Teologia

Teologia é o estudo da crença religiosa a partir de uma perspectiva religiosa. Mais

estritamente, é o estudo da natureza do divino. É ensinado como uma disciplina acadêmica ,
normalmente em universidades e seminários . [1] Ocupa-se do conteúdo único de analisar o
sobrenatural , mas também trata da epistemologia religiosa , questiona e procura responder
à questão da revelação . A revelação refere-se à aceitação de Deus , deuses ou divindades ,
não apenas como transcendentes ou acima do mundo natural, mas também dispostos e
capazes de interagir com o mundo natural e de se revelarem à humanidade.

Os teólogos usam várias formas de análise e argumento ( experiencial , filosófico ,

etnográfico , histórico e outros) para ajudar a compreender , explicar , testar, criticar ,
defender ou promover qualquer miríade de tópicos religiosos . Tal como na filosofia da ética
e na jurisprudência , os argumentos muitas vezes assumem a existência de questões
previamente resolvidas, e desenvolvem-se fazendo analogias a partir delas para tirar novas
inferências em novas situações.

O estudo da teologia pode ajudar um teólogo a compreender mais profundamente a sua

própria tradição religiosa , [2] outra tradição religiosa, [3] ou pode capacitá-lo a explorar a
natureza da divindade sem referência a qualquer tradição específica. A teologia pode ser
usada para propagar , [4] reformar, [5] ou justificar uma tradição religiosa; ou pode ser usado
para comparar , [6] desafiar (por exemplo, crítica bíblica ) ou opor (por exemplo, irreligião ) a
uma tradição religiosa ou cosmovisão . A teologia também pode ajudar um teólogo a
abordar alguma situação ou necessidade presente através de uma tradição religiosa, [7] ou a
explorar possíveis formas de interpretar o mundo. [8]
Etimologia
The term derives from the Greek theologia (θεολογία), a combination of theos (Θεός, 'god')
and logia (λογία, 'utterances, sayings, oracles')—the latter word relating to Greek logos
(λόγος, 'word, discourse, account, reasoning').[9][10] The term would pass on to Latin as
theologia, then French as théologie, eventually becoming the English theology.

Through several variants (e.g., theologie, teologye), the English theology had evolved into its
current form by 1362.[11] The sense that the word has in English depends in large part on the
sense that the Latin and Greek equivalents had acquired in patristic and medieval Christian
usage although the English term has now spread beyond Christian contexts.

Plato (left) and Aristotle in

Raphael's 1509 fresco The
School of Athens

Classical philosophy
Greek theologia (θεολογία) was used with the meaning 'discourse on God' around 380 BC by
Plato in The Republic.[12] Aristotle divided theoretical philosophy into mathematike, physike,
and theologike, with the latter corresponding roughly to metaphysics, which, for Aristotle,
included discourse on the nature of the divine.[13]

Drawing on Greek Stoic sources, the Latin writer Varro distinguished three forms of such
discourse:[14]
 1. mythical, concerning the myths of
the Greek gods;
2. rational, philosophical analysis of
the gods and of cosmology; and
3. civil, concerning the rites and duties
of public religious observance.

Later usage
Some Latin Christian authors, such as Tertullian and Augustine, followed Varro's threefold
usage.[14][15] However, Augustine also defined theologia as "reasoning or discussion
concerning the Deity".[16]

The Latin author Boethius, writing in the early 6th century, used theologia to denote a
subdivision of philosophy as a subject of academic study, dealing with the motionless,
incorporeal reality; as opposed to physica, which deals with corporeal, moving realities.[17]
Boethius' definition influenced medieval Latin usage.[18]

In patristic Greek Christian sources, theologia could refer narrowly to devout and/or inspired
knowledge of and teaching about the essential nature of God.[19]

In scholastic Latin sources, the term came to denote the rational study of the doctrines of the
Christian religion, or (more precisely) the academic discipline that investigated the coherence
and implications of the language and claims of the Bible and of the theological tradition (the
latter often as represented in Peter Lombard's Sentences, a book of extracts from the Church
Fathers).

In the Renaissance, especially with Florentine Platonist apologists of Dante's poetics, the
distinction between 'poetic theology' (theologia poetica) and 'revealed' or Biblical theology
serves as stepping stone for a revival of philosophy as independent of theological authority.
It is in the last sense, theology as an academic discipline involving rational study of Christian
teaching, that the term passed into English in the 14th century,[20] although it could also be
used in the narrower sense found in Boethius and the Greek patristic authors, to mean
rational study of the essential nature of God, a discourse now sometimes called theology
proper.[21]

From the 17th century onwards, the term theology began to be used to refer to the study of
religious ideas and teachings that are not specifically Christian or correlated with Christianity
(e.g., in the term natural theology, which denoted theology based on reasoning from natural
facts independent of specifically Christian revelation)[22] or that are specific to another
religion (such as below).

Theology can also be used in a derived sense to mean "a system of theoretical principles; an
(impractical or rigid) ideology".[23][24]

In religion
The term theology has been deemed by some as only appropriate to the study of religions
that worship a supposed deity (a theos), i.e. more widely than monotheism; and presuppose a
belief in the ability to speak and reason about this deity (in logia). They suggest the term is
less appropriate in religious contexts that are organized differently (i.e., religions without a
single deity, or that deny that such subjects can be studied logically). Hierology has been
proposed, by such people as Eugène Goblet d'Alviella (1908), as an alternative, more generic
term.[25]
Abrahamic religions

Christianity

Thomas Aquinas, an
influential Roman Catholic
theologian

As defined by Thomas Aquinas, theology is constituted by a triple aspect: what is taught by

God, teaches of God, and leads to God (Latin: Theologia a Deo docetur, Deum docet, et ad
Deum ducit).[26] This indicates the three distinct areas of God as theophanic revelation, the
systematic study of the nature of divine and, more generally, of religious belief, and the
spiritual path. Christian theology as the study of Christian belief and practice concentrates
primarily upon the texts of the Old Testament and the New Testament as well as on Christian
tradition. Christian theologians use biblical exegesis, rational analysis and argument.
Theology might be undertaken to help the theologian better understand Christian tenets, to
make comparisons between Christianity and other traditions, to defend Christianity against
objections and criticism, to facilitate reforms in the Christian church, to assist in the
propagation of Christianity, to draw on the resources of the Christian tradition to address
some present situation or need, or for a variety of other reasons.
Islam

The famous Islamic scholar, jurist and

theologian Malik Ibn Anas

Islamic theological discussion that parallels Christian theological discussion is called Kalam;
the Islamic analogue of Christian theological discussion would more properly be the
investigation and elaboration of Sharia or Fiqh.[27]

Kalam...does not hold the leading place in Muslim thought that theology does in
Christianity. To find an equivalent for 'theology' in the Christian sense it is
necessary to have recourse to several disciplines, and to the usul al-fiqh as
much as to kalam.

— translated by L. Gardet
Some Universities in Germany established departments of islamic theology. (i.e. [28])
Judaism

Sculpture of the Jewish

theologian Maimonides

In Jewish theology, the historical absence of political authority has meant that most
theological reflection has happened within the context of the Jewish community and
synagogue, including through rabbinical discussion of Jewish law and Midrash (rabbinic
biblical commentaries). Jewish theology is also linked to ethics, as it is the case with
theology in other religions, and therefore has implications for how one behaves.[29][30]

Indian religions

Buddhism
Some academic inquiries within Buddhism, dedicated to the investigation of a Buddhist
understanding of the world, prefer the designation Buddhist philosophy to the term Buddhist
theology, since Buddhism lacks the same conception of a theos. Jose Ignacio Cabezon, who
argues that the use of theology is in fact appropriate, can only do so, he says, because "I take
theology not to be restricted to discourse on God.... I take 'theology' not to be restricted to its
etymological meaning. In that latter sense, Buddhism is of course atheological, rejecting as it
does the notion of God."[31]
Hinduism
Within Hindu philosophy, there is a tradition of philosophical speculation on the nature of the
universe, of God (termed Brahman, Paramatma, and/or Bhagavan in some schools of Hindu
thought) and of the ātman (soul). The Sanskrit word for the various schools of Hindu
philosophy is darśana ('view, viewpoint'). Vaishnava theology has been a subject of study for
many devotees, philosophers and scholars in India for centuries. A large part of its study lies
in classifying and organizing the manifestations of thousands of gods and their aspects. In
recent decades the study of Hinduism has also been taken up by a number of academic
institutions in Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Bhaktivedanta
College.[32]

Other religions

Shinto
神学, shingaku) has been ascribed to Shinto since the Edo period
In Japan, the term theology (
with the publication of Mano Tokitsuna's Kokon shingaku ruihen (古今神学類編, 'categorized
compilation of ancient theology'). In modern times, other terms are used to denote studies in
Shinto—as well as Buddhist—belief, such as kyōgaku ( 教学, 'doctrinal studies') and shūgaku
( 宗学, 'denominational studies').

Modern Paganism
English academic Graham Harvey has commented that Pagans "rarely indulge in
theology".[33] Nevertheless, theology has been applied in some sectors across contemporary
Pagan communities, including Wicca, Heathenry, Druidry and Kemetism. As these religions
have given precedence to orthopraxy, theological views often vary among adherents. The
term is used by Christine Kraemer in her book Seeking The Mystery: An Introduction to Pagan
Theologies and by Michael York in Pagan Theology: Paganism as a World Religion.
Topics
Richard Hooker defines theology as "the science of things divine".[34] The term can, however,
be used for a variety of disciplines or fields of study.[35] Theology considers whether the
divine exists in some form, such as in physical, supernatural, mental, or social realities, and
what evidence for and about it may be found via personal spiritual experiences or historical
records of such experiences as documented by others. The study of these assumptions is
not part of theology proper, but is found in the philosophy of religion, and increasingly through
the psychology of religion and neurotheology. Theology's aim, then, is to record, structure and
understand these experiences and concepts; and to use them to derive normative
prescriptions for how to live our lives.

History of academic
discipline
The history of the study of theology in institutions of higher education is as old as the history
of such institutions themselves. For instance:

Taxila was an early centre of Vedic

learning, possible from the 6th-century
BC or earlier;[36][37]: 140–2
the Platonic Academy founded in
Athens in the 4th-century BC seems to
 have included theological themes in its
subject matter;[38]
the Chinese Taixue delivered
Confucian teaching from the 2nd
century BC;[39]
the School of Nisibis was a centre of
Christian learning from the 4th century
AD;[40][41]
Nalanda in India was a site of Buddhist
higher learning from at least the 5th or
6th century AD;[37]: 149 and
the Moroccan University of Al-
Karaouine was a centre of Islamic
learning from the 10th century,[42] as
was Al-Azhar University in Cairo.[43]
The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as
studia generalia and perhaps from cathedral schools. It is possible, however, that the
development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris
being an exception.[44] Later they were also founded by kings (University of Naples Federico
II, Charles University in Prague, Jagiellonian University in Kraków) or by municipal
administrations (University of Cologne, University of Erfurt).

In the early medieval period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools,
usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education.
Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the
interest in learning promoted by monasteries.[45] Christian theological learning was, therefore,
a component in these institutions, as was the study of church or canon law: universities
played an important role in training people for ecclesiastical offices, in helping the church
pursue the clarification and defence of its teaching, and in supporting the legal rights of the
church over against secular rulers.[46] At such universities, theological study was initially
closely tied to the life of faith and of the church: it fed, and was fed by, practices of preaching,
prayer and celebration of the Mass.[47]

During the High Middle Ages, theology was the ultimate subject at universities, being named
"The Queen of the Sciences". It served as the capstone to the Trivium and Quadrivium that
young men were expected to study. This meant that the other subjects (including philosophy)
existed primarily to help with theological thought.[48] In this context, medieval theology in the
Christian West could subsume fields of study which would later become more self-sufficient,
such as metaphysics (Aristotle's "first philosophy",[49][50] or ontology (the science of
being).[51][52]

Christian theology's preeminent place in the university started to come under challenge
during the European Enlightenment, especially in Germany.[53] Other subjects gained in
independence and prestige, and questions were raised about the place of a discipline that
seemed to involve a commitment to the authority of particular religious traditions in
institutions that were increasingly understood to be devoted to independent reason.[54]

Since the early 19th century, various different approaches have emerged in the West to
theology as an academic discipline. Much of the debate concerning theology's place in the
university or within a general higher education curriculum centres on whether theology's
methods are appropriately theoretical and (broadly speaking) scientific or, on the other hand,
whether theology requires a pre-commitment of faith by its practitioners, and whether such a
commitment conflicts with academic freedom.[53][55][56][57]
Ministerial training
In some contexts, theology has been held to belong in institutions of higher education
primarily as a form of professional training for Christian ministry. This was the basis on which
Friedrich Schleiermacher, a liberal theologian, argued for the inclusion of theology in the new
University of Berlin in 1810.[58][53]: ch.14

For instance, in Germany, theological faculties at state universities are typically tied to
particular denominations, Protestant or Roman Catholic, and those faculties will offer
denominationally-bound (konfessionsgebunden) degrees, and have denominationally bound
public posts amongst their faculty; as well as contributing "to the development and growth of
Christian knowledge" they "provide the academic training for the future clergy and teachers of
religious instruction at German schools."[59]

In the United States, several prominent colleges and universities were started in order to train
Christian ministers. Harvard,[60] Georgetown,[61] Boston University, Yale,[62] Duke University,[63]
and Princeton[64] all had the theological training of clergy as a primary purpose at their
foundation.

Seminaries and bible colleges have continued this alliance between the academic study of
theology and training for Christian ministry. There are, for instance, numerous prominent
examples in the United States, including Phoenix Seminary, Catholic Theological Union in
Chicago,[65] The Graduate Theological Union in Berkeley,[66] Criswell College in Dallas,[67] The
Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville,[68] Trinity Evangelical Divinity School in
Deerfield, Illinois,[69] Dallas Theological Seminary,[70] North Texas Collegiate Institute in
Farmers Branch, Texas,[71] and the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary in Springfield,
Missouri. The only Judeo-Christian seminary for theology is the 'Idaho Messianic Bible
Seminary' which is part of the Jewish University of Colorado in Denver.[72]
As an academic discipline in its own
right
In some contexts, scholars pursue theology as an academic discipline without formal
affiliation to any particular church (though members of staff may well have affiliations to
churches), and without focussing on ministerial training. This applies, for instance, to the
Department of Theological Studies at Concordia University in Canada, and to many university
departments in the United Kingdom, including the Faculty of Divinity at the University of
Cambridge, the Department of Theology and Religion at the University of Exeter, and the
Department of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Leeds.[73][74] Traditional
academic prizes, such as the University of Aberdeen's Lumsden and Sachs Fellowship, tend
to acknowledge performance in theology (or divinity as it is known at Aberdeen) and in
religious studies.

Religious studies
In some contemporary contexts, a distinction is made between theology, which is seen as
involving some level of commitment to the claims of the religious tradition being studied, and
religious studies, which by contrast is normally seen as requiring that the question of the
truth or falsehood of the religious traditions studied be kept outside its field. Religious
studies involves the study of historical or contemporary practices or of those traditions' ideas
using intellectual tools and frameworks that are not themselves specifically tied to any
religious tradition and that are normally understood to be neutral or secular.[75] In contexts
where 'religious studies' in this sense is the focus, the primary forms of study are likely to
include:

Anthropology of religion
Comparative religion
 History of religions
Philosophy of religion
Psychology of religion
Sociology of religion
Sometimes, theology and religious studies are seen as being in tension,[76] and at other times,
they are held to coexist without serious tension.[77] Occasionally it is denied that there is as
clear a boundary between them.[78]

Criticism

Pre-20th century
Whether or not reasoned discussion about the divine is possible has long been a point of
contention. Protagoras, as early as the fifth century BC, who is reputed to have been exiled
from Athens because of his agnosticism about the existence of the gods, said that
"Concerning the gods I cannot know either that they exist or that they do not exist, or what
form they might have, for there is much to prevent one's knowing: the obscurity of the subject
and the shortness of man's life."[79][80]

Baron d'Holbach
Since at least the eighteenth century, various authors have criticized the suitability of
theology as an academic discipline.[81] In 1772, Baron d'Holbach labeled theology "a continual
insult to human reason" in Le Bon sens.[81] Lord Bolingbroke, an English politician and political
philosopher, wrote in Section IV of his Essays on Human Knowledge, "Theology is in fault not
religion. Theology is a science that may justly be compared to the Box of Pandora. Many
good things lie uppermost in it; but many evil lie under them, and scatter plagues and
desolation throughout the world."[82]

Thomas Paine, a Deistic American political theorist and pamphleteer, wrote in his three-part
work The Age of Reason (1794, 1795, 1807):[83]

The study of theology, as it stands in Christian churches, is the

study of nothing; it is founded on nothing; it rests on no principles;
it proceeds by no authorities; it has no data; it can demonstrate
nothing; and it admits of no conclusion. Not anything can be
studied as a science, without our being in possession of the
principles upon which it is founded; and as this is the case with
Christian theology, it is therefore the study of nothing.

The German atheist philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach sought to dissolve theology in his work
Principles of the Philosophy of the Future: "The task of the modern era was the realization and
humanization of God – the transformation and dissolution of theology into anthropology."[84]
This mirrored his earlier work The Essence of Christianity (1841), for which he was banned
from teaching in Germany, in which he had said that theology was a "web of contradictions
and delusions".[85] The American satirist Mark Twain remarked in his essay "The Lowest
Animal", originally written in around 1896, but not published until after Twain's death in 1910,
that:[86][87]

[Man] is the only animal that loves his neighbor as himself and
cuts his throat if his theology isn't straight. He has made a
graveyard of the globe in trying his honest best to smooth his
brother's path to happiness and heaven.... The higher animals have
no religion. And we are told that they are going to be left out in the
Hereafter. I wonder why? It seems questionable taste.
20th and 21st centuries
A. J. Ayer, a British former logical-positivist, sought to show in his essay "Critique of Ethics
and Theology" that all statements about the divine are nonsensical and any divine-attribute is
unprovable. He wrote: "It is now generally admitted, at any rate by philosophers, that the
existence of a being having the attributes which define the god of any non-animistic religion
cannot be demonstratively proved.... [A]ll utterances about the nature of God are
nonsensical."[88]

Jewish atheist philosopher Walter Kaufmann, in his essay "Against Theology", sought to
differentiate theology from religion in general:[89]

Theology, of course, is not religion; and a great deal of religion is

emphatically anti-theological.... An attack on theology, therefore,
should not be taken as necessarily involving an attack on religion.
Religion can be, and often has been, untheological or even anti-
theological.

However, Kaufmann found that "Christianity is inescapably a theological religion."[89]

English atheist Charles Bradlaugh believed theology prevented human beings from achieving
liberty,[90] although he also noted that many theologians of his time held that, because
modern scientific research sometimes contradicts sacred scriptures, the scriptures must
therefore be wrong.[91] Robert G. Ingersoll, an American agnostic lawyer, stated that, when
theologians had power, the majority of people lived in hovels, while a privileged few had
palaces and cathedrals. In Ingersoll's opinion, it was science that improved people's lives, not
theology. Ingersoll further maintained that trained theologians reason no better than a person
who assumes the devil must exist because pictures resemble the devil so exactly.[92]

The British evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins has been an outspoken critic of
theology.[81][93] In an article published in The Independent in 1993, he severely criticizes
theology as entirely useless,[93] declaring that it has completely and repeatedly failed to
answer any questions about the nature of reality or the human condition.[93] He states, "I have
never heard any of them [i.e. theologians] ever say anything of the smallest use, anything that
was not either platitudinously obvious or downright false."[93] He then states that, if all
theology were completely eradicated from the earth, no one would notice or even care. He
concludes:[93]

The achievements of theologians don't do anything, don't affect

anything, don't achieve anything, don't even mean anything. What
makes you think that 'theology' is a subject at all?

See also

Thealogy

References

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2. See, e.g., Migliore, Daniel L. 2004. Faith

Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to
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3. See, e.g., Kogan, Michael S. 1995."Toward

a Jewish Theology of Christianity (https://
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6. See, e.g., Burrell, David. 1994. Freedom

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7. See, e.g., Gorringe, Timothy. 2004. Crime,

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8. See e.g., Anne Hunt Overzee's gloss upon
the view of Ricœur (1913–2005) as to the
role and work of 'theologian': "Paul Ricœur
speaks of the theologian as a hermeneut,
whose task is to interpret the multivalent,
rich metaphors arising from the symbolic
bases of tradition so that the symbols
may 'speak' once again to our existential
situation." Overzee, Anne Hunt. 1992. The
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9. The accusative plural of the neuter noun

λόγιον; cf. Bauer, Walter, William F. Arndt,
F. Wilbur Gingrich, and Frederick W.
Danker. 1979. A Greek–English Lexicon of
the New Testament (2nd ed.). Chicago:
University of Chicago Press. p. 476. For
examples of λόγια in the New Testament,
cf. Acts 7:38; Romans 3:2; 1 Peter 4:11.
10. Scouteris, Constantine B. [1972] 2016. Ἡ
ἔννοια τῶν ὅρων 'Θεολογία', 'Θεολογεῖν',
'Θεολόγος', ἐν τῇ διδασκαλίᾳ τῶν
Ἑλλήνων Πατέρων καί Ἐκκλησιαστικῶν
συγγραφέων μέχρι καί τῶν Καππαδοκῶν
[The Meaning of the Terms 'Theology', 'to
Theologize' and 'Theologian' in the
Teaching of the Greek Fathers up to and
Including the Cappadocians] (in Greek).
Athens. pp. 187.

11. Langland, Piers Plowman A ix 136

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the word in this sense in his 4th-century
Theological Orations (http://www.ccel.or
g/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-07-42.htm#
P4178_1277213) Archived (https://web.a
rchive.org/web/20060807233004/http://
www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-
07-42.htm#P4178_1277213) 7 August
2006 at the Wayback Machine. After his
death, he was called "the Theologian" at
the Council of Chalcedon and thereafter in
Eastern Orthodoxy either because his
Orations were seen as crucial examples
of this kind of theology or in the sense
that he was (like the author of the Book of
Revelation) seen as one who was an
 inspired preacher of the words of God. (It
is unlikely to mean, as claimed in the
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers (http://w
ww.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-07/Npnf2-0
7-41.htm#P4162_1255901) Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/200607161400
59/http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-
07/Npnf2-07-41.htm#P4162_1255901)
16 July 2006 at the Wayback Machine
introduction to his Theological Orations,
that he was a defender of the divinity of
Christ the Word.)

20. "Theology." Oxford English Dictionary.

note.

21. See, e.g., Hodge, Charles. 1871.

Systematic Theology 1, part 1.

22. Oxford English Dictionary, sense 1

23. "Theology, 1(d)" and "Theological, A.3."
Oxford English Dictionary. 1989.

24. Times Literary Supplement 329/4. 5 June

1959: "The 'theological' approach to
Soviet Marxism...proves in the long run
unsatisfactory."

25. Jones, Alan H. 1983. Independence and

Exegesis: The Study of Early Christianity
in the Work of Alfred Loisy (1857–1940),
Charles Guignebert (1857 [i.e. 1867]–
1939), and Maurice Goguel (1880–1955).
Mohr Siebeck. p. 194.
26. Kapic, Kelly M. Kapic (2012). A Little Book
for New Theologians. Why and How to
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w.muslimphilosophy.com/ei2/kalam.ht
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2016 at the Wayback Machine." The
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28. "Speech by State Secretary Dr Markus
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dDocs/Meldungen/EN/rede-kerber-festver
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October 2018. "God and Gender – Rachel
Adler (http://www.judaismunbound.com/
podcast/judaism-unbound-episode-138-ra
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daismunbound.com/podcast/judaism-un
bound-episode-138-rachel-adler) 11
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Theology (https://archive.today/2012070
9141057/http://findarticles.com/p/article
s/mi_m2096/is_4_49/ai_58621576) ."
CrossCurrents. "Frequently the claim is
made that, unlike Christianity, Judaism is
a tradition of deeds and maintains no
strict theological tradition. Judaism's
fundamental beliefs are inextricable from
their halakhic observance (that set of
laws revealed to Jews by God), embedded
and presupposed by that way of life as it
is lived and learned."
31. Cabezon, Jose Ignacio. 1999. "Buddhist
Theology in the Academy." pp. 25–52 in
Buddhist Theology: Critical Reflections by
Contemporary Buddhist Scholars, edited
by R. Jackson and J. J. Makransky.
London: Routledge.

32. King, Anna S. 2006. "For Love of Krishna:

Forty Years of Chanting." pp. 134–67 in
The Hare Krishna Movement: Forty Years
of Chant and Change, edited by G. Dwyer
and R. J. Cole. London: I.B. Tauris. p. 163:
Describes developments in both
institutions, and speaks of Hare Krishna
devotees "studying Vaishnava theology
and practice in mainstream universities."
33. Harvey, Graham (2007). Listening People,
Speaking Earth: Contemporary Paganism
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34. "Of the Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity,

3.8.11" (http://anglicanhistory.org/hooke
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35. McGrath, Alister. 1998. Historical

Theology: An Introduction to the History
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36. An earlier date is provided in: Reagan,
Timothy. 2004. Non-Western Educational
Traditions: Alternative Approaches to
Educational Thought and Practice (3rd
ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum. p. 185; and
Chitnis, Sunna. 2003. "Higher Education."
pp. 1032–56 in The Oxford India
Companion to Sociology and Social
Anthropology, edited by V. Das. New Delhi:
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37. Scharfe, Hartmut. 2002. Education in

Ancient India. Leiden: Brill.

38. Dillon, John. 2003. The Heirs of Plato: A

Study in the Old Academy, 347–274 BC.
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39. Yao, Xinzhong. 2000. An Introduction to

Confucianism. Cambridge: Cambridge
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40. Becker, Adam H. (2006). The Fear of God
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Scholastic Culture in Late Antique
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41. "The School of Nisibis" (https://web.archiv

e.org/web/20160303231841/http://www.
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42. Lulat, Y. G. 2005. A History of African
Higher Education from Antiquity to the
Present: A Critical Synthesis. Greenwood.
p. 71: The Al-Qarawiyyin mosque was
founded in 859 AD, but "While instruction
at the mosque must have begun almost
from the beginning, it is only...by the end
of the tenth-century that its reputation as
a center of learning in both religious and
secular sciences...must have begun to
wax."

43. Beattie, Andrew. 2005. Cairo: A Cultural

History. New York: Oxford University
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44. Leff, Gordon. 1968. Paris and Oxford

Universities in the Thirteenth and
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45. Johnson, Paul. 2000. The Renaissance: A
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46. Rüegg, Walter. 2003. "Themes." pp. 3–34

in A History of the University in Europe,
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47. See D'Costa, Gavin. 2005. Theology in the

Public Square: Church, Academy and
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48. Howard, Thomas Albert. 2006. Protestant
Theology and the Making of the Modern
German University (https://global.oup.co
m/academic/product/protestant-theology
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niversity-9780199266852?cc=us&lang=en
&) Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
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"In the 13th century, appropriating
Aristotle's threefold division of the
speculative sciences (physics,
mathematics, and what Aquinas variously
calls 'first philosophy' or 'metaphysics' or
'theology'), Aquinas argues that primary
being and being in general are the subject
of the same science (eadem enim est
scientia primi entis et entis communis )
inasmuch as primary being (s) are
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context is labeled 'theology' inasmuch as
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Chattopadhyay, Subhasis. "Reflections
on Hindu Theology" (http://philpapers.
org/rec/CHAROH-3) in Prabuddha
Bharata or Awakened India 120(12):
664–672 (2014). ISSN 0032-6178 (http
s://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrn
 l&q=n2:0032-6178) . Edited by Swami
Narasimhananda.
Theology (https://librivox.org/search?
title=Theology&author=&reader=&keyw
ords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_
type=either&recorded_language=&sort
_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&
search_form=advanced) public
domain audiobook at LibriVox

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