the i n s t a -
b i l i t y o c c u r s b e c a u s e t h e n u c l e a t i o n of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
twins, p a r t o f t h e g r o w t h s t a g e , is a m o r e difficult s t e p
t h a n t h e i r subsequent p r o p a g a t i o n . T h e g r o w t h o f m a s -
sive-martensite, h o w e v e r , c a n n o t i n v o l v e t h i s type of
i n s t a b i l i t y s i n c e t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e i n g e n e r a l d o e s not
c o n t a i n i n t e r n a l t w i n n i n g , 26-28 a n d t h e l a t t i c e i n v a r i a n t
s h e a r i s a s s u m e d t o o c c u r by s l i p . T h e s u g g e s t i o n
that a force-velocity c u r v e containing an instability
c o u l d a r i s e in m a s s i v e - m a r t e n s i t e s a s a r e s u l t of t h e
interaction of the interface s t r e s s f i e l d with the
s t r a i n f i e l d s of d i s s o l v e d c a r b o n a t o m s h a s b e e n dis-
c u s s e d e a r l i e r .2° A m o r e d e t a i l e d q u a n t i t a t i v e m o d e l
w i l l be e x p l o r e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t s e c t i o n s o f t h i s
p a p e r . T h e m o d e l predicts a slow s t a b l e g r o w t h when
t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e is s m a l l , a n d r a p i d u n s t a b l e m o t i o n
w h e n a c r i t i c a l d r i v i n g f o r c e is exceeded.
F o r c e s s u c h a s the P e i e r l s s t r e s s o f t h e b c c s t r u c -
t u r e ( i f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e is l o w e n o u g h ) , t h e s t r e n g t h
o f the f c c s t r u c t u r e ( t a k i n g into a c c o u n t t h e w o r k h a r d -
e n i n g due t o a c c o m m o d a t i o n ) , a n d o t h e r i m p e d i m e n t s
t o d i s l o c a t i o n m o t i o n s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d i n d e t e r -
mining t h e o v e r a l l b a l a n c e o f f o r c e s at t h e interface.
To a f i r s t approximation, however, t h e s e a r e c o n s e r -
v a t i v e f o r c e s w h i c h do not d e p e n d o n t h e v e l o c i t y o f
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
y
x=--~
Z ~ sheor
F i g . 2--Schematic d i a g r a m i l l u s t r a t i n g the important f e a t u r e s
of the interface.
i n t e r f a c e a n d h e n c e t h e y r e s u l t o n l y in a n e f f e c t i v e
l o w e r i n g o f t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e f o r the t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
A M O D E L FOR T H E G R O W T H O F A P L A T E
OF MASSIVE-MARTENSITE
Specific Interface
T h e i n t e r f a c e is i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 2 . T h e a s s i g n -
m e n t of specific variants of the crystallographic pa-
r a m e t e r s r e q u i r e s complete crystallographic c h a r a c -
terization (habit p l a n e , orientation relationship, t h e
e l e m e n t s a n d m a g n i t u d e of l a t t i c e i n v a r i a n t s h e a r ,
a n d so f o r t h ) o f a p a r t i c u l a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . A s
t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s c a n o t a l l be p r o p e r l y a s c e r t a i n e d
f o r m a s s i v e - m a r t e n s i t e , it is n e c e s s a r y to fit a s e l f -
c o n s i s t e n t set o f c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c p a r a m e t e r s ob-
t a i n e d through application of the f o r m a l crystallo-
g r a p h i c t h e o r y to t h e available e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a f o r
t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . It h a s b e e n s h o w n p r e v i o u s l y 2° t h a t
the m e a s u r e d crystallographic p a r a m e t e r s for m a s s i v e -
m a r t e n s i t e a r e in g o o d a g r e e m e n t w i t h a t h e o r e t i c a l set
p r o p o s e d by W e c h s l e r , R e a d , a n d L i e b e r m a n .29 T a b l e I
s h o w s all o f t h e p e r t i n e n t crystallographic p a r a m e t e r s
d e s c r i b i n g t h e interface. For t h e particular crystallog-
r a p h y c h o s e n t h e d i s l o c a t i o n s i n t h e i n t e r f a c e do not
have a f a m i l i a r bcc b u r g e r s vector. However, t h e y m a y
be d i s s o c i a t e d into t w o s e t s e a c h h a v i n g i d e n t i c a l s p a c -
ing and t h e low e n e r g y (lll)c~ t y p e b u r g e r s vector. F o r
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s to follow, t h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s i r r e l e -
v a n t s i n c e t h e s t r e s s f i e l d s a r e not a f f e c t e d by d i s s o c i a -
t i o n . I f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of u n e q u a l s p a c i n g o f t w o s e t s of
d i s l o c a t i o n s i n t h e h a b i t p l a n e i s a l l o w e d , t h e n a wide
v a r i e t y of c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i e s , s o m e o f w h i c h g i v e h a b i t
p l a n e s v e r y n e a r { 1 1 1 } 7 a r e o b t a i n e d . T h i s is t h e i n -
terfacial description of the Acton and Bevis,22 and R o s s
a n d C r o c k e r23 g e n e r a l i z e d c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c t h e o r i e s
allowing multiple lattice invariant s h e a r s . T h e p r e s e n t
a u t h o r s a r e c u r r e n t l y e x p l o r i n g i n d e t a i l t h e u s e of
t h e s e t h e o r i e s in e x p l a i n i n g t h e m e a s u r e d c r y s t a l l o -
g r a p h i c p a r a m e t e r s o f m a s s i v e - m a r t e n s i t e . 3°
VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971-2433
 1.0
Table I. Complete Crystallographic Chracterization
of the Massive-Martensite Interface O
0.8[ u2
Habit Plane (P0 (-0.653 0.480 0.586)~ II 450"C
(-0,861 -0.170 0.480)=
0.6
Plane of Lattice lnvariant
Shear (P2) (001)~,
T
Shear Direction (d2) [lrll~ 0.4
O
Invariant Line (/) [0.481 0.583 0.655]= u2
Flux Vector (V) [-0.169 --0.794 -0.584]=
in eV
0.2
Magnitude ofLattice =+-9
Invariant Shear (m2) 0.284 (8.1 deg.)
cos/3(/'b) 0.875
cos • (y' p~) 0.974
Distance between the Dislocations -0.2
in the Interface (h) 14.68A
Orientation Relationship
Axis (u) -0.4

0.195 I
0.97413, -0.6

Angle (0) 44.37 deg

Assumed Correspondence -0.8
ccC
? -3.77
-I,O t
O 1.0 2.0 3.0
(2 •
Q = T X

(b) h

1.0

1.0
0.8
450*C
0
0.8 u3
0.6
450*C

0.6
0.4
0
Ul
in eV 0.4
o2 r /-x: u;
in eV
0.2

-0.2

~=O
-0.2
-0.4

-0.6
-0.4

-0.6
-0.8

- 1.0 -0.8 t"

0 1.0 2.0 3.0
(2 •
(1 =/rx -I.0 I I I
(a) b 0 1.0 2.0 3.0
Ct •
Fig. 3--Calculated interaction e n e r g y as a function of the co- Q;TX
ordinates c~ and X for c a r b o n i n (a) [100]a s i t e s , (b) [010]a h
s i t e s , and (c) [ 0 0 1 ]~ s i t e s . (c)

2434-VOLUME 2, SEPTEMBER 1971 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

 T h e Interaction Between the Interface
and D i s s o l v e d C a r b o n A t o m s
T h e s y m m e t r i c a l s t r e s s t e n s o r (a) o f t h e d i s l o c a t i o n
a r r a y 2° r e l a t i v e t o a n o r t h o n o r m a l b a s i s i n t h e i n t e r -
f a c e (p}, y , l ) a n d the s t r a i n t e n s o r (E) o f t h e t e t r a g o n a l
d i s t o r t i o n o f a c a r b o n a t o m i n e a c h of the t h r e e o c t a -
h e d r a l i n t e r s t i c e s o f the b c c s t r u c t u r e r e f e r r e d t o t h i s
s a m e b a s i s21 h a v e b e e n s e t o u t e a r l i e r . T h e e l a s t i c
interaction e n e r g y between the dislocation a r r a y and a
d i s s o l v e d c a r b o n a t o m n e a r t h e i n t e r f a c e is
u : - ( ~ , c)a~
and
u = u l i f £1 > e2 = ca, c a r b o n a t o m i n [ 1 0 0 ~ s i t e [1]
u = u2 i f e2 > E~ = c a , c a r b o n a t o m i n [010]c~ s i t e
u = u3 i f Ea > (~ = ¢~, c a r b o n a t o m i n [ 0 0 1 ] a s i t e
w h e r e a a is t h e l a t t i c e p a r a m e t e r o f t h e m a r t e n s i t e .
T h e s e i n t e r a c t i o n e n e r g i e s m u s t be c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e
e n e r g y r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f the l o n g - r a n g e
s t r e s s f i e l d s of the dislocations, w h i c h exactly c a n c e l
the l a t t i c e m i s m a t c h b e t w e e n t h e a u s t e n i t e a n d m a r t e n -
s i t e s t r u c t u r e s , w i t h t h e s t r a i n f i e l d due t o t h e c a r b o n
a t o m s . T h e i n t e r a c t i o n e n e r g y u~ r e s u l t s . V a l u e s o l u }
a s a function o f t h e distance X within t h e interface a n d
a p e r p e n d i c u l a r to it were c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g a n IBM
3 6 0 / 6 5 c o m p u t e r . T h e r e s u l t s a r e p l o t t e d in F i g . 3 f o r
t h e e x a c t c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c p a r a m e t e r s in T a b l e I . F o r
each of the t h r e e p o s s i b l e positions of the c a r b o n atom
in t h e unit cell t h e i n t e r a c t i o n e n e r g y a p p r o a c h e s z e r o
a t a = ~ . That i s , t h e e n e r g y g o e s t o z e r o a t a d i s t a n c e
f r o m t h e i n t e r f a c e e q u a l t o t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n the dis-
l o c a t i o n s ( 1 4 . 6 8 A ) . A t a g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e t h e r e i s no
preference a m o n g the interstitial s i t e s . For c a r b o n
a t o m s l y i n g i n t h e s h e a r p l a n e X = 0 , u~ a n d u~ a p p r o a c h
a l a r g e n e g a t i v e , a n d u~ a l a r g e p o s i t i v e , v a l u e a s a
approaches z e r o . T h e s e represent the e n e r g y of inter-
a c t i o n w i t h t h e c o r e a n d t h e c u r v e s s h o u l d be c u t off a t
s o m e a p p r o p r i a t e value as t h e assumption o f l i n e a r
e l a s t i c i t y , as well a s t h e s t r e s s f i e l d f o r m u l a t i o n itself,
b e c o m e s u n t e n a b l e . T h e c h o i c e o f a c o r e l i m i t is a dif-
ficult p r o b l e m . P h y s i c a l l y , it is e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e i n t e r -
s t i t i a l a t o m s n e a r the c o r e w i l l be v e r y t i g h t l y b o u n d
a n d will o f f e r v e r y l i t t l e r e s i s t a n c e to m o t i o n o f t h e
i n t e r f a c e d i s l o c a t i o n s . 3~ In t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s the
i n t e r a c t i o n o p p o s i n g m o t i o n w o u l d t h e n be w i t h i n t e r -
stitial a t o m s at s o m e distance away f r o m t h e boundary.
In t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s t o f o l l o w , t h e r e a s o n a b l e c o r e c u t -
off v a l u e of b/2 i s u s e d . T h e s u i t a b i l i t y of t h i s c h o i c e
w i l l be e x a m i n e d w h e n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s a r e
c o m p a r e d with experimental r e s u l t s .
T h e i n t e r a c t i o n e n e r g y u~ i s d e p e n d e n t o n b o t h the
xy coordinate position behind the interface, and the
d i r e c t i o n of t h e t e t r a g o n a l d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e c a r b o n
a t o m , d e s c r i b e d by t h e p a r a m e t e r i . T h e e n e r g y of the
c r y s t a l m a y be r e d u c e d by o n e o f t w o p r o c e s s e s . T h e
/ - s i t e m a y be c h a n g e d a t a c o n s t a n t x a n d y , o r d i f f u -
sion over m a n y atomic distances m a y take p l a c e , with
t h e most favorable / - s i t e probably b e i n g c h o s e n at a n y
particular x and y . Reorganization of c a r b o n a m o n g
e n e r g e t i c a I l y f a v o r a b l e / - s i t e s (the S n o e k i n t e r a c t i o n ) ~2
r e q u i r e s o n l y o n e a t o m i c j u m p a n d t h i s is t h e m o r e
p r o b a b l e o c c u r r e n c e i f the t e m p e r a t u r e i s l o w o r i f t h e
v e l o c i t y of t h e d i s l o c a t i o n s c a u s i n g t h e i n t e r a c t i o n i s
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
h i g h . T h i s s i t u a t i o n was q u a n t i t a t i v e l y f i r s t a n a l y z e d
by S c h o e c k a n d S e e g e r33 f o r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h a s i n g l e
dislocation. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , at high t e m p e r a t u r e s
o r l o w d i s l o c a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s (low v e l o c i t i e s o f i n t e r -
face propagation), extensive diffusion of c a r b o n over
l o n g d i s t a n c e s is p o s s i b l e in t h e t i m e in w h i c h a l a b e l e d
c a r b o n a t o m i s i n f l u e n c e d by t h e s t r e s s f i e l d o f t h e
interface. This effect w a s originally a n a l y z e d for a
s i n g l e dislocation, ignoring redistribution of c a r b o n
a m o n g t h e / - s i t e s , by C o t t r e l l a n d B i l b y34 a n d C o t t r e l l
a n d J a s w o n .31 I t i s a p p r o p r i a t e l y k n o w n a s t h e C o t t r e l l
interaction. The S n o e k and Cottrell m o d e l s a r e each
s i m p l i f i e d v e r s i o n s of t h e d r a g p h e n o m e n o n . I n a n y r e a l
situation, t h e c a r b o n a t o m s m a y simultaneously s e l e c t
/ - s i t e s a n d diffuse o v e r d i s t a n c e s g r e a t e r t h a n o n e
a t o m i c spacing.
Martensite f o r m s a s an o r d e r e d s t r u c t u r e of c a r b o n
in a d i s t o r t e d bcc l a t t i c e as a d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e o f
t h e g e o m e t r y of t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e d i s t o r t i o n
m a k e s t h e unit cell tetragonal. T h e c a r b o n a t o m s a r e
all in i d e n t i c a l / - s i t e s , t h e p a r t i c u l a r s i t e b e i n g d e t e r -
m i n e d by t h e s e l e c t e d v a r i a n t o f t h e B a i n c o r r e s p o n d -
e n c e . All t h e calculations d i s c u s s e d here a s s u m e d t h e
c a r b o n a t o m s in t h e m a r t e n s i t e s t r u c t u r e a r e l o c a t e d
i n s i t e 3 , ( T a b l e I). A s t h e i n t e r f a c e m o v e s , t h e c a r b o n
a t o m s j u m p to t h e e n e r g e t i c a l l y m o s t f a v o r a b l e p o s i -
tions. D u r i n g the time r e q u i r e d for the j u m p , the r e -
l a x a t i o n t i m e , t h e i n t e r f a c e m o v e s a s h o r t d i s t a n c e so
that t h e i n t e r s t i t i a l s a r e no l o n g e r i n m i n i m u m e n e r g y
p o s i t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to t h e n e w p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n -
t e r f a c e . T h e r e s u l t i s that t h e c a r b o n j u m p i n g i s n o t
e x a c t l y in p h a s e w i t h t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s l o w e n e r g y
configurations of the s y s t e m and an e n e r g y dissipation
o c c u r s c a u s i n g a drag on the interface. For the i n t e r -
f a c e to m o v e , t h e f o r c e p u s h i n g t h e i n t e r f a c e must
supply enough e x t r a e n e r g y to o v e r c o m e t h i s d i s s i p a -
t i o n . F o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r c o n d i t i o n s o f i n t e r e s t h e r e it
h a s b e e n s h o w n t h a t t h e d r a g f o r c e p r o d u c e d by t h e
S n o e k i n t e r a c t i o n is q u i t e i n s i g n i f i c a n t w h e n c o m p a r e d
t o t h a t p r o d u c e d by t h e C o t t r e l l i n t e r a c t i o n a n d h e n c e
o n l y t h e l a t t e r w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d . T h e d e t a i l s o f b o t h
c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e d e s c r i b e d e l s e w h e r e .35
Cottrell Drag M o d e l
L o n g - r a n g e diffusion o f c a r b o n to t h e b o u n d a r y is
p e r m i t t e d i n t h e C o t t r e l l m o d e l a n d it i s c o n s i d e r e d
t h a t a n y p o s i t i o n (x, y ) t h e c a r b o n a t o m i s s i t t i n g i n
t h e s i t e o f m i n i m u m u~ a s d e f i n e d by t h e d a t a i n F i g .
3 . T h e concentration profile a r o u n d the moving b o u n d -
a r y i s o b t a i n e d by a s s u m i n g that s o l u t e a t o m s i n a
s m a l l r e g i o n b e h i n d the interface a c q u i r e a velocity
r e l a t i v e t o t h e b o u n d a r y i n t h r e e w a y s : 31
1) A n E i n s t e i n d r i f t v e l o c i t y due t o t h e s t r e s s
gradient
D Ou'
YD - k T Ox [2]
w h e r e D is t h e diffusion c o e f f i c i e n t a n d u ' is t h e m i n -
imum interaction e n e r g y u~,
2) a d i f f u s i o n v e l o c i t y c a u s e d by t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
g r a d i e n t s s e t up by t h e s e g r e g a t i o n i n t h e s t r e s s f i e l d
Dac
vC - c ~x [3]
a s s u m i n g a d i l u t e solution, and
VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971-2435
 ~D I ~ Diffusion Coefficient profil@
2 LJ ~ O'~'x~h/8 ~ D = 3V2D L
D I k h,0 <-"x(-h - - D =('~"~)° D L " D L

I
DLI •
\ ~
(2
....--
~,o h/8 h

~8 Fig. 4--Temperature dependence of the

E J c a l c u l a t e d p a r a m e t e r s a , c~/B2 , and/3
2 u s e d in the determination of the C o t t r e l l
g.e interaction. T h e a s s u m e d d i f f u s i o n co-
Cln efficient p r o f i l e i s g i v e n in the i n s e t .
E~ 4 /3
/o~
2 /32

-2 I I I I I
1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70
I000/r (°K)

3) a v e l o c i t y due t o the m o t i o n of t h e b o u n d a r y , --v. in Fe-I0 Ni-C alloys is the interaction of dissolved

The velocity of the boundary, VR, relative to the group interstitial solutes with the moving interface, there
of solute atoms is are additional processes which may contribute to the
retardation of growth by interracial action. Since the
D 3u' D 8c
VR = k T Ox c Ox [4] magnitudes of these drag forces are to a first approx-
imation all independent of the velocity of the interface
T h e c a l c u l a t i o n of the c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e a r o u n d the it is convenient to take the net forward driving force
b o u n d a r y a n d the r e s u l t a n t d r a g f o r c e f o l l o w s f r o m t h e as the difference between the free-energy of the trans-
s o l u t i o n o f E q . [4] s u b j e c t t o t h e a p p r o p r i a t e b o u n d a r y formation and the constant retarding forces. Then the
conditions and the imposition of the continuity condi- rate of forward motion of the interface is assumed to
tions (O/Ox)(cvR) = 0 . An approximate solution for the be that at whichthe velocity-dependent frictional re-
d r a g f o r c e F c , f i t t i n g a l l v e l o c i t y r e g i m e s , i s 36 tarding force is just balanced by the net driving force.
The forward driving force for the transformation,
Fc OlYCo [~] Fig. 6, has been calculated for the alloys under con-
1 + ~2v2 sideration from the recent correlation of thermody-
where --U' namic variables for Fe-Ni-C alloys by Rao, Russell,
h h,2 oxp( ) 1 and Winchell.37 This will be considered as the total
ot : NvkT
h ~; f D(x) ~y ax [6] energy available to move the interface against all im-
h/2 pediments to the transformation from austenite to
and martensite of the same composition. In carbon-free
h h/2 (OU,~2 materials, the predominant force retarding the forward
ot _ Nv
[7]
~32 hkT / f \ax/ dy dx
h/2
w h e r e Nv i s t h e n u m b e r o f c a r b o n a t o m s i t e s i n the i 300 ~ At( omc Froction.05.C075.02805010
s t r u c t u r e , k is B o l t z m a n ' s c o n s t a n t , T is t h e a b s o l u t e
t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d co i s t h e bulk c a r b o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n
i n the a l l o y .
U s i n g t h e interaction e n e r g y profiles previously
calculated, and t h e reasonable diffusion coefficient 200
p r o f i l e s h o w n i n t h e i n s e t of F i g . 4 , t h e p a r a m e t e r s o t
a n d /3 w e r e o b t a i n e d by n u m e r i c a l i n t e g r a t i o n . T h e
r e s u l t s o f t h e c a l c u l a t i o n a r e s h o w n a s a f u n c t i o n of
r e c i p r o c a l t e m p e r a t u r e in Fig. 4 . F o r c e - v e l o c i t y a
r~ I00
c u r v e s a r e r e a d i l y computed from this information u_'.'
a n d a r e s h o w n , f o r 4 5 0 ° C a n d the c a r b o n l e v e l s e m -
p l o y e d in t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a s p e c t s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a -
t i o n , in Fig. 5.
00 2 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 20 22 24I
Velocity, v in 10-2mrn/sec
B a l a n c e o f F o r c e s at t h e Interface
Fig. 5---Calculated force-velocity curves for the Cottrell inter-
A l t h o u g h it is a s s u m e d h e r e t h a t t h e c o n t r o l l i n g action of carbon atoms with the massive-martensite boundary
m e c h a n i s m in t h e i s o t h e r m a l f o r m a t i o n o f m a r t e n s i t e at 450°C for various carbon levels.

2436-VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971 METALt.URGICALTRANSACT1ONS


-50C
-40C
-500
O
E
-2oc
o E
?, -IOO
>,
LL
Atom Fro¢tion
0 Corbon
Xc
.ooo5
+1oo .0028
.005
.oo75
.01
+200 I I I I i I
5oo 600 700 8oo 900 IOOO IlOO
T e m p e r a t u r e , *K
Fig. 6--Variation with t e m p e r a t u r e of the d r i v i n g f o r c e for the
m a r t e n s i t e transformation, A F ~ ' ~ , for s e v e r a l F e - 1 0 N i - C
alloys, a s c a l c u l a t e d from the thermodynamic m o d e l of Rao,
R u s s e l l , and Winehell. T h e points O a r e the Ms t e m p e r a t u r e s
d e t e r m i n e d experimentally i n the p r e s e n t investigation.
m o t i o n of the m a r t e n s i t i c i n t e r f a c e i s t h e r e s i s t a n c e
to m o t i o n o f t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n d i s l o c a t i o n s t h r o u g h
t h e p a r e n t a u s t e n i t e . It i s n o w w i d e l y h e l d that i t i s
the p l a s t i c , r a t h e r t h a n e l a s t i c , p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e aus-
t e n i t e w h i c h a r e i m p o r t a n t in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e k i n e t i c s
o f m a r t e n s i t i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . 3s-4° In v i e w o f t h e e x -
t r e m e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n o f a u s t e n i t e due t o a c c o m -
m o d a t i o n i n f r o n t o f a g r o w i n g m a r t e n s i t e p l a t e ,41 a n d
t h e high effective s t r a i n r a t e u n d e r w h i c h this d e f o r -
m a t i o n o c c u r s ,2x i t i s p o s s i b l e that the a u s t e n i t e r e -
s i s t a n c e t o t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i s s u b s t a n t i a l . M a g e e~8 a n d
S c h o e n 21 h a v e r e a c h e d t h e c o n c l u s i o n that t h i s s t r e n g t h
is o f t h e o r d e r o f 4 0 , 0 0 0 psi u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s in
q u e s t i o n b u t , b e c a u s e of t h e u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n v o l v e d i n
t h e s e e s t i m a t e s , v a r i o u s v a l u e s of t h e a u s t e n i t e l a t t i c e
r e s i s t a n c e b e t w e e n 0 a n d 5 0 , 0 0 0 psi were a s s u m e d in
the c a l c u l a t i o n s .
G r o w t h Rate Predictions
P r e d i c t i o n s o f m a r t e n s i t i c g r o w t h r a t e s on t h e b a s i s
o f t h e kinetic m o d e l w e r e made a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e
g r o w t h o f t h e p l a t e i s d e t e r m i n e d by the v e l o c i t y of a
uniform planar interface of infinite e x t e n t . C l a r i f i c a -
tion o f t w o p o i n t s r e l a t i n g t o t h e g e o m e t r y of g r o w t h
i s n e c e s s a r y . T h e f i r s t i s that t h e a c t u a l d i r e c t i o n o f
m o t i o n of t h e i n d i v i d u a l d i s l o c a t i o n s i s not p a r a l l e l t o
t h e n o r m a l to t h e habit p l a n e . T h e g r o w t h r a t e s r e f l e c t
t h i s d i f f e r e n c e . T h e a c t u a l d i r e c t i o n of m o t i o n o f t h e
d i s l o c a t i o n s n i s n o r m a l t o the d i s l o c a t i o n l i n e l , a n d
lies in t h e slip p l a n e p2. F o r t h e p r e s e n t g e o m e t r y
n = [-0.763 ~).460 0.460]a. Secondly, s i n c e the con-
t r o l l i n g m e c h a n i s m f o r m a r t e n s i t i c g r o w t h is t h o u g h t
t o be the m o v e m e n t o f a p l a n a r , s e m i c o h e r e n t , g l i s s i l e
interface between the parent and product s t r u c t u r e s ,
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
I00
x
=o I0
E
C
(.9
0
a~
R~.= 0
3
2 RT= 5 0 , 0 0 0psi RT= 25,000psi
.I I ! I I I
0 .002 .004 .006 .008 .010
Atom Fraction Carbon, Xc
Fig. 7--Predicted w i d t h g r o w t h r a t e s at 450°C a s a function of
c a r b o n content on the b a s i s of the Cottrell d r a g g r o w t h c o n t r o l
m o d e l a s s u m i n g v a r i o u s v a l u e s of the a u s t e n i t e r e s i s t a n c e t o
transformation.
l e n g t h a n d w i d t h g r o w t h of a p l a t e s h o u l d be r e l a t e d i n
t h a t l e n g t h g r o w t h is r e a l l y a g e o m e t r i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e
o f g r o w t h in t h e w i d t h d i r e c t i o n . H e n c e t h e a c t i v a t i o n
e n t h a l p i e s f o r g r o w t h in t h e l e n g t h a n d w i d t h d i r e c t i o n s
s h o u l d be i d e n t i c a l .
P r e d i c t e d g r o w t h r a t e s of the martensitic p r o d u c t
f o r m e d i s o t h e r m a l l y in t h e F e - 1 0 N i - C a l l o y s at 4 5 0 ° C
o n t h e b a s i s of t h e C o t t r e [ 1 d r a g f o r c e - v e l o c i t y r e l a -
tionships, the f o r w a r d d r i v i n g f o r c e for transformation,
and the a s s u m e d v a l u e s of austenite lattice r e s i s t a n c e
t o t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a r e g i v e n i n F i g . 7 . I t i s not p o s s i b l e
t o p r e d i c t t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e
of t h e s e g r o w t h r a t e s b e c a u s e the calculations d e p e n d
sensitively o n t h e exact net f o r w a r d d r i v i n g f o r c e and
i t s t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e . T h i s f o r c e is, in t u r n ,
s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d by t h e e x a c t v a l u e a n d t e m p e r a t u r e
dependence of the unknown austenite lattice r e s i s t a n c e
to t r a n s f o r m a t i o n .
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
A s y s t e m a t i c s e r i e s o f e x p e r i m e n t s d e s i g n e d to de-
t e r m i n e the r a t e s of length and w i d t h g r o w t h of m a r t e n -
s i t i c p l a t e s f o r m e d i s o t h e r m a l l y in f i v e h i g h - p u r i t y
F e - 1 0 N i - C a l l o y s w a s p e r f o r m e d by h o t - s t a g e m e t a l -
l o g r a p h y . T h e a l l o y c o m p o s i t i o n s a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e II.
M e a s u r e m e n t s w e r e made d i r e c t l y f r o m p r o j e c t e d e n -
l a r g e m e n t s o f s i n g l e f r a m e s of 8 m m c i n e f i l m s t a k e n
d u r i n g t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . ~z
M a n y p l a t e s w e r e s e e n to d e v e l o p f u l l y a s individual
p l a t e s , but s o m e g r e w i n g r o u p s o f c l o s e l y - s p a c e d
p a r a l l e l p l a t e s or " s h e a v e s " . Length g r o w t h m e a s u r e -
m e n t s w e r e p o s s i b l e on b o t h t y p e s o f s t r u c t u r e s , but
VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971-2437
 Table II. Chemical Analysis of Alloys, Wt Pct

Code C Mn P S Si Ni Cr Mo Cu V A1
m
57 0.010 0.01 0.002 0.006 0.01 10.3 0.01 0.01 0.003 0.01 0.003
58 0.056 0,01 0.002 0.006 0.01 10.2 0.01 0.01 0.003 0.01 0.003
59 0 .I0 0,01 0.002 0.006 0.01 10.2 0.01 0.01 0.001 0.01 0.003
60 0.15 0.01 0.002 0.006 0.01 10.2 0.01 0.01 0.003 0.01 0.006
61 0.20 0.01 0.002 0.007 0.01 10.2 0.01 0.01 0.003 0.01 0.005
Note: Bars above values indicate the amounts are less than percentage shown.

18,OO0
m e a n i n g f u l w i d t h g r o w t h d a t a c o u l d be o b t a i n e d only ©
PRESENT STUDY
f r o m p l a t e s g r o w i n g in i s o l a t i o n . )6,OOO (~ &HI - LENGTH GROWTH
I s o t h e r m a l g r o w t h in t h e l e n g t h a n d w i d t h d i r e c t i o n s [] AHw - WIDTH GROWTH
IR,O00
took p l a c e a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e , a l t h o u g h c o n s i d e r a b l e
s c a t t e r f r o m p l a t e to p l a t e was o b s e r v e d . A s p r e v i o u s l y 12,ODD
r e c o g n i z e d 7'4a'44 t h i s s c a t t e r i s m o r e t h a n c a n be a c - • LENGTH GROWTH ACTIVATION 46 [] (
ENERGIES REPORTED BY GOODENOW
c o u n t e d f o r by e x p e r i m e n t a l u n c e r t a i n t y . A l l p l a t e s
i n c r e a s e d in size at s l o w t e m p e r a t u r e - d e p e n d e n t r a t e s
B.OOO E
u n t i l s t o p p e d by i m p i n g e m e n t w i t h a n o t h e r p l a t e o r a n
J
a u s t e n i t e g r a i n b o u n d a r y . It i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e that 6,000 O ~ . / /
t h i c k e n i n g o f p l a t e s c o n t i n u e d a t the s a m e r a t e a f t e r / i
/
•
g r o w t h i n t h e l e n g t h d i r e c t i o n h a d s t o p p e d by i m p i n g e - q,ooo
.I I •
m e n t . S p e i c h 43 a n d G o o d e n o w a n d H e h e m a n n45 o b s e r v e d .I "I []
/

a s i m i l a r effect d u r i n g the growth of l o w e r bainite.

,,000
• 11-11~
T h e i n f l u e n c e o f t e m p e r a t u r e o n the l e n g t h a n d w i d t h O

g r o w t h of the isothermally f o r m e d martensitic product ATOH FRACTION CARBON, Xc X 103

in t h e Fel0 N i - 0 . 2 C a l l o y is shown in Fig. 8 . T h e l i n e s Fig. 9--Activation enthalpies for g r o w t h a s a function of c a r b o n

through the data points are l e a s t - s q u a r e s l i n e s . For
e a c h of t h e a l l o y s i n v e s t i g a t e d , t h e g r o w t h r a t e s d e -
c r e a s e a p p r o x i m a t e l y l i n e a r l y w i t h the r e c i p r o c a l o f
the absolute reaction temperature over the entire t e m -
p e r a t u r e r a n g e investigated. T h e length g r o w t h rate
w a s approximately an o r d e r of magnitude g r e a t e r t h a n
the w i d t h g r o w t h r a t e o v e r a l l t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d c o m -
p o s i t i o n s studied.
A l l o y 61 Fe-IONi-.20C
1.0
4~0oc 3~0oc
0 a n d w i d t h g r o w t h r a t e s at v a r i o u s t e m p e r a t u r e s ,
content i n F e - 1 0 Ni-C a l l o y s .
T h e experimentally d e t e r m i n e d activation enthalpies
f o r l e n g t h a n d w i d t h g r o w t h , A H l a n d ~xHw r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
a r e p l o t t e d i n F i g . 9 f o r the f i v e a l l o y s u s e d i n t h e i n -
v e s t i g a t i o n . T h e a c t i v a t i o n e n t h a l p i e s a r e s e e n t o be
s i m i l a r f o r l e n g t h a n d w i d t h g r o w t h in t h e s a m e a l l o y ,
a n d t h e r e is a n i n c r e a s e in t h e t e m p e r a t u r e depend-
e n c e of g r o w t h a s t h e c a r b o n c o n t e n t i s i n c r e a s e d . A t
h i g h e r c a r b o n concentrations the activation enthalpies
a r e h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e r e p o r t e d by G o o d e n o w 46 f o r 9 N i
s t e e l s , a l s o p l o t t e d i n F i g . 9 . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h e dis-
c r e p a n c y i s not k n o w n .
F i g . 10 s h o w s t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d l e n g t h

0
q)

E
....>.o 0
0

0 0 0
plotted a s a function of c a r b o n content. The data of
G o o d e n o w , M a t a s , a n d H e h e m a r m 7 a n d G o o d e n o wa6 f o r
l e n g t h g r o w t h in t h e 9 N i s t e e l s a r e i n c l u d e d to i l l u s -
t r a t e t h e excellent agreement between t h e two s e t s o f
E o
m O. m e a s u r e m e n t s . Both the length and width-growth r a t e s
bI d e c r e a s e s h a r p l y a s c a r b o n i s a d d e d t o the F e - 1 0 N i
e" b a s e . T h e g r o w t h r a t e is r e d u c e d a p p r o x i m a t e l y two
o r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e f o r a n i n i t i a l a d d i t i o n o f o n l y a b o u t
d 0 . 1 wt p c t C . T h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e o n t h e s e c u r v e s
r e f l e c t s t h e i n c r e a s e in a c t i v a t i o n e n t h a l p y w i t h i n -
O
rY c r e a s i n g c a r b o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e a l l o y s . T h e
e- g r o w t h r a t e at a g i v e n temperature d e c r e a s e s very
l i t t l e w i t h i n c r e a s e in c a r b o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n in e x c e s s
~0
(.9 o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.1 wt p c t C . T h i s i n i t i a l s t r o n g d e -
c r e a s e in g r o w t h r a t e a n d t h e w e a k e r d e p e n d e n c y as
m o r e c a r b o n is a d d e d is in e x c e l l e n t a g r e e m e n t w i t h
the qualitative predictions of the m o d e l .
l I I I I
1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 DISCUSSION
VT(°K) x 1o3
GrowthGeometry
Fig. 8--Temperature dependence of the length and w i d t h g r o w t h
r a t e s of the isothermally f o r m e d m a r t e n s i t i c p r o d u c t in a l l o y T h e g e o m e t r i c a l m o d e l f o r t h e g r o w t h of a p l a t e o f
61. m a r t e n s i t e m a y be c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s o f

2438 VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

 IOOC
FILLED P O I N T S INDICATE EXTRAPOLATIONS
OPEN P O I N T S REPRESENT ACTUAL GROWTH Predicted b y Z e n e r - H i l l e r t
10 MEASUREMENTS m o d e l - corrected C u r v e f o r
w i d t h g r o w t h f r o m Ref. 7 - 4 0 0 ° C

'ql' [] • PRESENT STUDY Present Study

O A GOODENOW, MATAS, AND .\ Predicted from Cottrell drag
HEHEMANN AND GOODENOW I00 model for various values of the
\ oustenite resistance to trons-
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0 2 4 6 8 I0 12 0 002 .004 .006 008 .010
Atom Fraction Carbon, Xc
ATOM FRACTION CARBON, X C X 10 3
Fig. l l - - C o m p a r i s o n of experimental a n d theoretically c a l c u -
Fig. 10--Experimentally d e t e r m i n e d c a r b o n concentration d e - l a t e d w i d t h g r o w t h r a t e s for F e - 1 0 Ni-C a l l o y s a t 450°C. T h e
pendence of length and width g r o w t h r a t e s of the i s o t h e r m a l calculations u s i n g the Z e n e r - H i l l e r t m o d e l for length g r o w t h
transformation p r o d u c t in F e - 1 0 Ni-C a l l o y s at v a r i o u s have b e e n r e d u c e d t o w i d t h g r o w t h by a f a c t o r 1/10 j u s t i f i e d
temperatures. by the experimental r e s u l t s .

plate g r o w t h and the experimentally d e t e r m i n e d activa- d i c t i o n s b a s e d o n t h e h y p o t h e s i s that t h i s s i n g l e p r o c -

t i o n e n t h a l p i e s . T h e p r i m a r y h y p o t h e s i s that w i d t h
g r o w t h i s the i m p o r t a n t p r o c e s s i n p l a t e g r o w t h i s
s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t e d by t h e o b s e r v a t i o n that p l a t e s c o n -
t i n u e t o g r o w in t h e w i d t h d i r e c t i o n e v e n a f t e r l e n g t h
g r o w t h h a s b e e n s t o p p e d . T h i s w o u l d a l s o be p o s s i b l e
i f l e n g t h a n d w i d t h g r o w t h w e r e c o n t r o l l e d by s e p a r a t e
p r o c e s s e s , but it c e r t a i n l y i s not p o s s i b l e i f , a s i n t h e
Z e n e r - H i l l e r t m o d e l ,7'47 l e n g t h g r o w t h i s t h e r a t e -
c o n t r o l l i n g p r o c e s s a n d width g r o w t h is m e r e l y a g e o -
m e t r i c c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h i s g r o w t h . If t w o s e p a r a t e
p r o c e s s e s e x i s t f o r l e n g t h a n d w i d t h g r o w t h , it i s
h i g h l y u n l i k e l y that t h e y a r e so s i m i l a r a s t o h a v e the
s a m e a c t i v a t i o n e n e r g y , as has been d e m o n s t r a t e d e x -
p e r i m e n t a l l y , Fig. 9. T h e a c t i v a t i o n e n e r g y p r e d i c t e d
by t h e Z e n e r - H i l l e r t m o d e l i s a c o n t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n o f
t h e reaction temperature w h i c h b e c o m e s negative at
high t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h e f a c t o r c o n t r o l l i n g g r o w t h is
a s s u m e d t o be the r a t e a t w h i c h c a r b o n c a n be t r a n s -
p o r t e d t h r o u g h a u s t e n i t e a w a y f r o m t h e tip o f t h e
g r o w i n g p l a t e . It i s d i f f i c u l t t o s e e how a p l a t e g r o w i n g
in t h i s w a y c o u l d undergo a s h a p e c h a n g e . T h u s , t h e
geometrical and structural r e q u i r e m e n t s and the fact
t h a t l e n g t h a n d w i d t h g r o w t h h a v e b e e n f o u n d to h a v e
a l m o s t identical activation enthalpies are s t r o n g evi-
d e n c e against t h e Zener-Hillert m o d e l a n d favoring
t h e a s s u m p t i o n of a s i n g l e g r o w t h c o n t r o l l i n g p r o c e s s
h y w i d t h m o v e m e n t of t h e i n t e r f a c e . Q u a n t i t a t i v e p r e -
e s s i s c o n t r o l l e d by t h e C o t t r e l l i n t e r a c t i o n o f c a r b o n
a t o m s w i t h t h e m o v i n g i n t e r f a c e w i l l n o w be c o m p a r e d
with the experimental data.
Kinetics of G r o w t h
T h e p r e d i c t i o n s of w i d t h g r o w t h a s a f u n c t i o n o f c a r -
bon content calculated on-the b a s i s of the Cottrell drag
m o d e l for t h e F e - 1 0 Ni-C a l l o y s at 450°C a r e p l o t t e d
w i t h t h e m e a s u r e d r a t e s in Fig. 11. F o r p u r p o s e s o f
c o m p a r i s o n , r a t e s of t h i c k e n i n g a t 4 0 0 ° C d e r i v e d7 f r o m
t h e Z e n e r - H i l l e r t d i f f u s i o n c o n t r o l m o d e l47 a r e p l o t t e d
also in Fig. 11. T h i s m o d e l p r e d i c t s r a t e s o f g r o w t h
in t h e l e n g t h d i r e c t i o n . T o o b t a i n t h e r a t e s o f b r o a d e n -
i n g u s e d i n F i g . 11 t h e r a t e s o f l e n g t h e n i n g w e r e d i -
v i d e d by 1 0 . T h e e x p e r i m e n t a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r u s i n g
t h i s f a c t o r w a s g i v e n e a r l i e r in t h i s p a p e r . T h e r a t e s
o f g r o w t h p r e d i c t e d by t h e p r e s e n t m o d e l a r e o n e o r
two o r d e r s o f magnitude f a s t e r t h a n t h o s e m e a s u r e d
e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h e d i s p r e p a n c y d e -
p e n d i n g o n t h e c h o s e n v a l u e o f the a u s t e n i t e r e s i s t a n c e
t o t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e g r o w t h r a t e s p r e d i c t e d by t h e
Z e n e r - H i l l e r t m o d e l a r e a b o u t t h r e e o r d e r s of m a g -
n i t u d e too l a r g e . T h e p r e s e n t i n t e r f a c e c o n t r o l m o d e l
b e t t e r p r e d i c t s the s t e e p d r o p i n g r o w t h r a t e f o r t h e
initial s m a l l addition of c a r b o n . Both m o d e l s p r e d i c t
a m a r k e d d e c r e a s e i n t h e r a t e o f c h a n g e of g r o w t h r a t e

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 2 , SEPTEMBER 1971 2439

 ~ RT=O
R),=25,000psi
[3 Ry.50,OOOpsi
Atom Fraction C
(Width growth rote .005 ,0075 ~
extropOloted to MS)'1 0005 0028 ~ - - - - " ' ~
d
E Experimentol ~.X>~'
R •Predi
.0~00, o ~ f . o . _ . I ~~ - ~ > -
g_ ctions
g high s t r e s s ( n e a r t h e individual d i s l o c a t i o n s in t h e
a
,J
1.20
I
1.30 I,/0 1.50 I./0
1OO(3/r I ' K )
Fig. 12--Comparison of experimental and theoretical v a l u e s
of the p a r a m e t e r s c~ and/3 u s i n g different a s s u m e d v a l u e s of
the austenite r e s i s t a n c e t o transformation.
w i t h i n c r e a s e in c a r b o n c o n t e n t a b o v e about 0 . 0 0 5
a t o m f r a c t i o n , but n e i t h e r m o d e l p r e d i c t s t h e o b s e r v e d
r a t e of c h a n g e w h i c h i s a l m o s t z e r o . It i s p r o b a b l e ,
h o w e v e r , t h a t a t 4 5 0 ° C , the p r o d u c t i n a l l o y s c o n t a i n i n g
m o r e than 0 . 0 0 5 a t o m f r a c t i o n o f c a r b o n i s b a i n i t i c , a s
d e f i n e d in the f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s p a p e r , a n d the t r a n s -
formation mechanism involves some interaction of the
interface dislocations with c a r b i d e particles.
B e c a u s e t h e p r e d i c t e d g r o w t h r a t e s d e p e n d in a c o m -
p l e x w a y o n the c a l c u l a t e d a a n d /3 p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e
Cottrell interaction, a c l e a r e r a s s e s s m e n t of the m o d e l
m a y be o b t a i n e d by c o n s i d e r i n g e a c h o f t h e s e p a r a m -
e t e r s separately. T h u s , determination of the experi-
m e n t a l v a l u e s o f a a n d fl, a n d t h e i r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h
the c a l c u l a t e d p a r a m e t e r s , w i l l g i v e a b e t t e r u n d e r -
standing of t h e p o s s i b l e s o u r c e s of discrepancy be-
tween the theoretical and experimental g r o w t h r a t e s .
It i s a s s u m e d i n the m o d e l that t h e Ms t e m p e r a t u r e i s
the t e m p e r a t u r e a t w h i c h t h e n e t f o r w a r d d r i v i n g f o r c e
for the transformation e x c e e d s the m a x i m u m height
in t h e f o r c e - v e l o c i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p d e s c r i b i n g t h e r a t e
c o n t r o l l i n g p r o c e s s . T h u s , a t the M s t e m p e r a t u r e , t h e
force-velocity c u r v e d e s c r i b i n g the Cottrell drag
m e c h a n i s m h a s a h e i g h t e q u a l t o the n e t f o r w a r d f o r c e
available to o v e r c o m e f r i c t i o n a l d r a g p r o c e s s e s , a n d
t h e v e l o c i t y of t h e m a x i m u m ( a d j u s t e d by t h e a p p r o -
p r i a t e g e o m e t r i c a l f a c t o r s ) s h o u l d c o i n c i d e w i t h that
d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y by e x t r a p o l a t i o n t o Ms of
d a t a d e t e r m i n e d a t h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s . [3 i s t h e
r e c i p r o c a l of t h i s g r o w t h r a t e . E x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s
o f the p a r a m e t e r a w e r e o b t a i n e d u s i n g t h e v a l u e s o f
the overall free e n e r g y of transformation and experi-
m e n t a l l y d e t e r m i n e d Ms t e m p e r a t u r e s , F i g . 6 , E q . [5],
a n d t h e a s s u m e d v a l u e s of t h e a u s t e n i t e l a t t i c e r e s i s t -
a n c e to t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h e o r e t i c a l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l
p a r a m e t e r s a r e c o m p a r e d in Fig. 12. T h e p r e s e n t
d r a g m o d e l , w i t h a c o r e c u t - o f f of b / 2 a n d the d i f f u -
s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t p r o f i l e g i v e n in t h e i n s e t o f Fig. 4 ,
underestimates a by a b o u t o n e o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e a n d
/3 by t w o t o t h r e e o r d e r s of m a g n i t u d e . T h e e x p e r i -
m e n t a l t e m p e r a t u r e d e p e n d e n c e o f b o t h a a n d {3 i s
c l o s e t o that p r e d i c t e d by t h e m o d e l .
T h e s o u r c e s of d i s c r e p a n c y b e t w e e n t h e o r y a n d
e x p e r i m e n t m a y n o w be e x a m i n e d . T h e o v e r a l l r e s u l t s
a r e r e l a t i v e l y i n s e n s i t i v e t o v a r i a t i o n s i n the c r y s t a l -
lographic p a r a m e t e r s . However, the calculated q u a n -
t i t i e s a a n d ~3 a r e e x t r e m e l y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e a s s u m p -
2440 V O L U M E 2, S E P T E M B E R 1971
l i o n si n v o l v e d i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
energy relationships, and t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t manipulation
in t h e t h e o r y . M o s t o f t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s a n d l i m i t a -
t i o n s in t h e p r e s e n t d r a g m o d e l a r e t h e s a m e as t h o s e
p r e v i o u s l y e n c o u n t e r e d in m o d e l s d e v e l o p e d f o r s i n g l e
dislocation-interstitial interactions. T h e most i m p o r t -
a n t o f t h e s e a r e t h e use o f a continuum m o d e l , t h e a s -
s u m p t i o n o f i s o t r o p i c l i n e a r e l a s t i c i t y in r e g i o n s o f
b o u n d a r y ) a n d h i g h s t r a i n (the d i s p l a c e m e n t s o f t h e
m a t r i x a t o m s defining an o c c u p i e d octahedral i n t e r -
stitial site), t h e neglect of interaction b e t w e e n n e i g h -
b o r i n g c a r b o n a t o m s , t h e n e g l e c t of the p o s s i b i l i t y o f
170 saturation effects, and the assumption of a constant
diffusion c o e f f i c i e n t n e a r t h e boundary. Some r e f i n e -
m e n t s of the s i n g l e dislocation-interstitial interaction
m o d e l h a v e b e e n a t t e m p t e d but n o n e o f t h e s e a r e s u f f i -
c i e n t l y d e v e l o p e d to w a r r a n t i n c l u s i o n in t h e p r e s e n t
model.
T h e g r o w t h r a t e s p r e d i c t e d by t h e d r a g m o d e l a r e
a f f e c t e d m o s t by t h e c o r e c u t - o f f v a l u e s e l e c t e d . B o t h
the v a l u e s of the interaction e n e r g y and the s h a p e of
diffusion coefficient profiles have a m a j o r effect o n t h e
r e s u l t s b e c a u s e together they d e t e r m i n e the r e g i o n of
interaction within which drag originates. A n e x a m i n a -
t i o n o f the i n t e g r a n d s of t h e a a n d /3 p a r a m e t e r s , E q s .
[6] a n d [7], r e v e a l s t h e r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s . A t b o t h
high a n d l o w v e l o c i t i e s it is n e c e s s a r y to d i s t i n g u i s h
b e t w e e n t h e a s s u m p t i o n that t h e d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t
p r o f i l e r i s e s s t e e p l y to a high v a l u e n e a r t h e b o u n d a r y ,
a n d the a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t p r o f i l e
i s s h a l l o w , r e a c h i n g a p e a k v a l u e a t t h e b o u n d a r y not
m u c h d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e l a t t i c e diffusion c o e f f i c i e n t in
the a b s e n c e o f i n t e r a c t i o n . F o r l o w v e l o c i t i e s , t h e
prevailing situation d u r i n g slow isothermal g r o w t h ,
t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e d r a g i s (e- u z k T - 1 ) / 1 9 , F i g . 1 3 .
If t h e d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s e v e r y w h e r e s h a l l o w , a s
t h e p r o f i l e c h o s e n in t h e p r e s e n t c a l c u l a t i o n s ( i n s e t o f
Fig. 4 ) , t h e n t h e d r a g c o m e s f r o m r e g i o n s c l o s e to t h e
d i s l o c a t i o n s i n the b o u n d a r y , a s s h o w n s c h e m a t i c a l l y
a n d o n e - d i m e n s i o n a l l y i n F i g . 1 3 ( a ) . In t h i s s i t u a t i o n ,
the choice of core cut-off b e c o m e s critical. On the
o t h e r h a n d , i t i s p o s s i b l e that t h e d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t
is m u c h e n h a n c e d n e a r t h e i n t e r f a c e d i s l o c a t i o n s be-
c a u s e the l a r g e s t r e s s e s c r e a t i n g a t o m i c a r r a n g e m e n t s
f a r f r o m e q u i l i b r i u m . T h i s s i t u a t i o n m a y c a u s e the
diffusion c o e f f i c i e n t to rise s e v e r a l o r d e r s o f m a g n i -
tude n e a r t h e b o u n d a r y . T h e d r a g will t h e n o r i g i n a t e
at s o m e distance f r o m t h e boundary, Fig. 13(b).
K o l i w a d a n d J o h n s o n 4s h a v e s h o w n r e c e n t l y that t h e
s t r e s s e f f e c t a l t e r s b o t h t h e c h e m i c a l p o t e n t i a l of the
i n t e r s t i t i a l a n d the a c t i v a t i o n b a r r i e r f o r a d i f f u s i o n a l
j u m p . T h e f i r s t o f t h e s e e f f e c t s i s a r e s u l t o f the p o s i -
tion dependent interaction e n e r g y and has been c o n s i d -
e r e d in t h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s . T h e s e c o n d e f f e c t , w h i c h
h a s not b e e n t a k e n into a c c o u n t , c o u l d be v e r y i m p o r t -
a n t b e c a u s e o f s m a l l c h a n g e in t h e a c t i v a t i o n b a r r i e r
f o r d i f f u s i o n h a s a l a r g e e f f e c t o n the d i f f u s i o n c o e f f i -
c i e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h t h e a c t i v a t i o n b a r -
r i e r i s a f f e c t e d i s not y e t c l e a r . B o s m a n e t a l J9 a n d
B a s s a n d L a z a r u s 5° w e r e u n a b l e t o f i n d a m e a s u r a b l e
effect of hydrostatic p r e s s u r e on the mobility of c a r b o n
i n a - i r o n . T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e e f f e c t d i s c u s s e d by
K o l i w a d a n d J o h n s o n m a y be s m a l l i n t h i s s y s t e m .
Reducing t h e core cut-off l i m i t i n c r e a s e s both a and
/3, F i g . 1 4 . E x c e l l e n t a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n p r e d i c t e d
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
 16 l
x
.o a~-X ot b
/ ~ (I)
14
u

,¢{

2
I0 g (1)

8 ~ - ~ b (II)
o,
I I I I

/
EXPERIHENTAL THEORET I CAL
a /x R~ = 0 1 C O R E CUT-OFF (D PROFILE)
O Ry = 2 5 , 0 0 0 PSI / ~ Y l
[] Ry = 50,000 PSI O D
Bo x x
q
B 0 0
<> b

L
-t
e
o ~ (i)

a.
2
~ _b ( 1 )
2

3- - g
0
(a) (b) ._i b (ii)
-2 l i - I r - - - - T- - 4
Fig. 13--The c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o c a r b o n drag at l o w velocities
from various p a r t s of the atmosphere shown schematically l .40 l. 5 0 l .60 1.70

for t w o c a s e s : (a) relatively l i t t l e enhancement of diffusion 1000/T (°K)

near the boundary, and (b) g r e a t l y enhanced diffusivity i n a
r e g i o n c l o s e r t o the boundary than the regions of h i g h i n t e r -
action energy. T o p c u r v e s h o w s interaction e n e r g y ; m i d d l e
c u r v e , diffusion coefficient profile; b o t t o m c u r v e , contribu-
t i o n s t o drag--all as functions of distance from the boundary.
and experimental values of the ot parameter are ob-
tained if a core cut-off value of 3b/8 is selected and
the diffusion coefficient profile in Fig. 4 is assumed.
A cut-off at 3b/8 is reasonable, The predicted value
of 13, however, falls approximately one order of mag-
nitude below the experimental value of /3. The assump-
tion of a steep diffusion coefficient profile, rising as
e -u/kT, drops the predicted values of the ~ and /3 pa-
rameters by approximately 5 orders of magnitude.
Thus, by the selection of a suitable diffusion profile
and a reasonable cut-off, agreement is obtained be-
tween the predictions of the model and the experimental
data whichis encouraging if allowance is made for the
many approximations whichhave been unavoidably in-
corporated into the model.
SUMMARY
A q u a n t i t a t i v e m o d e l b a s e d o n the e l a s t i c i n t e r a c t i o n
o f the s t r a i n f i e l d s o f d i s s o l v e d c a r b o n a t o m s i n the
m a r t e n s i t e l a t t i c e w i t h the s t r e s s f i e l d o f the m o v i n g
t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t e r f a c e d i s l o c a t i o n a r r a y has b e e n
c o n s t r u c t e d f o r the s l o w i s o t h e r m a l g r o w t h of m a s s i v e -
m a r t e n s i t e i n F e - 1 0 Ni-C a l l o y s . T h e m o d e l , c o n s i d -
e r i n g C o t t r e l l a t m o s p h e r e f o r m a t i o n and the r e s u l t a n t
d r a g o n the i n t e r f a c e , s a t i s f i e s a l l o f the r e q u i r e m e n t s
o f the f o r m a l c r y s t a l l o g r a p h i c t h e o r i e s a n d p r e d i c t s
the k i n e t i c s o f g r o w t h a s a f u n c t i o n of c a r b o n c o n t e n t
and temperature. T h e s e predictions c o m p a r e f a v o r -
ably w i t h the r e s u l t s o f a s y s t e m a t i c h o t - s t a g e m e t a l -
Fig. 14--Effect of various assumptions of core cut-off limit
and diffusion coefficient profile on the calculated Cottrell
drag parameters (x and/3.
l o g r a p h i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f the k i n e t i c s o f g r o w t h i n f i v e
F e - 1 0 Ni-C alloys over a r a n g e of temperatures and
c a r b o n contents.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h e a u t h o r s g r a t e f u l l y a c k n o w l e d g e the B e t h l e h e m
S t e e l C o r p o r a t i o n f o r f u r n i s h i n g the a l l o y s u s e d i n t h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n a n d the M a t e r i a l s S c i e n c e C e n t e r a t
C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y for financial support u n d e r contract
S D - 6 8 . O n e o f the a u t h o r s r e c e i v e d p a r t i a l s u p p o r t
f r o m the N a t i o n a l S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n , c o n t r a c t G K -
23985.
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