Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju

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Rodrigues, Aryon D. 1985. Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships. In Klein, Harriet E. Mane-
lis & Louisa R. Stark (editoras), South American Indian languages: retrospect and
prospect. Austin: University of Texas Press.

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9. Evidence for Tupi-Carih Relationships

Aryon D. Rodrigues

The purp ose of this paper is to present some evi­

d (' n r ('of p r (' h i fi t· () ri r ;1 n cI hi fi t" 0 r i. r <1 I. r (' 1. a t ion s b e ­
tween the languages of the Tu pi stock and those of '"
the Carib family"
'" stock as comprising seven
I proposed the Tupi
~ ~ M un d uru k'"
faml"1"les--Tupl-Guaranl, u, J uruna,
'" A r1"k'"
em,
Tupar1, Mond~, and Ramar~ma--and a linguistic iso­
late, Purubor-a (Rodrigues 195 8a), 1958b, 1964,
1970)" There is thus far only sparse unelaborated
lexical evidence for the affiliation of some of
-:'
these fam il ies; for others, such as Tuparl, Mundu­
ruk~, and TUrl-Guarani, wt? hav e airpady worked out
more extensive l exi.ca l. Clnd phonological correspon­
dences (Rodrigues 1961, 1980)" At the moment I be­
lieve that two languages previously included in the
Tup1-Guaran~ family, Aweti and Satar~, should be
reclassified as two additional. isolates (or one-
/
member families) in the Tupi stock"
/
The geographical distributi o n of the Tupi stock
has the following main features:
(a) It lies essentially south 01 the Amazon Ri­
ver (to the north of this boundary we find only the
--: G uaranlan
T UP1- -: d"1a 1 ect -:' '" "11 on,
group Wayapl-Emerl
which reached the Oyapock river on the Brazil­
French Guyana border in post-Colombian times (M~t­
raux 1927:29-35), and the Amazonian Lingua Geral or
NheengatU', /
a creolized dialect of Tupi-Guaranian '"
372 Aryan D, Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 373

Tllp 11:llllhil' III roellll"'" ii, AIII;IZ0Ili" I>y l'orllll\IIr"11' ('()­ Vene7.uelnfl c(lOsl, ill lhe pllRt hllving reached the
Ionization and missionary activity). Antilles. After a geographical discontinuity, we
(b) It is found mainly in the Amazon Basin; the find the westernmost and perhaps most divergent
/ /
only exceptioll to this is the Tupi-Guarani , family, subgroup of Carib languages (Opone, Carare) in the
which, although it has lIIany languages in that Ba­ Madalena Valley of Colombia. Another discontinuous
sin, also sprpad5 0vI'r the PnrAn~ Basin in the subgroup, whose best known member is Hian'koto-Um'­
south and alon g most of the length o f the Brazilian ua, is located on the Caquet~ and Apaporis Rivers
coast in the east. (Yapur~ Basin) in southern Colombia, but this is
/
(c) Five of the members of this stock--Tupari, linguistically very close to the Makiritare (Yeku­
Arik~m, Mond~, Ramar~ma, and Purubor6--are found in ana) subgroup on the Ventuari River in Venezuela
the area betwe e n the Machado (Jipariln~) and the (which, in turn, is more akin to the languages of
Guapor~ Rivers, in the highest part of the Madeira / 2
the Uraricuera, such as Wayumara). Palmela, a
Basin (in the Br az ilian State of Rond~nia), and a Carib language once spoken on the Guapor~ River,
sixth me mber, S a tar' (Maw~), is spoken on the lower south of the Amazon, exhibits features typical of
Madeira. the North Amazonian languages and was probably
Th (> C;) r i h I all f.\ IJ <l:\ C' 5 C () 11 5 t I: IJ I C' () n I. y () 11 C' f:1 m i. 1 Y , dLsplaced to thnt re~i()n in i1 very late mil',ration
w II i c II III n y I> (' s" hili v i e1" Ii i 11 I () I', (~ n" lic ;1 I I Y d f fer c n ­ (19th century) (cf. Fonseca and Almeida 1899:229­
tiated subgroups . These subgroups have not yet 234). A Carib linguistic isolate is Pimenteira, a
I
been clearly defined. However, the most likely language which in the 18th and 19th centuries was I
I '
division is between languages spoken north and spoken far from Amazonia, between the Gurgu~ia and
~
south of the Ama z on River. The latter group may be the Piaui Rivers in the northeastern Brazilian
/
further divided into two subgroups, with one com­ State of Piaui, and by the end of the 17th century
prised o f Ap i ak' o f the Tocantins, Ar~ra and Parirf had been farther in western Pernambuco, near Cabro­
3
of the lower Xin g G, and Txik~o of the upper XingG. b6", on the left bank of the Sao Francisco River.
,­
The other would encompass Nahukw'-Kal a p~lo-Kuik~ru Lexical similarities between Tupi and Carib lan­
, / ,­
on the upp e r XJngu and lIakairi, the southernmost guages were pointed out in the past by various
/
Ctlrih Inllf.',II;)F, C' on 1.111' IIpp('r £:1115('" ;111(1 1I;llovi scholars. AS early as 1909 d(' Goeje said that "se­
RivC'rs (Xillgll I\""ill) ;111(1011 lil e. ' '1'(>1(>5 I'i res <lnd , veral words, which are not onomatopoetic, appear to
Novo Rivers (T a paj6s Basin) . pertain at once to the primitive (i.e. proto-) Ca­
The northern Carib languages are numerous and rib language and to the primitive Tupi or to the
widespread, extending from north of the Amazon primitive Aruak; would they be relics
from a time,
4
mouth to the Orino c o River and further, along the when these families were yet only one?"
 Evidence£or Tupi-Carib Relationships ' 375
374 Aryon D. Rodrigues

I ,
/ wordR from !lomc' (I t h (' ,. Illngllilgl"s w(~rc llddcd, mORt o(
Our COIIIPflt' ~()II () r ~ ()III (I I <l n p, 11:l f', (' S of t II (' 'I'll pi
them taken from de Goeje 1909 and 1946); and Bakai­
stock with languages of the Carib family led to the /
ri (Steinen 1892 and Weatley ms.) as a representa­
establishment of regular phonological corresponden­
tive of the South Amazonian languages (with a few
ces between both groups. These correspondences,
examples from Nahukw~ after Steinen 1894 and de
presented in Tables and 2, are based on over 100 .I
lexical equations covering such domains as kinship,
Goeje 1909). By taking into account such languages I
we reduce the possibility of including in List A
body and plant p<lrts, nature, l1on-cu' ILural and cul­
sets of correspondences valid only for a particular
tural items qualities <l c ti o ns and stat e s In ad­
subgroup of languages.
dition to some g rammatic a l morphemes, including
List B consists of correspondences found only
perSOl1 markers. '[' h (' (' q U :l l. () n ~, wh i (' hill' (' p r (' s (' n t e d / /
between the Tupi-Guarani family (excluding the
In List A, are indi C;.ltive of genetic relationship. /
other Tupi families) and North Amazonian Carib lan­
In compiling Tables and 2 only the Carib Lan­
guages. To the Carib languages used in List A were
guages often recurring in List A were specified;
added Way~na (Coudreau 1892, de Goeje 1946) as well
the other laneuages of the same family appearing in
as other North Amazonian languages (after de Goeje
that list b e have in ~eneral similar to one of the
1909 and Koch-Gr~nberg 1928). These corresponden­
specified languRg('s
ces include words for fauna, flora, and cultural
for List A only sOl11e languag e s of each group ;'
artifacts which are common to the whole Tupi-Guara­
were used, selected from those for which more lexi­ ~
nl family. They probably reflect a contact either
cal and grammatical information was available to
/. ~
b etween an ancestor of the present day TupI-Guaranl
me. For th e Tupl~ stock, I .
took Tuplnam b a/ ( 16th and
languages and an ancestor of the north Amazonian
17th century sources, especially Anonymous 1952­
Carib languages, or between one " ;'
of the Tupi-Guarani
19,)] , p h 0 n (' m i (. 7. (' rI :0 rI (' r Il (l d ri p, I l(' ~ 1 C) S C) :111 d 1911 I)
/ / longungeR And on(' or L h (' North AmAzoniAIl Cilrib ll1n­
as a repreSellLai. ve of th e Tllpi '- (;uar:llli f ',1111 i 1 Y
guages with subsequent diffusion within the respec­
(w o rds not attested for Tupinal11h~ were t <lken from " ,­
,­ tive family. Bu t these strictly Tupi-Guarani/North
Old Guarani, Ru "i, z d e ~1 0 n toy a ) 639) ; Tup a ri (Caspar
Amazonian Carib correspondences (which constitute
and Rodrigues ms.) as il membCo'r o f "
the Tupari fami­
the bulk of the lexical similarities so far mentio­
'I Y il 11 d HUll d II r II k;' (c,' () r (s 19 7 '~ "" d In.s.) it S a
ned by previous authors) are Rurely not due to ge­
memb e r of thl' MUllduruk~ fomily . For the Carib
netic relationship and should therefore be clearly
fam i ly, I took bAsically Waiwai ( [{ a w kin s I 9 5 2 and
distinguished from the cognate sets represented in
1962) , Hishkary~na (Derbyshire 1979 and ms.), and 5 I I
List A. This point is mentioned here only in pas- I
Taulipang (Pemong) (Koch-Gr~nberg 1928) as repre­
~ing, but it deserves a more thorough examination
senta t ives of the North Amazoniall Languages (but I 1
i I
I
I I
376 Aryan D. Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 377

i nth c rut 1I r 0, ;] S W (' ;J C q 1I r (' "(" I. (' r k 11 () W I (' d r. (' t) f a TAIlLE I. Phonologic.,1 CorrospolldC'l1c.:cs--Consonallts
larger number of Carib languages. It should also (Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)
be taken into account that many lexical items
included in List B are to be found as well In some
6
North IImazoni"n IIrawAk languages. Tb p, Tr p, elll i, pe/V i, Mu p, ,61 i,e Ww p,
r. i q [" c: p r (' ~; (' II " S . (" (l r r (' s P () 11 II (' II t· (' S III () S I: pro h i1 b I Y h, Hk h, 'J'p, Gl, Wn p, Ilk p, x: 7, 20, 29, 33,
d II (' I. (l r (' t" (' I I ' (" (l 11 , : I (. I S . II (' r C' 11("III<I(,lo:lllwords 35,38,1,9, ')5, ~)9, 70, 71, 93, 9 11, 95, 97, 98,
/
of several Carib languages taken either from Lingua I 14, I 17

Geral or from some other particular Tu p 1-Guaranf Tb p, Tr pI ft II/ Tp p, ;5111 Ww, Hk, Bk ;tIll
/. 29, 30, 3 I, 47.
lan~uage: C. I loanwords f: rom Llngua Ceral (Tate­
vin 19 10, Stradelli 1929) in North Amazonian Carib Tb,6, Tr p, Mu m; Ww, Hk, G1, Wn w: 8, 82, 91, 114.
/
languages; C. 2 - loanwords from Wayapi (Coudreau Tb ~ I II, T r, Mu p I II; Ww, Hk m I II: 2 I, 67, 69,
7 / /
1892) or Lingua Geral in Wayana. I add also a 92, 106.

list of Carib loanwords in a Tupi-Guarani

/ /
language: Tb~1 II, Tr, Mu pi 1/; Ww, Hk, Bk % (w) 25, 26,
/ / 8
C. 3 - loa n w 0 r d s fro m \~ a y a n a i n Way a pi. 31,73,77, 107.
Tb, Tr t, Mu t, d; Ww, Hk, Tp, Gl, Wn, HU, Bk t
4 I 5, 3 3, 3 6, 9 5, I () J, I 0 J 11
Tb s, Tr t, eI i, Mu r; Ww t, tl i, Hk t, el e,
Tp, \~n t: 43, 52, 62, 63,73,79,100,102,118.
T b, T r, H uk; Ww, Hk, T p, G1, l~ n k, Bk k, k x: 5,
13, 19,40,41,45,54,61,68,75,76,83,85,
93,94,98,101, III, 14, liS, 116, 117, 18,
121
Tb ?., Tr k, Mu ? Ww, Hk, Tp, G 1, \~n , Bk k: 24, 49,
50, 80, 108, 110.
Tb, Tr, Mu ?; Ww, Hk, Tp, Bk Ii: 17, 22, 35, 65, 67,
74, 109.
Tb, Tr, Mu m; Ww, Hk, Gl, Wn m, ilk Jf: 6, 9, 14, 42,
56, 63, 83, 88, 90, 103a, 116.
378 Aryan D . Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carih Relationships 379

T a h 1. c I. P h () n () I (I g j C ;J I C () r r ~. S P () n cI l' 11 C l' S - - C0 Tl S () n il n t s TABLE 2. Phon o logical Correspondences--Vowels

(Cont inued) (Abbreviations and Numbers are those of List A)

. - -- -.-..- .. --~--- .

Th m, Tr ? ; Mk , Hk 01: 1, 6. T b, T r, Mu i; Ww, T p, Bk i, Hk e: 3, 57, 58, 8 I ,

Th, Tr 11; Ww, Il k , 'l'p, 1:1, Ilk II : IIi , e, 7, 'ill, 77 , HI" 8 3, 19.
II () . Th, Tr i; Ww, Ilk .. : I, .J , 5 1, .

Tb n, Tr f:f; \~ w 11: 8 I, 88 . Tb 4" Tr, Mu i; Ww, Hk, Tp, Ap, Bk :i:: 18, 22, 23,
T b, Tr 1); TP ,), \-1 w, II k , Bk 01: Z 0, n2 , 7 4, 8 9, I I9 . 32, 33, 34 , 43, 52, 59, 66, 76, 80, 82, 99.

Tb r, Tr, Mu r, t I 1/ \.J\'J, Hk, Tp, Hk r Wn 12, Tb 4" Tr, Mu i; Hk, Tp, Bk a: 16, 19, 45, 76, 103a,
16, 17, 19, 3 0, 3Z, 37, 38, 45, 1,6, 49, SO, 54, I 15.
64,87,96,99 , 101 106, li Z , 11 3 , 114 120. Tb 4" Tr i; Ww, Hk, Tp e, 13k i: 17, 23, 24, 59, 60,

Tb rl II, Tr, Mu tl II ; Ww, Hk, 13k Z: 55 , 7 2 , 7 5 , 79 , 95.

87. Tb u: Tr 0 , Mu 0, i; Ww, Hk:t, Tp, Bk u: 21,7.7,

Tb r, Tr h; Ww, Hk, Tp y : I, 56 . 90.
Th, Tr, Mu y; Hk y: 22 , 1 9, 97, 107 . Tb u, Tr, Mu 0; Ww, Hk, Tp 0: 39, 110, 113, i21
Tb y , Tr, MIl w; Tp, 1:1, \-111 w , Ww, Ilk 1(\.; : ('S, 6(" Tb, Tr, Mu C; Ww, Hk, Tp, Hk e: 10, 16,24,30,31,
II :3 , 12 I . 58, 59, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 106, 108, 115.

Th y III Tr, Mu w ill Ww, H k, T p;(: I 0, I °5, I ° 6 . Tb, Tr e; Ww, Tp, Bk il II: 28, 55, 65,87.

Tb V; Hk Vm: 22 , 39, 57. Tb, Tr, Mu e; \~w, Hk, Tp, Bk a: 2,13,20,94,106,

108.
Mp t <I th e s C s: 9, :3 2 , :J'3, I, 2, 5 (J, () 2, I, R , B (), 8 1, 85 , Tb, Tr, Mu a; Ww, Hk, Tp, 13k a: 14, 15, 25, 27, 33,
H7, ':II, ()I" 9'), <j(" ()7 , I () . 35,37,38,41,42,43,44,50,52,56,60,63,
65,67,68,70,71,72,74,75,83,84,85,86,
- - -- --_._--_.
88,91,92,93,94,95, III 112, 114, 116, 117,
120.
Tb, Mu a; Ww, Hk e: 45, 62, 73, 105.
T b, Tr 0 , N u 4.; \~w, Hk, o. u, T p, 13 k 0: I, 8, 9,
15, 29,58,69,71,82,89,97, 100, 109, 118.
Tb, Tr 0; Hw , Hk, Hk a: 26 , 47, 68, 96, 101
N
T b, Tr V; \-Iw, H k, T p, Bk V: I 4, I 5, 3 2, 35, 5 I, 65,
8 0, 82.
.j
380 Aryan D. Rodrigues
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 381

/
I. 1ST 1\: Tupi-C:lr h r:()I',II;]t'('~l ('-.
/ /
Abbreviations: ilk Bakairi, Gl Galihi (Ka li~ a , I I. Tb r-, Mu d-, 1'r h- r elationa l; Ww, Hk, Tp
Karina), Hk Hishkary~na, Ie Island Carib ~, Mk y-.
Makushf, Mu MundurukC, Nk Nahukw!, Tb
Tu pinam h', ~
Tp Taulipang (Pemong) TR Tupar1, Grammatical particles and words
Wn Way(na (Oyana), Ww Waiwai. 12. Tb ri 'for, on' Ww re 'through' Hk rye
'thr ough, ill on~'
Personal affixes 1 J. Tb -ke (in o~a-ke 'in front of, lit. 1n
I. Tb wi- Tr W-, 0-, Mu we-, 0- 1st singula r; fa ce of'); Hk ka 'to' (e.g. ompata-ka
Ww w.;,- Iy-, 0-, oy - , Ilk w- ,.j,- flk W-, u-, 'towards the face of'
i - , Tp 11-, u Y-- , y-. 14 . '"
Tb amo 'another, some' G1 , Wn, I C a mu .
2. Tb, Tr, Mu e- 2nd singular ; Ww a-, Bk a-, Tp
a-, aw-, Hk a-, ay-, 0- , ow-, oy- Kinship terms
J. Tb, Tr, Mu i- 3rd non reflexive; Ww, Bk, Tp 15. Tb amoy 'grandfather' tamoy 'grandfather of
1- , Hk 1:0- , u-. somebody' Tp amo-ko
'grandfather' , u-tamo
4 . Tb t - , Mil t - 3rd non rpfl('xiv(', Tr t' (' - , t ­ 'my grandfather', Wn, Gl tamu, Hk tam-,
'3 r d r (' r I <' )( i V" Ww, TP .; " t - II k .t- t r. II - , tnmu- 'grillidfalhcr'.
t-, Bk t~- 3rd reflexive. 16. Tb en4r 'male's sister Bk -enaru-to, Gl
5. Tr ki-, k- 1st plural inclusive Ww k~-, k- , -enau-tik 'sister'.
Hk ki-, ku-, k- Bk ki-, ku-, k-. 17. Tb i?ir 'male's cross cousin' B k i· r 1

'fem ale's cousin '.

Case ;)ffixps 18. Tb .j,~+r 'male's younger brother' -:'
Apalal
(-,. I'll -mo, '- :tmo III lh" s I :1 t. (' () r Ww -111(' , Hk -me . ~pir+, Gl pi' ['i
/'
Ie ihiri.
7. Tb -pe punctual lo cative, Tr -pe inessive, 19. Tb 4ker 'female's older sister', +ke-?-~r
Mu -pe, -he locative; Hk -ho, Tp, Wn -po 'male's older brother', Tr ike 'male's older
l ocative brother', ike-it
8. Tb -,0 d f f II S (' IOCilllv e Ilk -wt) il t .
~
Apala1 -akoro-ne, Tp ako!),
'female's older sister';
akon-U' 'br ot her'
Wn akon ' older brother'.
Other affixes 20. Tb pel} 'female's cross nephew' Ww pamo, Gl
,..,
9. Tb mo-, Tr m-, 0-, Mu mi- causative; Hk om-, pamu 'brother-in-law' , Hk hamo cross
on-, em-, cousin Bk pama 'male's brother-in-law'
v
10. Tb ye-, Ir we-, Mil J('-w e - refl.exive; Tp, Ilk 2I . Tb u~, Tr op 'father' ; Ww Hk -im, Apala i
/
urn
382 Aryon D . Rodrigues
Evidence for Tupi -Carib Relationships 383

GI uml1, Tp u~, Bk '"(J (~ •

Nk uu, Wn ipi:i, Gl wi· pi:, Ie w~bo.
35. Tb 4:pa?u 'island'; Wn, Gl pau, Ie ub'o.
~~.~J_~ !_~_ _~~_~.._~a~~~_. ~L~~.~~~. 36. Tb +tu 'waterfall' Trio itu-ru, Gl ito-ti,
22. Tb a-?~y 'grain, secd' Ilk tym e 'nut'.
Bk t ~u .
23. Tb ipi ' t r ee stpm' Ww, Wn cp u trpe stem' 37. Tb kwar 'sun' Mu ka-'1ii 'sun' Hk a-kwar+
Hk e II +, 0 II t 's t ;1 n rl i n g t r. (> e ' .
l
'sunlight'
2/, . r " . b. 10 i " sill 1', I
38. Til par;] I Large river'; Tp paru 'water,
25. Tb kaS, Tr ?a p, Mu 'liep ' fa t (noun)'; Hn
river', Apala1 paru 'river', Bk paru
kap- ha k 'fat (ildjective)', ka-t 'fat
'water'
(noun) , Ww ka, Hk, (;1 k a-t. i 'fat (noun)'
39. Tb yu 'field' Hk o-yomo.
26. Tb oe, Tr e p, Mu -tp ' l e af' Ww, f1k, Ilk a.
27. Tb o~a, Mu opa 'face' I'r epa 'eye' Ww
Qualities
ep a -ta, Hk empa-ta ompa-ta, Gl emba-ta, Tp
40. Tb aki,m 'wet' Wn te-ukuma-i, t-ekupa-i, Gl
emp o- ta, empe-ta 'face'.
ekup-i.
28. Tb pe 'bark', Tr pe 'bark, skin', Mu i-be
4 J. Tb aku!" Tr akop, Mu a'1iip 'hot'; Hk ak.
'bark' \~ tv pi-' h ark ' Tp pi-p+ 'skin, bark'
42. Th aman 'c rcle, surround' Tr amon-?a
1-9. Til P"po Tr p (' P '() 'w i Tl g r (' ;1 I II co r ' Tp pcpo-ko
, r 0 u n d, R P II (> r i. caL ' Ilk amno- 'round' (see
'LO tak e off the f ea thers' (ko 'to pull
no. 83)
away', see no. 109)
43. Tb asi" Tr aci 'to be sick, to ache' Hk
30. Tb pere 'milt' \J w, Wn, Bk ere, Hk e rye, Tp
ati,h 'to be rotten, bad'.
e r. 'liver
44. Tb ay 'sour'; Ww ai 'to be hot (pepper)', Hk
3 1. Tb p e r c~ 'wound, ulcer' Ww ere, Ilk erew 'to
ayih 'to be hot like pepper'.
;]l: h (> , •

45 . Tb kira '[at (adjective)'; Hk kare 'to make

32_ Tb . '"
p~ru 'to tread' Hk ihro , fa at' .
:

f at ' .
33. Tb pi,ta 'heel', Tr cito 'fo ot ' , Mu ida
46. Tb mir~, Tr ?iri 'small' Bk i-meri, Mk
'heel' Hk ihta 'sale' ihta -k marunu 'heel'
miri-ki,.
Ww ht;], Tp p+ta 'foot' Wn pta 'sale'
47. Tb par, Tr at 'full' Hk ar-i-hto 'to fill',
pta-pu 'IICC[', Nk Llta-pt '.~ole'
t-ar-ke 'full' Ww ari: 'contents'
48. Tb pos-i:y, Tr poci, Mu poS'i 'heavy' Tp pi-si,
Elements of natur e
Gl awo·sil).
34. Tb .t~+ 'earth, ground', i~i-t.tr 'mountain',
49. Tb puru?a 'pregnant'; Ww puruki 'to swell'
Mu i pi 'earth' Hk Ht-, Apilla1 ipi, Ilk ~w+,
50. Tb ?ar 'upper part, top'; Hk kare 'high',

l~ C d.:C£.S CC,~-, , ,
384 Aryon D, Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 385

nkre 'to lifl',

'vegetnl medicil1e ehremo 'to give
medic ine'.
Non cultural items 63. Tb sam' rop e ' Hk a-tame 'thick rope'
5 I. Tb apwa' 'poi nt' ; Ww epa 'p oin t ' Tp epo-te e-tam-~e 'thick rope (possessed)'.
'extremity of the arrow head'. 64. Tb uru 'basket' Hk uru-to 'small basket for
52. Tb as-ik 'piece' Ww asik-wo 'to break into cassava bread'
t wo piece's', 65. Tb ya7~ 'e1ish, pot' Tr wa?'e 'pot', Mu wa7e
53. Tb ipi, 'beginning' 4p~-ru9 'to begin' flk 'calabasb'; Tp wai 'calabash bottle'.
+h-C;c to bcg.in' 66. Tb y.t, Tr wi 'ax'; Gl w.j,.·-wi, Wi·-ri, Wn
54 , Tr k i r(' 'pc''' pl (' Ilk k-i-r+ , Tp k tlr:J Y 'm :JI1 ' , Ilk Apala1 wi-w.t, Bk p.t.
k tJ r~ 'P (' (l I' I e
.s 5 . Til per, Tr -- p e t 'won! ;JI1' Ww pi Ilk I,e-'Ce Actions and States
'wife' 67. Tb ?a~ 'to c ut'; Ww, Hk ama 'to cut Wood'.
56. T b mar a - 'b r a v e r y " mar a n ' war '; \" w maya 68. Tb akaso 'to mov e to a far place'; Hk e-taka
, h r a v e r y, t" b0 wi Jd " 11 k rna Y" n 't (I b (' w.i 1. d 'to move' oh-taka 'to change the place'
(a nirn<1I )' 69.. Tb a-o/\ 'to wrap, cl othes'; Ww w-omi
'wrapper', flk w-omu 'clothes', Wn y-om
_
Cultural
-- .. .._ - --items
- ­ 'wrapper' Gl w-oomo 'European clothes'
57. Tb inl" 'hamm ock ' Hk '"
eneme 'to sew', 70. Tb a pi, to burn' Tp api 'to set on fire'
58, Tb enimo inim o « inY 'hammock' + po 7I . Tr apok 'to sit down' Ww apo. Hk aho-n~,
, ,
'fiber') 'thread, rope' Ww k-e'Xepu 'hammock aho-nano, Tp apo-no, apo!) 'seat, bench', Gl
r 0 pe " w - (-, il c-' P 1I, Hk - w - (' n(' Ii u 'b ;1 hy s I i_ ng , apo-ni 'seat in a canoe'
1j fJ .
'I' h I' P oj., 'I'r ,. l' (' i ',,;j Y"'" 11' '; WW I' I" ' , '1'" 72. Th 11 r, ynr 'l (l t II k (', t (l 1" (' C e ivc Tr at, Mu
epe-pic, Hk ehe-th-i-ri 'p ayment ' , Hk eh e -ma jat 'to take'; Ww a-ri" Hk a, Tp a-Ii, Gl
Wn epe-illa 't o pay Bk ep+ 'to cost', epi-wa a-ro, Bk a 'to take, to carry'.
'to pa y, t o make a gif t ' . 73. Tb asa~ 'to pass , to cross'; Hk w-eto, Gl
60. Th .j. t ,1 ' " () II S (' pol. C' ' TP (,?:J" 's "' a I I lilt e r ;l I. w~·to 'to pass by, to cross'
pol es i'l '''e hOllsc" 74 • Tb a7al) 'to try'; Hk arne.
(, I . Th okar, Tr «k e r 'v ilLage pl ,1 za' Ww e ken 75. Tb ekar 'to look for'; Bk eka-heni 'to look
' place' .
for, to gather', eka-una 'to gather'.
62, Tb po sa l) 'm edicine' Ww eh~e 'cure, 76. Tb ek+y, Tr aki 'to pull', Tr eki 'to
medic ine' ehtem- 'to trea t ' , Hk eh~e ohce stretch' l"w aki, 'to bring', Tp w-aka 'to
 386 Aryan D. Rodrigues
Evidence for Tupi·Carib Relationships 387

p u 1. 1 ' . pa?-nese 'd ead '.

77 . Tb enue to h ear ' Ww en~, enw-, Hk, Wn e ne, 92. Tb pa~ 'all'; Hk e-ham 'to have many',
Gl e'ne to see 93. Tb pak 'to wake', mo-pak 'to ca use to wake',
7R. To C' P-l-y to s pr i nkl(" 1-1 11 (' P ~ k (' - i, II k j w j k C' Tr e-pak 'to wake'; Ww paka, Tp paka-, Hk
, to we t '
haka 'to wake', om-palea 'to cause to wake'
7 () . Th (. s ~ r I r I '" h ('
(1 (1: 1 ,' , I Ilk ( ' ( ' f' r' t. I I (J 91, . To !l ('k;1 • Tr pC'C'k:l 'to open' Wwahka 'to
('()okC'd' . bre il k ' .
80. Tb e?Jy ' t o scral c h' WI.' k -i-, Il k ';'k e , Ilk ike 95. Tb pita 'to stay, to stop '; Ww eh~o 'to
' to s cr ilpC' stay', Tp pita 'to stay', pia-a 'harbour'
Biblioteca Digital Curt Nimuendaju

8 I. To i. n 'to s it Tr - all ' co nl.1i. l1pr ( i.e. . ,

http://biblio.etnolinguistica.org

96, Tb par 'to jump Tr pot-?eki to Jump,

sitling plil ce )' WI.' - ri­ 't.o sC't. on lilt' <S- pot t o p I. u c k ' Ww ahro, Tp -puru- 'to
ground' jump' .
,<;
82. Tb -i:~ 0' to ar row' I" w 4: wo, Hk wa 't 0 fi r e ' , 97. Tb pay to feed', Mu p~y-bit 'meal' Hk
Gl iwo 'to wound, t o kill' yho-hto 't o fe ed' y ho-ta 'to have food'
83. Guaran1 kamik 'to squeeze, L a tread' Hk 98. Tb puk to get pierced'; Gl e-puka, Wn, Trio
a kmeke 't o trend' i-puka, Bk i - xoki 'to pierce Ipurukot&
1\ I, . Th k;\ II (. ?~ I I r (' d I II k I( "I 1\ :I I I (' r (I ~; I I • pok}!, I.e - "\1k:l, Hk pok<l-ki 'to kill. Iolith an
85. Tb k ay 't o burn (inLr.)' WI.' <lkn 'Lo burn arrow '
(tr.)', Ilk a ke 't o burn in L r . ) , 99. Tb rir.iy to tremble' Hk r-i:r.in 'to
Ro. T0 k a ? (. 'r () r (l n s ton iI p I :1 r r () r m ' Hk kan-ho. tremble', riri,ni:- 'trembling'.
-I . ,­
S7 . Tb knr, Tr ., (> t Mil '( C' r , t· () s I (. (. p , Ww nkri 100. Tb so, Mu Ci:, Sata r e, Awetf to 'to go' Ww,
1 l () j (. d () W i l l , Bk ik I () !'\ I ('('1)' flk to, I.Ik dfl.
8B. To 111;) n l' (I g () ;f r () lIll d, t. () f (1/1 (' (I I, Trlll.1 ­ 'l 0 101. Tb sorok 't o t ea r' 1C t - at f r a k a, Bk s a r o't e .
ro l l up' Ww rn a 'to d a nce' Hk m<ln-ho to 102. Tb su?u, Tr taka 'to bite' Wn e-tuku,
da nce' , ma m- ko t o f e nce' mam u ""all' Tp o-tuku 'to eat'
man- urn 't o d a n cC' ( s C'E' flO J 8) , . 103. Tb t i 'to tie'; Trio tirti, Hiana'koto-Umaua
89. Tb n o ,) 'I. () Pill' II k n () ,", TP II () ') " 't. () I (. t i-tena-ma-, Hk ¥eena.
s t;] Y , . 103a. Tb tim 'to plant to bury' Hk e-nam 'to
90. Tr am, t·l u ""
.j, OJ 't a g i" e WI" , Ilk irn, I\palai
/
plant, to bury', Bk e-ta 'to plant'.
urn, Bk u. 104. Tb we B ' t o extinguish t .he fire'; Wn epu "to
9I . Tb p a e, Tr pap ' t o en d, to die', Nu apam 'to go out (fire)', epu-ka 'to extinguish the
d ie (m any peopl e) '; Hk w,l h ' t o diE", Tp fire', Kumanagoto ep-ka.
388 Aryan D. Rodrigu es
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 389

lOS. TI) yay 'll) lIlo ck ' Mu \v :oy t () I ; III 1\ 10 ' Ww t' ilflkl, aki 'nr,ollLi' Se'(' Ilk Itak-rn 'pig',
'to scold' Tp pak-ila 'wild pig'.
106. Tb yeree, t o return' Ilk, Trio e rama, Gl I 18. Tb soko 'a heron'; Wn toko Ibis infuscata.
eramo, Wn irama 'to turn, t o r e turn' I 19. Tb ti?, Tr ni9 'timb~ vine, a fish poison'
107. Tb y4:B to be cooked', Tr a-yip 't o roast on ....
Hk ceme 'to poison the f i sh' Tp i-teg
c. 0:11 s f Hk yo to ('ook'. . ,
poisonolls VIne, GI e-tim-ui Mk i-teme,
108. Tb ?e 't o say, t o do' , Tr ke 'Lo s ay ' , ka Trio ti'Xe 'to inebriate'.
'to do', Mu ?e 'to say 'to /
Ww Hk, Tp ka 120. Tb urua, Guarani uruwa 'snail' Hk warwa,
say, to do' 13k ke 'to say, to speak'. Hian~koto-Um~ua alGua 'snail' IC 6ra
109. Tb ?ok, Bu ? ~k to pull aw ay ' Hk oko 'to 'shell' Bk uru-¥i 'shell used for smoothing
cut (meat)', Tp k a , ko 'to pull away'. bows' .
110 . Tb ?u, Tr ko, Mu ? o 'to e a t to drink' Hk 121. Tb yaku, Tr wako, Mu wak~ Penelope sp.,
ok, Ww ok4: 'to eat (bread)' Tp eku 'to Cracidae; GI, Trio woko, Wn wok, Hian~koto-
eat Um~ua oko-ime (ime 'big' Crax sp., Cracidae.

An i maJ~_ _~ .."..? .. p'._~a n t s. List B: ;-: /. an d

Loa nwo rd s c ommo n to TupI-Guaranl North
I I I. 'I' h n ku t '''f',outi' Tp, Mk, Nk "kill" C l, Wit, Amazonian Cnrib
Apala1, Tri o , Hian~koto-Um~ua akuli
I 12. Tr arime 'species of monkey'; Wn, Apalaf, Abbreviations: Ap Apalai, Ar Arek~na, GI Galibi
Trio alimi Hin~koto-Um~ua alim-ime (ime
(Kalina, Karina), Hk Hishkary~na, HU Hian~koto-
, big' ) . 9
UmO;:;ua, IC Island Carib In Ingarik~, Ip
I 13. Tb ayuru , Tr aorn, MlJ nr o 'parrot'; Tp IpurukotC;, Mk Makushi, Tb Tupinamb~, Tp
worD-we 'parrot', Ww, Ilk kworo 'SPC ClC S of Taul i pang, Wn Wa y 'nn (and Upurui), Ww Waiwai,
macaw'. Yb Yabar~na.
I 14. Tb kapi?i8ar Hydorchoerus capybara; Wn
;'
kapiwala, Ap a lai kapiara, Akawai kapiwa, GI Tb a ~a t i 'corn'; GI awasi Ap, v.
IC awaSl
kapia, Bk pakia. Tb ara~e /
'cockroach'; Tp ar?ut, GI alawi IC el~we.
I IS. Tb k';'s(' '(i> n rnbo o ) knife', Tr k.ite 'bamboo' Tbar a k wa 'a b i r d, £~~ .~.~ . Wn aragua.
Tp kate 'bamboo' . Tb isipo 'vine'; GI sima.
I 16. Tb komana 'beans' GI kumata, Arekuna Tb karawata 'Bromelia sp. Wn kulaiwata, Tamanaco
kum~·ta, Wayumar& kuma-sa, Bk kuata. karuata.
I I7. T b P a k C0 ~} 01:\ e n y s_-.P_~~ ; G I P a k C. pac a, Bk Tb kupi?i 'termite' GI kupisa. I
I I
j I
1.1
, '
390 Aryan O. l~adrjglles Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 391

Tb k u rem a 'a r: ish, M u g~. ~~J2_ . GI k we r j TTl a? . Tb urapar, Gunranf w~rapa 'bow' Tp, In urapa, Gl
Tb k uri mat a 'a f ish, P r 0 chi 10 d u ~..2. E.., Ch a r a c ida e ' ulaba, Wayumar' uraha, Hk kuraha, Ww krapa. !
G1 k u 1 i mat a '5 aJ:~_o_~~i:.~a..t:_~, Ch a r a c ida e ' . Tb urukure?a 'an owl'; Gl ulukuleya. l
Tb urupe 'mushroom'; Gl ulupi. !
Tb kwati 'honey-bear (coatimundi) Nasua socialis
Gl kuasi, Tp koazi Jp ko a d~i. Tb wara 'a her o n, Ibis rubra'; Gl uala 'Ibis
Th m ;J k n '?l s pp(' P S o r P'l[[ol"' \.J r ;"] k n ., , rubra' , HU uala, Trio wara , Ibi s egretta' .
[ ;"] :1 "I Tl TTl :1 :J

Tri o , HU ma iukanu, Mk marakan Tp 111;) r a kal), Jp Tb weraWA 'manatee' Gl Y1l1 a wa.

marakona. Tb warini 'war'; Yb ualini, Gl walimi.
/ /
Tb maraka ya 'wild cat' G1 , Wn marakaya, Tp Tb yakare 'alligator' In yakale, . Ar yakalr, Ap
m ar aka~ a zakare, Tp ~akare, Gl akare.
Tb m" [ a k u y a, C; lJ a r ., 11 { Tn ~. [. ~J_~.~I y.:: P:1SS;OIl fJowC'r' Gl Tb yawar 'jaguar' Uk awar-ko, Tp ~awaira 'black
mareku y a, IC merek oya Wn muruku ya. jaguar

Tb nan~ 'pineappl e ' Ap, Gl, Wn , Trio nana. Tb yurara 'a turtle' Gl walala, Yb uaraara, Hu
Tb paku 'a fish , ~rl~~~.· Ap, Gl paku, HU alala.

haku.
'I'll p :1 [ :J n;{ S (' : 1 C1, WIl P;) [:1 n;) , 1 C b:l 1 ~ 1111 ;"]
, !=)C:1 , , LIST C.I: Borrowings
,/
from Lingua Geral in North
10
Tp palana wavp s Amazonian Carib languages

Tb parawa 'a pa r rot Gl, Wn, Trio p a lawa, Ap

paraua. LG wakawa 'Herpetotheres cachinnans, a hawk that
Tb p i ray 'piranha cries in the night' Tp wakawa 'night bird with
~Xf,~ ~n_':..r=.:-.:s. __ ~~.E · and ~~:.~2'_a.L.mu s
screaming cry
s..P..' '; G 1 P ira j '~}_~_o_C::_~!l_~.~._~__ s!l
T hr., man u ? a ':) nrC' ., t (' ['; "I, T [ ; 0 r;"] III a no ., Mk LG akayur~na 'false cashew tree' Gl akayula
/
'wild
tamanua. cashew tree, Curatella americana'.

Tb tapiukaB 'a was p'; Gl t a piuka 'bee'. LG apukuit( 'oar'; Ap apak~ita, Gl abokuitya.
· ,/
LG k ~seapara ,. l' v
Tb ta pi y 'hut, shelter'; Ap tapi y 'house' Tp tapiy slcke ; Ww kaclpara, Gl supara
'house, hut' t apu iuka 'hut' 'knife'.

:1 y ;] 'X;j n h u s () m a sp . Wn, T rio 1:., y:.J , Ie t

/.
a , LG pa~iiwa 'a palm, Itiartea exorrhiza'; Gl pasiu.
Til l l 1 1

Gl
/.
raler. LG yakamT 'Psophia crepitans'; Tp yakami, Gl akami.
Tb tokay' (hunt e r's) hut' G1 t ok a i 'shaman's small LG yan[d]i~ 'a catfish'; Tp Jandia.
house'
Tb tuyuyu 'big stork, ~1z_c..t_e r i a. _~_~~~~~_~ Gl LIST C.2: Borrowings fr o m Waya p1 (Oyampi) or from
lU YUY U. L /.lngua Gera 1 1n
. ,/ a
Wayan
 Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 393 I
392 Aryon D. Rodrigues I

1.(; :lpukuil ~ COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS

I
!
Wn a p u k u i. t ;j ' 0;] r ' Wp ';p~kllit<l,
Although a possible genetic relationship between
Wp, LG a d j'ra
Wn a rar a wa 'macaw '
TUp~ and Carib was c onjectured at least as early as
Hn a rua 'mi r r a , ' Wn LG waru£.
LG karan~.
1909 (by de Goeje), the general classifications of ,! ~
Wn k a rana sp e cies of p a lm t r ee'
South American Indi a n languages (e. g. Rivet 1924, I

Wn panamem 'butterfly'; Wp panama .

Schmidt 1926, Rivet and Loukotka 1952, Swadesh
Wn tukllr<lWa 'p,r ,1 s s hopp",,'; I.e tUkhr<1.
1959, Greenberg 1960, Loukotka 1968) have not taken
\oIn yakuman-a 'pil o t o ar' LG yakuma.
this possibility into account, not even for a long
./
in Wa ya pi range (phylum) relationship . In the data just pre­
L I ST C.3: Bo rrowin g s [r o m wa y.3'n;] ./
sented, not every set of similarities between Tupi
and Carib languages should be ascribed to a genetic
Wp pari 'g, ;] nci c: hild'; \~n p;]ri.-p s ik (psik ' s m<11.I.').
relationship; rather the most obvious lexical simi­
Wp k a p a ru 'club'; Wn k a paru.
larities between such languages appear to be the
Wp kasuru 'beads' Wn k a1i'u r u.
result of borrowing, both recent (as bet ween Wayam­
Wp ktto 'a t oa d' Wn k u t o . ~ ./ /'
pi and Wayana) and old (as between the whole Tupi­
Wp kur u para ' g un powder'; Wn kurup a r <1 . ./
Guarani family and North Amazonian Carib).
Wp ku <l i r i ' s ,1 p;1 i () ( 1 - '" () n I,, · y ' ; Wn k (1 ~; j " 1 •
There are, however, a sizable number of lexical
Hp kll a k~ 111 a 11 () ( ' f' 1 {) " r • \-111 k (" 1 1«.'
items that, although not so obviously similar, can
Wp ma ria 'k n ife' Wn marla.
be shown to be cognates linked by regular phonolo­
Hp orori ' a li z ard' Wn o ror i iguan a
gical correspondences. Most of these belong to se­
Wp paira 'bo w , wood f or makin g b o ws ' Wn paira
mantic domains in which the intrusion of loanwords
'bow ' .
is less likely to occur. It is probable that not
Wp pa r api, mar a pi 'di s h' Wn ma rapi 'd is h of th e
every set in List A will stand as truly cognate af­
white man' .
ter tighter scrutiny is made on the basis of more
Wp p iro t o ' l ea d shot' \~ n pirot o.
complete knowledge of the internal relations of
Wp saa 'mach e t e ' Wn sa p a . ./
both Tupi and Carib. Given the present state of
\-Ip sa uru ' sa 1 t '; Wn s auto .
Carib linguistics, it is not possible to estimate
Wp s aW :1I1:r ' .Q :1 V ;IIl11 : i1,' WIl S: l w aT1~ .
Wn s iri k a the likelihood of the reconstruction of a lexical
Wp s i r ik e 'p 1 (' i a d (' S C () 11 S t C' I. I. a t i () n
item in a given language as a component of the
, S t a r'
Proto-Carib lexicon. For instance, in Taulipang
Wp wa rapuru 'coco a ' Wn wa r ap u ru 'coc o a-tr ee '. i 1
(Pemong) pepoko 'to take off the feathers' may be
analyzed as containing ko 'to pull away' and a mor-
394 Aryan D. Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 395

/
P 11(" me pep 0, at t 0s t (' d t 0 () n I yin t his w 0 r d n n d for giee and grammars of the Tupi and Carib languages,
which we may provide the meaning' feather' even such as: (a) a typical six-vowel vocalic system
though the free form for the same meaning is ano­ with three high vowels and three non-high vowels (i
ther word (yap~ri). The abstract morpheme pepo is ~ u e a 0); (b) postpositions, genitive-noun phra­
very similar to Tupinamb' pepo and Tuparf pep'o, ses, and basically verb-final clauses; (c) prefixal
both meaning 'wing, feather' (no. 29 of List II) as person markers in the noun and the verb, other in­
well as to Mawe' pepo 'wing Juru'na peo- 'wing' and flections being suffixal; (d) possessor markers and
Kariti~na pap~ 'arrow feather', all leading to the object markers are in general the same; (e) clear
.
reconstructlon o.f Proto-Tupl/*pep
', o. However, we distinction of reflexive and non-reflexive 3rd per­
I ac k any e v ide nee 0 f £_~P.~~.~ h a v in g cog nat e sin son, as well as of inclusive and exclusive 1st per­
ot.her Carih langu .1 g('s ., nd we do not ('ven know how son; (f) verb morphology and syntax are predomi­
its meaning is conveyed in them. Thus until we nantlyergative.
have increased knowledge of a greater number of Ca­ It should be noted that some of the words (or
rib languages, the possibility of pepoko being a morphemes) appearing in List A seem to belong to a
loanword cannot he discarded. wider net of relations which encompasses the Macro-
Neverthel ess i.s likely th.1t t. h!' hypothesis of J~ languages, besides Tupi and Carib. Taking Kain­
a common /. ,
Tupi-Carl. b d es~ent for a good part of List giing (J~) and Bor&ro as representatives of Macro-
A will be strengthened by greater knowledge of the J~, we can exemplify this with, among others the
Carib languages. This should of course also hold following correspondences: for set no. 21, which
/ w
true for our growing knowledge of the Tupi langua­ could be derived from a common form *u9 'father',
ges. When the compared words are attested to in Kaing~ng has y09 and Bororo has ogwa, both with the
/
several languages both in the Tupi and in the Carih same meaning; and for set no. 69, which analogous-
w ,/
group the case is of course stronger, as in sets I, ly could stem from "'Ol} 'to wrap', Bororo has ogwa
2, 3, 4 2 I 25, 26, 33, 34, 46, 59, 72, 88, 90, (homonymous with the preceding word) 'to conceal'.
w
91.93,96, 100, 108, 119. It is unlikely that These two reconstructions have *9 after a back vo­
w
these instances could be due to borrowing between wel aft e r a front vowel *1) could be reconstruc­
single l"nguag0s, for e ., c:h of them involves more ted on the same basis of Tb -f;= Catib -m in
/
w
than one fami.ly n the Tupi stock and more than one "'were? 'to (re)turn' ( set no. 106) This is c om-
subgroup in the Carib family. Additionally, only parable to Bor6ro kirimi 'to return' and perhaps
set 119 is culture/environment-bound. a 1 so .;"
to Kalngang " ' ' ' ' ' to
Wlrln turn , ( for ,/
Bororo k as a
To these lexical correspondences we could add reflex of *w note also *woro 'parrot' for set no.
some identical structural features of the phonolo- 113 and Bor&ro korao 'parrot' and, in cases where
396 Aryan D. Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 397

Ca rib is not involved, Proto-Tup{ "'wor 'neck' and also question other aspects of it. No evidence has
Bor&ro ko 'neck' korora
. neck , :
, b~rd Proto-Tup~
/.
so far been found of regular phonological corres­
/
*wab 'to split' a nd Bororo kwa, ka 'split'). For pondences between Pano or Pano-Tak'na and eitherJ~
se t no. 108 a pos s ible proto-form is *k'e 'to say, or Carib. If an y genetic relationship would in the
to do', which corresponds to Kaing{ng k e with the future be discovered between them, it would probab­
:'1:1ml" mprlning; :1nd f or 1'<1"1' no. 110. wi l' h thC' :1nl1­ ly be more rem o te thiln the possible relationship
1. 0 g 0 us 1 y po stu 1 ;1 t (' d pr o I. 0- f or m * k ' u " l () e';] t " we between J~ and Carib, as we ll as the possible rela­
/
have both Kaing'ng an d Bor~ro with ko 't o eat' tionship between Carib (a nd J~) and Tupi. In other
/
Se t no. 47, f or which * p'or 'full' is po st ulated words, Tupi and Carib (and Macro-Je) are more like­
. /
·JS a proto-form, a ppears to co rre s p o n d to Katngang ly candidates for a valid g enetic grouping than J~­
f:Jr 'fu!.l' ill th E' sa me way :1S Se't no. 96 with a Pano-Carib as such. But the grouping of Tu p1 with
proto-form *por 't o jump' evokes Ka ing~n g ~or 'to Carib (and Macro-J~) does not fit well within
be thrown' . Perhaps W p~ 'bark' does no t corres­ Greenberg's h y pothesis, because Tupl then would be
pond to Tb pe 'b ark ' ( set no. 28), but rather to placed within another of the three major divisions
Tb pir 'skin', whi c h is matched by Kaing'ng i ' r and conceived of for South America--Macro-Chibchan,
Bor6ro biri, both meanin g 'hark, ski n'. Andean-Equatorial, and J~-Pano -C arib. As a SUPP?­
The' whol e set o f p e r so n marker s (especially sed member of the Equa to rial branch of Andean-Equa­
nos. 2-5 in List A) : a lso belon g s to this net of torial, Tu p 1 would be related more closely to Ara­
Comp are for no . . /
2 Kalngang '"
a, Shavante wak than to either Carib or J~. Just the opposite
relations.
(J~ fami ly) a - , Bor~ro a-, Kipe~ (Karir1 family) relationship is emerging from comparative work.
e -, Ka raj' a - '2nd p erso n' for no . 3 Shava nte 1'-, Greenberg has himself remarked that "the greatest
II " r ~) r 0 , K P (>;;" ., n cI K .1 r :I i :-; 'j r cI p C' r son non ref 1 e ­ uncerta i nty exists in the Cil s e of the two new vast
xive for no. 4 Kail1r,~llg l i 'Jr d person n o n re­ groupings in South Ameri ca , Andean-Equatorial and
/
fl e xive', Shavante ti-, Bororo tu-, Kipe~ d-, di-, Ge-Pano-Carib" ( 1960:791) , and emphasizes that his
Karaj~ ta- '3rd p ers on reflexive' for n o . 5 Kipe~ doubt pertains "to the correctness of these two
k-, ku- '1st p e r so n plur,l inclusive'. as se mblages of languages as valid genetic grou­
A possible gl"netic rc!.ationship of Carib with ping s " (1960: 792). Indeed, the evidence being ga­
the Macro-J~ languages s hould n o t appear surprising thered, where phonologically controlled comparative
since Greenberg ( 1960) has a lread y pr o posed a h y p o ­ work ma y be attempted, s uggests the likelihood of a
thetical J~-P a n o-Car ib p hy lum . But a lth o u g h th e genetic group encompassing Ca rib and Macro-J~ as
data above seem to substantiate some aspects of well as Tupf.
Greenberg's h y pothesis (ev id e nce of Carib-J~), they
,. :
398 Aryan D. Rodrigues i
Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 399

NOTES
d'une ~poque o ...u c es familIes n'en faisaient en­
I. After writing this paper I read Marshall Dur­
core qu'un e seule? Nous nous contentons pour Ie
bin's "A Survey of the Carib Language Family"
moment de mettre en ~vidence ces concordances"
(Durbin 1977, repr i nted in this v o lume), in
(de Goeje 1909:1-2).
which the Carib languages are divided into Nor­
5. In some instances it is difficult to decide for
t h f' r n Car i h <l n d S'0 IJ the r n en rib, hilt wit h 0 nIy
a given set hetween List A and List B. In this
partial coincidenc e with my guess on North and
study we took the presence of a word also in the
South Amazonian languages. Durbin's classifi­
South Amazonian Carib languages, e.g. Bakairi
cation deserves greater consideration than I can
or Nahukw~, as indicative of its belonging to
possibly include here [editors' note: see also
List A (for instance, the word for 'beans', no.
dis c ussion hy Migliazza and Davis in this
116 of List A). After I wrote the last draft of
volume].
,/
this paper, I received a copy of B.J. Hoff's
2. Cf . Koch-Grunber g (1928:258) on Wayumara:
The Carib Language (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1968),
flees) gehort zu der Karibengruppe Nord- und
in which he comments (pp. 13-14) on borrowings
Nordostguayanas, wozu auch die Hian~koto und ,­
between Ca rib and Tupi and gives a list of 69
Verwandtf' Ol',s oh"r"n Y.1[lllrh-l,.1qllcth 7.U rcchnen
lexical cnrre~[lnndences hR~ed on Tatevin's Tupf,
!'lind. J) :)" W" Y " '" " r (, h I cl (> I f4 (l g "r "' !i (' n (' r Er ­
which fR a <linleet of Llngua Gersl. 25 items of
weichung des inlautenden und meistens auch an­
Hoff's list appear in our Lists A, B, and C--6
lautenden p in h mit anderen Mer~malen das bis
in List A, 17 in List B, 2 in List C. With one
jet ~ t fehlende Bindeglied zwischen dem [si c ]
exception (koko/koxko 'coconut', which Tatevin's
Yapur~-Kariben und ihren nahen Verwandten im
LG surely took from Portuguese, while Carib re­
fernen Osten: Trio, Galibi und anderen."
ceived it, directly or indirectly, from Spa­
3. Although the Carib affiliation of Pimenteira
nish), the other more than 40 correspondences
has been cast in doubt by some authors (e.g.
found by Hoff should fall in some of the three
Tovar 1961:112, Durbin 1977:27,31), I b e lieve
categories of Lists A, B, and C, as well as in a
thi s lan g lJage is Ca rib .
fourth one of Carib loanwords in Lingua Geral,
LI • "Nous fixol1s l'nttcnti o n sur ce fait, qu'il y a
plu s ieur s mots qui s e mblent appartenir a 1 a
, not excluding a further possibility of words
fois from a third Amazonian language entering Carib
a la lan gu e cara~b~ primitive, et au Tupi ou ~
and LG independently (see note 10).
l'Arroua g ue primitif et qui cependant ne sont
6. Theories about prehistoric migrations of Tupf­
/
pas des onomatopees. Seraient-ce des restes /
Guarani speaking peoples as well as about Carib
speaking ones must take into consideration lo.n­

'.
100 Aryan D. Rodrigues Evidence for Tupi-Carib Relationships 401

/
words such as those in List B as important in­ 10. This short list includes only Lingua Geral
words that are of certain Tupinamb~ descent.
I,
dicators of possible moments of contact. It is i
significant that most words in List B exceed the Other LG words which are found also in North
I
/ /
average length of Tupi-Guarani roots (which are Amazonian Carib languages are most likely loan­
regularly mono- and disyllabic) and can not be words in LG and may have their origin in other i,
/,' /
(non-Tupi) Amazonian languages and possibly in
anillyzC'd rlS consistinr. of morp than on P Tt.1 P l -
It
Guarani" morpheme. This marks them as highly some Carib language. So for some words it is
.-; /.
probable borrowings into Tupl-Guaranl not a t a l l clear now which was the direction of
I am grateful to Cheryl J. Jensen for having the loan: i.e., LG > Carib or Carib> LG. Some

checked Coudreau's Waya p 1 words used here a­ examples are LG mukay~ = Gl mokaya Acrocomia
/
gainst data of her own and Gary Olson's field ~, LG murumuru ~ Gl murumuru Astrocaryum muru­
,­
work. This permitted me to conclude that Coud­ muru, LG wasai = Gl, Wn uasei Euterpe oleracea,
.... /
LG k US1U = G 1 k eS1U
.. Plt h eCla
. satanas, LG ka-
reau's wordlist is very reliable in both seman­
tic and phonological representation. rapana = Gl kal~pana 'mosquito').

3. It is also possible that South Amazonian Carib

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1.
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1'1
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