Anti-semitismo no

Islã

Os estudiosos estudaram e debateram as atitudes muçulmanas em relação aos judeus , bem

como o tratamento dispensado aos judeus no pensamento e nas sociedades islâmicas ao
longo da história do Islã . Partes das fontes literárias islâmicas mencionam certos grupos
judaicos presentes no passado ou no presente, o que gerou debates. Parte disto coincide
com as observações islâmicas sobre grupos religiosos não-muçulmanos em geral. [1]

Com a ascensão do Islão na Arábia no século VII d.C. e a sua subsequente propagação
durante as primeiras conquistas muçulmanas , os judeus, juntamente com muitos outros
povos, ficaram sujeitos ao domínio da política islâmica . [2] [3] [4] Sua qualidade de vida sob o
domínio muçulmano variou consideravelmente em diferentes períodos, assim como as
atitudes dos governantes, funcionários do governo, do clero e da população em geral em
relação aos judeus, variando da tolerância à perseguição . [2] [3] [4]

Gama de opiniões

Claude Cahen [5] e Shelomo Dov

Goitein [6] argumentam contra a
afirmação de que o anti-semitismo
tem uma longa história nos países
muçulmanos , escrevendo que a
discriminação que era praticada contra
os não-muçulmanos ( Kuffar ) era de
natureza geral, pelo que não era
especificamente dirigido contra os
judeus. [7] De acordo com estes
estudiosos, o anti-semitismo no Islão
medieval era local e esporádico, em
vez de geral e endémico.
Bernard Lewis [8] escreve que embora
os muçulmanos tenham mantido
estereótipos negativos em relação aos
judeus ao longo da maior parte da
história islâmica , esses estereótipos
eram diferentes daqueles estereótipos
que acompanhavam o anti-semitismo
europeu porque, ao contrário dos
cristãos que consideravam os judeus
objetos de medo, os muçulmanos
apenas consideravam os judeus
objetos de ridículo. . Ele argumenta
que os muçulmanos não atribuíram o
“mal cósmico” aos judeus. [9] Na
opinião de Lewis, foi apenas no final
do século XIX que surgiram pela
primeira vez entre os muçulmanos
movimentos que podem ser descritos
como anti-semitas nas formas
europeias. [10]
Frederick M. Schweitzer e Marvin Perry
afirmam que há principalmente
referências negativas aos judeus no
Alcorão e no Hadith , e que os regimes
islâmicos trataram os judeus de
maneira degradante. Eles afirmam que
tanto os judeus como os cristãos
foram relegados ao status de dhimmi .
Schweitzer e Perry afirmam que
durante grande parte da história, os
cristãos trataram os judeus pior do
que os muçulmanos, afirmando que os
judeus em terras cristãs foram
submetidos a polêmicas, perseguições
e massacres piores do que os judeus
que viviam sob o domínio muçulmano
. [11]
De acordo com Walter Laqueur , as
diversas interpretações do Alcorão são
importantes para a compreensão das
atitudes muçulmanas em relação aos
judeus. Muitos versículos do Alcorão
pregam a tolerância para com os
judeus; outros fazem comentários
hostis sobre eles (que são
semelhantes aos comentários hostis
feitos contra aqueles que não
aceitaram o Islão). Maomé interagiu
com judeus que viviam na Arábia :
pregou-lhes na esperança de poder
convertê -los , lutou contra alguns
judeus e matou muitos deles na
guerra, mas, ao mesmo tempo, fez
amizade com outros judeus. . [12]
Para Martin Kramer , a ideia de que o
anti-semitismo contemporâneo dos
muçulmanos é autenticamente
islâmico "toca em algumas verdades,
mas deixa de lado muitas outras" (ver
anti-semitismo no mundo árabe ).
Kramer acredita que o anti-semitismo
contemporâneo se deve apenas
parcialmente às políticas do Estado de
Israel , que os muçulmanos
consideram uma injustiça e uma das
principais causas do seu sentimento
de vitimização e perda. Kramer atribui
as causas primárias do anti-semitismo
muçulmano às ideologias europeias
modernas, que infectaram o mundo
muçulmano . [13]
Amal Saad-Ghorayeb , escritora e
analista política libanesa, dedicou um
capítulo inteiro de seu livro Hizbu'llah:
 Política e Religião a uma análise das
crenças antijudaicas do Hezbollah . [14]
Saad-Ghorayeb argumenta que embora
o sionismo tenha influenciado o
antijudaísmo do Hezbollah , "não
depende dele" porque o ódio do
Hezbollah aos judeus é mais motivado
religiosamente do que politicamente.
[14]

O Alcorão sobre os Judeus

em seu cenário histórico

Nenhuma menção aos judeus

durante o período de Meca
Jews are not mentioned at all in verses dating from the Meccan period.[15] According to
Bernard Lewis, the coverage given to Jews is relatively insignificant.[16]
Terms referring to Jews

Bani Israil
The Quran makes specific references to the Banū Isrāʾīl (meaning "the Children of
Israel"),[17][18] a term which occurs 44 times in the Quran,[17][18] although it's unclear whether it
refers exclusively to the Jews or both Jews and Christians as a single religious group.[18] In
the Quran(see Quran 2:140), Jews are not an ethnic group but a religious group, while Banū
Isrāʾīl were an ethnic group.

Yahud and Yahudi

The Arabic term Yahūd, denoting Jews, and Yahūdi occur 11 times, and the verbal form hāda
(meaning "to be a Jew/Jewish") occurs 10 times.[19] According to Khalid Durán, the negative
passages use Yahūd, while the positive references speak mainly of the Banū Isrāʾīl.[20]

Negative references to Jews

The references in the Quran to Jews are interpreted in different ways. According to Frederick
M. Schweitzer and Marvin Perry, these references are "mostly negative".[11] According to Tahir
Abbas, the general references to Jews are favorable, with only those addressed to particular
groups of Jews containing harsh criticisms.[21]
Adoption of Jewish practices
According to Bernard Lewis and some other scholars, the earliest verses of the Quran were
largely sympathetic to Jews. Muhammad admired them as monotheists and saw them as
natural adherents to the new faith, and Jewish practices helped model early Islamic behavior,
such as midday prayer, Friday prayer, Ramadan fasting (modeled after Yom Kippur), and most
famously the fact that until 623 CE Muslims prayed toward Jerusalem, not Mecca.[22]

Constitution of Medina
After his flight (al-hijra) from Mecca in 622 CE, Muhammad with his followers settled in
Yathrib, subsequently renamed Medina al-Nabi ('City of the Prophet') where he managed to
draw up a 'social contract',[23] widely referred to as the Constitution of Medina.[24] This
contract, known as "the Leaf" (ṣaḥīfa) upheld the peaceful coexistence between Muslims,
Jews, and Christians, defining them all, under given conditions, as constituting the Ummah, or
"community" of that city, and granting the latter freedom of religious thought and practice.[25]
Yathrib/Medina was not homogeneous. Alongside the 200-odd emigrants from Mecca (the
Muhājirūn), who had followed Muhammad, its population consisted of the Faithful of Medina
(Anṣār, "the Helpers"), Arab Pagans, three Jewish tribes, and some Christians.[26]

The foundational constitution sought to establish, for the first time in history according to Ali
Khan, a formal agreement guaranteeing interfaith conviviality, albeit ringed with articles
emphasizing strategic cooperation in the defense of the city, for example:[27]

Those Jews who follow us are entitled to our aid and support so long as they
shall not have wronged us or lent assistance (to any enemies) against us

— paragraph 16
To the Jews their own expenses and to the Muslims theirs. They shall help one
another in the event of any attack on the people covered by this document.
 There shall be sincere friendship, exchange of good counsel, fair conduct and no
treachery between them.

— paragraph 37
The three local Jewish tribes were the Banu Nadir, the Banu Qurayza, and the Banu Qaynuqa.
According to Rodinson, Muhammad had no prejudice against them, and appears to have
regarded his own message as substantially the same as that received by Jews on Sinai.[28]
But Reuven Firestone claims that tribal politics, and Muhammad's deep frustration at Jewish
refusals to accept his prophethood,[29] quickly led to a break with all three.

Hostility between Muslims and the Banu

Qaynuqa
The Banu Qaynuqa were expelled from Medina in 624 CE. In March 624 CE, Muslims led by
Muhammad defeated the Meccans of the Banu Quraysh tribe in the Battle of Badr. Ibn Ishaq
writes that a dispute broke out between the Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa (the allies of the
Khazraj tribe) soon afterwards. When a Muslim woman visited a jeweler's shop in the
Qaynuqa marketplace, she was pestered to uncover her hair. The goldsmith, a Jew, pinned her
clothing such that, upon getting up, she was stripped naked. A Muslim man coming upon the
resulting commotion killed the shopkeeper in retaliation. A mob of Jews from the Qaynuqa
tribe then pounced on the Muslim man and killed him. This escalated to a chain of revenge
killings, and enmity grew between Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa.[30]

Traditional Islamic sources view these episodes as a violation of the Constitution of

Medina.[30] Muhammad himself regarded this as casus belli. However, Western scholars and
historians do not find in these events the underlying reason for Muhammad's attack on the
Qaynuqa.[31] Fred Donner argues that Muhammad turned against the Banu Qaynuqa because
as artisans and traders, the latter were in close contact with Meccan merchants.[32]
Weinsinck views the episodes cited by the Muslim historians used to justify their expulsion,
such as a Jewish goldsmith humiliating a Muslim woman, as having no more than anecdotal
value. He writes that the Jews had assumed a contentious attitude towards Muhammad, and
as a group possessing substantial independent power, they posed a great danger. Wensinck
thus concludes that Muhammad, strengthened by the victory at the Battle of Badr, soon
resolved to eliminate the Jewish opposition to himself.[33] Norman Stillman also believes that
Muhammad decided to move against the Jews of Medina after being strengthened in the
wake of the Battle of Badr.[34]

Muhammad then approached the Banu Qaynuqa, gathering them in the market place and
warned them to stop their hostility lest they suffer the same fate that happened to the
Quraish at Badr. He also told them to accept Islam saying he was a prophet sent by God as
per their scriptures. The tribe responded by mocking Muhammad's followers for accepting
him as a prophet and also mocked their victory at Badr saying the Quraish had no knowledge
of war. They then warned him that if he ever fought with them, he will know that they were
real men.[35] This response was viewed as a declaration of war.[36] Muhammad then besieged
the Banu Qaynuqa[37] after which the tribe surrendered unconditionally and were later
expelled from Medina.[38]

In 625 CE, the Banu Nadir tribe was evicted from Medina after they attempted to assassinate
Muhammad.[39][40] In 627 CE, when the Quraysh and their allies besieged the city in the Battle
of the Trench, the Qurayza initially tried to remain neutral but eventually entered into
negotiations with the besieging army, violating the pact they had agreed to years earlier.[41]
Subsequently, the tribe was charged with treason and besieged by the Muslims commanded
by Muhammad.[42][43] The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered and their men were
beheaded.[42][43][44][45][46] The spoils of battle, including the enslaved women and children of
the tribe, were divided up among the Islamic warriors that had participated in the siege and
among the emigrees from Mecca who had hitherto depended on the help of the Muslims
native to Medina. Although the Banu Qurayza never took up arms against Muhammad or the
Muslims, they entered into negotiations with the invading army and violated the Constitution
of Medina. However, Nuam ibn Masud was able to sow discord between the invading forces
and Banu Qurayza, thus breaking down the negotiations.[47][48][49]

Verses in the Quran

As a result, the direction of Muslim prayer was shifted towards Mecca from Jerusalem, and
the most negative Quranic verses about Jews were set down after this time.[50][51] According
to Laqueur, conflicting statements about Jews in the Quran have affected Muslim attitudes
towards Jews to this day, especially during periods of rising Islamic fundamentalism.[52]
Judaism in Islamic theology
According to Bernard Lewis, there is nothing in Islamic theology, with one single exception,
that can be considered refutations of Judaism or ferocious anti-Jewish diatribes.[53] Lewis
and Chanes suggest that, for a variety of reasons, Muslims were not antisemitic for the most
part. The Quran, like Judaism, orders Muslims to profess strict monotheism. It also rejects
the stories of Jewish deicide as a blasphemous absurdity, and other similar stories in the
Gospels play no part in the Muslim educational system. The Quran does not present itself as
a fulfillment of the Hebrew Bible but rather a restoration of its original message (see Tahrif
for such claimed alterations and Tawrat for the Islamic understanding of the Torah as an
Islamic holy book). In such a line of argument, no clash of interpretations between Judaism
and Islam can arise.[54][55]

In addition, Lewis argues that the Quran lacks popular Western traditions of 'guilt and
betrayal'.[51] Rosenblatt and Pinson suggest that the Quran teaches toleration of Judaism as
a fellow monotheistic faith.[56]

Lewis adds that negative attributes ascribed to subject religions (in this case Judaism and
Christianity) are usually expressed in religious and social terms, but only very rarely in ethnic
or racial terms. However, this does sometimes occur. The language of abuse is often quite
strong. Lewis adduces that three Quranic verses (2:65 (https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=6
5) , 5:60 (https://quran.com/5?startingVerse=60) , 7:166 (https://quran.com/7?startingVers
e=166) ) ground conventional Muslim epithets for Jews (as apes) and Christians (as
pigs).[57] The interpretation of these 'enigmatic'[58] passages in Islamic exegetics is highly
complex, dealing as they do with infractions like breaking the Sabbath.[59] According to
Goitein, the idea of Jewish Sabbath breakers turning into apes may reflect the influence of
Yemeni midrashim.[60] Firestone notes that the Qurayza tribe itself is described in Muslim
sources as using the trope of being turned into apes if one breaks the Sabbath to justify not
exploiting the Sabbath in order to attack Mohammad, when they were under siege.[61]

According to Stillman, the Quran praises Moses, and depicts the Israelites as the recipients of
divine favour.[15] The Quran dedicates many verses to the glorification of Hebrew prophets,
says Leon Poliakov.[62] He quotes verse 6:85 (https://quran.com/6?startingVerse=85) as an
example,
 And We blessed him with Isaac and Jacob. We guided them all as
We previously guided Noah and those among his descendants:
David, Solomon, Job, Joseph, Moses, and Aaron. This is how We
reward the good-doers. Likewise, ˹We guided˺ Zachariah, John,
Jesus, and Elias, who were all of the righteous. ˹We also guided˺
Ishmael, Elisha, Jonah, and Lot, favouring each over other people
˹of their time˺.

Islamic remarks about Jews

Leon Poliakov,[63] Walter Laqueur,[12] and Jane Gerber,[64] argue that passages in the Quran
reproach Jews for their refusal to recognize Muhammad as a prophet of God.[63] "The Quran
is engaged mainly in dealing with the sinners among the Jews and the attack on them is
shaped according to models that one encounters in the New Testament."[65] The Muslim holy
text defined the Arab and Muslim attitude towards Jews to this day, especially in the periods
when Islamic fundamentalism was on the rise.[12]

Walter Laqueur states that the Quran and its interpreters have a great many conflicting things
to say about the Jews. Jews are said to be treacherous and hypocritical and could never be
friends with a Muslim.[12]

Frederick M. Schweitzer and Marvin Perry state that references to Jews in the Quran are
mostly negative. The Quran states that wretchedness and baseness were stamped upon the
Jews, and they were visited with wrath from Allah, that was because they disbelieved in
Allah's revelations and slew the prophets wrongfully. And for their taking usury, which was
prohibited for them, and because of their consuming people's wealth under false pretense, a
painful punishment was prepared for them. The Quran requires their "abasement and poverty"
in the form of the poll tax jizya. In his "wrath" God has "cursed" the Jews and will turn them
into apes/monkeys and swine and idol worshipers because they are "infidels".[11]

According to Martin Kramer, the Quran speaks of Jews in a negative way and reports
instances of Jewish treachery against the Islamic prophet Muhammad. However, Islam did
not hold up those Jews who practiced treachery against Muhammad as archetypes nor did it
portray treachery as the embodiment of Jews in all times and places. The Quran also attests
to Muhammad's amicable relations with Jews.[13]
While traditional religious supremacism played a role in the Islamic view of Jews, the same
attitude applied to Christians and other non-Muslims. Islamic tradition regards Jews as a
legitimate community of believers in God (called "people of the Book") legally entitled to
sufferance.[13]

The standard Quranic reference to Jews is the verse 2:61–62 (https://quran.com/2?startingV

erse=61) .[66] It says:

And ˹remember˺ when you said, “O Moses! We cannot endure the same meal
˹every day˺. So ˹just˺ call upon your Lord on our behalf, He will bring forth for us
some of what the earth produces of herbs, cucumbers, garlic, lentils, and
onions.” Moses scolded ˹them˺, “Do you exchange what is better for what is
worse? ˹You can˺ go down to any village and you will find what you have asked
for.” They were stricken with disgrace and misery, and they invited the
displeasure of Allah for rejecting Allah’s signs and unjustly killing the prophets.
This is ˹a fair reward˺ for their disobedience and violations. Indeed, the
believers, Jews, Christians, and Sabians—whoever ˹truly˺ believes in Allah and
the Last Day and does good will have their reward with their Lord. And there
will be no fear for them, nor will they grieve.

— Surah Al-Baqara 2:61–62

(https://quran.com/2?startin
gVerse=61)
However, due to the Quran's timely process of story-telling, some scholars argue that all
references to Jews or other groups within the Quran refers to only certain populations at a
certain point in history.[67] Also, the Quran praises some Jews in 5:69 (https://quran.com/5?st
artingVerse=69) : "Indeed, the believers, Jews, Sabians and Christians—whoever ˹truly˺
believes in Allah and the Last Day and does good, there will be no fear for them, nor will they
grieve."

The Quran gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, " ... but
God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers." (Quran 3:54 (https://quran.com/3?start
ingVerse=54) ) In the mainstream Muslim view, the crucifixion of Jesus was an illusion, and
thus the Jewish plots against him ended in failure.[68] According to Gerber, in numerous
verses (Quran 3:63 (https://quran.com/3?startingVerse=63) ; 3:71 (https://quran.com/3?star
tingVerse=71) ; 4:46 (https://quran.com/4?startingVerse=46) ; 4:160–161 (https://quran.co
m/4?startingVerse=160) ; 5:41–44 (https://quran.com/5?startingVerse=41) , 5:63–64 (http
s://quran.com/5?startingVerse=63) , 5:82 (https://quran.com/5?startingVerse=82) ; 6:92 (h
ttps://quran.com/6?startingVerse=92) )[69] the Quran accuses Jews of altering the
Scripture.[64] According to Gabriel Said Reynolds, "the Qur’ān makes 'the killing of the
prophets' one of the principal characteristics of the Jews";[70] although the Quran emphasizes
the killing of the Jewish prophets by the Israelites,[71] Reynolds remarks that none of them
were killed by the Israelites according to the Biblical account.[70]

If we look to Islamic tradition for the answer to this question we might come to
the conclusion that Muhammad's rivalry with the Jews of Medina led him to
develop increasingly hostile anti-Jewish polemic. This is the sort of conclusion
suggested by the Encyclopaedia of Islam article on Jews by Norman Stillman.
Speaking of the Medinan period of Muhammad's career, Stillman comments:
“During this fateful time, fraught with tension after the Hidjra, when
Muhammad encountered contradiction, ridicule and rejection from the Jewish
scholars in Medina, he came to adopt a radically more negative view of the
people of the Book who had received earlier scriptures”.[70]

— Gabriel Said Reynolds

But the Quran differentiates between "good and bad" Jews, adding to the idea that the Jewish
people or their religion itself are not the target of the story-telling process.[62] Rubin claims
the criticisms deal mainly "with the sinners among the Jews and the attack on them is
shaped according to models that one encounters in the New Testament."[65] The Quran also
speaks favorably of Jews. Though it also criticizes them for not being grateful for God's
blessing on them, the harsh criticisms are only addressed towards a particular group of
Jews, which is clear from the context of the Quranic verses, but translations usually confuse
this by using the general term "Jews". To judge Jews based on the deeds of some of their
ancestors is an anti-Quranic idea.[21]

Ali S. Asani suggests that the Quran endorses the establishment of religiously and culturally
plural societies and this endorsement has affected the treatment of religious minorities in
Muslim lands throughout history. He cites the endorsement of pluralism to explain why
violent forms of antisemitism generated in medieval and modern Europe, culminating in the
Holocaust, never occurred in regions under Muslim rule.[72]

Some verses of the Quran, notably 2:256 (https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=256) , preach

tolerance towards members of the Jewish faith.[12] According to Kramer, Jews are regarded
as members of a legitimate community of believers in God, "people of the Book", and
therefore legally entitled to sufferance.[13]

As one of the five pillars of Islam Muslims perform daily Salat prayers, which involves reciting
the first chapter of the Qur'an, the Al-Fatiha.[73] Most commentators[74] suggest that the
description, "those who earn Thine anger" in Al-Fatiha 1:7 (https://quran.com/1?startingVerse
=7) refers to the Jews. Israel Shrenzel, former chief analyst in the Arabic section of the
research division of the Shin Bet and a current teacher in Tel Aviv University’s department of
Arabic and Islamic studies wrote, "Given that there is contradiction between the content and
message of the two groups of verses – those hostile to Jews and those tolerant toward them
– the question is which group is to be adopted nowadays by the Muslim scholars and
masses. The more dominant view adheres to the first group".[75]

In 567, Khaybar was invaded and vacated of its Jewish inhabitants by the Ghassanid Arab
Christian king Al-Harith ibn Jabalah. He later freed to the captives upon his return to the
Levant. A brief account of the campaign is given by Ibn Qutaybah,[76] and potentially also
mentioned in the sixth-century Harran inscription.[77] See Irfan Shahid's Byzantium and the
Arabs in the Sixth Century for full details.[78]

In the 7th century, Khaybar was inhabited by Jews, who pioneered the cultivation of the
oasis[79] and made their living growing date palm trees, as well as through commerce and
craftsmanship, accumulating considerable wealth. Some objects found by the Muslims when
they entered Khaybar — a siege-engine, 20 bales of Yemenite cloth, and 500 cloaks — point
out to an intense trade carried out by the Jews. In the past some scholars attempted to
explain the siege-engine by suggesting that it was used for settling quarrels among the
families of the community. Today most academics believe it was stored in a depôt for future
sale, in the same way that swords, lances, shields, and other weaponry had been sold by the
Jews to Arabs. Equally, the cloth and the cloaks may have been intended for sale, as it was
unlikely that such a quantity of luxury goods were kept for the exclusive use of the Jews.

The oasis was divided into three regions: al-Natat, al-Shikk, and al-Katiba, probably separated
by natural divisions, such as the desert, lava drifts, and swamps. Each of these regions
contained several fortresses or redoubts containing homes, storehouses and stables. Each
fortress was occupied by a separate family and surrounded by cultivated fields and palm-
groves. In order to improve their defensive capabilities, the settlers raised the fortresses up
on hills or basalt rocks.

Jews continued to live in the oasis for several more years afterwards until they were finally
expelled by caliph Umar. The imposition of tribute upon the conquered Jews of the Khaybar
Fortress served as a precedent. Islamic law came to require exaction of tribute known as
jizya from dhimmis, i.e. non-Muslims under Muslim rule.

For many centuries, the oasis at Khaybar was an important caravan stopping place. The
center developed around a series of ancient dams built to hold run-off water from the rain.
Around the water catchments, date palms grew. Khaybar became an important date-
producing center.

The words "humility" and "humiliation" occur frequently in the Quran and later Muslim
literature in relation to Jews. According to Lewis, "This, in Islamic view, is their just
punishment for their past rebelliousness, and is manifested in their present impotence
between the mighty powers of Christendom and Islam." The standard Quranic reference to
Jews is verse 2:61 (https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=61) : "And remember ye said: "O
Moses! we cannot endure one kind of food (always); so beseech thy Lord for us to produce
for us of what the earth groweth, -its pot-herbs, and cucumbers, garlic, lentils, and onions." He
said: "Will ye exchange the better for the worse? Go ye down to any town, and ye shall find
what ye want!" They were covered with humiliation and misery; they drew on themselves the
wrath of Allah. This because they went on rejecting the Signs of Allah and slaying His
Messengers without just cause. This because they rebelled and went on transgressing."[80]

Two verses later we read: "And ˹remember˺ when We took a covenant from you and raised the
mountain above you ˹saying˺, “Hold firmly to that ˹Scripture˺ which We have given you and
observe its teachings so perhaps you will become mindful ˹of Allah˺.” Yet you turned away
afterwards. Had it not been for Allah's grace and mercy upon you, you would have certainly
been of the losers. You are already aware of those of you who broke the Sabbath. We said to
them, “Be disgraced apes!” So We made their fate an example to present and future
generations, and a lesson to the God-fearing."[Quran 2:63 (https://quran.com/2?startingVerse=63) ]

The Quran associates Jews with rejection of God's prophets including Jesus and
Muhammad, thus explaining their resistance to him personally. (Cf. Surah 2:87–91 (https://qu
ran.com/2?startingVerse=87) ; 5:59 (https://quran.com/5?startingVerse=59) , 61, 70, and
82.) It also asserts that Jews and Christians claim to be children of God (Surah 5:18 (https://
quran.com/5?startingVerse=18) ), and that only they will achieve salvation (Surah 2:111 (htt
ps://quran.com/2?startingVerse=111) ). According to the Quran, Jews blasphemously claim
that Ezra is the son of God, as Christians claim Jesus is, (Surah 9:30 (https://quran.com/9?st
artingVerse=30) ) and that God's hand is fettered (Surah 5:64 (https://quran.com/5?starting
Verse=64) – i.e., that they can freely defy God). Some of those who are Jews,[17] "pervert
words from their meanings", (Surah 4:44 (https://quran.com/4?startingVerse=44) ), and
because they have committed wrongdoing, God has "forbidden some good things that were
previously permitted them", thus explaining Jewish commandments regarding food, Sabbath
restrictions on work, and other rulings as a punishment from God (Surah 4:160 (https://quran.
com/4?startingVerse=160) ). They listen for the sake of mendacity (Surah 5:41 (https://qura
n.com/5?startingVerse=41) ), twisting the truth, and practice forbidden usury, and therefore
they will receive "a painful doom" (Surah 4:161 (https://quran.com/4?startingVerse=16
1) ).[17] The Quran gives credence to the Christian claim of Jews scheming against Jesus, "...
but God also schemed, and God is the best of schemers"(Surah 3:54 (https://quran.com/3?st
artingVerse=54) ). In the Muslim view, the crucifixion of Jesus was an illusion, and thus the
supposed Jewish plots against him ended in complete failure.[68] In numerous verses (Surah
3:63 (https://quran.com/3?startingVerse=63) , 3:71 (https://quran.com/3?startingVerse=7
1) ; 4:46 (https://quran.com/4?startingVerse=46) , 4:160–161 (https://quran.com/4?startin
gVerse=160) ; 5:41–44 (https://quran.com/5?startingVerse=41) , 5:63–64 (https://quran.c
om/5?startingVerse=63) , 5:82 (https://quran.com/5?startingVerse=82) ; 6:92 (https://qura
n.com/6?startingVerse=92) )[69] the Quran accuses Jews of deliberately obscuring and
perverting scripture.[64]

Influence of Western antisemitism

Martin Kramer argumenta que "a tradição islâmica não considerou os judeus que praticaram
traição contra Maomé como arquétipos - como a personificação dos judeus em todos os
tempos e lugares." [13] Assim, para que os muçulmanos abracem a crença de que os judeus
são os eternos “inimigos de Deus”, deve haver mais ação do que a tradição islâmica . [13] A
tradição islâmica, no entanto, fornece as fontes para o anti-semitismo islâmico e "não há
qualquer dúvida de que a tradição islâmica fornece fontes das quais o anti-semitismo
islâmico agora se alimenta." [13] O uso moderno do Alcorão para apoiar o anti-semitismo é,
no entanto, seletivo e distorcido. [13] O facto de muitos pensadores islâmicos terem passado
algum tempo no Ocidente resultou na absorção do anti-semitismo, diz ele. Especificamente,
Kramer acredita que os conceitos gêmeos do “judeu eterno” como inimigo de Deus e do
“arquiconspirador” são temas emprestados “do cânone do anti-semitismo religioso e racial
ocidental”. [13] Na sua opinião, o anti-semitismo islâmico é "[l]Como outro anti-semitismo", na
medida em que "tem as suas origens nas ideologias anti-racionais da Europa moderna, que
agora infectaram o mundo islâmico." [13]

Maomé e Judeus
Durante a vida de Maomé, os judeus viveram na Península Arábica , especialmente em
Medina e arredores . Sabe-se que Maomé teve uma esposa judia, Safiyya bint Huyayy , que
posteriormente se converteu ao Islão. [81] Safiyya, que anteriormente era esposa de Kenana
ibn al-Rabi , [82] foi escolhida por Maomé como sua noiva após a Batalha de Khaybar . [83]

According to Islamic sources, the Medinian Jews began to develop friendly alliances with
Muhammad's enemies in Mecca so they could overthrow him, despite the fact that they
promised not to overthrow him in the treaty of the Constitution of Medina[84][85][86] and
promised to take the side of him and his followers and fight against their enemies.[56][87][88][89]
Two Jewish tribes were expelled and the third one was wiped out.[12][90] The Banu Qaynuqa
was expelled for their hostility against the Muslims and for mocking them.[30][35][36][37][38] The
Banu Nadir was expelled after they attempted to assassinate Muhammad.[39][40] The last one,
the Banu Qurayza, was wiped out after the Battle of Trench where they attempted to ally
themselves with the invading Quraish.[47][48][49]

Samuel Rosenblatt opines these incidents were not part of policies directed exclusively
against Jews, and Muhammad was more severe with his pagan Arab kinsmen.[56][89] In
addition, Muhammad's conflict with Jews was considered of rather minor importance.
According to Lewis, since the clash of Judaism and Islam was resolved and ended with the
victory of the Muslims during Muhammad's lifetime, no unresolved theological dispute
among Muslims fueled antisemitism. There is also a difference between the Jewish denial of
the Christian message and the Jewish denial of the Muslim message, because Muhammad
never claimed to be the Messiah nor did he claim to be the Son of God, however, he is
referred to as "the Apostle of God."[91] The cause of Muhammad's death is disputable, though
the Hadiths tend to suggest he may have eventually succumbed to poison after having been
poisoned at Khaybar by one of the surviving Jewish widows.[92][93]

According to Rosenblatt, Muhammad's disputes with the neighboring Jewish tribes left no
marked traces on his immediate successors (known as Caliphs). The first Caliphs generally
based their treatment of Jews upon the Quranic verses which encourage tolerance of
them.[56] Classical commentators viewed Muhammad's struggle with the Jews as a minor
episode in his career, but the interpretation of it has shifted in modern times.[51]
Hadith
The hadith (non-Quranic accounts of Muhammad) use both Banu Israil and Yahud as terms
for Jews, the latter term becoming ever more frequent and appearing mostly in negative
context. For example, Jews were "cursed and changed into rats" in Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:54:524
(https://web.archive.org/web/19700101010101/http://cmje.usc.edu/religious-texts/hadith/b
ukhari/054-sbt.php#004.054.524) (see also Sahih Muslim, 42:7135 (https://web.archive.or
g/web/19700101010101/http://cmje.usc.edu/religious-texts/hadith/muslim/042-smt.php#0
42.7135) Sahih Muslim, 42:7136 (https://web.archive.org/web/19700101010101/http://cmj
e.usc.edu/religious-texts/hadith/muslim/042-smt.php#042.7136) ).

According to Norman Stillman:

Jews in Medina are singled out as "men whose malice and enmity
was aimed at the Apostle of God". The Yahūd in this literature
appear not only as malicious, but also deceitful, cowardly and
totally lacking resolve. However, they have none of the demonic
qualities attributed to them in mediaeval Christian literature,
neither is there anything comparable to the overwhelming
preoccupation with Jews and Judaism (except perhaps in the
narratives on Muhammad's encounters with Medinan Jewry) in
Muslim traditional literature. Except for a few notable exceptions
... the Jews in the Sira and the Maghazi are even heroic villains.
Their ignominy stands in marked contrast to Muslim heroism, and
in general, conforms to the Quranic image of "wretchedness and
baseness stamped upon them"[17]

According to Schweitzer and Perry, the hadith are "even more scathing (than the Quran) in
attacking the Jews":

They are debased, cursed, anathematized forever by God and so

can never repent and be forgiven; they are cheats and traitors;
defiant and stubborn; they killed the prophets; they are liars who
falsify scripture and take bribes; as infidels they are ritually
 unclean, a foul odor emanating from them – such is the image of
the Jew in classical Islam, degraded and malevolent.[11]

Gharqad tree hadith

Sahih Muslim and Sahih Bukhari record various recensions of a hadith where Muhammad
had prophesied that the Day of Judgment will not come until Muslims and Jews fight each
other. The Muslims will kill the Jews with such success that they will then hide behind stones
or both trees and stones according to various recensions, which will then cry out to a Muslim
that a Jew is hiding behind them and ask them to kill him. The only one not to do so will be
the Gharqad tree as it is the tree of the Jews. The following hadith which forms a part of
these Sahih Muslim hadiths has been quoted many times, and it became a part of the Hamas
militant organization's original 1988 charter:[94]

The Day of Judgement will not come about until Muslims fight the Jews, when
the Jew will hide behind stones and trees. The stones and trees will say O
Muslims, O Abdullah, there is a Jew behind me, come and kill him. Only the
Gharkad tree, (the Boxthorn tree) would not do that because it is one of the
trees of the Jews. (related by al-Bukhari and Muslim).Sahih Muslim, 41:6985 (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/19700101010101/http://cmje.usc.edu/religious-texts/ha
dith/muslim/041-smt.php#041.6985) , see also Sahih Muslim, 41:6981 (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/19700101010101/http://cmje.usc.edu/religious-texts/hadith/
muslim/041-smt.php#041.6981) , Sahih Muslim, 41:6982 (https://web.archive.or
g/web/19700101010101/http://cmje.usc.edu/religious-texts/hadith/muslim/041-s
mt.php#041.6982) , Sahih Muslim, 41:6983 (https://web.archive.org/web/19700
101010101/http://cmje.usc.edu/religious-texts/hadith/muslim/041-smt.php#041.6
983) , Sahih Muslim, 41:6984 (https://web.archive.org/web/19700101010101/htt
p://cmje.usc.edu/religious-texts/hadith/muslim/041-smt.php#041.6984) , Sahih
al-Bukhari, 4:56:791 (https://web.archive.org/web/19700101010101/http://cmje.u
sc.edu/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/056-sbt.php#004.056.791) ,(Sahih al-
Bukhari, 4:52:177 (https://web.archive.org/web/19700101010101/http://cmje.usc.
edu/religious-texts/hadith/bukhari/052-sbt.php#004.052.177) )
Different interpretations about the Gharqad tree mentioned in the Hadith exists. One of the
interpretations is that the Gharqad tree is an actual tree. Israelis have been alleged to plant
the tree around various locations for e.g., their settlements in the West Bank and Gaza,
around the Israel Museum and the Knesset. Other claims about the tree are that it grows
outside Jerusalem's Herod's Gate or that it is actually a bush that grows outside Jaffa Gate
which some Muslims believe is where Jesus will return to Earth and slay the Dajjal, following
the final battle between the Muslims and unbelievers which some believe will take place
directly below the Jaffa Gate and the Sultan's Pool. Another interpretation that exists is that
the mention of the Gharqad tree is symbolic and is in reference to all the forces of the world
believed to conspire with the Jews against Muslims.[95][96][97]

Pre-modern Islam
Jerome Chanes,[55] Pinson, Rosenblatt,[56] Mark R. Cohen, Norman Stillman, Uri Avnery, M.
Klien, and Bernard Lewis all argue that antisemitism did not emerge in the Muslim world until
modern times, because in their view, it was rare in pre-modern Islam. Lewis argues that there
is no sign that any deep-rooted feeling of emotional hostility that can be characterized as
antisemitism was directed against Jews or any other group. There were, however, clearly
negative attitudes, which were partially due to the "normal" feelings of a dominant group
towards subject groups. More specifically, the contempt consisted of Muslim contempt for
disbelievers.[98]

Literature
According to Lewis, the outstanding characteristic of the classical Islamic view of Jews is
their unimportance. The religious, philosophical, and literary Islamic writings tended to ignore
Jews and focused more on Christianity. Although the Jews received little praise or even
respect and were sometimes blamed for various misdeeds, there were no fears of Jewish
conspiracy and domination, nor any charges of diabolic evil, nor accusations of poisoning the
wells nor spreading the plague nor were they even accused of engaging in blood libels until
Ottomans adopted the concept from their Greek subjects in the 15th century.[99]
Poliakov writes that various examples of medieval Muslim literature portray Judaism as an
exemplary pinnacle of faith, and Israel being destined by this virtue. He quotes stories from
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights that portray Jews as pious, virtuous and devoted
to God, and seem to borrow plots from midrashim. However, Poliakov writes that treatment
of Jews in Muslim literature varies, and the tales are meant for pure entertainment, with no
didactic aim.[100]

After Ibn Nagraela, a Jew, attacked the Quran by alleging various contradictions in it, Ibn
Hazm, a Moor, criticized him furiously. Ibn Hazm wrote that Ibn Nagraela was "filled with
hatred" and "conceited in his vile soul".[101]

According to Schweitzer and Perry, some literature during the 10th and 11th century "made
Jews out to be untrustworthy, treacherous oppressors, and exploiters of Muslims". This
propaganda sometimes even resulted in outbreaks of violence against the Jews. An 11th-
century Moorish poem describes Jews as "a criminal people" and blames them for causing
social decay, betraying Muslims and poisoning food and water.[102]

The massacre of the Banu Qurayza.

Detail from miniature painting The
Prophet, Ali, and the Companions at
the Massacre of the Prisoners of the
Jewish Tribe of Beni Qurayzah,
illustration of a 19th-century text by
Muhammad Rafi Bazil.

Martin Kramer writes that in Islamic tradition, in striking contrast with the Christian concept
of the eternal Jew, the contemporary Jews were not presented as archetypes—as the
embodiment of Jews in all times and places.[13]
Life under Muslim rule
Jews, Christians, Sabians, and Zoroastrians living under early and medieval Muslim rule were
known as "People of the Book" to Muslims and held the status of dhimmi, a status that was
later also extended to other non-Muslims like Sikhs, Hindus, Jains, and Buddhists.[103][104][105]
As dhimmi they were to be tolerated, and entitled to the protection and resources of the
Ummah, or Muslim community. In return, they had to pay a tax known as the jizya in
accordance with the Quran.[106] Lewis and Poliakov argue that Jewish communities enjoyed
toleration and limited rights as long as they accepted Muslim superiority. These rights were
legally established and enforced.[62][107] The restrictions on dhimmi included: payment of
higher taxes; at some locations, being forced to wear clothing or some other insignia
distinguishing them from Muslims; sometimes barred from holding public office, bearing
arms or riding a horse; disqualified as witnesses in litigation involving Muslims; at some
locations and times, dhimmi were prevented from repairing existing or erecting new places of
worship. Proselytizing on behalf of any faith but Islam was barred.

Dhimmi were subjected to a number of restrictions, the application and severity of which
varied with time and place. Restrictions included residency in segregated quarters, obligation
to wear distinctive clothing such as the Yellow badge,[108][Note 1] public subservience to
Muslims, prohibitions against proselytizing and against marrying Muslim women, and limited
access to the legal system (the testimony of a dhimmi did not count if contradicted by that of
a Muslim). Dhimmi had to pay a special poll tax (the jizya), which exempted them from
military service, and also from payment of the zakat alms tax required of Muslims. In return,
dhimmi were granted limited rights, including a degree of tolerance, community autonomy in
personal matters, and protection from being killed outright. Jewish communities, like
Christian ones, were typically constituted as semi-autonomous entities managed by their own
laws and leadership, who carried the responsibility for the community towards the Muslim
rulers.[110]

By medieval standards, conditions for Jews under Islam were generally more formalized and
better than those of Jews in Christian lands, in part due to the sharing of minority status with
Christians in these lands. There is evidence for this claim in that the status of Jews in lands
with no Christian minority was usually worse than their status in lands with one. For example,
there were numerous incidents of massacres and ethnic cleansing of Jews in North
Africa,[111] especially in Morocco, Libya, and Algeria where eventually Jews were forced to live
in ghettos.[112] Decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were enacted in the Middle
Ages in Egypt, Syria, Iraq, and Yemen.[113] At certain times in Yemen, Morocco, and Baghdad,
Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face the death penalty.[114]

Later additions to the code included prohibitions on adopting Arab names, studying the
Quran, and selling alcoholic beverages.[11] Abdul Aziz Said writes that the Islamic concept of
dhimmi, when applied, allowed other cultures to flourish and prevented the general rise of
antisemitism.[115] The situation where Jews both enjoyed cultural and economic prosperity at
times, but were widely persecuted at other times, was summarised by G. E. Von Grunebaum:

It would not be difficult to put together the names of a very sizable

number of Jewish subjects or citizens of the Islamic area who have
attained to high rank, to power, to great financial influence, to
significant and recognized intellectual attainment; and the same
could be done for Christians. But it would again not be difficult to
compile a lengthy list of persecutions, arbitrary confiscations,
attempted forced conversions, or pogroms.[116]

Schweitzer and Perry give as examples of early Muslim antisemitism: 9th-century

"persecution and outbreaks of violence"; 10th- and 11th-century antisemitic propaganda that
"made Jews out to be untrustworthy, treacherous oppressors, and exploiters of Muslims".
This propaganda "inspired outbreaks of violence and caused many casualties in Egypt". An
11th-century Moorish poem describes Jews as "a criminal people" and alleges that "society is
nearing collapse on account of Jewish wealth and domination, their exploitation and betrayal
of Muslims; that Jews worship the devil, physicians poison their patients, and Jews poison
food and water as required by Judaism, and so on."[102]

Jews under Muslim rule rarely faced martyrdom, exile, or forced conversion to Islam, and they
were fairly free to choose their residence and profession. Their freedom and economic
condition varied from time to time and place to place.[117][118] Forced conversions occurred
mostly in the Maghreb, especially under the Almohads, a militant dynasty with messianic
claims, as well as in Persia, where Shia Muslims were generally less tolerant than their Sunni
counterparts.[119] Notable examples of the cases where the choice of residence was taken
away from them includes confining Jews to walled quarters (mellah) in Morocco beginning
from the 15th century and especially since the early 19th century.[120]
Egypt and Iraq
The caliphs of Fatimid dynasty in Egypt were known to be Judeophiles, according to Leon
Poliakov. They paid regularly to support the Jewish institutions (such as the rabbinical
academy of Jerusalem). A significant number of their ministers and counselors were Jews.
The Abbasids too similarly were respectful and tolerant towards the Jews under their rule.
Benjamin of Tudela, a famous 12th-century Jewish explorer, described the Caliph al-Abbasi
as a "great king and kind unto Israel". Benjamin also further goes on to describe about al-
Abassi that "many belonging to the people of Israel are his attendants, he knows all
languages and is well-versed in the Law of Israel. He reads and writes the holy language
[Hebrew]." He further mentions Muslims and Jews being involved in common devotions, such
as visiting the grave of Ezekiel, whom both religions regard as a prophet.[121][122]

Iberian Peninsula
With the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, Spanish Judaism flourished for several
centuries. Thus, what some refer to as the "golden age" for Jews began. During this period
the Muslims of Spain tolerated other religions, including Judaism, and created a heterodox
society.[123]

Muslim relations with Jews in Spain were not always peaceful, however. The eleventh century
saw Muslim pogroms against Jews in Spain; those occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in
Granada in 1066.[102] In the 1066 Granada massacre, a Muslim mob crucified the Jewish
vizier Joseph ibn Naghrela and massacred about 4,000 Jews.[124] The Muslim grievance
involved was that some Jews had become wealthy, and others had advanced to positions of
power.[102]

The Almohad dynasty, which seized rule over Muslim Iberia in the 12th century, offered
Christians and Jews the choice of conversion or expulsion; in 1165, one of their rulers
ordered that all Jews in the country convert on pain of death (forcing the Jewish rabbi,
theologian, philosopher, and physician Maimonides to feign conversion to Islam before
fleeing the country). In Egypt, Maimonides resumed practicing Judaism openly only to be
accused of apostasy. He was saved from death by Saladin's chief administrator, who held
that conversion under coercion is invalid.[125]

During his wanderings, Maimonides also wrote The Yemen Epistle, a famous letter to the
Jews of Yemen, who were then experiencing severe persecution at the hands of their Muslim
rulers. In it, Maimonides describes his assessment of the treatment of the Jews at the hands
of Muslims:

... on account of our sins God has cast us into the midst of this
people, the nation of Ishmael [that is, Muslims], who persecute us
severely, and who devise ways to harm us and to debase us.... No
nation has ever done more harm to Israel. None has matched it in
debasing and humiliating us. None has been able to reduce us as
they have.... We have borne their imposed degradation, their lies,
their absurdities, which are beyond human power to bear.... We
have done as our sages of blessed memory have instructed us,
bearing the lies and absurdities of Ishmael.... In spite of all this, we
are not spared from the ferocity of their wickedness and their
outbursts at any time. On the contrary, the more we suffer and
choose to conciliate them, the more they choose to act belligerently
toward us.[126]

Mark Cohen quotes Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson, a specialist in medieval European Jewish history,
who cautioned that Maimonides' condemnation of Islam should be understood "in the
context of the harsh persecutions of the 12th century and that furthermore one may say that
he was insufficiently aware of the status of the Jews in Christian lands, or did not pay
attention to this, when he wrote the letter". Cohen continues by quoting Ben-Sasson, who
argues that Jews generally had a better legal and security situation in Muslim countries than
Jews had in Christendom.[127]
Ottoman Empire
While some Muslim states declined, the Ottoman Empire rose as the "greatest Muslim state
in history". As long as the empire flourished, the Jews did as well, according to Schweitzer
and Perry. In contrast with their treatment of Christians, the Ottomans were more tolerant of
Jews and promoted their economic development. The Jews flourished as great merchants,
financiers, government officials, traders and artisans.[128] The Ottomans also allowed some
Jewish immigration to what was then referred to as Syria, which allowed for Zionists to
establish permanent settlements in the 1880s.

Contrast with Christian Europe

Lewis states that in contrast with Christian antisemitism, the attitude of Muslims towards
non-Muslims is not one of hate, fear, or envy, but rather contempt. This contempt is
expressed in various ways, such as an abundance of polemic literature which attacks the
Christians and occasionally, it also attacks the Jews. "The negative attributes ascribed to the
subject religions and their followers are usually expressed in religious and social terms, very
rarely are they expressed in ethnic or racial terms, though this sometimes does occur." The
language of abuse is often quite strong. The conventional epithets are apes for Jews, and
pigs for Christians. Lewis continues with several examples of regulations which symbolize
the inferiority that non-Muslims who lived under Muslim rule had to live with, such as different
formulae of greetings when addressing Jews and Christians than when addressing Muslims
(both in conversations or correspondences), and forbidding Jews and Christians from
choosing names that Muslims chose for their children during Ottoman rule.[129]

Schweitzer and Perry argue that there are two general views of the status of Jews under
Islam, the traditional "golden age" and the revisionist "persecution and pogrom"
interpretations. The former was first promulgated by Jewish historians in the 19th century as
a rebuke of the Christian treatment of Jews, and it was taken up by Arab Muslims after 1948
as "an Arab-Islamist weapon in what is primarily an ideological and political struggle against
Israel". The revisionists argue that this idealized view ignores "a catalog of lesser-known
hatred and massacres".[102] Mark Cohen concurs with this view, arguing that the "myth of an
interfaith utopia" went unchallenged until it was adopted by Arabs as a "propaganda weapon
against Zionism",[130] and that this "Arab polemical exploitation" was met with the "counter-
myth" of the "neo-lachrymose conception of Jewish-Arab history",[131] which also "cannot be
maintained in the light of historical reality".[132][133]

Antisemitism in the Islamic

Middle East
Antisemitism has increased in the Muslim world during modern times.[134] While Bernard
Lewis and Uri Avnery date the increase in antisemitism to the establishment of Israel,[134] M.
Klein suggests that antisemitism could have been present in the mid-19th century.[135]

Scholars point to European influences, including those of the Nazis (see below), and the
establishment of Israel as the root causes of antisemitism.[134][135] Norman Stillman explains
that increased European commercial, missionary and imperialist activities during the 19th
and 20th centuries brought antisemitic ideas to the Muslim world. Initially these prejudices
only found a reception among Arab Christians because they were too foreign to gain any
widespread acceptance among Muslims. However, with the rise of the Arab–Israeli conflict,
European antisemitism began to gain acceptance in modern literature.[17]

17th century
One of the most prominent acts of Islamic antisemitism took place in Yemen between 1679–
1680, in an event known as the Mawza Exile. During this event the Jews living in nearly all
cities and towns throughout Yemen were banished by decree of the Imam of Yemen, Al-
Mahdi Ahmad.[136]
19th century
According to Mark Cohen, Arab antisemitism in the modern world arose relatively recently, in
the 19th century, against the backdrop of conflicting Jewish and Arab nationalisms, and it
was primarily imported into the Arab world by nationalistically minded Christian Arabs (and
only subsequently was it "Islamised").[137]

"Execution of a Moroccan Jewess

(Sol Hachuel)", painting by Alfred
Dehodencq

The Damascus affair occurred in 1840, when an Italian monk and his servant disappeared in
Damascus. Immediately following it, a charge of ritual murder was brought against a large
number of Jews in the city. All of them were found guilty. The consuls of Britain, France and
Austria protested against the persecution to the Ottoman authorities, and Christians, Muslims
and Jews all played a great role in this affair.[138]

A massacre of Jews also occurred in Baghdad in 1828.[139] There was another massacre in
Barfurush in 1867.[139]

In 1839, in the eastern Persian city of Meshed, a mob burst into the Jewish Quarter, burned
the synagogue, and destroyed the Torah scrolls. This is known as the Allahdad incident. It
was only by forcible conversion that a massacre was averted.[140]

Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-
throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a
little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them]
to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to
the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit;
it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."[139]

20th century

Origins
The origins of modern antisemitic trends in the Islamic World can be traced back to the ideas
of the Syrian-Egyptian Salafist theologian Muhammad Rashid Rida (1865–1935 CE), who
turned highly antisemitic after the British imperial designs on the Arab World after World War
1 and their co-operation with Zionists to further British objectives. The 1988 Hamas Charter,
and particularly its Articles 7 and 22, represented a condensed version of the pan-Islamist
anti-Jewish ideas cultivated by Rashid Rida. Rida believed that the international Jewry
contributed to Germany's defeat in the First World War; in exchange for Britain's promise to
grant them Palestine. Furthermore; he asserted that they controlled Western Banking System
and Capitalist system, created Communism in Eastern Europe and led Freemasonry to plot
against World Nations. He also drew from Islamic traditions that displayed hostility to Jews
and popularised them; rendering the conflict with the Zionists an apocalyptic religious
dimension. Rida would persistently cite hadiths regarding the End Times Jewish-Muslim
conflicts; some of which would be included in the future Charter of Hamas, such as:[141][142]

The Jews will fight you and you will be led to dominate them until
the rock cries out: "O Muslim! There is a Jew hiding behind me, kill
him!"

Rashid Rida condemned the Jews for their arrogance towards the Prophets and arraigned
them for abandoning religious values for materialism, all which made them recipients of
Divine Wrath; which led to their downfall. He asserted that Allah decreed Muslims to
construct Masjid al-Aqsa in the ruins of the Temple in Jerusalem and favoured Muslims to
rule the Holy Lands by implementing shari'a (Islamic law) and upholding Tawhid. Rashid
Rida's anti-Zionism was part of his wider campaign as a towering figure in the Pan-Islamist
movement and would immensely impact subsequent Islamist, Jihadist and anti-colonial
activists.[143] He also severely rebuked Christian Zionists, writing:

"It was astonishing that the intrigues of the Jews seduced many of the
Christians of Europe and America by convincing them that believing in the Bible
requires helping them to return to Palestine and the possession of Jerusalem …
etc., as a confirmation to the prophets and a realization of the appearance of
Jesus regarding whose person and deeds the two groups [Jewish and Christian]
differed [in their interpretation]. The Jews refer to their Messiah as the earthly
king who will come to restore the kingdom of Solomon, whereas the Christians
refer to Jesus, son of Mary, who will return in His kingdom to judge the world."

— Muhammad Rashid Rida,

in Al-Manar 30/7 pg. 555,
[143]

Early massacres
The massacres of Jews in Muslim countries continued into the 20th century. The Jewish
quarter in Fez was almost destroyed by a Muslim mob in 1912.[139] There were Nazi-inspired
pogroms in Algeria in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in Iraq and Libya in the
1940s (see Farhud). Pro-Nazi Muslims slaughtered dozens of Jews in Baghdad in 1941.[139]

American academic Bernard Lewis and others have charged that standard antisemitic
themes have become commonplace in the publications of Arab Islamist movements such as
Hezbollah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of
Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Refah Partisi, the Turkish Islamic
party whose head served as prime minister in 1996–97."[134] Lewis has also written that the
language of abuse is often quite strong, arguing that the conventional epithets for Jews and
Christians are apes and pigs, respectively.[144]
On March 1, 1994, Rashid Baz, an American Muslim living in Brooklyn, New York, shot at a van
carrying Hassidic Jewish students over the Brooklyn Bridge. The students were returning to
Brooklyn after visiting their ailing leader, the Lubavitcher Rebbe, who suffered a stroke two
years earlier. Ari Halberstam, one of the students, was killed. Others were wounded. Baz was
quoted in his confession in 2007 as saying, "I only shot them because they were Jewish."

Relations between Nazi Germany and

Muslim countries

Burning synagogue in Aleppo in 1947

Some Arabs found common cause with Nazi Germany against colonial regimes in the Middle
East. The influence of the Nazis grew in the Arab world during the 1930s.[145] Egypt, Syria, and
Iran are claimed to have harbored Nazi war criminals, though they have rejected this
charge.[146] With the recruiting help of the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin al-Husseini, the
13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar, mostly formed by Muslims in 1943, was
the first non-Germanic SS division.[147]
Amin al-Husseini

Amin al-Husseini, Grand Mufti of

Jerusalem and the chairman of the
Supreme Islamic Council meeting with
Adolf Hitler (December 1941)

November 1943: al-Husseini greeting

Bosnian Muslim Waffen-SS volunteers
with a Nazi salute.[148] At left is SS
General Karl-Gustav Sauberzweig.

Bosnian Muslim soldiers of the SS

"Handschar" reading a Nazi propaganda
book, Islam und Judentum, in Nazi-
occupied Southern France
(Bundesarchiv, June 1943)

The Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Amin al-Husseini, a pupil of Muhammad Rashid Rida,
attempted to create an alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in order to obstruct the
creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine, and hinder any emigration by Jewish refugees
from the Holocaust there. Historians debate to what extent al-Husseini's fierce opposition to
Zionism was based on Arab nationalism or antisemitism, or a combination of the two.[149]

On March 31, 1933, within weeks of Hitler's rise to power in Germany, al-Husseini sent a
telegram to Berlin addressed to the German Consul-General in the British Mandate of
Palestine saying that Muslims in Palestine and elsewhere looked forward to spreading their
ideology in the Middle East. Al-Husseini secretly met the German Consul-General near the
Dead Sea in 1933 and expressed his approval of the anti-Jewish boycott in Germany and
asked him not to send any Jews to Palestine. Later that year, the Mufti's assistants
approached Wolff, seeking his help in establishing an Arab National Socialist party in
Palestine. Reports reaching the foreign offices in Berlin showed high levels of Arab
admiration of Hitler.[150]

Al-Husseini met the German Foreign Minister, Joachim von Ribbentrop on November 20,
1941, and was officially received by Hitler on November 30, 1941, in Berlin.[151] He asked
Hitler for a public declaration that "recognized and sympathized with the Arab struggles for
independence and liberation, and that it would support the elimination of a national Jewish
homeland", and he submitted to the German government a draft of such a declaration,
containing the clause.[152]

Al-Husseini aided the Axis cause in the Middle East by issuing a fatwa for a holy war against
Britain in May 1941. The Mufti's proclamation against Britain was declared in Iraq, where he
was instrumental in the outbreak of the Anglo-Iraqi War of 1941.[153] During the war, the Mufti
repeatedly made requests to "the German government to bomb Tel Aviv".[154]

Al-Husseini was involved in the organization and recruitment of Bosnian Muslims into several
divisions of the Waffen SS and other units.[155] and also blessed sabotage teams trained by
Germans before they were dispatched to Palestine, Iraq, and Transjordan.[156]

Iraq
In March 1940, General Rashid Ali, a nationalist Iraqi officer forced the pro-British Iraqi Prime
Minister Nuri Said Pasha, to resign.[157] In May, he declared jihad against Great Britain,
effectively issued a declaration of war. Forty days later, British troops had defeated his forces
and occupied the country. The 1941 Iraqi coup d'état occurred on April 3, 1941, when the
regime of the Regent 'Abd al-Ilah was overthrown, and Rashid Ali was installed as Prime
Minister.[158]
In 1941, following Rashid Ali's pro-Axis coup, riots known as the Farhud broke out in Baghdad
in which approximately 180 Jews were killed and about 240 were wounded, 586 Jewish-
owned businesses were looted and 99 Jewish houses were destroyed.[159]

Mass grave of victims of the Farhud,

1941

Iraq initially forbade the emigration of its Jews after the 1948 war on the grounds that
allowing them to go to Israel would strengthen that state, but they were allowed to emigrate
again after 1950, if they agreed to forgo their assets.[160]

The Ottoman Empire, Turkey, Iraq

and Kurdistan

Forced migrations of Jews and Assyrian

Christians between 1842 and the 21st
century
In his recent PhD thesis[161] and his recent book[162] the Israeli scholar Mordechai Zaken
discussed the history of the Assyrian Christians of Turkey and Iraq (in the Kurdish vicinity)
during the last 90 years, from 1843 onwards. In his studies Zaken outlines three major
eruptions that took place between 1843 and 1933 during which the Assyrian Christians lost
their land and hegemony in their habitat in the Hakkārī (or Julamerk) region in southeastern
Turkey and became refugees in other lands, notably Iran and Iraq, and they ultimately
established exiled communities in European and western countries (the US, Canada,
Australia, New-Zealand, Sweden, France, to mention some of these countries). Mordechai
Zaken wrote this study from an analytical and comparative point of view, comparing the
Assyrian Christians' experience with the experience of the Kurdish Jews who had been
dwelling in Kurdistan for two thousand years or so, but were forced to emigrate to Israel in
the early 1950s. The Jews of Kurdistan were forced to leave as a result of the Arab-Israeli
war, as a result of increasing hostility and acts of violence which were committed against
Jews in Iraqi and Kurdish towns and villages, and as a result of a new situation that
developed during the 1940s in Iraq and Kurdistan in which the ability of Jews to live in relative
comfort and tolerance (that was disrupted from time to time prior to that period) with their
Arab and Muslim neighbors, as they had done for many years, practically came to an end. In
the end, the Jews of Kurdistan had to leave their Kurdish habitat en masse and migrate into
Israel. The Assyrian Christians, on the other hand, suffered a similar fate but they migrated in
stages following each political crisis with the regime in whose boundaries they lived or
following each conflict with their Muslim, Turkish, or Arab neighbors, or following the
departure or expulsion of their patriarch Mar Shimon in 1933, first to Cyprus and then to the
United States. Consequently, although there is still a small and fragile community of
Assyrians in Iraq, today, millions of Assyrian Christians live in exiled and prosperous
communities in the west.[163]

Iran
Although Iran was officially neutral during the Second World War, Reza Shah sympathized
with Nazi Germany, making the Jewish community fearful of possible persecutions.[164]
Although these fears did not materialise, anti-Jewish articles were published in the Iranian
media. Following the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran in 1941, Reza Shah was deposed and
replaced by his son Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

However, Kaveh Farrokh argues that there is a misconception that antisemitism was
widespread in Iran with Reza Shah in power.[165] After the Fall of France during the time that
Reza Shah was still regent, the head of the Iranian legation in Paris, Abdol Hossein Sardari,
used his influence with Nazi contacts to gain exemptions from Nazi race laws for an
estimated 2000 Iranian Jews living in Paris at the time. The legation also issued Iranian travel
documents for the Iranian Jews and their non-Iranian family members to facilitate travel
through Nazi occupied Europe to safety.[166]
Egypt
In Egypt, Ahmad Husayn founded the Young Egypt Party in 1933. He immediately expressed
his sympathy for Nazi Germany to the German ambassador to Egypt. Husayn sent a
delegation to the Nuremberg rally and returned with enthusiasm. After the Sudeten Crisis, the
party's leaders denounced Germany for aggression against small nations, but they retained
elements which were similar to those of Nazism or Fascism, e.g. salutes, torchlight parades,
leader worship, and antisemitism and racism. The party's impact before 1939 was minimal,
and its espionage efforts were of little value to the Germans.[167]

During World War II, Cairo was a haven for agents and spies throughout the war. Egyptian
nationalists were active, with many Egyptians, including Farouk of Egypt and prime minister
Ali Mahir Pasha, all of whom hoped for an Axis victory, and the complete severance of
Egyptian ties with Britain.[168]

Islamist and Jihadist groups

Antisemitism, alongside anti-Western sentiment, anti-Israeli sentiment, rejection of
democracy, and conspiracy theories involving the Jews, is widespread both within Islamism
and Jihadism.[173] Many militant Islamist and Jihadist individuals, groups, and organizations
have openly expressed both antisemitic and anti-Zionist views.[174] However, even outside
Islamist circles, anti-Jewish and anti-Zionist conspiracism are widespread phenomena in
both the Arab world and the Middle East,[71][175] and it has seen an extraordinary proliferation
since the beginning of the Internet Era.[175]

Lashkar-e-Toiba's propaganda arm has declared that the Jews are the "Enemies of Islam",
and it has also declared that Israel is the "Enemy of Pakistan".[176]

Hamas has widely been described as an antisemitic organization. It has issued antisemitic
leaflets, and its writings and manifestos rely upon antisemitic documents (the Protocols of
the Elders of Zion, and other works of European Christian literature), exhibiting antisemitic
themes.[177] In 1998, Esther Webman of the Project for the Study of Anti-Semitism at Tel Aviv
University wrote that although the above is true, antisemitism was not the main tenet of
Hamas ideology.[178]

In an editorial in The Guardian in January 2006, Khaled Meshaal, the chief of Hamas's political
bureau denied antisemitism, on Hamas' part, and he said that the nature of Israeli–
Palestinian conflict was not religious but political. He also said that Hamas has "no problem
with Jews who have not attacked us".[179]

The tone and casting of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict as part of an eternal struggle between
Muslim and Jews by the Hamas Covenant had become an obstacle for the movement to be
able to take part in diplomatic forums involving Western nations.[180] The movement came
under pressure to update its founding charter issued in 1988 which called for Israel's
destruction and advocated violent means for achieving a Palestinian state.[181] A new charter
issued in May 2014 stated that the group does not seek war with the Jewish people but only
against Zionism which it holds responsible for "occupation of Palestine",[182] while terming
Israel as the "Zionist enemy".[181] It also accepted a Palestinian state within the Green Line as
transitional but also advocated "liberation of all of Palestine".[183][184]

Amal Saad-Ghorayeb, a Shiite scholar and assistant professor at the Lebanese American
University has written that Hezbollah is not anti-Zionist, but rather anti-Jewish. She quoted
Hassan Nasrallah as saying: "If we searched the entire world for a person more cowardly,
despicable, weak and feeble in psyche, mind, ideology and religion, we would not find anyone
like the Jew. Notice, I do not say the Israeli."[185] Regarding the official public stance of
Hezbollah as a whole, she said that while Hezbollah, "tries to mask its anti-Judaism for
public-relations reasons ... a study of its language, spoken and written, reveals an underlying
truth." In her book Hezbollah: Politics & Religion, she argues that Hezbollah "believes that
Jews, by the nature of Judaism, possess fatal character flaws". Saad-Ghorayeb also said,
"Hezbollah's Quranic reading of Jewish history has led its leaders to believe that Jewish
theology is evil."[185]

21st century
France is home to Europe's largest population of Muslims—about 6 million—as well as the
continent's largest community of Jews, about 600,000. Particularly during the beginning of
the second intifada, Muslims attacked synagogues throughout France in solidarity with those
in Palestine. Many Jews protested, and the acts were declared "Muslim antisemitism". By
2007, however, attacks were much less severe, and an "all-clear" was perceived.[186] However,
during the 2008–2009 Gaza War, tensions between the two communities increased and there
were several dozen reported instances of Muslim violence such as arson and assaults.
French Jewish leaders complained of "a diffuse kind of anti-Semitism becoming entrenched
in the Muslim community" while Muslim leaders responded that the issues were "political
rather than religious" and that Muslim anger is "not against Jews, it's against Israel".[187]

On July 28, 2006, at around 4:00 p.m. Pacific Time, the Seattle Jewish Federation shooting
occurred when Naveed Afzal Haq shot six women, one fatally, at the Jewish Federation of
Greater Seattle building in the Belltown neighborhood of Seattle, Washington, United States.
He shouted, "I'm a Muslim American; I'm angry at Israel" before he began his shooting spree.
Police have classified the shooting as a hate crime based on what Haq said during a 9-1-1
call.[188]

In 2012, the Palestinian Authority Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Muhammad Ahmad Hussein,
citing Hadiths, called for the killing of all Jews.[189][190][191]

In Egypt, Dar al-Fadhilah published a translation of Henry Ford's antisemitic treatise, The
International Jew, complete with distinctly antisemitic imagery on the cover.[192]

In 2014 the Anti-Defamation League published a global survey of worldwide antisemitic

attitudes, reporting that in the Middle East, 74% of adults agreed with a majority of the
survey's eleven antisemitic propositions, including that "Jews have too much power in
international financial markets" and that "Jews are responsible for most of the world's
wars."[193][194]

Antisemitic comments by Muslim

leaders and scholars

Saudi school books

A May 2006 study of Saudi Arabia's revised schoolbook curriculum discovered that the eighth
grade books included the following statements,[195]

They are the people of the Sabbath, whose young people God turned into apes,
and whose old people God turned into swine to punish them. As cited in Ibn
Abbas: The apes are Jews, the keepers of the Sabbath; while the swine are the
Christian infidels of the communion of Jesus.
 Some of the people of the Sabbath were punished by being turned into apes and
swine. Some of them were made to worship the devil, and not God, through
consecration, sacrifice, prayer, appeals for help, and other types of worship.
Some of the Jews worship the devil. Likewise, some members of this nation
worship devil, and not God.

Heads of American publishing houses have issued a statement asking the Saudi government
to delete the "hate".[196]

According to the Anti-Defamation League's November 2018 report, Saudi government-

published school textbooks for the 2018–19 academic year promoting incitement to hatred
or violence against Jews.[197] The Antisemitic material remains in the Saudi text books, as of
November 2019.[198]

Reconciliation efforts
In Western countries, some Islamic groups and individual Muslims have made efforts to
reconcile with the Jewish community through dialogue and to oppose antisemitism. For
instance, in Britain there is the group Muslims Against Anti-Semitism.[199][200] Islamic studies
scholar Tariq Ramadan has been outspoken against antisemitism, stating: "In the name of
their faith and conscience, Muslims must take a clear position so that a pernicious
atmosphere does not take hold in the Western countries. Nothing in Islam can legitimize
xenophobia or the rejection of a human being due to his/her religious creed or ethnicity. One
must say unequivocally, with force, that anti-Semitism is unacceptable and indefensible."[201]
Mohammad Khatami, former president of Iran, declared antisemitism to be a "Western
phenomena", having no precedents in Islam and stating the Muslims and Jews had lived
harmoniously in the past. An Iranian newspaper stated that there has been hatred and
hostility in history, but conceded that one must distinguish Jews from Zionists.[134]

In North America, the Council on American-Islamic Relations has spoken against some
antisemitic violence, such as the 2006 Seattle Jewish Federation shooting.[202] According to
the Anti-Defamation League, CAIR has also been affiliated with antisemitic organizations
such as Hamas and Hizbollah.[203]

The Saudi mufti, Shaykh Abd al-Aziz Bin Baz, gave a fatwa ruling that negotiating peace with
Israel is permissible, as is the cist to Jerusalem by Muslims. He specifically said:
 The Prophet made absolute peace with the Jews of Medina when he went there
as an immigrant. That did not entail any love for them or amiability with them.
But the Prophet dealt with them, buying from them, talking to them, calling
them to God and Islam. When he died, his shield was mortgaged to a Jew, for he
had mortgaged it to buy food for his family.

Martin Kramer considers that as "an explicit endorsement of normal relations with Jews".[13]

Trends
According to Norman Stillman, Antisemitism in the Muslim world increased greatly for more
than two decades following 1948 but "peaked by the 1970s, and declined somewhat as the
slow process of rapprochement between the Arab world and the state of Israel evolved in the
1980s and 1990s".[17] Johannes J. G. Jansen believes that antisemitism will have no future in
the Arab world in the long run. In his view, like other imports from the Western World,
antisemitism is unable to establish itself in the private lives of Muslims.[204] In 2004 Khaleel
Mohammed said, "Anti-Semitism has become an entrenched tenet of Muslim theology, taught
to 95 per cent of the religion's adherents in the Islamic world," a claim immediately dismissed
as false and racist by Muslim leaders, who accused Mohammed of destroying efforts at
relationship building between Jews and Muslims.[205][206] In 2010, Moshe Ma'oz, Professor
Emeritus of Islamic and Middle Eastern Studies at The Hebrew University, edited a book
questioning the common perception Islam is antisemitic or anti-Israel, and maintaining that
most Arab regimes and most leading Muslim clerics have a pragmatic attitude to Israel.[207]

According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for
the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by Iran or by Hamas,
Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or the Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of
genocidal antisemitism.[208]

According to the Pew Global Attitudes Project released on August 14, 2005, high percentages
of the populations of six Muslim-majority countries have negative views of Jews. To a
questionnaire asking respondents to give their views of members of various religions along a
spectrum from "very favorable" to "very unfavorable", 60% of Turks, 74% of Pakistanis, 76% of
Indonesians, 88% of Moroccans, 99% of Lebanese Muslims and 100% of Jordanians checked
either "somewhat unfavorable" or "very unfavorable" for Jews.[209][210]
Islamic antisemitism in
Europe
A 2017 report by the University of Oslo Center for Research on Extremism tentatively
suggests that "individuals of Muslim background stand out among perpetrators of
antisemitic violence in Western Europe".[211]

The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, antisemitic incidents, from verbal abuse to violence, are reported,
allegedly connected with Islamic youth, mostly boys from Moroccan descent. A phrase made
popular during football matches against the so-called Jewish football club Ajax has been
adopted by Muslim youth and is frequently heard at pro-Palestinian demonstrations: "Hamas,
Hamas, Jews to the gas!" According to the Centre for Information and Documentation on
Israel, a pro-Israel lobby group in the Netherlands, in 2009, the number of antisemitic
incidents in Amsterdam, the city that is home to most of the approximately 40,000 Dutch
Jews, was said to be doubled compared to 2008.[212] In 2010, Raphael Evers, an orthodox
rabbi in Amsterdam, told the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten that Jews can no longer be
safe in the city anymore due to the risk of violent assaults. "Jews no longer feel at home in
the city. Many are considering aliyah to Israel."[213]

Belgium
There were well over a hundred antisemitic attacks recorded in Belgium in 2009. This was a
100% increase from the year before. The perpetrators were usually young males of immigrant
background from the Middle East. In 2009, the Belgian city of Antwerp, often referred to as
Europe's last shtetl, experienced a surge in antisemitic violence. Bloeme Evers-Emden, an
Amsterdam resident and Auschwitz survivor, was quoted in the newspaper Aftenposten in
2010: "The antisemitism now is even worse than before the Holocaust. The antisemitism has
become more violent. Now they are threatening to kill us."[213]

France
In 2004, France experienced rising levels of Islamic antisemitism and acts that were
publicized around the world.[214][215][216] In 2006, rising levels of antisemitism were recorded
in French schools. Reports related to the tensions between the children of North African
Muslim immigrants and North African Jewish children.[216] The climax was reached when Ilan
Halimi was tortured to death by the so-called "Barbarians gang", led by Youssouf Fofana. In
2007, over 7,000 members of the community petitioned for asylum in the United States, citing
antisemitism in France.[217]

Between 2001 and 2005, an estimated 12,000 French Jews took Aliyah to Israel. Several
émigrés cited antisemitism and the growing Arab population as reasons for leaving.[218] At a
welcoming ceremony for French Jews in the summer of 2004, then Israeli Prime Minister
Ariel Sharon caused controversy when he advised all French Jews to "move immediately" to
Israel and escape what he coined "the wildest anti-semitism" in France.[219][220][221][222]

In the first half of 2009, an estimated 631 recorded acts of antisemitism took place in France,
more than in the whole of 2008.[223] Speaking to the World Jewish Congress in December
2009, the French Interior Minister Hortefeux described the acts of antisemitism as "a poison
to our republic". He also announced that he would appoint a special coordinator for fighting
racism and antisemitism.[224]

The rise of antisemitism in modern France has been linked to the intensifying Israeli–
Palestinian conflict.[225] Since the Gaza War in 2009, decreases in antisemitism have been
reversed. A report compiled by the Coordination Forum for Countering Anti-Semitism singled
out France in particular among Western countries for antisemitism.[226] Between the start of
the Israeli offensive in Gaza in late December and the end of it in January, an estimated
hundred antisemitic acts were recorded in France. This compares with a total of 250
antisemitic acts in the whole of 2007.[225] In 2012, Mohammed Merah killed four Jews,
including three children, at the Ozar HaTorah Jewish school in Toulouse. Shortly after the
Charlie Hebdo shooting in 2015, Amedy Coulibaly murdered four Jewish patrons of a Kosher
supermarket in Paris and held fifteen people hostage in the Porte de Vincennes siege. In
response to these high-profile attacks, Jewish emigration from France to Israel increased by
20%, to 5,100 per year, between 2014 and 2015.[227]

Germany
According to a 2012 survey, 18% of Turks in Germany believe that Jews are inferior human
beings.[228][229] A similar study found that most of Germany's native born Muslim youth and
children of immigrants have antisemitic views.[230]

Perpetrators of antisemitic verbal harassment and physical assault. Attackers characterised by victim. An attacker
may belong to more than 1 group.[231]

In police statistics more than 90 percent of incidents are counted as "right wing extremism".
But government officials and Jewish leaders doubt that figure, because cases with unknown
perpetrators and some kinds of attacks automatically get classified as "extreme right".[232] A
2017 study on Jewish perspectives on antisemitism in Germany by Bielefeld University found
that individuals and groups which belong to the extreme right and the extreme left were
equally represented as perpetrators of antisemitic harassment and assaults, while a large
number of the attacks were committed by Muslim assailants. The study also found that 70%
of the participants feared a rise in antisemitism due to immigration citing the antisemitic
views of the refugees.[233]

Sweden
A government study in 2006 estimated that 5% of the total adult population and 39% of adult
Muslims "harbour systematic antisemitic views".[234] The former prime minister Göran
Persson described these results as "surprising and terrifying". However, the rabbi of
Stockholm's Orthodox Jewish community, Meir Horden, said, "It's not true to say that the
Swedes are antisemitic. Some of them are hostile to Israel because they support the weak
side, which they perceive the Palestinians to be."[235]

In March 2010, Fredrik Sieradzki told Die Presse, an Austrian Internet publication, that Jews
are being "harassed and physically attacked" by "people from the Middle East", although he
added that only a small number of Malmö's 40,000 Muslims "exhibit hatred of Jews".
Sieradzk also stated that approximately 30 Jewish families have emigrated from Malmö to
Israel in the past year, specifically to escape from harassment. Also in March, the Swedish
newspaper Skånska Dagbladet reported that attacks on Jews in Malmö totaled 79 in 2009,
about twice as many as the previous year, according to police statistics.[236]

In early 2010, the Swedish publication The Local published series of articles about the
growing antisemitism in Malmö, Sweden. In an interview in January 2010, Fredrik Sieradzki of
the Jewish Community of Malmö stated, "Threats against Jews have increased steadily in
Malmö in recent years and many young Jewish families are choosing to leave the city. Many
feel that the community and local politicians have shown a lack of understanding for how the
city's Jewish residents have been marginalized." He also added, "right now many Jews in
Malmö are really concerned about the situation here and don't believe they have a future
here." The Local also reported that Jewish cemeteries and synagogues have repeatedly been
defaced with antisemitic graffiti, and a chapel at another Jewish burial site in Malmö was
firebombed in 2009.[237] In 2009 the Malmö police received reports of 79 antisemitic
incidents, double the number of the previous year (2008).[238] Fredrik Sieradzki, spokesman
for the Malmö Jewish community, estimated that the already small Jewish population is
shrinking by 5% a year. "Malmö is a place to move away from," he said, citing antisemitism as
the primary reason.[239]

In October 2010, The Forward reported on the current state of Jews and the level of
antisemitism in Sweden. Henrik Bachner, a writer and professor of history at the University of
Lund, claimed that members of the Swedish Parliament have attended anti-Israel rallies
where the Israeli flag was burned while the flags of Hamas and Hezbollah were waved, and
the rhetoric was often antisemitic—not just anti-Israel. But such public rhetoric is not branded
hateful and denounced. Charles Small, director of the Yale University Initiative for the Study of
Antisemitism, stated, "Sweden is a microcosm of contemporary anti-Semitism. It's a form of
acquiescence to radical Islam, which is diametrically opposed to everything Sweden stands
for." Per Gudmundson, chief editorial writer for Svenska Dagbladet, has sharply criticized
politicians who he claims offer "weak excuses" for Muslims accused of antisemitic crimes.
"Politicians say these kids are poor and oppressed, and we have made them hate. They are, in
effect, saying the behavior of these kids is in some way our fault."[239] Judith Popinski, an 86-
year-old Holocaust survivor, stated that she is no longer invited to schools that have a large
Muslim presence to tell her story of surviving the Holocaust. Popinski, who found refuge in
Malmö in 1945, stated that, until recently, she told her story in Malmö schools as part of their
Holocaust studies program, but that now, many schools no longer ask Holocaust survivors to
tell their stories, because Muslim students treat them with such disrespect, either ignoring
the speakers or walking out of the class. She further stated, "Malmö reminds me of the anti-
Semitism I felt as a child in Poland before the war. "I am not safe as a Jew in Sweden
anymore."[238]

In December 2010, the Jewish human rights organization Simon Wiesenthal Center issued a
travel advisory concerning Sweden, advising Jews to express "extreme caution" when visiting
the southern parts of the country due to an increase in verbal and physical harassment of
Jewish citizens by Muslims in the city of Malmö.[240]

Norway
In 2010, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation after one year of research, revealed that
antisemitism was common among Norwegian Muslims. Teachers at schools with large
shares of Muslims revealed that Muslim students often "praise or admire Adolf Hitler for his
killing of Jews", that "Jew-hate is legitimate within vast groups of Muslim students" and that
"Muslims laugh or command [teachers] to stop when trying to educate about the
Holocaust".[241][242][243]

Additionally that "while some students might protest when some express support for
terrorism, none object when students express hate of Jews" and that it says in "the Quran
that you shall kill Jews, all true Muslims hate Jews." Most of these students were said to be
born and raised in Norway. One Jewish father also told that his child after school had been
taken by a Muslim mob (though managed to escape), reportedly "to be taken out to the forest
and hanged because he was a Jew".[241]
United Kingdom
According to British Muslim journalist Mehdi Hasan, "anti-Semitism isn't just tolerated in
some sections of the British Muslim community; it's routine and commonplace".[244] A 2016
survey of 5,446 adult Britons, part of a report titled Anti-Semitism in contemporary Great
Britain that was conducted by the London-based Institute for Jewish Policy Research, found
that the prevalence of antisemitic views among Muslims was two to four times higher than
the rest of the population,[245] 55% of British Muslims held at least one antisemitic view, and
that there was a correlation between Muslim religiosity and antisemitism.[246] A 2020 poll
found that 45% of British Muslims hold a generally favourable view of British Jews, and 18%
hold a negative view.[247]

See also

Islam
portal
Judaism
portal

After Saturday comes Sunday

Antisemitism in the Arab world
Anti-Zionism
Conspiracy theories in the Arab world
Racism in the Arab world
Racism in the Palestinian
territories
Xenophobia and racism in the
Middle East
Religious antisemitism
Antisemitism in Christianity
History of the Jews under Muslim rule
Arab Jews
History of the Jews in the
Ottoman Empire
Jewish exodus from Arab and
Muslim countries
Nation of Islam and antisemitism
Pact of Umar
History of antisemitism
Holocaust denial
Islam and other religions
Christianity and Islam
Islamic–Jewish relations
Islamic schools and branches
Islamic fundamentalism
Islamism
Qutbism
Islam and violence
Islamic terrorism
Israʼiliyyat, Judaism-induced elements
in Islam
Muslim supporters of Israel
New antisemitism
 Racial antisemitism
Religious intolerance
Temple Denial
The Legacy of Islamic Antisemitism

Notes

1. In many Islamic countries, Jewish men

typically wore tunics, instead of trousers.
In the same countries, many different
local regulations emerged to make
Christian and Jewish dhimmi look
distinctive in their public appearance. In
1198, the Almohad caliph Abu Yusuf
Yaqub al-Mansur decreed that Jews must
wear a dark blue garb, with very large
sleeves and a grotesquely oversized hat;
his son altered the colour to yellow, a
 change that may have influenced Catholic
ordinances some time later.[108] German
ethnographer Erich Brauer (1895–1942)
noted that Jews in Yemen were not
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you're asking (http://www.haaretz.com/ha
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Further reading

Bostom, Andrew (2008). The Legacy of

Islamic Antisemitism. Prometheus Books.
ISBN 1591025540
Gabriel, Mark (2003). Islam and the Jews:
The Unfinished Battle. Charisma House.
ISBN 0-88419-956-8
Ernst, Carl (2004). Following Muhammad:
Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World.
University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-
8078-5577-4
Herf, Jeffrey (2009). The Jewish Enemy:
Nazi Propaganda for the Arab World. Ann
Arbor, Michigan: Yale University Press.
ISBN 978-0-300-14579-3.
Kressel, Neil J. (2012). The Sons of Pigs and
Apes: Muslim Antisemitism and the
Conspiracy of Silence. Potomac Books Inc.
ISBN 1597977020
Lepre, George. Himmler's Bosnian Division;
The Waffen-SS Handschar Division 1943–
1945 Algen: Shiffer, 1997. ISBN 0-7643-
0134-9
Viré, F. (2006) "Ḳird". Encyclopaedia of
Islam. Eds.: P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.
E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W. P.
Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
Watt, Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at
Medina. Oxford: University Press.
External links

Judeus no Alcorão: Uma Introdução (ht

tps://web.archive.org/web/201803311
01317/http://www.askmusa.org/site/
c.ehLKKZPJLuF/b.3125653/k.7027/Th
e_Jews_and_the_Quran.htm) por
Aisha Y. Musa
Judeus no Alcorão e nas primeiras
tradições islâmicas, (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20071201103803/http://ar
ts.monash.edu.au/jewish-civilisation/vi
siting/kinberg-jews-koran.pdf) pela
Dra. Leah Kinberg
"Os Árabes e o Holocausto": Guerra de
Narrativas (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20101228032748/http://en.qantara.
de/webcom/show_article.php/_c-476/
_nr-1355/i.html)
Jikeli, Günther; Stoller, Robin; Thoma,
Hanne (2007): Estratégias e práticas
eficazes para combater o anti-
semitismo entre pessoas de origem
muçulmana ou árabe na Europa, Berlim
(https://web.archive.org/web/2011072
6172429/http://www.iibsa.org/Media/
proceedings_summer_school.pdf)
Kashif Shahzada (2009): Por que o Islã
é contra o anti-semitismo? (http://sdje
wishworld.wordpress.com/2009/12/2
6/writer-said-quranic-teachings-are-not
 -anti-semitic) , Mundo Judaico de San
Diego , dezembro de 2009

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