Module 2: Focus on the learner

Unit 1: Review of the Development Theories

Topic 1: Review of the theories related to the learners’ Development
This module introduces you the different theories that are related to the learner’s
development. It includes Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development, Erik
Erikson's 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development, Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive
Development, Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development, Vygotsky on Language and
Zone of Proximal Development and Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model.
Learning Outcomes
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. examine the different developmental theories and its implications to child
care, parenting and the teaching- learning process; and
2. compare and contrast the developmental theories and its implications to child
care, parenting and the teaching- learning process

Learning Content
Overview of Psychosexual Theory of Development
Freud believes that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in
which the pleasure-seeking energies of the Id become focused on certain erogenous
areas. An erogenous zones is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly
sensitive to stimulation. During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal,
phallic, latent and genital stages, the erogenous zone associated with each stage
serves as a source of pleasure.
Freud viewed development as discontinuous, he believed that each of us must
pass through a serious of stages during childhood, and that we lack proper nurturance
and parenting during a stage, we may became stuck, or fixated, in that stage.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development

The Oral Stage
Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through
the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital
for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying
activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon
caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a sense
of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become
less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the
individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in
problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail-biting.
The Anal Stage
Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on
controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control
leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which
parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the
toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel
capable and productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage
served as the basis for people to become competent, productive, and creative adults.
However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children
need during this stage. Some parents instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for
accidents.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative
outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-
expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful, or
destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud
believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent,
orderly, rigid, and obsessive.
The Phallic Stage
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
 Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is
on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between
males and females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the
mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to
possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears
that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration
anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience
penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of
vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis
envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this
stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both
inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience
feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she referred
to as womb envy.
The Latent Period
Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies are
suppressed. Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and
adults outside of the family.
The development of the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The
stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more
concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy repressed or
dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into other areas such as
intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development
of social and communication skills and self-confidence.
As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible for
children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage can result in
immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During the
final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual
interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the
rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the
welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a
balance between the various life areas. If the other stages have been completed
successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring.
Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the
ego and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger children are
ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic needs and
wants. Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic
urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social norms.

Erik Erikson's 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development

Background and key Concepts of Erikson’s Theory

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular
and influential theories of development. Erikson's theory focused on psychosocial
development rather than psychosexual development. The stages that make up his

What is Psychosocial Development?

 So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail? Much
like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages.
Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory described the impact of
social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social
interaction and relationships played a role in the development and growth of human
beings.
Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way
for following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience
a conflict that serves as a turning point in development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts
are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that
quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high but so is the
potential for failure.
If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with
psychological strengths that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to
deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for
a strong sense of self.
Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and
actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent in an
area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is
sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly,
the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.

Erikson’s 8 Psychosocial Stages of Development

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between
birth and one year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the
dependability and quality of the child's caregivers. At this point in development, the child
is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything that he or she needs to survive
including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide
adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that he or she cannot trust or depend
upon the adults in his or her life.
If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the
world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute
to feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result
in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
No child is going to develop a sense of 100 per cent trust or 100 per cent doubt.
Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a balance between
the two opposing sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson
described as openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be
present.
Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place
during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of
personal control.
At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little
independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making
simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain
control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process.
However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed
that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of
independence.
Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while
those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed
that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will,
which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.
Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool
years.
At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power
and control over the world through directing play and other social interactions. Children
who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to
acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative. When
an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved,
the ego quality known as purpose emerges.
Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority
The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately age 5 to 11.Through social interactions, children begin to develop a
sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities. Children who are encouraged and
commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in
their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or
peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
 Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to
the strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief their abilities to
handle the tasks set before them.
Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years.
This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will
continue to influence behaviour and development for the rest of a person's life.
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of
self. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will
feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs,
ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person's behaviour. Completing this
stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by
society's standards and expectations.
While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was
important, he placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego
identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction and
becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial
development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new
experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we
have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder the
development of identity.
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self
that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our
experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our
actions, beliefs, and behaviours as we age.
Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring
personal relationships.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships
with other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are
enduring and secure.
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson
believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate
relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self do tend to
have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation,
loneliness, and depression. Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue
known as love. It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with
other people.
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and
family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to
the world by being active in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill
will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud
of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a
sense of unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting
back on life.
At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and
determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they
did or didn't do.
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of
bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting
death.

Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Background and key Concepts of Piaget’s Theory
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through
four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on
understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of
intelligence. Piaget's stages are:
 Sensorimotor Stage: birth to 2 years
 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
  Concrete Operational Stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal Operational Stage: ages 12 and up
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting
much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn
about the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new
knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to
accommodate new information.
How Piaget Developed the Theory
Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student,
publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to
the intellectual development of children came when he worked as an assistant to Alfred
Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.
Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by
his observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his
budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult
minds.
Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller
versions of adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think
is different from the way adults think.
Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through
a series of stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children,
he suggested. Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between
the thinking of young children versus older children.
Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent
than adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so
simple only a genius could have thought of it."
Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive
development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early
cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and later progresses to
changes in mental operations.
The Stages
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of
intellectual development that included four distinct stages:
1. The Sensorimotor Stage: Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire
knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire
experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses,
and motor responses.
It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic
growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making
new discoveries about how the world works.
The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a
relatively short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only
learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a
great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke
this stage down into a number of different sub stages. It is during the final part of the
sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges.
Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the
understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an
important element at this point of development.
By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an
existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to
attach names and words to objects.
Object Permanence
 Ability attained in this stage where he knows that an object still exists even when
out of sight.
2. The Preoperational Stage: Ages 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
The foundations of language development may have been laid during the
previous stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of
the preoperational stage of development.
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of
development, yet continue to think very concretely about the world around them. At this
stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of
view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and
then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is
rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since
the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even
though the two pieces are exactly the same size.
Symbolic Function
  The ability to represent objects and events.
Egocentrism
 The tendency of a child to only see his point of view and assume that everyone
else also has his same point of view.

Centration
 The tendency of the child to only focus on one thing or event and exclude other
aspects.
Lack of Conservation
 The inability to realize that some things remain unchanged despite looking
different.
Irreversibility
 Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking.
Animism
 The tendency of the child to attribute human like traits to inanimate objects.
3. The Concrete Operational Stage: Ages 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other
people might view a situation. While thinking becomes much more logical during the
concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development
tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about
how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin
to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else
necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.
Decentering
 The ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations.
Reversibility
 The ability of the child to follow that certain operations can be done in reverse.
Conservations
  The ability to know that certain properties of objects like numbers, mass, volume
or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance.
Seriation
 The ability to arrange things in a series based on our dimensions such as weight,
volume, size, etc.
4. The Formal Operational Stage: Ages 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use
deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people
become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more
scientifically about the world around them.
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of
the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan
for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that
emerge during this stage.
It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development
as a quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge
to their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a
qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four
stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did
at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.
Hypothetical Reasoning
 The ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and weigh data
to make a judgement.
Analogical Reasoning
 Ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and use that relationship to
narrow down possible answers in similar problems.
Deductive Reasoning
 Ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular situation.

Kohlberg 3 Stages and 6 Sub stages of Moral Development

Concepts to Kohlberg Moral Development
 Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work
of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral
development of children, which he believed follows a series of
stages. Kohlberg’s theory of moral development states
that we progress through three levels of moral thinking
that build on our cognitive development.
Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of
cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain the moral
development of children. Kohlberg believed that moral
development, like cognitive development, follows a series of
stages. He used the idea of moral dilemmas—stories that present conflicting ideas
about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old boys about morality and values. The
best known moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the “Heinz” dilemma, which
discusses the idea of obeying the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg emphasized that it
is the way an individual reasons about a dilemma that determines positive moral
development.
After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed
people’s responses and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning. According
to Kohlberg, an individual progresses from the capacity from pre-conventional morality
(before age 9) to the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and
towards attaining post-conventional morality (once Piaget’s idea of formal operational
thought is attained), with only a few fully achieve. Each level of morality contains two
stages, which provide the basis for moral development in various.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional,
conventional, and post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex
stages of moral development.
Level 1: Preconventional
Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally
controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents
and teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized
society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on
external consequences that certain actions may bring.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished.
For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is
punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to
be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is
defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two
reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it
might further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based
on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours”
mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The
child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving
him an allowance.
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal
and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but
this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these
stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid
disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behaviour and people being “nice” to others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their
importance in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for
everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable
and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval
exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus
there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of
society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside
force.
Level 3: Post conventional
Throughout the post conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in
terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are
unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing
realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may
disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by
their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as
life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather
than absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post
conventional individual elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social
conventions, their behaviour, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with
that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many
people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values.
Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or
community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that
do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the
greatest good for the greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority
decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on
stage five reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal
ethical principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and
focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they
are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to
disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they
violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is
morally right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in
their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although
Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who
consistently operated at that level.

Vygotsky on Language and Zone of Proximal Development

Concepts on Vygotsky’s Theory

Since the translation and publication of Vygotsky's work

into the English language in 1962 his work has been widely cited
and studied by Western-European and American developmental
psychologists and educators. Vygotsky 's theory of culture and
language and highlights the similarities of his views
(e.g. scaffolding, assisted learning, private speech) and
behavioral principles (e.g. shaping cueing, chaining and verbal
behavior). While many philosophical differences exist between
Vygotsky’s theories and contemporary behavior analysis,
identifying the similarities between these two positions may allow
for a greater understanding of human development and for an
increase in collaborative research between developmental psychologists and behavior
analysts.
Two Theories of Vygotsky
Language
In Vygotsky's philosophy, language plays a central role in the theory of
human cognitive development. Language plays multiple roles including culturally
shaping the overt behavior of individuals as well as influencing their covert behavior,
such as thinking. Language has been defined as a psychological tool that shapes other
mental functions while at the same time being socially-shaped itself.
Zone of Proximal Development
The concept, zone of proximal development was developed by Soviet
psychologist and social constructivist Lev Vygotsky(1896 – 1934). The zone of proximal
development refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and
what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
Thus, the term “proximal" refers to those skills that the learner is “close" to mastering.
The zone of proximal development (ZPD) has been defined as: "The distance
between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving
and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under
adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers”
Vygotsky believed that when a student is in the zone of proximal development for
a particular task, providing the appropriate assistance will give the student enough of a
"boost" to achieve the task.
To assist a person to move through the zone of proximal development, educators
are encouraged to focus on three important components which aid the learning process:
 The presence of someone with knowledge and skills beyond that of the learner (a
more knowledgeable other).
 Social interactions with a skillful tutor that allow the learner to observe and
practice their skills.
 Scaffolding, or supportive activities provided by the educator, or more competent
peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the ZPD.

Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System Theory

An Overview of Ecological System Theory
American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems
Theory to explain how the inherent qualities of children and their environments interact
to influence how they grow and develop. The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the
importance of studying children in multiple environments, also known as ecological
systems, in the attempt to understand their development.
Bronferbrenner’s ecological system theory is one of the most accepted
explanations regarding the influence of social environments of human development.
This theory argues that the environment grow up in affects every faces of your life.
Social factors determine your way of thinking, the emotions you feel and your likes and
dislikes.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically find
themselves enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate home ecological
system to the larger school system, and then to the most expansive system which
includes society and culture. Each of these ecological systems inevitably interact with
and influence each other in all aspects of the children’s lives.
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model organizes contexts of development into five
levels of external influence. These levels are categorized from the most intimate level to
the broadest.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Microsystem

The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and
most immediate environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem
comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community environment
of the children.
Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with
family members, classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or individuals
interact with the children will affect how they grow.
Similarly, how children react to people
in their microsystem will also influence how
they treat the children in return. More
nurturing and more supportive
interactions and relationships will
understandably foster they children’s
improved development.
One of the most significant findings that
Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of
ecological systems is that it is possible for siblings
who find themselves in the same
ecological system to experience very different environments.
 Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not
impossible for the development of them to progress in different manners. Each child’s
particular personality traits, such as temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic
and biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how he/she is treated by others.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems
which children find them in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such,
involves linkages between home and school, between peer group and family, and
between family and community.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a child’s parents are actively involved in
the friendships of their child, for example they invite their child’s friends over to their
house from time to time and spend time with them, and then the child’s development is
affected positively through harmony and like-mindedness. However, if the child’s
parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then the child experiences
disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will likely lead to negative development.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Exosystem
The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more
settings, one of which may not contain the developing children but affect them indirectly
nonetheless.
Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may
not directly interact with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people
may include the parents’ workplaces, extended family members, and the neighborhood
the children live in.
For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an
indifferent boss at the workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at
home.

The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Macrosystem

The macro system is the largest and most distant collection of people and places
to the children that still have significant influences on them. This ecological system is
composed of the children’s cultural patterns and values, specifically their dominant
beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems.
For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of development
than children in peaceful environments.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model: Chronosystem
 The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful
dimension of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in
the children’s environments. The chronosystem may include a change in family
structure, address, parents’ employment status, as well as immense society changes
such as economic cycles and wars.
Value of the Theory
This theory, published in 1979, has influenced may psychologist in terns of the
manner of analyzing the person and the effects of different environmental systems that
he encounters. The ecological system theory has since became a foundation of other
theorist’s work.
Teaching and Learning Activities
Choose one from six (6) development theories and write commentary paper
based on the psychologist’s work or contribution
Join discussion forum 1
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
Reading text (pdf)
Open Educational Sources
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module, exercises
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What are the different theories related to the learners’ development? Explain the
stages of each theory using a graphic organizer.
2. Why it is important to learn about these theories?
3. If you are a teacher, how would you apply these theories when teaching your
students?
Activity 1.1
Materials: writing paper or computer access, materials that students choose to include
as they create a lesson or activity. Put students into four groups (if the class is large,
consider eight groups).Assign each group one of Piaget's stages of cognitive
development:
-Sensorimotor
-Preoperational
-Concrete Operational
-Formal Operations
Instruct each group to develop a lesson or activity that might be used with
children within the age of the stage they have been assigned. The lesson or activity
should be designed to help children further develop their skills within that stage.
Once complete, each group will present (or ''teach'') their lesson or activity to the
class as if they were presenting to a group of children within the age they are working
with (this would obviously be difficult with students in the Sensorimotor stage, but the
idea can still be the same).
Activity 1.2
Directions: Read the story below and relate it to Kolhberg’s Stages of Moral
Development
Thinking Exercise Heinz Dilemma (An Idea on Moral Reasoning)
Heinz’s wife was dying because of a special kind of cancer. There was only one
medicine that the doctors thought might cure her, but it was an advanced formula that a
pharmaceutical company had recently discovered. This drug was extremely costly to
produce due to high-cost equipment and singular production techniques. On top of that,
the company was selling the drug at a price tenfold the production costs.
Heinz went to everyone he knew to borrow money but he could only collect half
of what the drug costs. He sought an audience with the CEO of the pharmaceutical
company, told him that his wife was dying and begged him to sell the drug cheaper or
allowed him to defer the payment. But the CEO refused. He couldn’t make any
exception as they had spent massive funds in the research and equipment, and turning
in a profit was the top priority for the company.
Heinz was devastated, and at wits end about what he should do next. In the end,
he broke into the company and stole the drug for his wife.

Activity 1.3
Get a plain piece of whole sheet of paper and colored and non-colored pencils.
You are given approximately 15 minutes to explain your understanding of
Bronferbrenner’s ecological system theory and write it down on your paper.
 Evaluation

Identification
____1. Virtue that develop during Intimacy vs. Isolation.
____2. It is the sub stage of conventional where people’s decisions based on the
approval of others.
____3. It is a smallest and most immediate environment in which children live?
____4. Who was the man developed the psychosexual stages of development?
____5. When children is acting to avoid punishment.
____6. He expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to explain
the moral development of children.
____7. The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting
back on life.
____8. An ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential
theories of development.
____9. In this stage primary source of interaction occurs through mouth?
____10. According to Lawrence Kohlberg it is like cognitive development which
follows a series of stages.

References:
A. Book
 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:
Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Websites
 Education,Society, and the K-12 Learner.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohlbergs-stages-of-
moral-development/Moral Development – Lessons - Tes Teach. Retrieved November
17, 2019.
 https://www.tes.com/lessons/rwvpJSB1HslMxw/moral-development. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 Saul McLeod. (2019). The Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 Eric O. Burkholder, Martha Peláez. (2000). Behavioral Interpretation of Vygotsky's
Theory of Thought, Language, and Culture. https://psycnet.apa.org/fulltext/2014-55592-
002.html. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 https://www.verywellmind.com/freuds-stages-of-psychosexual-development-2795962.
Retrieved November 17, 2019.
 https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-psychosocialdevelopment-
2795740. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
  https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/bronfenbrenner-ecological-theory/. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.
 https://www.google.com/amp/s/exploringyourmind.com/bronfenbrenners-ecological-
systems-theory/amp/. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

Unit 2: Student Diversity

Topic 1: Individual differences

This module explains the different factors that make individuals unique from each other.
It also includes some concepts about how student diversity enriches the learning environment.
As future educator, you will be able to know how you can apply different teaching strategies that
facilitate learning in a diverse set of learners.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
1. demonstrate understanding on various diverse teaching and learning
principles and theories;
2. determine the learners’ learning /thinking styles and multiple intelligences;
3. develop learning activities appropriate to learners’ learning/ thinking styles
and multiple intelligences;
4. illustrate the basic categories of exceptional learners; and
5. utilize “first language” to exceptional learners to avoid discrimination.
Learning Content
Factors that Makeup Student Diversity
There are many factors that make a classroom diverse because of the
differences, in one way or another, of the students that interact with each other. This
includes the following:
1. Gender
2. Race
3. Ethnic or Cultural Background (nationality, province, language)
4. Socioeconomic status- socioeconomic level or status (SES) is defined by
the income, education, and occupation of members of the household.
5. Thinking/ Learning Style- some learners learn better when they get to see
something, others by hearing or manipulating something.
6. Exceptionalities- the term exceptionalities in K–12 schooling refer to both
disabilities and giftedness. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act ’04 (IDEA
’04), the national law that guarantees an appropriate education to students with
disabilities, recognizes fourteen disability categories.

How Individual Differences Help Enrich Learning Environment

In a classroom setting, a teacher may find it hard to deal with a diverse set of
learners in a learning environment. He/she might struggle to cater the learning needs of
these individuals. Challenging as it may seem, a wise and reflective teacher, rather than
grumble, would consider this situation as a great way to promote understanding across
diversity. Below are benefits of how individual differences or student diversity help
enrich the learning environment.
1. Student’s self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. Exposing students to
others with diverse backgrounds and experiences also serves to help students focus on
their awareness of themselves. When they see how others are different, students are
given reference points or comparative perspectives which sharpen assessment of their
own attitudes, values, and behaviors.
2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. In cognitive
development of the learners, opportunities to gain access to the perspective of peers
and to learn from other students, rather than the instructor only, maybe especially
important for promoting Supreme Court Justice, William J. Brennan said: “the classroom
is peculiarly the market place of ideas.” The depth and breadth of student learning are
enhanced by exposure to others from diverse backgrounds. Student diversity in the
classroom brings about different points of view and varied approaches to the learning
process.
As the German philosopher, Nietzsche, said over 100 years ago: “The more
affects we allow to speak about one thing, the more eyes, different eyes we can use to
observe one thing, the more complete will our concept of this thing, our objectivity, be.”
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members
of society. Suzanne Mores stresses one competency that has strong implications for
instructional strategies that capitalize on diversity: "The capacity to imagine situations or
problems from all perspectives and to appreciate all aspects of diversity”. Furthermore,
she argues: “The classroom can provide more than just theory given by the teacher in a
lecture. With student diversity, the classroom becomes a ‘public place’ where
community can be practiced.

4. Student diversity can promote harmony. When student diversity is

integrated into the classroom teaching and learning process, it can become a vehicle for
promoting harmonious race relations. Through student-centered teaching strategies,
diverse students can be encouraged to interact and collaborate with one another on
learning task that emphasize unity of effort while capitalizing on their diversity of
backgrounds.
Teaching Strategies on Student Diversity
1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.
Students will be made to realize that they have something in common with the
rest. They also differ in several ways.
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’
multicultural and cross-cultural awareness.
 you can encourage or even initiate co-curricular experiences that are
aimed at promoting diversity awareness. These activities could be held to coincide with
already-scheduled national weeks or months which are designated for appreciation of
diverse groups: Disability Awareness Week, Linggo ng Wika, Indigenous People’s
Week, etc.
 Let students interview other students on campus who are from diverse
backgrounds (foreign students or students from other ethnic/racial groups). These
students of different racial and ethnic origin serve as source of first-hand information on
topics related to their culture. This can also provide opportunity for interaction among
students who may otherwise never come in contact with each other.
 Invite students to Internet discussion groups or e-mail; have students
“visit” foreign countries and “talk” to natives of those countries.
 Ask students if they have ever been the personal target of prejudice or
discrimination, and have them share these experiences with other members of the
class.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend
group differences.
Clyde Kluckholn, an early American anthropologist who spent a lifetime studying
human diversity across different cultures, concluded from his extensive research that ,
“Every human is, at the same time, like all other humans, like some humans, and like no
other human” (cited in Wong, 1991). His observation suggests a paradox in the human
experience, namely: We are all the same in different ways. It may be important to point
out to students the biological reality that we, human beings, share approximately 95% of
our genes in common, and that less than 5% of our genes account for the physical
differences that exist among us. When focusing on human differences, these
commonalities should not be overlooked; otherwise, our repeated attempts to promote
student diversity may inadvertently promote student divisiveness. One way to minimize
this risk , and promote unity along with diversity, is to stress the universality” of the
learning experience by raising students’ consciousness of common themes that bind all
groups of people- in addition to highlighting the variations on those themes.
  Periodically place students in homogeneous groups on the basis of shared
demographic characteristics (e.g., same-gender groups or same-race/ethnicity groups),
and have them share their personal views or experiences with respect to course issues.
Then form a panel comprised of representatives from each group who will report their
group’s ideas. You can serve as moderator and identify the key differences and
recurrent themes that emerge across different groups who are not on the panel can be
assigned this task.
 To form group of students who are different with respect to one
demographic characteristic but similar with respect to another (e.g., similar gender but
different with respect race/ethnicity, or similar in age but different gender). This practice
can serve to increase student awareness that humans who are members of the same
group- and share similar experiences, needs or concerns.
 After students have completed self-assessment instruments (e.g., learning
style inventories or personality profiles), have them line up or move to a corner of the
room according to their individual scores or overall profile. This practice can visibly
demonstrate to students how members of different student populations can be quite
similar with respect to their learning styles or personality profiles, i.e., students can see
how individual similarities can often overshadow group differences.
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups.
 Make a conscious attempt to call on, or draw in students from diverse
groups by using effective questioning techniques that reliably elicit student involvement.
In addition to consciously calling on them on class, other strategies for “drawing in” and
involving students include: (a) assigning them the role of reporter in small-group
discussions, i.e., the one who reports back the group’s ideas to the class, and (b)
having them engaged in paired discussions with another classmate with the stipulation
that each partner must take turns assuming the role of both listener and speaker, and
(c) scheduling instructor-student conferences with them outside the classroom.
 Learn the names of your students, especially the foreign names that you
may have difficulty pronouncing. This will enable you to establish early personal rapport
with them which can later serve as a social /emotional foundation or springboard for
encouraging them to participate.
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in
learning styles.
 Diversify the sensory/perceptual modalities through which you deliver and
present information (e.g., orally, in print, diagrammatic and pictorial representations, or
“hands on” experiences).
 Diversify the instructional formats or procedures you use in class:
  Use formats that are student-centered (e.g., class discussions, small
group work) and teacher-centered (e.g., lectures demonstrations).
 Use formats that are unstructured (e.g., trial and error discovery
learning) ,and structured (e.g., step-by-step instructions).
 Use procedures that involve both independent learning (e.g.,
independently completed projects, individual presentations) and interdependent learning
(e.g., collaborative learning in pairs or small groups).
6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide
multiple contexts that are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.
Specific strategies for providing multiple examples and varied contexts that are
relevant to their varied backgrounds include the following:
 Have students complete personal information cards during the first week
of class and use this information to select examples or illustration that are relevant to
their personal interests and life experiences.
 Use ideas, comments and questions that student raise in class, or which
they choose to write about to help you think of examples and illustrations to use.
 Ask students to provide their own examples of concepts based on
experiences drawn from their personal lives.
 Have students apply concepts by placing them in a situation or context
that is relevant to their lives (e.g., “How would you show respect to all persons in your
home?”).
7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by
allowing them personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they
will learn and how they will learn it.
Giving the learner more decision-making opportunity with respect to learning
tasks: (a) promotes positive student attitudes toward the subject matter, (b) foster more
positive interactions among students, and (c) results in students working more
consistently with lesser teacher intervention. Also, when individuals are allowed to exert
some control over a task, they tend to experience less anxiety or stress while
performing the task.
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
You can accommodate student diversity not only by varying what you do with
your teaching, but also varying what you ask students to do to demonstrate learning. In
addition to the traditional paper-and-pencil tests and written assignments, students can
demonstrate their learning in a variety of performance formats, such as: (a) individually-
delivered oral reports, (b) panel presentations, (c) group projects, (d) visual
presentations (e.g., concept maps, slide presentations, Power Point presentations
collages, exhibits), or (e) dramatic vignettes-presented live or on videotape. One
potential benefit of allowing students to choose how they demonstrate their learning is
that the variety of options exercised may be a powerful way to promote student
awareness of the diversity of human learning styles.
9. Purposefully, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse
backgrounds. You can form groups of students with different learning styles, different
cultural background, etc.
Small peer-learning groups may be effective for promoting student progress to a
more advanced stage of cognitive development. Peer-learning groups may promote this
cognitive advancement because: (a) the instructor is removed from center stage,
thereby reducing the likelihood that the teacher is perceived as the ultimate or absolute
authority; and (b) students are exposed to the perspectives of other students, thus
increasing their appreciation of multiple viewpoints and different approaches to learning.
Other Tips on Student Diversity
1. Learn about your own culture
Become aware of how the influence of your own culture, language, social
interests,
Goals, cognitions, and values could prevent you from learning how you could
best teach your students of culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds.
2. Learn about your students’ culture
Understand how your students’ cultures affect their perceptions, self-esteem,
values, classroom behavior, and learning. Use that understanding to help your students
feel welcomed, affirmed, respected, and valued.
3. Understand your students’ linguistic traits
Learn how students’ patterns of communication and various dialects affect their
classroom learning and how second-language learning affects their acquisition of
literacy.
4. Use this knowledge to inform your teaching
Let your knowledge of your students’ diverse cultures inform your teaching.
This, along with a sincerely caring attitude, increases student participation and
engagement.
5. Use multicultural books and materials to foster cross-cultural
understanding
Open to a variety of instructional strategies as students’ cultures may
make certain strategies (such as competitive games or getting students to volunteer
information) uncomfortable for them.
 6. Know about your students’ home and school relationships
Collaborate with parents and caregivers on children’s literacy development
and don’t rely on preconceived notions of the importance of literacy within your
students’ families. Acquiring this rich store of knowledge may seem overwhelming, but
whatever investment you can make will be well worth the time and effort. Make it a
career-long goal to build your knowledge bases a little piece at a time.
Teaching and Learning Activities
Form a group of five members. In each group, there will be an assigned task whether to
make a poster, slogan, poem, song or a role play that relates to individual differences
Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.
https://www.coursera.org/lecture/url
https://libguides.reynolds.edu
https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/div/cresource/q1/p01/.Retrieved November
17, 2019.
https://www.imaginelearning.com/blog/2010/06/esl_struggling-readers-2. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.

Reading text (pdf)

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module, exercises
Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What are the different factors that compose student diversity?

2. In your own words, what other tips or strategies you can use to teach diverse learners?
3. Why it is important to consider individual differences when teaching?

Activity 1
Form a group of five members. In each group, there will be an assigned task whether to make a
poster, slogan, poem, and song that relates to individual differences. The outputs will be
presented through Google classroom
Rubrics:
Content: 50%
Mastery: 20%
Organization: 30%
Total 100%

Evaluation

Essay. In a sheet of paper, elaborate in your own words how student diversity enriches the
learning environment.

Rubrics:
Content: 50%
Organization: 50%
Total 100%

References:
A. Book
 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition Process:
Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Websites
 https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/div/cresource/q1/p01/. Retrieved November
17, 2019.

 https://www.imaginelearning.com/blog/2010/06/esl_struggling-readers-2. Retrieved
November 17, 2019.

Topic 2: Learning/Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences

Individuals have preferred ways of learning. Teachers often refer to these

differences as learning styles, though this term may imply that students are more
consistent across situations than is really the case, individual students do differ in how
they habitually think. This module presents you the different learning styles of students
and strategies that can be used to guide these differences for a successful learning.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 1. demonstrate understanding on various diverse teaching and learning
principles and theories;
2. determine the learners’ learning /thinking styles and multiple intelligences;and
3. develop learning activities appropriate to learners’ learning/ thinking styles
and multiple intelligences
Learning Content
Learning/Thinking Styles
According to Kolb and Kolb (2005), learning style describes individual differences
in approaches to or ways of learning. A person’s learning style is a biologically and
developmentally imposed set of personal characteristics that make the same teaching
method effective for some and ineffective for others.

Some students may like to make diagrams to help remember a reading

assignment, whereas another student may prefer to write a sketchy outline instead. Yet
in many cases, the students could in principle reverse the strategies and still learn the
material: if coaxed (or perhaps required), the diagram-maker could take notes for a
change and the note-taker could draw diagrams. Both would still learn, though neither
might feel as comfortable as when using the strategies that they prefer. This reality
suggests that a balanced, middle-of-the-road approach may be a teacher’s best
response to students’ learning styles. Example, a student may prefer to hear new
material rather than see it; he may prefer for you to explain something orally, for
example, rather than to see it demonstrated in a video. But he may nonetheless tolerate
or sometimes even prefer to see it demonstrated. In the long run, in fact, he may learn it
best by encountering the material in both ways, regardless of his habitual preferences.

Learning Styles

1. Visual - best acquire new information by sight

2. Auditory - needs to hear content explanations. He/She appreciates and learns
faster through songs and stories. He/She also finds it easier to learn through
sounds.
3. Kinesthetic - they prefer activities that involve their whole bodies. Learners like
him prefer dramatizations, pantomimes, and fieldtrips. They may often be
restless in class. Role-playing and interactive games are good strategies to help
them learn.
4. Tactile - learns best by manipulating materials. He/She requires experimentation
and hands-on activities to learn well. He/She needs to touch, feel, and
experience.

Categories of Learning Styles

 1. Imaginative learners: They perceive information concretely and process it
reflectively. They learn well by listening to and sharing with others while
integrating others’ ideas with their own experiences. They often have a difficulty
with traditional teaching approaches.
2. Analytic learners: They perceive information abstractly and process it
reflectively. They prefer sequential thinking, require details, and value what
experts have to offer. They do well in traditional classrooms.
3. Common sense learners: They process information abstractly and actively.
They enjoy practical and hands-on learning. They often find school frustrating
because they do not see an immediate use for learning.
4. Dynamic learners: They provide information concretely and process it actively.
They prefer hands-on learning and get excited with new concepts and ideas.
They like taking risks. Activities that are tedious and sequential frustrate them.

Individual Preferences

 Sound levels
 Lighting
 Temperature levels
 Seating arrangements
 Mobility
 Group sizes
 Types of learning activities
 Eating or drinking while concentrating
 Time preferences

There are two major ways to use knowledge of students’ cognitive styles
(Pritchard, 2005). The first and the more obvious is to build on students’ existing style
strengths and preferences. A student who is field independent and reflective, for
example, can be encouraged to explore tasks and activities that are relatively analytic
and that require relatively independent work. One who is field dependent and impulsive,
on the other hand, can be encouraged and supported to try tasks and activities that are
more social or spontaneous. But a second, less obvious way to use knowledge of
cognitive styles is to encourage more balance in cognitive styles for students who need
it. A student who lacks field independence, for example, may need explicit help in
organizing and analyzing key academic tasks (like organizing a lab report in a science
class). One who is already highly reflective may need encouragement to try ideas
spontaneously, as in a creative writing lesson.
 The theory of multiple intelligences also has strong implications for adult learning
and development. Many adults find themselves in jobs that do not make optimal use of
their most highly developed intelligences (for example, the highly bodily-kinesthetic
individual who is stuck in a linguistic or logical desk-job when he or she would be much
happier in a job where they could move around, such as a recreational leader, a forest
ranger, or physical therapist).

The theory of multiple intelligences gives adults a whole new way to look at their
lives, examining potentials that they left behind in their childhood (such as a love for art
or drama) but now have the opportunity to develop through courses, hobbies, or other
programs of self-development. It suggests that teachers be trained to present their
lessons in a wide variety of ways using music, cooperative learning, art activities, role
play, multimedia, field trips, inner reflection, and much more.

If you’re teaching or learning about the law of supply and demand in economics,
you might read about it (linguistic), study mathematical formulas that express it (logical-
mathematical), examine a graphic chart that illustrates the principle (spatial), observe
the law in the natural world (naturalist) or in the human world of commerce
(interpersonal); examine the law in terms of your own body [e.g. when you supply your
body with lots of food, the hunger demand goes down; when there’s very little supply,
your stomach’s demand for food goes way up and you get hungry] (bodily-kinesthetic
and intrapersonal); and/or write a song (or find an existing song) that demonstrates the
law (perhaps Dylan’s “Too Much of Nothing?”).

Left and Right Brain (Comparison Chart)

LEFT BRAIN (Analytic) RIGHT BRAIN (Global)

Successive Hemispheric Style Simultaneous Hemispheric Style

1. Verbal 1. Visual

2. Responds to word meaning 2. Responds to tone of voice

3. Sequential 3. Random

4. Processes information linearly 4. Processes information in varied

order

5. Responds to logic 5. Responds to emotion

6.Plans ahead 6. Impulsive

7. Recalls people’s name 7. Recalls people’s faces

 8. Speaks with few gestures 8. Gestures when speaking

9. Punctual 9. Less punctual

10.Prefers formal study design 10.Prefers sound/music background

while studying

11. Prefers bright lights while 11. Prefers frequent mobility while
studying studying

Multiple Intelligences

Multiple intelligences has grabbed the attention of many educators around the
country, and hundreds of schools are currently using its philosophy to redesign the way
it educates children.

1. Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) - learning visually and organizing ideas

spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability to “see”
things in one’s mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem.
2. Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart) - learning through the spoken and written word.
This intelligence is always valued in the traditional classroom and in traditional
assessments of intelligence and achievement.
3. Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart) - learning through reasoning
and problem solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where students are
asked to adapt to logically sequenced delivery of instruction.
4. Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart) - learning through interaction with one’s
environment. This intelligence is the domain of ‘overly active learners. It promotes
understanding through concrete experience.
5. Musical (Music Smart) - learning through patterns, rhythms and music. This
includes not only auditory learning but also the identification of patterns through all the
senses.
6. Intrapersonal (Self Smart) - learning through feelings, values and attitudes. This is a
decidedly affective component of learning through which students place value on what
they learn and take ownership for their learning.
7. Interpersonal (People Smart) - learning through interaction with others. Not the
domain of children who are simply “talkative” or “overly social.” This intelligence
promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with others.
8. Naturalist (Nature Smart) - learning though classification, categories and
hierarchies. The naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning. It is
not simply the study of nature; it can be used in all areas of study.
9. Existential (Spirit Smart) - learning by seeing the “big picture”: “Why are we here?”
“What is my role on the world?” “What is my place in my family, school and
community?” This intelligence seeks connections to real world understanding and
application of new learning.

It is important for teachers to use their knowledge about thinking/learning style

and multiple intelligences in planning activities to help their students learn effectively.

Every student has their own learning styles which speak to the understanding
that each of them learns differently. Technically, an individual’s learning style refers to
the preferential way in which the students absorbs, processes, comprehends and
retains information.
Teaching Strategies on Different Learning Styles

 Be inquisitive and ask them what they think about the concept/idea/topic.
 Ask them to bounce ideas off of each other and compare their ideas with others.
 Allow them to discuss and share stories.
 Include group work that accepts each other’s’ different ideas.
 Engage in a role-play that depicts different way of learning/thinking styles and
multiple intelligences.

Teaching and Learning Activities

Choose one from the (9) different multiple intelligences. Write a reflective paper on
content area topic.

Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

 Handouts (pdf) upload
 https://www.pinterest.com
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module

Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. How do individuals differ with each other in terms of learning and thinking styles?
2. How does left and right brain function?
 3. What teaching strategies must be used by the teachers to manage students with
different learning styles?

Activity 1

Divide the class into 5 groups and let every group draw one of the multiple
intelligences. Allow them to picture-out what has been drawn through a role play
(Google classroom) and evaluate them if they have depicted it well. This will serve as
an application on what they have learned that suits with their ages. Let them include
how should a teacher manages his/her students with different learning/thinking styles.

Rubrics:
Content: 50%
Performance: 50%
Total 100%

Evaluation

Name:__________________ Course and Section:_____________

Directions: Answer briefly the following questions:

1. How can you manage a class having 60% slow-learners?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________

2. How do your left and right brain works? Give an example based on your own opinion.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
____________
3. Give at least three (3) multiple intelligences and explain how applicable they are on
yourself.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

4. Browse the research article and write a short reflective paper.

 Lunenburg, F. C., & Lunenburg, M. R. (2014). Applying Multiple Intelligences in the
Classroom: A Fresh Look at Teaching Writing. International journal of scholarly
academic intellectual diversity, 16(1).

Rubrics:
Content: 60%
Organization: 40%
Total 100%

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition

Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Journal

 Lunenburg, F. C., & Lunenburg, M. R. (2014). Applying Multiple Intelligences in

the Classroom: A Fresh Look at Teaching Writing. International journal of
scholarly academic intellectual diversity, 16(1).

Topic 3: Learners with Exceptionalities

One significant factor that highlights individual differences and diversity in
learning is the presence of exceptionalities. We commonly refer to learners with
exceptionalities as persons who are different in some way from the “normal” or
“average”. Most of these learners that have disabilities require a lot of understanding,
more patience and respect as well as special education and related services if they are
to reach their full potential of development.

Learning Outcomes
1. Illustrate the basic categories of exceptional learners
2. Utilize “first language” to exceptional learners to avoid discrimination

Learning Content

The term learners with exceptionalities refers to the individuals whose physical,
behavioral, or cognitive performance is so different from the normal and additional
services are required to meet for individual’s needs. They are differ from their peers
through their differences in requirements to learning and the classroom environment in
regard to factors such as support systems, teaching methods, and social interaction
with other learners and teachers. Each group needs a special level and type of support
for their individual learning needs.

Handicap the world health organization defines handicapped person to have a

loss or limited opportunities in being involved in activities as compared to the majority of
the population. A handicap is the effect of disability. It focuses on an obstacle
experienced by a person due to a restriction in the environment.

Disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a person’s

ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. World health organization defines a
disabled individual to have any lack of ability in carrying out an activity in the means
viewed as normal by the community. A disability is a reduced capacity to specifically
perform a movement detects certain sensory information, or executes a cognitive
function.

Handicap and disability are closely related terms which are often used
concerning people with special needs. They are usually interchangeable used, in
situations, social stigma, low self-esteem, and support system issues may be
experienced by the individuals. Therefore, the extent to which a disability handicaps an
individual can vary greatly. Two persons may have same disability but not the same
degree of being handicapped. For example, they both hearing impairment, one knows
sign language and can read lips while the other cannot. The first individual would not
have as much handicap as the second one.

Categories of Exceptionalities

There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities. Special

education practitioners would have varying terms and categories.

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties

 Learning Disabilities refers to a disorder in one or more of the basic

psychological processes in the understanding or using language, written or
spoken, which may manifest itself in difficulty performing basic task like
arithmetic
(dyscalculia), reading (dyslexia), writing (dysgraphia) , spelling or attention.

 Attention-Deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is manifested in either or both

of these: (1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and (2) recurrent
hyperactive and impulsive behavior. A with ADHD has differences in brain
 development and brain activity that affect attention, the ability to sit still, and self-
control.

 Speech and communication disorder people with speech problems can

understand language code ( rules governing word construction, meaning,
grouping, and pragmatics) but there is difficulty in spoken language including
voice disorders, inability to produce the sounds correctly, stuttering, difficulty in
spoken language comprehension that significantly hamper classroom
performance.

Social/emotional and Behavioral Difficulties

 Autism refers to a developmental disability affecting verbal and non-verbal

communication and social interaction, manifested by different levels of impaired
social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interest.
Individuals with autism usually have an intense need for routine and a predictable
environment.

 Mental Retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning

characterized by significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive
behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting
themselves appropriately in social situations.

 Emotional/Conduct disorders this involves the presence of emotional states

like depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they
notably disturb learning and performance in school.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments

 impairments Physical and health this involves physical or medical conditions

(usually long-term) including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and
strength, (2) reduced mental alertness, and /or (3) little muscle control.

 Severe and Multiple Disabilities this refers to the presence of two or more
different types of disabilities, at times at a profound level. The combination of
disabilities makes it necessary to make specific adaptations and have more
specialized educational programs.

 Visual Impairments these are conditions when there is malfunction of the eyes
or optic nerves that prevent the normal vision even with corrective lenses. Visual
disabilities can be divided into low vision and blindness. Individuals with low
vision can function but with assistance of optical or non-optical devices and
 environmental modifications and/or techniques. Blindness refers to being without
functional use of vision and reliance on other sensory systems education.

 Hearing Impairments these involve malfunction of the ear or auditory nerves

that hinder perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.
Hearing disability can be sub-divided into hard of hearing or profoundly hard of
hearing or deaf.

Giftedness

 Giftedness this involves a significantly high level of cognitive development.

There is unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more of these aspects:
intellectual ability, aptitude in academics subjects, creativity, visual or
performing arts or leadership. For that reason, these children require activities
or services not provided ordinarily by schools. Gifted and talented children tend
to be highly motivated, learn to read early and perform well academically.

Recognizing a Student with Learning Disability

students with
learning
disabilities...
have processing
have average or
difiulties
above average
ability (thinking
and reasoning

demonstrate a
significant
demonstrate difference
below average between
academic achievement
achievement and ability

People-First Language

It is a type of linguistic prescription in English. it aims to avoid perceived

and subconscious dehumanization when discussing people with disabilities and is
sometimes referred to as a type of disability etiquette (e.g., a person with disabilities,
not a disabled person). Thus, people first language tells us what conditions people
have, not what they are. Other suggestions for referring to those with disabilities
include:
  Avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferable to
mentally retarded);

 Emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, uses a wheelchair is

preferable to confined to a wheelchair);

 Avoiding euphemism which are regarded as condescending and avoid the real
issues that result from a disability; and

 Avoiding implying illness or suffering had polio is preferable to is a polio

victim, and has multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffers from multiple sclerosis)

Using people-first language and applying the guidelines above will remind you to
have be more respectful and accepting attitude toward learners with exceptionalities.

Learners with exceptionalities need more attentions and understanding

from others. The presence of impairments requires them to exert more effort to do
things that others like us find quite easy to do. We need to exert more effort to show and
to make them feel that they like normal like others them that they not. And as future
teachers we should have a right attitude and compassion neither to pity nor ridicule
them will make us more effective and have a heart to facilitate their learning and
adjustment.

Teaching Strategies on Learners with Exceptionalities

Special education classes provide a unique service to physically or

mentally challenged students. The ideal special education classroom provides quality
instruction to students with disabilities. Some strategies that teachers can use to benefit
all of their students:

 Form small groups

 Create classroom centers

 Maintain an organized classroom and limit distractions

 Blend the basics with more specialized instruction

 Rotate lessons

 Provide different levels of books and materials

 Use music and video inflection

 Use multi-sensory strategies

Teaching and Learning Activities

Watch the video as shown on the link provided. Write a one- page (300- 500 words)
reaction paper.

https://www.parentmap.com

Learning materials and resources for supplementary reading.

 Handouts (pdf) upload
Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adopted
 Google classroom
 Module

Assessment Task

Guide Questions

1. What do learners with exceptionalities mean?

2. What are the examples of exceptionalities?

Activity 1

Divide the class into 5 groups and make a role play on how a teacher should
handle those learners with exceptionalities. (use Google classroom)

Rubrics:

Content: 50%

Performance: 50%

Total 100%

Evaluation

Directions: In a sheet of paper, answer the following questions.

1. By means of graphic organizer enumerate and discuss the basic categories of

exceptional learners.
 2. Compare and contrast handicap and disability.

3. In your own words, what is people first language?

4. As future teachers, how will you deal with students who have learning
disabilities?

5. What strategies will you use in teaching learners with exceptionalities?

References:

A. Book

 Lucas, M. R. & B. Corpus. (2007). Facilitating Learning A Metacognition

Process: Lorimar Publishing. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

B. Website

 https://kidshealth.org/en/parents/adhd.html. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

 https://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/learners-with-exceptionalities-
make-up-an-important-education-essay.php. Retrieved November 17, 2019.

 https://www.differencebetween.net/language/the-difference-between-
handicapped-and-disabled/