Glossary of Neurosurgical

Terminology
gasometria
ABG (arterial blood gas)
arterial

ponto de
Access site
punção

Acidotic (an abnormal
apresentand
increase
o acidose;
in the acidity of the body's
acidótico
fluids)

afasia
Acquired aphasia
adquirida

Acromegaly acromegalia

Acute subdural hematoma hematoma

 subdural
agudo

adenocarcin
Adenocarcinoma
oma

massa
Adrenal mass
adrenal

vias
Airways respiratória
s

ALS (amyotrophic lateral Esclerose

sclerosis - nervous system lateral
disease) amiotrófica
(ELA);
também
designada
por doença
 de Lou
Gehrig e
doença de
Charcot

Ambu bag (a trademark

ventilador
used for a self-reinflating
mecânico
bag used during
manual
resuscitation)

Amnio - amniocentesis amniocente
se – teste de
DNA, para
ver
anormalida
des no
bebê.
Também
serve para
determinar
a
 paternidade

saco
Amniotic sac (embryo amniótico
sac) ou bolsa
d'água

Angio / angiogram (blood
angiografia
-vessel X-ray)

agente
Anti-angiogenesis agent antiangiogê
nico

antiparasitá
Anti-parasitics
rio

apendicecto
Appy / appendectomy
mia
 Síndrome
da Angústia
ARDS - Acute respiratory
Respiratória
distress syndrome
Aguda -
SARA

fibrilação
Atrial flutter
atrial/FA

malformaçã
AVM - Arterio Venous o
Malformation arterioveno
sa (MAV)

AVPU Pediatric Response Escala de

Scale: Alert / Voice / Pain Coma
full / Unresponsive Pediátrica
AVDN:
Alerta /
Responde à
Voz/
 Responde à
Dor / Não
responde

endocardite
bacteriana –
inflamação
Bacterial endocarditis
da
membrana
do coração

Bleeder : bleeding blood vaso

vessel estourado

coágulo
Blood clot
sanguíneo

kit para
Blood draw kit coleta de
sangue
 kit de
Blood gas kit
gasometria

Blood gas test gasometria

anticoagula
ntes -
remédios
Blood thinners
para
"afinar" o
sangue

nitrogênio
de ureia no
sangue
Blood urea (para
nitrogen (BUN) determinar
a função
renal) -
NUS
Bovie (use of high- coagulação
frequency electric current elétrica -
for cutting or destroying cautério de
tissue) Bovie

pressão
BP
sanguínea

bradicárdic
Bradycardic: abnormally o/
slow heart rate) apresentar
bradicardia

Bulldog clamps: spring-

pinça
loaded crossover clamps
(Clamp)
used in surgery to clamp
Bulldog
off small arteries

C.T. Myelogram tomografia

computador
 izada
associada à
mielografia

tempo de
preenchime
Cap refill's
nto capilar
(TPC)

parada
Cardiopulmonary arrest cardiorrespi
ratória

CBC (complete blood hemograma

count) completo

UTI
cardiológic
CCU (coronary care unit)
a ou
coronária
Central venous
catheter ("central line", cateter
"CVC", "central venous venoso
line" or "central venous central
access catheter")

CF (cystic fibrosis) Fibrose

Cística
(FC),
também
conhecida
como
Mucoviscid
ose, é uma
doença
genética
autossômic
a (não
ligada ao
cromossom
a x)
 recessiva

Chart (a log of all data

concerning a patient’s prontuário /
diagnosis and treatment histórico
kept near the patient at all hospitalar
times)

análise
química do
Chem panel
sangue /
bioquímica

químio,
Chemo quimioterap
ia

dreno
Chest tube
torácico
Cleft palate (gap in fenda
roof of mouth) palatina

fazer sutura
Close someone up
/ suturar

Cistometria
: Avaliação
pressórica
dinâmica da
bexiga,
considerand
CMG - cystometrogram o a sua
capacidade
e pressão
interna que
determina a
necessidade
de urinar.

Coding: undergoing heart  ter parada

 (cardiorresp
or breathing stoppage
iratória)

bolsa de
Colostomy bag
colostomia

quadro de
Comatose (in a prolonged
coma,
state of deep
quadro
unconsciousness)
comatoso

fratura
Compound fracture
exposta

fratura por
Compression fracture
compressão

CPR ressuscitaçã
o
cardiopulm
 onar (RCP)

Crash cart (a portable

trolley containing all
carrinho de
equipment and drugs
parada ou
required for
carrinho de
cardiopulmonary
emergência
resuscitation and
emergency care)

Crichothyrotomy: an cricotiroto
emergency incision mia
through the skin and
cricothyroid
membrane to secure a
patient's airway during
certain emergency
situations, such as an
airway obstructed by a
foreign object or swelling,
a patient who is not
able to breathe adequately
on their own, or in
cases of major facial
trauma which
prevent the insertion of an
endotracheal tube
through the mouth

Crit (hematocrit) hematócrito

CT (short tomografia
for computerized ou apenas
tomography) tomo

D & C ("dilation and curetagem,

curettage" - a raspagem
gynecological surgical
procedure in
which the cervix is
widened and
some of the womb lining
is scraped out, for
diagnostic or treatment
purposes or in an
abortion)

Debriding : cutting debridar

harmful flesh from a (tecido
wound necrosado)

desfibrilaçã
Defibrillation : to stimulat o ou
e heart electrically cardioversã
o elétrica

Pedido para
não
reanimar,
DNR – do not resuscitate
ordem dada
pelo
paciente
Echo (echocardiogram - a ecocardiogr
graphic outline of the hear ama –
t's movement) abrev. Eco

EEG -
EEG (abbreviation of elec
eletroencefa
troencephalogram)
lograma

captação de
Egg retrieval
óvulo

ECG -
EKG (electrocardiogram) eletrocardio
grama

Endovascular clot drenagem

evacuation de
hematoma,
através de
procedimen
 to
endovascul
ar, para
tratamento
de AVC

tubo
ET tube : “endotracheal
endotraquea
tube”
l

angústia
Fetal distress
fetal

Plasma
fresco
FFP (fresh frozen plasma)
congelado"
PFC

dor de
Growing pains
crescimento
 anamnese e
H&P – history and
exame
physical
físico

frequência
Heart rate
cardíaca

HMO (a form of health
insurance that combines a
range of coverage, usually convênio
on a group basis in médico
order to alleviate medical
costs)

hipóxico,
Hypoxic : inadequate
estado de
oxygen in body tissue
hipoxia

Ibuprofen : pain-relieving ibuprofeno

and anti-inflammatory
drug

ICU (abbreviation
UTI
for intensive care unit)

Intubation tray : a tray

containing the tools kit de
necessary to insert a tube entubação
in the windpipe

IV drip soro

fertilização
IVF (in vitro fertilization) in vitro
(FIV)

LAC - abbreviation
for laceration (pronounce laceração
d "lack")
Lap pad (laparotomy pad,
Esponja
gauze folded into a
para
rectangular shape and
laparotomia
used as a sponge)

Laryngoscope: instrument laringoscóp

for examining the larynx io

insuficiênci
liver failure
a hepática

Measles sarampo

prontuário
médico /
Medical records
ficha
clínica
Met ("metastasis" -
metástase
malignant tumor)

mg,
Migs ("milligrams")
miligramas

Mikes (abbreviation for micrograma

micrograms) s mcg

Ressonânci
MRI a magnética
ou RM

cânula
nasal – a
Nasal cannula medição do
oxigênio é
por l/min

Necrotic necrosado
NICU (neonatal intensive UTI
care unit) neonatal

não reage,
Non-reponsive não
responde

SO – Sala
OR : “operating room” de
Operação

Palsy paralisia

Paramedic socorrista

Paranoid schizophrenic esquizofrên

ico
 paranoico

edema
PE ("pulmonary edema")
pulmonar

Pupilas
PERRL (Pupils Equal Isocóricas e
Round Reactive to Light) Fotorreagen
tes

Plain film (An x-ray taken

raio-X
without the use of a
(simples)
contrast medium.)

Pneumothorax pneumotóra
x-
Acúmulo
de ar ou gás
no peito
causando
 colapso
pulmonar

per os
(latim) –
PO (by mouth or orally –
oralmente,
In some cases,
via oral,
it means to eat food.)
para
ingestão

saturação
Pulse
de O2
ox (amount of oxygen
(oximetria
being pumped
de pulso)
through the body)
SO2

Pump (or "insulin pump" bomba de

- an automated device that insulina,
assesses the body’s sistema de
insulin requirements by infusão
monitoring the blood contínua de
sugar levels, and
provides the necessary insulina.
doses)

extra-sístole
PVC's ("premature
(contração)
ventricular contraction" -
ventricular
irregular heartbeat)
prematura

parada
Respiratory arrest
respiratória

insuficiênci
Respiratory failure a
respiratória

oncocercos
River blindness
e

Sats - oxygen saturation oximetria:

 saturação
de oxigênio

fazer
assepsia,
Scrub preparar-se
para
cirurgia

anticonvulsi
Seizure medication
vante

Sepsis (presence of micro
septicemia
organisms in tissue)

anestesia
Spinal anesthesia
raquidiana

Spinal tap punção de

 líquor

fazer
Steep in
infusão

Stick / point of access puncionar

derrame ou
Stroke
AVC

Sux : "suxamethonium" - suxametôni

muscle-relaxant drug o

usar o
To bag
respirador

To crike ( cricothyrotomy cricotiroto

- an emergency incision mia
through the skin and
cricothyroid
membrane to secure a
patient's airway during
certain emergency
situations for
relief of upper airway
obstruction)

Fazer
To resect excisão ou
ressecção

abaixador
Tongue depressor
de língua

amigdalite,
Tonsillitis
tonsilite

Tox screen (Toxicology Exame

test - to see if drugs are in toxicológic
a patient’s system) o

Trendelenburg (the body
posição de
is laid flat on the back
Trendelenb
with the feet higher
urg
than the head)

Síndrome
de
TTTS: Twin To Twin
Transfusão
Transfusion Syndrome
Feto-Fetal
(STFF)

esclerose
Tuberous sclerosis
tuberosa

ITU –
UTI - urinary tract infecção do
infection trato
urinário.
 vácuo-
Vacuum extractor extrator ou
ventosa

Vasculature : arrangement 
vasculatura
of blood vessels

respirador
Ventilators (machines that
ou
help people breathe)
ventilador

V-fib or VF (shortened
for ventricular fibrillation FV –
which is fibrilação
irregularity of the heartbe ventricular
at)

fio de
Vicryl (an absorbable,
sutura
synthetic, braided suture)
Vicryl
 Vitals sinais vitais

V-tach (“ventricular
tachycardia” - a medical
condition
where the heart is beating taquicardia
too fast, yet not ventricular
able to pump enough
blood
throughout the body)

granulomat
Wegener's disease ose de
Wegener

(CT) computed
(la) tomografia  
tomography

 English to Spanish
 (la) tomografia
(CT) computed
computarizada/  
tomography
computada

 English to Spanish

(EEG)
Electroencephalogra (el) electroencefalograma  
m

 English to Spanish

(EMG)
(la) electromiografia  
electromyography

 English to Spanish

(las) imagenes por

(MRI) magnetic resonancia
resonance imaging magnetica/resonancia  
magnetica nuclear

 English to Spanish

(la) tomografia
(SPECT) single
computada/computarizad
photon emission
a por emsion de foton
computed tomography
unico

 Copy to  

(CT) computed
(la) tomografia  
tomography
 English to Spanish

(la) tomografia
(CT) computed
computarizada/  
tomography
computada
 English to Spanish

(EEG)
Electroencephalogra (el) electroencefalograma  
m
 English to Spanish

(EMG)
(la) electromiografia  
electromyography
 English to Spanish

(MRI) magnetic (las) imagenes por

resonance imaging resonancia  
 magnetica/resonancia
magnetica nuclear
 English to Spanish

(la) tomografia
(SPECT) single
computada/computarizad
photon emission  
a por emsion de foton
computed tomography
unico
 English to Spanish

(TENS)
transcutaneous estimulacion electrica
electrical nerve transcutanea de nervios  
stimulation
 English to Spanish

ausencia, crisis de
absence seizure  
ausencia
 English to Spanish

acetylcholine acetilcolina  
 English to Spanish

acoustic neuroma neuroma acustico  

 English to Spanish

akinesia acinesia  
 English to Spanish

akinetic seizure acceso acinetico  

 English to Spanish

amantadine clorohidrato de
hydrochloride amantadina  
 English to Spanish

amitriptyline amitriptilina  
 English to Spanish

amygdala amigdala  
 English to Spanish

amyloid amiloideo  
 English to Spanish

analgesia la analgesia  
 English to Spanish
angina (la) angina  
 English to Spanish

los agentes
anticholinergic agents  
anticolinergicos
 English to Spanish

antidepressant antidepresivo  
 English to Spanish

antiepileptic antiepileptico  
 English to Spanish

arteritis la arteritis  
 English to Spanish

astrocytes los astrocitos  

 English to Spanish

astrocytoma el astrocitoma  
 English to Spanish

aura la aura  
 English to Spanish

automatism el automatismo  
 English to Spanish

autonomic nervous sistema nervioso

system autonomo  
 English to Spanish

axon el axon  
 English to Spanish

basal ganglia los ganglios basales  

 English to Spanish

la jaqueca de la arteria
basilar artery migrane  
basiliar
 English to Spanish

benign exertional cefalalgia benigna por

headache esfuerzo  
 English to Spanish
benserazide (la) benseracida  
 English to Spanish

biofeedback (la) biorretroalimentacion  

 English to Spanish

biperiden (el) biperiden  

 English to Spanish

bradykinesia (la) bardicinesia  

 English to Spanish

brain stem (el  

 English to Spanish

brain stem (el  

 English to Spanish

brain stem (el) tallo cerebral  

 English to Spanish

(la) medicion de las

brain stem auditory
respuestas evocadas  
evoked response test
auditivas del tallo cerebral
 English to Spanish

caramazepine (la) carbamacepina  

 English to Spanish

carbidopa (la) carbidopa  

 English to Spanish

central vestibular (el) trastorno central del

disorder aparato vestibular  
 English to Spanish

cerebellum (el) cerebelo  

 English to Spanish

(la) cortex/ (la) corteza

cerebral cortex  
cerebral
 English to Spanish

cerebral palsy (la) oaralisis cerebral  

 English to Spanish
 cerebral palsy (la) paralisis cerebral  
 English to Spanish

cerebral ventricle (el) ventriculo cerebral  

 English to Spanish

cerebrospinal fluid (el) liquido cerebrospinal  

 English to Spanish

cerebrovascular cerebrovascular  
 English to Spanish

cerebrum (el) cerebrum/cerebro

Key Brain Terms

Glossary
HomeExplore NeuroscienceBrain BasicsKey Brain Terms Glossary

A
 
B
 
C
 
D
 
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F
 
G
 
H
 
I
 
J
 
K
 
L
 
M
 
N
 
O
 
P
 
Q
 
R
 
S
 
T
 
U
 
V
 
 W
 
X
 
Y
 
Z

Terms that are Italicized are also defined in this glossary

action potential: Sometimes called a “spike” or described as

a neuron “firing,” an action potential occurs when there is a
significant increase in the electrical activity along the membrane of
a nerve cell. It is associated with neurons passing electrochemical
messages down the axon, releasing neurotransmitters to
neighboring cells in the synapse.
admissibility: (legal sense) Evidence that is considered to be
acceptable or valid for use in legal proceedings.
addiction: Now commonly called substance use disorder, addiction
is a mental health condition where a person’s progressive and
chronic use of drugs or alcohol leads to issues with personal
relationships, the ability to work, and one’s physical health.
adrenal glands: Located on top of each kidney, these two glands
are involved in the body’s response to stress and help regulate
growth, blood glucose levels, and the body’s metabolic rate. They
receive signals from the brain and secrete several
different hormones in response, including cortisol and adrenaline.
adrenaline: Also called epinephrine, this hormone is secreted by
the adrenal glands in response to stress and other challenges to the
body. The release of adrenaline causes a number of changes
throughout the body, including the metabolism of carbohydrates to
supply the body’s energy demands and increased arousal or
alertness.
allele: One of two or more varying forms of a gene due to genetic
mutation. Differing alleles, which can be found at the same spot on
a chromosome, produce variation in inherited characteristics such
as hair color or blood type. A dominant allele is one whose
physiological function—such as making hair blonde—occurs even
when only a single copy is present (among the two copies of
each gene that everyone inherits from their parents).
A recessive allele’s traits only appear when two copies are present.
Alzheimer’s disease: A debilitating form of dementia, this
progressive and irreversible neurodegenerative disease results in
the development of protein plaques and tangles that
damages neurons and interfere with neural signaling, ultimately
affecting memory and other important cognitive skills.
amino acid: A type of small organic molecule that has a variety of
biological roles but is best known as the “building block” of
proteins.
amino acid neurotransmitters: The most
prevalent neurotransmitters in the brain, these include glutamate
and aspartate, which can increase the electrochemical activity
of neurons, as well as glycine and gamma-amino butyric acid
(GABA), which inhibit that electrochemical activity.
amygdala: Part of the brain’s limbic system, this primitive brain
structure lies deep in the center of the brain and is involved in
emotional reactions, such as anger or fear, as well as emotionally
charged memories. It also influences behavior such as feeding,
sexual interest, and the immediate “fight or flight” stress reaction
that helps ensure the person’s needs are met.
amyloid-beta (Aβ) protein: A naturally occurring protein in brain
cells. Large, abnormal clumps of this protein form the amyloid
plaques that are a physiological hallmark of Alzheimer’s disease.
Smaller groupings (oligomers) of Aβ seem more toxic to brain cells
and are thought by many researchers to play an important role in
the Alzheimer’s disease process.
amyloid plaque: The sticky, abnormal accumulations of amyloid-
beta protein aggregate around neurons and synapses in
the memory and intellectual centers of the brain, in people
with Alzheimer’s. These are sometimes referred to as neuritic
plaques or senile plaques. While amyloid plaques have long been
considered markers of Alzheimer’s, they are also found to some
extent in many cognitively normal elderly people. The plaques’ role
in Alzheimer’s neurodegeneration remains unclear.
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS): Also known as Lou Gehrig’s
disease, this neurodegenerative disease results in the death of brain
cells that control the muscles.
angiography: A medical imaging technique that allows clinicians to
visualize the interior of blood vessels, arteries, veins, and the heart.
animal model: A laboratory animal that—through changes in its
diet, exposure to toxins, genetic changes, or other experimental
manipulations—mimics specific signs or symptoms of a human
disease. Many of the most promising advances in treating brain
disorders have come from research on animal models.
anonymous data: Scientific or medical data which has been
stripped of the pieces of the information that could identify the
person who provided it.
antidepressant medication: Classes of drugs that can
treat depressive symptoms by affecting the levels of
specific neurotransmitters in the brain. One of the most well-known
types of antidepressant are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.
anxiety: Feelings of intense and persistent worry or fear regarding
everyday situations. While some feelings of anxiety are normal,
they can be classified as an anxiety disorder when the symptoms
start to interfere with daily living.
apoptosis: A form of programmed cell death that occurs as part of
normal growth and development. However, in cases of brain
disorders or disease, this natural process can be “hijacked,”
resulting in the unnecessary death of crucial neurons.
artificial intelligence (AI): computer programs or systems
designed to perform tasks that normally require human
intelligence, including problem-solving, learning, and decision-
making behaviors.
astrocyte: A star-shaped glial cell that supports neurons, by helping
to both feed and remove waste from the cell, and otherwise
modulates the activity of the neuron. Astrocytes also play critical
roles in brain development and the creation of synapses.
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD):
A neurodevelopmental disorder that affects attention systems and
impulse control. While ADHD is primarily known as a pediatric
disorder, it also affects adults.
auditory cortex: Part of the brain’s temporal lobe, this region is
responsible for hearing. Nerve fibers extending from the inner ear
carry nerve impulses generated by sounds into the auditory cortex
for interpretation.
autism spectrum disorder (ASD): A neurodevelopmental disorder,
with symptoms usually presenting within the first two years of life,
characterized by issues of communication, personal interactions,
and behavior. It is referred to as a spectrum disorder because of
the variety in the type and severity of symptoms observed.
autonomic nervous system: Part of the central nervous system that
controls internal organ functions (e.g., blood pressure, respiration,
intestinal function, urinary bladder control, perspiration, body
temperature). Its actions are mainly involuntary.
autonomy: The ability to make informed decisions freely (without
coercion).
axon: A long, single nerve fiber that transmits messages, via
electrochemical impulses, from the body of
the neuron to dendrites of other neurons, or directly to body tissues
such as muscles.
axon terminal: The very end of the axon, where electrochemical
signals are passed through the synapse to neighboring cells by
means of neurotransmitters and other neurochemicals. A collection
of axons coming from, or going to, a specific brain area may be
called a white matter fiber tract.

basal ganglia: A group of structures below the cortex involved in

motor, cognitive, and emotional functions.
basilar artery: Located at the base of the skull, the basilar artery is
a large, specialized blood vessel that supplies oxygenated blood to
the brain and nervous system.
Belmont principles: The three principles—beneficence, distributive
justice, and respect for persons—which  the 1976 Belmont
Report concluded should underlie all conduct in biomedical and
behavioral research in order to protect human participants.
Belmont Report: An influential report that identified and defined the
basic ethical principles (the Belmont principles) that should govern
research studies involving human participants. The report was
developed by the National Commission for the Protection of
Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research.
beneficence: One of the three Belmont principles, the requirement
that physicians and researchers provide, to the best of their ability,
positive benefits for patients that participate in clinical trials,
including good health and the prevention and removal of harmful
conditions.
bioethics: Bioethics is the interdisciplinary study of ethical issues
arising in the life sciences, health care, and health and science
policy. (definition from the Hasting Center)
biomarkers: A measurable physiological indicator of a biological
state or condition. For example, amyloid plaques—as detected on
amyloid PET scans—are a biomarker of Alzheimer’s disease.
Biomarkers can be used for both diagnostic and therapeutic
purposes.
bipolar disorder: Also known as manic depression or manic-
depressive disorder, bipolar disorder is characterized by
unpredictable changes in mood, as well as energy and activity
levels, that can interfere with everyday tasks.
blood-brain barrier: A protective barrier that separates the brain
from the blood circulating across the body. The blood-brain barrier
is semipermeable, meaning it allows the passage of water as well
as molecules like glucose and other amino acids that help promote
neural function.
brain-computer interface: A device or program that permits direct
or indirect collaboration between the brain and a computer system.
For example, a device that harnesses brain signals to control a
screen cursor or a prosthetic limb. Some systems can also
translate the device’s actions or measurements back into a signal,
creating a closed-loop system. Also called brain-computer
interface. Also called brain-machine interface.
brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF): Sometimes referred to
as “brain fertilizer,” BDNF is a protein that helps promote the
growth, maintenance, and survival of neurons.
brain imaging: Refers to various techniques, such as magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI),
and positron emission tomography (PET), that enable scientists to
capture images of brain tissue and structure and to reveal what
parts of the brain are associated with behaviors or activities.
Structural brain imaging is concerned with identifying the anatomy
of the brain and its changes with disease. Functional brain imaging
is concerned with identifying the pattern of activity in the brain
when people are at rest or when they are performing a task.
brain implant (neural implant): A medical device that connects the
brain and technological devices to record, translate, or modify brain
activity.
brain organoid: A research model that uses pluripotent stem
cells (iPSCs) to grow structures that resemble brains in some ways,
but are grown in a lab dish made of neurons and other brain
tissues.
brain stem: A primitive part of the brain that connects the brain to
the spinal cord, the brain stem controls functions basic to survival,
such as heart rate, breathing, digestive processes, and sleeping.
brain stimulation: The act of activating or inhibiting brain activity by
using electricity, magnetism, or another form of medical device.
brain tumor: A mass or growth of abnormal cells found in the brain.
While people may commonly equate brain tumors with cancer,
many tumors are benign—but their location in the brain can still
interfere with normal brain function.
brain waves: Rhythmic patterns of neural activity in the central
nervous system, brain waves can also be called neural oscillations.
Broca’s area: Discovered by French physician Paul Broca in the late
19th century, this small region in the left frontal lobe has been linked
to speech production.

cell body: Also known as the soma, this central part of

the neuron contains the nucleus of the neuron.
The axon and dendrites connect to this part of the cell.
central nervous system: The brain and spinal cord constitute the
central nervous system and are part of the broader nervous system,
which also includes the peripheral nervous system.
central sulcus: The primary groove in the brain’s cerebrum, which
separates the frontal lobe in the front of the brain from
the parietal and occipital lobes in the rear of the brain.
cerebellar artery: The major blood vessel providing oxygenated
blood to the cerebellum.
cerebellum: A brain structure located at the top of the brain
stem that coordinates the brain’s instructions for skilled, repetitive
movements and helps maintain balance and posture. Research
suggests the cerebellum may also play a role, along with
the cerebrum, in some emotional and cognitive processes.
cerebral palsy: A developmental disorder resulting from damage to
the brain before or during birth, usually characterized by impaired
muscle coordination and body movements, but can also include
impaired cognition and social behavior.
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): The clear, colorless liquid found
surrounding the brain and spinal cord. This fluid can be analyzed to
detect diseases.
cerebrum: The cerebrum is the largest brain structure in humans,
accounting for about two-thirds of the brain’s mass and positioned
over and around most other brain structures. The cerebrum is
divided into left and right hemispheres, as well as specific areas
called lobes that are associated with specialized functions.
chimera: A single organism with cells from more than one
distinct genotype.
chromosome: A threadlike structure of nucleotides that carries an
organism’s genes or genetic information.
chronic encephalopathy syndrome (CES): Symptoms,
including memory issues, depression, and impulsive behavior, that
manifest themselves after repeated brain traumas. Over time, CES
can result in a diagnosis of chronic traumatic encephalopathy
(CTE).
chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE): Once known
as dementia pugilistica and thought to be confined largely to
former boxers, this neurodegenerative disease, with symptoms
including impulsivity, memory problems, and depression, affects
the brains of individuals who have suffered
repeated concussions and traumatic brain injuries.
clinical trial: Research studies conducted to test the safety and
efficacy of different therapeutic interventions.
closed-loop: An automatic control system in which an operation,
process, or mechanism is regulated by feedback from the system
itself.
cochlea: The part of the inner ear that transforms sound vibrations
into neural impulses.
codes of ethics: A set of guiding principles intended to help
members of a group behave in an honest, moral, and beneficial
manner.
coercion: The act of compelling someone to participate in an
action without their consent.
cognition: A general term that includes thinking, perceiving,
recognizing, conceiving, judging, sensing, reasoning, and imagining.
cognitive enhancement: Various interventions (drugs, devices,
therapies) that lead to improvement in abilities like memory,
attention, information processing, problem solving, and decision-
making.
cognitive neuroscience: The field of study that investigates the
biological processes in the brain that underlie attention, memory,
and other facets of cognition.
computational neuroscience: An interdisciplinary field of study that
uses information processing properties and algorithms to further
the study of brain function and behavior.
computed tomography (CT or CAT): An X-ray technique introduced
in the early 1970s that enables scientists to take cross-sectional
images of the body and brain. CT uses a series of X-ray beams
passed through the body to collect information about tissue
density, then applies sophisticated computer and mathematical
formulas to create an anatomical image from the data.
concussion: A type of mild traumatic brain injury resulting from a
blow or hit to the head that causes the brain to move rapidly back
and forth inside the skull.
cone: A type of photoreceptor cell responsible for color vision that
is found in the retina.
connectome: A detailed map of the myriad neural connections
(also called fiber tracts) that make up the brain and nervous
system.
consciousness: A being’s awareness of their own thoughts and
feelings, as well as the state of the world around them.
consequentialism: A philosophical theory that says the rightness or
wrongness of a particular behavior can only be determined by the
outcome or consequences of it. Contrast with deontology
corpus callosum: The collection of nerve fibers connecting the
two cerebral hemispheres.
cortex: The outer layer of the cerebrum. Sometimes referred to as
the cerebral cortex.
cortisol: A steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands that
controls how the body uses fat, protein, carbohydrates, and
minerals, and helps reduce inflammation. Cortisol is released in the
body’s stress response; scientists have found that prolonged
exposure to cortisol has damaging effects on the brain.
criminality: A person’s tendency to break the law or engage in
criminal acts.
critical period: A period of development during which an ability or
characteristic is thought to be most easily learned or attained.
CRISPR (clustered regularly-interspaced short palindromic
repeats): A relatively precise and reliable DNA-editing technique.

D
data governance: The policies, rules, and standards used to
oversee how data is used in a particular environment.
deep brain stimulation: A method of treating various
neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders through small,
controlled electric shocks administered from a special battery-
operated neurostimulation implant. The implant, sometimes called
a “brain pacemaker,” is placed within deep brain regions such as
the globus pallidus or subthalamus.
deep learning: See machine learning.
default-mode network: The network indicates that the brain
remains active even if not involved in a specific task. Even when
you are daydreaming, the brain is in an active state.
dementia: General mental deterioration from a previously normal
state of cognitive function due to disease or psychological
factors. Alzheimer’s disease is one form of dementia.
dendrites: Short nerve fibers that project from a neuron, generally
receiving messages from the axons of other neurons and relaying
them to the cell’s nucleus.
deontology: A philosophical theory that says the rightness or
wrongness of a particular behavior should be determined by a set
of existing rules, as opposed to the consequences of that action.
Contrast with consequentialism
depression: A mood or affective disorder characterized by sadness
and lack of motivation. Depression has been linked to disruptions
in one or more of the brain’s neurotransmitter systems, including
those related to serotonin and dopamine.
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM): The
standard classification manual published by the American
Psychiatric Association for mental health professionals to diagnose
and treat mental disorders.
differentiation: The biological process where immature,
or undifferentiated cells, develop the specialized form and function
of a particular phenotype.
diffusion spectrum imaging (DSI): A brain imaging method that
detects the movement of water in tissue to help visualize the
brain’s white matter. This approach typically allows better
resolution than diffusion tensor imaging.
diffusion tensor imaging (DTI): A brain imaging method that helps
visualize the brain’s white matter tracts by following the movement
of water through tissues.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): The material from which the 46
chromosomes in each cell’s nucleus is formed. DNA contains the
codes for the body’s approximately 30,000 genes, governing all
aspects of cell growth and inheritance. DNA has a double-
helix structure—two intertwined strands resembling a spiraling
ladder.
digital phenotyping: The use of data collected from personal
electronic devices like smart phones to diagnose and monitor
medical and psychiatric conditions.
distributive justice: One of the three Belmont principles, fair or
equal distribution of both the benefits and burdens involved with
research.
dominant gene: A gene that almost always results in a specific
physical characteristic, for example a disease, even though the
patient’s genome possesses only one copy. With a dominant gene,
the chance of passing on the gene (and therefore the trait or
disease) to children is 50-50 in each pregnancy.
dopamine: A neurotransmitter involved in motivation, learning,
pleasure, the control of body movement, and other brain functions.
double helix: The structural arrangement of DNA, which looks
something like an immensely long ladder twisted into a helix, or
coil. The sides of the “ladder” are formed by a backbone of sugar
and phosphate molecules, and the “rungs” consist of nucleotide
bases joined weakly in the middle by hydrogen bonds.
Down syndrome: A genetic disorder characterized by intellectual
impairment and physical abnormalities that arises from
the genome having an extra copy of chromosome 21.
dual use: Products or technologies that may be used for both
civilian and military purposes.
dyslexia: A learning disorder that affects the ability to understand
and produce language. It is commonly thought of as a reading
disability, although it can affect other aspects of language.

electroencephalography (EEG): A method that measures electrical

activity in the brain using small electrodes placed on the scalp.
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): A therapeutic treatment
for depression and other mental illnesses that sends small electric
currents over the scalp to trigger a brief seizure.
endocrine system: A system in the body composed of several
different glands and organs that secrete hormones.
endorphins: Hormones produced by the brain, in response to pain
or stress, to blunt the sensation of pain. Narcotic drugs, such as
morphine, imitate the actions of the body’s natural endorphins.
end-user: The person who uses a particular product or system.
enzyme: A protein that facilitates a biochemical reaction.
Organisms could not function if they had no enzymes.
epigenetics: A subset of genetics that focuses on how specific
environmental factors can influence where, when, and how
a gene is expressed, resulting in variation in the gene’s related
traits.
epilepsy: A neurological disorder characterized by abnormal
electrical activity in the brain, leading to seizures.
eugenics: A 19th century scientific theory that advocated for
selective mating of people with desirable hereditary traits.
executive function: Higher level cognitive functions, including
decision-making and judgment, involved with the control of
behavior.

fissure: A groove or indentation observed in the brain.

Fragile X syndrome: A genetic disorder that interferes with brain
development, leading to learning disabilities
and cognitive impairment, particularly with regards to language.
frontal lobe: The front of the brain’s cerebrum, beneath the
forehead. This area of the brain is associated with
higher cognitive processes such as decision-making, reasoning,
social cognition, and planning, as well as motor control.
frontal operculum: The part of the frontal lobe that sits over
the insula.
frontotemporal degeneration (FTD): This is a common type
of dementia caused by the loss of neurons in the frontal lobes. This
disorder often strikes earlier than Alzheimer’s disease or other
forms of dementia, with most patients diagnosed between their late
40’s and early 60’s. It also tends to present with more prominent
behavior and social impairments as opposed to memory loss,
though memory loss is common in later stages of disease.
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): A brain
imaging technology, based on conventional MRI, that gathers
information relating to short-term changes in oxygen consumption
by cells in the brain. It typically uses this information to depict the
brain areas that become more or less active—and presumably more
or less involved—while a subject in the fMRI scanner performs
a cognitive task.

gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA): A neurotransmitter implicated

in brain development, muscle control, and reduced stress response.
gene: The basic unit of inheritance. A gene is a distinct section
of DNA code in a cell’s chromosome that instructs the cell to make
a particular molecule, usually a protein or RNA. Gene defects
(genetic mutations) are thought to cause many disorders including
brain disorders.
gene expression: The process by which a gene’s nucleotide
sequence is transcribed into the form of RNA—often as a prelude to
being translated into a protein.
gene mapping: Determining the relative positions of genes on
a chromosome and the distance between them.
genome: The complete genetic map for an organism. In humans,
this includes about 30,000 genes, more than 15,000 of which relate
to functions of the brain.
genotype: An individual’s collection of specific genes.
glia (or glial cells): The supporting cells of the central nervous
system. They may contribute to the transmission of nerve
impulses and play a critical role in protecting and
nourishing neurons.
glioblastoma: An invasive brain tumor made up of glial tissue,
blood vessels, and dead neurons.
glioma: A tumor that arises from the brain’s glial tissue.
glucose: A natural sugar that is carried in the blood and is the
principal source of energy for the cells of the brain and body.
glymphatic system: The system that helps clear debris from the
brain. During sleep, special glial cells called astrocytes form a
network of conduits that allow cerebrospinal fluid to flush
unwanted and unnecessary proteins out of the brain.
gray matter: The parts of the brain and spinal cord made up
primarily of groups of neuron cell bodies (as opposed to white
matter, which is composed mainly of myelinated nerve fibers).
gyrus: The ridges on the brain’s outer surface. Plural is gyri.

hemisphere: In brain science, refers to either half of the brain (left

or right). The two hemispheres are separated by a deep groove,
or fissure, down the center. Some major, specific brain functions
are located in one or the other hemisphere. While popular culture
suggests that “hemispheric dominance,” or which side of the brain
is more active, can help inform how an individual best learns,
research does not support this idea.
hippocampus: A primitive brain structure, located deep in the brain,
that is critical for memory and learning.
hormone: A chemical released by the body’s endocrine glands
(including the adrenal glands), as well as by some tissues.
Hormones act on receptors in other parts of the body to influence
body functions or behavior.
Huntington’s disease: A neurodegenerative disorder that causes
progressive death of neurons in the brain, resulting in severe
movement and cognitive problems. The disorder is caused by the
mutation of a single gene—and symptoms typically present when
an individual is in his or her 30’s or 40’s.
hypothalamus: A small structure located at the base of the brain,
where signals from the brain and the body’s hormonal system
interact.

implicit bias: The unconscious attitudes, beliefs, or stereotypes we

hold that have the power to affect our perceptions, actions, and
decisions.
in silico: An experimental method to study brain or neural function
using computer modeling or computer simulation.
in vitro: An experimental method to study brain or neural function
by looking at cells outside a living organism, for example, in a test
tube or petri dish.
in vivo: An experimental method allowing scientists to study brain
or neural function in a living organism.
incidental findings: Observations, results, or other information that
may be detected during a clinical trial but are not related to the
goals of the study.
induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC): A cell that has been taken
from adult tissue and genetically modified to behave like an
embryonic stem cell, with the ability to develop into any type of cell
found in the body, including nerve cells.
informed consent: The process of researchers’ providing patients
or potential research participants with detailed information,
including potential risks and benefits, for a particular intervention
or experiment as part of gaining their permission to participate.
insula: Sometimes referred to as the insular cortex, this small
region of the cerebrum is found deep within the lateral sulcus, and
is believed to be involved in consciousness, emotion, and keeping
the body in balance.
intention: A mental state where, consciously or unconsciously, a
person commits to a particular action.
ions: Atoms or small groups of atoms that carry an electric charge,
either positive or negative. When a nerve impulse is fired, ions flow
through channels in the membrane of a nerve cell, abruptly
changing the voltage across the membrane in that part of the cell.
This sets off a chain reaction of similar voltage changes along the
cell’s axon to the synapse, where it causes the release
of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
ion channel: A pore in the membrane of a neuron that allows ions to
pass through, helping to shape action potentials.
IRB (institutional review board): An administrative body that
reviews and monitors biomedical and behavioral research with the
goal of protecting the rights and welfare of human participants.

ketamine: A powerful anesthetic drug, originally manufactured for

veterinary use, that has been shown to be an effective treatment
for major depressive disorder, especially in patients who do not
respond well to traditional antidepressant medications.

lesion: An injury, area of disease, or surgical incision to body tissue.

Much of what we know about the functions of brain structures or
pathways comes from lesion mapping studies, where scientists
observe the behavior of people with an injury to a distinct area of
the brain or analyze the behavior of a laboratory animal resulting
from a lesion made in the brain.
limbic system: A group of evolutionarily older brain structures that
encircle the top of the brain stem. The limbic structures play
complex roles in emotions, instincts, and appetitive behaviors.
long term potentiation (LTP): The persistent strengthening of
a synapse with increased use, thought to underlie learning
and memory.
Lou Gehrig’s disease: see amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

machine learning: Also referred to as deep learning, machine

learning is a type of artificial intelligence algorithm that can learn
rules or identify diagnostic criteria from immense data sets of brain
imaging or genetic information. These algorithms are becoming
more prevalent in scientific research—and are also starting to be
incorporated into translational neuroscience research and medical
practice.
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): A non-invasive imaging
technology, often used for brain imaging. An MRI scanner includes
intensely powerful magnets, typically 10,000 to 40,000 times as
strong as the Earth’s magnetic field. These magnets, combined
with coils that send electromagnetic pulses into the scanned
tissue, induce radio-frequency signals from individual hydrogen
atoms within the tissue. The scanner records and processes these
signals to create an image of the scanned tissue. MRI scans can
depict high resolution images of the entire brain, allowing clinicians
to determine if the brain tissue visualized is normal, abnormal, or
damaged due to a neurological disorder or trauma. MRI technology
has also been adapted to measure brain activity with functional
MRI methods.
manic-depressive disorder: See bipolar disorder.
medulla oblongata: The lower part of the brain stem, responsible
for life-regulating functions like breathing and heart rate.
melatonin: A hormone that is secreted by the pineal gland in the
brain in response to the daily light-dark cycle, influencing the body’s
sleep-wake cycle.
memory: The encoding and storage of information, in a way that
allows it to be retrieved later. In the brain, memory involves
integrated systems of neurons in diverse brain areas, each of which
handles individual memory-related tasks. Memory can be
categorized into two distinct types, each with its own
corresponding brain areas. Memory about people, places, and
things that one has experienced directly or otherwise learned about
is referred to as explicit or declarative memory and is highly
dependent upon the hippocampus and temporal lobe. Memory
about motor skills and perceptual strategies is known as implicit or
procedural memory and involves the cerebellum, the amygdala, and
specific pathways related to the particular skill (e.g., riding a bicycle
would involve the motor cortex).
mental health: Referring to one’s psychological, emotional, and
social well-being.
mesolimbic circuit: See reward/reinforcement brain network.
mesolimbic pathway: A specialized brain circuit implicated in the
processing of risk and reward information.
metabolize: To break down or build up biochemical elements in the
body, effecting a change in body tissue. For example, neurons and
other brain cells metabolize glucose, a blood sugar, to derive
energy for transmitting nerve impulses.
microbiota: The community of various microorganisms found in
the digestive tract. Scientists are now learning that microbes found
in the microbiota can influence brain development, mood, and
behavior.
microglia: A small, specialized glial cell that operates as the first
line of immune defense in the central nervous system.
midbrain: Also referred to as the mesencephalon, the midbrain is a
small part of the brain stem that plays an important role in
movement as well as auditory and visual processing.
mindfulness: The ability to be present and aware of the
environment and our behavior within it.
minimally conscious: A state of altered consciousness, often
caused by stroke, head injury, or loss of blood flow to the brain, in
which an individual maintains partial conscious awareness, but
may have great difficulty in communicating with, or understanding,
other people.
molecular biology: The study of the structure and function of cells
at the molecular level and how these molecules influence behavior
and disease processes. Molecular biology emerged as a scientific
discipline only in the 1970s, with advances in laboratory
technologies for isolating and characterizing DNA, RNA, proteins,
and other small biological entities.
mood: A state of mind or feeling. In
neuroscience, depression and anxiety are considered mood
disorders, for example.
motor cortex: The part of the brain’s cerebrum, just to the front of
the central sulcus in the frontal lobe, that is involved in movement
and muscle coordination. Scientists have identified specific spots
in the motor cortex that control movement in specific parts of the
body, the so-called “motor map.”
multiple sclerosis: A progressive neurodegenerative
disease involving damage to the protective myelin sheaths of nerve
cells in the brain and spinal cord. Symptoms include impaired
movement, pain, and fatigue.
mutation: A permanent structural alteration to DNA that modifies
its previous nucleotide sequence. In most cases, DNA changes
either have no effect or cause harm, but occasionally a mutation
improves an organism’s chance of surviving and procreating.
myelin: The fatty substance that encases most nerve cell axons,
helping to insulate and protect the nerve fiber and effectively
speeding up the transmission of nerve impulses.

narcotic: A synthetic chemical compound that mimics the action of

the body’s natural endorphins—hormones secreted to counteract
pain. Narcotic drugs have a valid and useful role in the
management of pain but may lead to physical dependence in
susceptible individuals if used for long periods.
nerve growth factor: Also referred to as a neurotrophic factor, this
special protein helps regulate the growth and survival of nerve
cells. One of the most well-known of these is brain-derived
neurotrophic factor (BDNF).
nerve cell: See neuron.
nerve impulse: Also referred to as a nerve signal, the way that
a neuron communicates with other cells by transmitting an
electrochemical signal down the length of the axon.
nervous system: The system in the body that processes and
transmits signals from the brain to the rest of the body to facilitate
movement and behavior. It consists of two parts, the central
nervous system, or the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral
nervous system, the nerves that branch off from the spinal
cord extending throughout the rest of the body.
neural chimera: A research model where human stem cells are
transplanted into an animal embryo to follow the genetic,
molecular, and functional processes of brain cells as they grow.
neural implant (brain implant): A device that connects the brain
and technological devices to record, translate, or modify brain
activity.
neural induction: A developmental process where ectodermal cells
“decide” to form the neural plate, the basis of what will eventually
become the organism’s nervous system.
neural transplant: A research model where a few human cells are
transplanted into the adult brains of animals to study how those
cells respond to environmental stimuli.
neuroaesthetics: A field within cognitive neuroscience that
examines the neural underpinnings of what humans find visually
appealing or beautiful.
neurodiversity: The variations that exist in the human brain leading
to differences in learning, mood, and emotion, as well as mental
functions and social behaviors.
neuroeconomics: An interdisciplinary field of study that uses
neuroscientific research to help explain human decision-making
behavior.
neurodegenerative diseases: Diseases characterized by the
progressive deterioration and death of nerve
cells (neurodegeneration), typically originating in one area of the
brain and spreading to other connected areas. Neurodegenerative
diseases include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington’s
disease, Alzheimer’s disease, frontotemporal degeneration,
and Parkinson’s disease.
neurodevelopmental disorder: Disorders or conditions arising from
impairments during the development and maturation of the brain
and/or nervous system. Neurodevelopmental disorders
include schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder.
neuroeducation: Sometimes referred to as educational
neuroscience, this collaborative, interdisciplinary field of study uses
findings in cognitive neuroscience to inform teaching and other
educational practices.
neuroethics: An interdisciplinary field of study that addresses the
ethical implications of our increased ability to understand and
change the brain. Enhanced cognitive performance, life extension,
the use of neuroscience in marketing, and many other issues are
included in this ongoing social-scientific debate.
neurogenesis: The production of new, maturing neurons by
neural stem and progenitor cells. Rapid and widespread
neurogenesis obviously occurs in the fetal brain in humans and
other animals, but neuroscientists long believed that neurogenesis
essentially does not occur in the adult human brain. However, over
the past two decades, research has shown that it does in fact occur
in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and possibly other brain
regions. This “adult neurogenesis” appears to be vital for normal
learning and memory, and may help protect the brain
against stress and depression.
neuroimaging: Different forms of medical imaging,
including positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), that allow researchers to study the
structure and function of the brain and nervous system.
neuroimmunology: A complex field in biomedical research, which
focuses on the brain, the immune system, and their interactions.
Neuroimmunology holds the potential for conquering ills as diverse
as spinal cord injury, multiple sclerosis, and bodily reactions to
bacteria or viruses, both naturally occurring and intentionally
inflicted. In some circumstances, an abnormal neuroimmune
response can damage brain tissue.
neurolaw: A field of study that applies neuroscientific findings to
legal rules and standards.
neuromarketing: The measurement of physiological or neural
information to gain insights into and influence consumer
motivations and behavior.
neurophilosophy: An interdisciplinary field of study that
investigates the relevance of neuroscientific discoveries to
philosophical theories and questions.
neuroplasticity: Also referred to as brain plasticity or neural
plasticity, this is the ability of the brain to change throughout the
lifespan, forming new synapses and neural connections in response
to the environment.
neurotypical: Often used to describe people who are not on the
autism spectrum, this term is meant to characterize people whose
brain functions, processing capabilities, and behaviors fall into a
range that is common for the majority of humans.
neuron: A nerve cell. The basic unit of the central nervous system,
the neuron is responsible for the transmission of nerve impulses.
Unlike any other cell in the body, a neuron consists of a central cell
body as well as several threadlike “arms”
called axons and dendrites, which transmit nerve impulses.
Scientists estimate that there are approximately 86
billion neurons in the human brain.
neuroscience: The study of the brain and nervous system, including
their structure, function, and disorders. Neuroscience as an
organized discipline gained great prominence in the latter part of
the 20th century.
neurotransmitter: A chemical that acts as a messenger
between neurons and is released into the synaptic cleft when
a nerve impulse reaches the end of an axon. Several dozen
neurotransmitters have been identified in the brain so far, each with
specific, often complex roles in brain function and human behavior.
neurotrophic factor: See nerve growth factor.
non-maleficence: One of the three Belmont principles, the
obligation of researchers to not harm patients or study
participants. The phrase, “First, do no harm,” an oath spoken by
doctors when they graduate from medical school, illustrates this
principle.
nootropics: Drugs or supplements that are marketed as ways to
improve cognitive functions like memory, attention, or creativity.
nucleotide: Sometimes referred to as a nucleic acid, these are the
biological building blocks of DNA.
nucleotide sequence: A specific and ordered array
of nucleotides that make up a specific genetic variant or allele.
nucleus accumbens: Part of the brain’s reward circuitry,
or mesolimbic pathway, this small region in
the midbrain releases dopamine in response to rewarding
experiences.
nurture: A popular term for the influence of environmental factors
on human development, such as the experiences one is exposed to
in early life. The term is often used in the context of “nature versus
nurture,” which relates to the interplay of “nature” (genetic or
inherited, predetermined influences) and environmental, or
experiential, forces.

obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD): A form of anxiety disorder

characterized by unreasonable thoughts, or obsessions, which
result in compulsive, repetitive behaviors.
occipital lobe: A part of the brain’s cerebrum, located at the rear of
the brain, above the cerebellum. The occipital lobe is primarily
concerned with vision and encompasses the visual cortex.
olfactory: Pertaining to the sense of smell. When stimulated by an
odor, olfactory receptor cells in the nose send nerve impulses to the
brain’s olfactory bulbs, which then transmit the impulses to
olfactory centers in the brain for interpretation.
opiate: A synthetic (e.g., Demerol, Fentanyl) or plant-derived (e.g.,
opium, heroin, morphine) compound that binds and activates opioid
receptors on certain neurons. Opiates typically but not always have
pain-relieving, anxiety-reducing, and even euphoria-inducing effects,
and are generally considered addictive.
opioid: An artificially derived drug or chemical that acts on
the nervous system in a similar manner to opiates, influencing the
“pleasure pathways” of the dopamine system by locking on to
specialized opioid receptors in certain neurons.
opioid receptors (e.g., mu, delta, kappa): A class of receptors found
on neurons in the brain, spinal cord, and digestive tract. Opioid
receptors are involved in numerous functions, including pain
control, mood, digestion, and breathing.
optic nerve: One of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves in the human
body, the optic nerve transmits information from the retina, at the
back of the eye, to the brain.
optogenetics: An innovative neuroscientific technique that uses
light to turn genetically modified neurons on and off at will, in live
animals.
organoid: A research model that uses pluripotent stem
cells (iPSCs) to grow structures made of organ-specific cell types.
oxytocin: Sometimes referred to as the “cuddle chemical,”
this hormone can work as a neurotransmitter in the brain and has
been linked to social attachment and parental care. While there are
“love” sprays on the market that are said to contain oxytocin, there
is no evidence that these concoctions have any effect on social
relationships.

P
pain receptors: Specialized nerve fibers in the skin and on the
surfaces of internal organs, which detect painful stimuli and send
signals to the brain.
parietal lobe: The area of the brain’s cerebrum located just behind
the central sulcus. It is concerned primarily with the reception and
processing of sensory information from the body and is also
involved in map interpretation and spatial orientation (recognizing
one’s position in space in relation to other objects or places).
Parkinson’s disease: A neurodegenerative disorder characterized
by tremor, slowed movement, and speech changes due to the death
of dopamine neurons located in the substantia nigra.
perception: The way the brain organizes, processes, and interprets
sensory information to give rise to our ability to make sense of and
navigate the world around us.
peripheral nervous system: The nervous system outside the brain
and spinal cord.
persistent vegetative state: A disorder of consciousness, often
following severe brain trauma, in which an individual has not even
minimal conscious awareness. The condition can be transient,
marking a stage in recovery, or permanent.
pharmacotherapy: The use of pharmaceutical drugs for therapeutic
purposes.
phenotype: A set of traits or characteristics resulting from the
interaction of one’s genes with the environment.
pituitary gland: An endocrine organ at the base of the brain that is
closely linked with the hypothalamus. The pituitary gland is
composed of two lobes, the anterior and posterior lobes, and
secretes hormones that regulate the activity of the
other endocrine organs in the body.
plasticity: In neuroscience, refers to the brain’s capacity to change
and adapt in response to developmental forces, learning
processes, injury, or aging.
pluripotency: The quality of certain undifferentiated cells that
allows them to develop into one of many different cell types.
positron emission tomography (PET): An imaging technique, often
used in brain imaging. For a PET scan of the brain, a radioactive
“marker” that emits, or releases, positrons (parts of an atom that
release gamma radiation) is injected into the bloodstream.
Detectors outside of the head can sense these “positron
emissions,” which are then reconstructed using sophisticated
computer programs to create computer images. Since blood flow
and metabolism increase in brain regions at work, those areas have
higher concentrations of the marker, and researchers can see
which brain regions activate during certain tasks or exposure to
sensory stimuli. Ligands can be added to a PET scan to detect
pathological entities such as amyloid or tau deposits.
postsynaptic cell: The neuron on the receiving end of a nerve
impulse transmitted from another neuron.
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A mental disorder that
develops in response to a traumatic event such as combat, sexual
assault, or abuse. Symptoms can include mood disturbances,
hyperarousal, memory flashbacks, sleep problems, anxiety,
and depression.
prefrontal cortex: The area of the cerebrum located in the forward
part of the frontal lobe, which mediates many of the
higher cognitive processes such as planning, reasoning, and
“social cognition”—a complex skill involving the ability to assess
social situations in light of previous experience and personal
knowledge, and interact appropriately with others. The prefrontal
cortex is thought to be the most recently evolved area of the brain.
premotor cortex: The area of the cerebrum located between
the prefrontal cortex and the motor cortex, in the frontal lobe. It is
involved in the planning and execution of movements.
presynaptic cell: In synaptic transmission, the neuron that sends
a nerve impulse across the synaptic cleft to another neuron.
prion: A protein aggregate that can multiply itself, inducing the
formation of new aggregates from individual copies of the protein
it encounters. Prions have the potential to spread within the body
and brain, and even from one organism to another—“infectiously,”
like a virus. The first prions described were hardy aggregates of
PrP, the prion protein. They are responsible for a set of rapid, fatal,
and potentially transmissible neurodegenerative diseases including
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and bovine spongiform encephalopathy
(“mad cow disease”). Many researchers now argue that protein
aggregates in other neurodegenerative diseases, such as
the Aβ and tau plaques of Alzheimer’s, have such similar properties
that they also deserve to be called prions.
privacy (mental privacy): The right against intrusion into one’s
mental state or data, sometimes referred to as cognitive liberty.
protein folding: The process by which the chain of amino acids that
make up a protein assumes its functional shape. The protein
clumps and tangles that occur in some neurodegenerative
disorders are thought to be triggered when proteins “misfold.”
psychedelics: A class of psychoactive substances, including
psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), known to produce
changes in perception, mood, and cognition. Also known as
hallucinogens.
psychiatry: A medical specialty dealing with the diagnosis and
treatment of mental disorders. Psychiatrists are physicians who
can prescribe medicine and perform certain medical treatments.
(Contrast with psychology)
psychoactive drug: A broad term to describe a drug that acts on
the brain and changes one’s mental state, like elevating mood or
reducing inhibitions. Psychoactive pharmaceuticals can help
control the symptoms of some neurological
and psychiatric disorders. Many “recreational drugs” are also
psychoactive drugs.
psychological dependence: In the science of addiction,
psychological dependence refers to the psychological factors,
including mood and motivation that help to
sustain addictive behaviors (like craving a cigarette after a meal),
as opposed to the physical dependence that manifests when a
person attempts to stop using a particular substance (e.g., tremors,
racing pulse). Brain scientists now understand that psychological
factors are central to addictive disorders and are often the most
difficult to treat.
psychology: An academic or scientific field of study concerned with
the behavior of humans and animals and related mental processes.
Psychologists typically have Ph.D. degrees and while able to
evaluate and treat mental disorders, are rarely able to prescribe
medication. (Contrast with psychiatry)
psychopharmacology: The scientific study of how drugs affect
mood, behavior, thinking, perception, and sensation.
psychosis: A severe symptom of mental illness in which a person’s
thoughts and perceptions are so disordered that the individual
loses touch with reality.
R

rapid eye movement (REM) sleep: A stage of sleep occurring

approximately 90 minutes after sleep onset characterized by
increased brain activity, rapid eye movements, and muscle
relaxation.
research participant: Sometimes referred to as a human subject, a
research participant is a person who willingly volunteers to take
part in a clinical trial or other behavioral experiment.
receptors: Molecules on the surfaces of neurons whose structures
precisely match those of chemical messengers (such
as neurotransmitters or hormones) released during synaptic
transmission. The chemicals attach themselves to the receptors, in
lock-and-key fashion, to activate the receiving cell structure.
recessive: A genetic trait or disease that appears only in patients
who have received two copies of a mutant gene, one from each
parent.
recovery of function: The ability of the nervous system to repair or
compensate for damage to the brain or nervous system after insult
or injury in order to regain function. For example, after a stroke,
many individuals must learn how to walk or talk again.
rehabilitation: The process by which people can repair, recover, or
compensate for functional abilities after sustaining damage to
the nervous system. Rehabilitation activities may include speech,
physical, or occupational therapies.
resting state: The state of the brain when it is not consciously
engaged in an explicit task. Brain imaging techniques such
as fMRI can be used to measure the residual activity that occurs in
this state.
retina: The sensory membrane at the back of the eye that
processes light information to facilitate sight.
reward/reinforcement brain network: Also known as the
mesolimbic circuit, this important network of brain regions
stretching from the brain stem to the frontal lobes is implicated in
risk and reward processing, as well as learning.
reuptake: A process by which released neurotransmitters are
absorbed for subsequent re-use.
RNA (ribonucleic acid): A chemical similar to a single strand
of DNA. The sugar is ribose, not deoxyribose, hence RNA. RNA
delivers DNA’s genetic message to the cytoplasm of a cell, where
proteins are made.
rod: A type of photoreceptor, usually found on the outer edges of
the retina, that helps facilitate peripheral vision.

schizophrenia: A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by

disordered thinking, delusions, and hallucinations. It affects less
than 1% of Americans.
senses: The bodily organs that provide critical information
for perception and behavior from the outside world. The five classic
senses are: sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell.
serotonin: A neurotransmitter believed to play many roles,
including, but not limited to, temperature regulation,
sensory perception, and the onset of sleep. Neurons using
serotonin as a transmitter are found in the brain and in the gut. A
number of antidepressant medications are targeted to brain
serotonin systems.
social neuroscience: The field of study investigating the biological
systems underlying social processes and behavior.
soma: See cell body.
somatosensory cortex: Located in the parietal lobe, this region of
the brain processes touch, pressure, and pain information.
sonogenetics: A novel investigative approach that
turns genetically modified neurons on and off using ultrasonic
waves.
sono-stimulation: The activation of neural networks
using ultrasound.
spinal cord: The “other half” of the central nervous system (with the
brain). The spinal cord is a cable that descends from the brain
stem to the lower back. It consists of an inner core of gray
matter surrounded by white matter.
stem cells: Cells that have the potential to differentiate, to develop
into many different specific cell types with specialized functions.
stress: Physical, emotional, and mental factors that result in bodily
or psychological tension. Chronic stress is linked to issues
with mental and physical health.
striatum: A small group of subcortical structures, including the
caudate nucleus, putamen, and nucleus accumbens, located in
the midbrain. These regions are implicated in both movement and
reward-related behaviors.
stroke: A neurological event that occurs when the blood supply to
the brain is blocked, depriving the tissue of oxygen, or when there is
a bleed into the brain due to the rupturing of an artery.
subgenual cortex: The region in the back of the frontal lobes, found
below the corpus callosum, which has been implicated
in mood states.
substantia nigra: This small region in the midbrain is part of the
brain’s reward system. In Parkinson’s disease, the dopamine
neurons in this region die off, leading to the disorder’s movement-
related and cognitive symptoms.
subthalamic nucleus: A small brain structure, located in the basal
ganglia, that plays an important role in coordinating movement. It is
the most common target for neuromodulation techniques, like deep
brain stimulation, to help diminish the symptoms of Parkinson’s
disease.
sulcus: A shallower groove on the brain’s cerebrum (deeper
grooves are called fissures).
synapse: The junction where an axon approaches
another neuron or its extension (a dendrite); the point at which
nerve-to-nerve communication occurs. Nerve impulses traveling
down the axon reach the synapse and
release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, the tiny gap
between neurons.
synaptic cleft: The small space
between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.
synaptic pruning: A process by which specialized cells
called microglia eliminate unnecessary synapses as part of normal
and healthy brain development.
synaptic transmission: The process of nerve-to-nerve
communication in the central nervous system, whereby
one neuron sends a chemical signal across the synaptic cleft to
another neuron.

T
tau protein: A type of protein abundantly found in neurons. When
this protein is not adequately cleared from the brain, it can form
tangles that are a key pathology of several neurodegenerative
disorders including frontotemporal degeneration, CTE,
and Alzheimer’s disease.
telomere: The protective cap found at the end of a chromosome.
Research studies suggest these caps may be shortened
in neurodegenerative diseases.
temporal lobes: The parts of the cerebrum that are located on
either side of the head, roughly beneath the temples in humans.
These areas are involved in hearing, language, memory storage,
and emotion.
thalamus: A brain structure located at the top of the brain stem, the
thalamus acts as a two-way relay station, sorting, processing, and
directing signals from the spinal cord and midbrain structures to
the cerebrum, and from the cerebrum down.
therapeutic misconception: When research
participants misunderstand the purpose of a clinical trial, believing
their participation will benefit them personally, even if it will not.
Such misunderstandings can interfere with participants’ ability to
make good decisions about informed consent.
Tourette’s syndrome: A neurological disorder, beginning in
childhood, characterized by repetitive, involuntary movements or
vocalizations, called tics.
transcranial electrical stimulation (tDCS and tACS): A non-invasive
procedure that applies electrical stimulation to the scalp to
increase or decrease neural signaling. The two main types are
direct current stimulation (tDCS) and alternating current
stimulation (tACS). They are used for therapeutic purposes as well
as to study cognitive processing.
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): A non-invasive procedure
that uses the energy from a strong magnet to stimulate changes in
neural processing from above the scalp. It is used as a treatment
for depression as well as a research method to
investigate cognitive processes.
traumatic brain injury (TBI): An injury to the brain acquired when
the head is violently shook, struck, or pierced by an object. A nearby
blast or explosion, as may occur in combat, emits shock waves that
can also cause a TBI. Moderate to severe TBI causes permanent
impairments in brain function. Symptoms of mild TBI may include
headache, dizziness, attention problems, or issues with behavior
and mood.
two-photon microscopy: An advanced microscopy technique that
uses fluorescent markers to look at living tissue approximately one
millimeter below the skin’s surface.

undue inducement: When the value of something received in a

clinical trial is so large that the study participant may agree to take
risks that are not in their best interests.
ultrasound: An imaging technique that uses sound waves to
visualize the inside of the body.

vagus nerve: One of the twelve pairs of cranial nerves in the human
body, the vagus nerve connects the brain stem to the body,
transmitting information from the brain to the major organs and
other tissues.
vagus nerve stimulation: A neuromodulation treatment that
involves a small implant that electrically stimulates the vagus
nerve, which runs from the brain stem to the abdomen. It is mostly
used to treat epilepsy but is also being investigated as a potential
treatment for depression, bipolar disorder, and Alzheimer’s disease.
vertebral arteries: The major arteries of the neck, which merge to
form the basilar artery.
vestibular system: Regions in the body and brain that help support
balance in movement. Many people with hearing loss experience
some degree of balance difficulties, since the vestibular (or
balance) system and the auditory (or hearing) systems are so
closely related.
visual cortex: The area of the cerebrum that is specialized for
vision. It lies primarily in the occipital lobe at the rear of the brain
and is connected to the eyes by the optic nerves.

Wernicke’s area: A brain region housed in the left temporal lobe,

believed to be responsible for the comprehension of speech. The
region was first documented by German physician Carl Wernicke,
after observing a patient with a lesion in this region who was
unable to understand speech.
white matter: Brain or spinal cord tissue consisting primarily
of myelin-covered axons that extend from nerve cell bodies in
the gray matter of the central nervous system.

X
X-ray: An imaging method that uses electromagnetic radiation to
visualize the structures inside the body, particularly bones.

Sources from the original Glossary, published in 2006, are

included here, in addition to new updated sources reflecting the
continuing evolution of neuroscience research.

 The Belmont
report, www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-
report/index.html 
 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, cdc.gov
 Human Connectome Project, humanconnectomeproject.org.
 Mayo Clinic, mayoclinic.org
 Mind Over Matter Teacher’s Guide, Introduction and Background,
National Institute of Drug
Abuse, teens.drugabuse.gov/teachers/mind-over-matter/teache
rs-guide
 National Human Genome Research Institute, nhgri.nih.gov
 National Institutes of Health, nih.gov.
 National Institute of Mental Health, nimh.nih.gov
 “Neuroethics for the New Millennium,” short commentary in
Neuron by Adina Roskies exploring the definition of neuroethics.
https://www.cell.com/fulltext/S0896-6273(02)00763-8
 Society for Neuroscience, BrainFacts.org
 S. Department of Health & Human Services, HHS.gov
 S. National Library of
Medicine, medlineplus.gov/ency/imagepages/19515.htm
 Marcus S, ed., Neuroethics: Mapping the Field. Dana Press;
Washington, DC (2002).
 Clayman C, ed. The Human Body: An Illustrated Guide to Its
Structure, Function, and Disorders. Dorling Kindersley; New York
(1995).
 Posner MI, Raichle ME. Images of Mind. Scientific American
Library; New York (1994).
 Blazing a Genetic Trail, Howard Hughes Medical Institute,
hhmi.org (1991).
 Webster’s New World Dictionary, 3rd College Edition. Simon &
Schuster; New York (1991).
 Stedman’s Medical Dictionary, 24th Edition. Williams & Wilkins;
Baltimore (1982).
Advisors: Jordan H. Grafman, Ph.D., and Ishan Dasgupta, JD, MPH
Published 2019, revised 2022

Glossary
A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P R S T V W X

acetylcholine: a neurotransmitter that allows messages to be

passed from neuron to neuron across a synapse; released by
cholinergic nerves.

acoustic nerve: the eighth cranial nerve responsible for hearing and

balance, also known as the vestibulocochlear nerve.

acoustic neuroma: a benign, slow growing tumor that forms on the

sheath of the eighth cranial nerve. This tumor can cause hearing
loss, balance problems, and facial paralysis.

acromegaly: enlargement of the hands, feet or face in adults due to

overproduction of growth hormone; often from a growth hormone-
secreting pituitary tumor.

acupuncture: an ancient Oriental system of holistic therapy that

can be used to control pain by insertion of fine stainless steel
needles into specific areas of the body.
acute: a condition of quick onset lasting a short time, opposite of
chronic.

adenoma: a tumor that grows from a gland.

adjunct treatment: a treatment given in addition to another to

make each work more effectively.

allograft: a portion of living tissue taken from one person (the

donor) and implanted in another (the recipient) for the purpose of
fusing two tissues together.

ambulate: a term used by medical personnel to describe a patient’s

ability to walk or move around by themselves.

analgesics: a medicine that relieves pain without affecting

consciousness, the most common of which is aspirin.

anaplastic: when cells divide rapidly and bear little or no

resemblance to normal cells in appearance or function.

anastomosis: the connection of normally separate parts or spaces

so they intercommunicate, as between two blood vessels.

anesthesia dolorosa: constant pain felt in an area of total

numbness; similar to phantom limb pain.

anesthesiologist: a doctor who specializes in monitoring your life

functions during surgery so that you don’t feel pain.

anesthetic: an agent that causes loss of sensation with or without

the loss of consciousness.

aneurysm: a bulge or weakening of an artery wall.

aneurysm clip: a coil-spring device made of titanium used to treat

aneurysms.

angiogenesis: the process of developing new blood vessels.

angiogram: a type of X-ray that takes pictures of blood vessels with

the help of contrast dye injected via a catheter into the blood
stream.
angioplasty: an endovascular procedure to insert a balloon-tipped
catheter to enlarge a narrowing in an artery; performed during an
angiogram.

ankylosing spondylitis: a chronic inflammatory disease that affects

the joints between the vertebrae of the spine, and the joints
between the spine and the pelvis. It eventually causes the affected
vertebrae to fuse or grow together.

annulus (annulus fibrosis): tough fibrous outer wall of an

intervertebral disc.

anterior: from the front.

anterior longitudinal ligament (ALL): a strong fibrous ligament that

courses along the anterior surface of the vertebral bodies from the
base of the skull to the sacrum.

anticonvulsant: a drug that stops or prevents convulsions or

seizures. Used in patients with facial pain to block firing of nerves in
order to control pain.

antiepileptic drug (AED): a medication used to control epileptic

seizures.

apoplexy: sudden bleeding inside an organ.

arachnoid mater: one of three membranes that surround the brain

and spinal cord; the middle web-like membrane.

arterial Doppler study: also known as PVR, this test measures blood

flow using ultrasound—a radiation-free test in which high-pitched
sound waves are directed toward your arteries then reflected back
to form an image.

arteriovenous fistula (AVF): an abnormal passage or opening

between an artery and a vein.

arteriovenous malformation (AVM): a congenital disorder in which

there is an abnormal connection between arteries and veins
without an intervening capillary.
arthritis: joint inflammation caused by infection, immune
deficiency (rheumatoid arthritis), or degeneration of the cartilage;
causes pain, swelling, redness, warmth, and restricted movement.

astrocytoma: a tumor arising from the supportive cells of the brain

called astrocytes. These tumors are a type of glioma and range from
slow growing and benign to fast growing and malignant. They are
the most common primary CNS tumor, representing about half of
all primary brain and spinal cord tumors.

atherosclerosis: “hardening of the arteries.”

audiogram: a test of hearing acuity.

aura: a "warning" that a seizure may be imminent, the beginning of

a seizure. Auras range from abnormal smells or tastes, to a funny
feeling in the stomach, to sounds, colors, or emotional rushes.

autograft (autologous): a portion of living tissue taken from a part

of ones own body and transferred to another for the purpose of
fusing two tissues together.

automatism: things people do during a seizure in a state of

diminished consciousness, such as pulling at their clothes or
chewing.

axon: a long process of the nerve cell (neuron) that carries nerve
impulses away from the cell body to other nerve cells.

baclofen: a muscle relaxing drug used to treat spasticity; Lioresal.

balloon test occlusion: a test performed during an angiogram in

which a balloon is temporarily inflated inside an artery to block the
flow of blood. Used to evaluate collateral blood flow to the brain
and assess whether a bypass or vessel sacrifice can be safely
tolerated.

basal ganglia: a mass of nerve cell bodies (gray matter) located deep
within the white matter of the cerebrum. Has connections with
areas that subconsciously control movement.

Bell’s palsy: a weakness or paralysis on one side of the face caused

by viral or physical damage to the facial nerve.
benign: non cancerous tumor that grows slowly, does not invade
nearby tissues or spread, and has distinct boundaries.

bias: a point of view preventing impartial judgment on issues. In

clinical studies, blinding and randomization minimize bias.

bilateral: occurring on both sides of the body.

biofeedback: a technique of learning how to control certain body

functions by monitoring brain waves, muscle tension, blood
pressure, etc.

biopsy: a sample of tissue cells for examination under a microscope

to determine the existence or cause of a disease.

blind: a randomized clinical trial is "blind" when the participants do

not know to which group (experimental or control) they are
assigned.

bone graft: bone harvested from one's self (autograft) or from

another (allograft) for the purpose of fusing or repairing a defect.

bone scan: a nuclear medicine test that detects areas of increased

or decreased bone metabolism. A radioactive material is injected
into the bloodstream where it collects in the bones of the body and
is detected by a gamma camera. The test is commonly used to
diagnose tumors, infections, or fractures of the bone.

bone spurs: bony overgrowths that occur from stresses on bone,

also called osteophytes.

Botox (Botulinum Toxin Type A): A toxin injected into your facial
muscles that prevents them from contracting. Used both as a
treatment for hemifacial spasm and cosmetically to reduce the
appearance of wrinkles.

brachytherapy: a type of radiation therapy where capsules

containing radioactive substances are surgically implanted into the
tumor to deliver radiation; also called internal radiotherapy.

bradykinesia: slowness of movement, impaired dexterity,

decreased blinking, drooling, expressionless face.
brainstem: connects the upper brain to the spinal cord; responsible
for autonomic functions such as breathing and heart rate.

burr hole: a small dime-sized hole made in the skull.

cancellous bone: (sometimes called trabecular bone) the spongy

bone found beneath the hard outer bone that is rich with bone-
growing proteins.

cancer: generic term for more than 100 different diseases caused by

uncontrolled, abnormal growth of cells. Cancer cells can invade and
destroy normal tissue, and can travel through the bloodstream and
lymphatic system to reach other parts of the body.

capillary telangiectasia: abnormal collection enlarged capillaries.

catheter: a thin flexible tube made of rubber or plastic used to

insert or remove fluids from the body.

cauda equina: the bundle of nerves at the end of the spinal cord

that supply the muscles of the legs, bladder, bowel and genitals.

cauda equina syndrome: dull pain and loss of feeling in the

buttocks, genitals, and/or thigh with impaired bladder and bowel
function; caused by compression of the spinal nerve roots.

caudate nucleus: part of the basal ganglia involved with voluntary

control of movement.

cavernous malformation: abnormal collection of blood vessels with

no well-defined feeding arteries or draining veins.

cerebellum: part of the brain responsible for balance and muscle

control for movement.

cerebral bypass: an operation in which a surgeon creates a new

pathway for the movement of fluids and/or other substances in the
brain.

cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): a clear fluid produced by the choroid

plexus in the ventricles of the brain. CSF bathes the brain and spinal
cord, giving them support and buoyancy to protect from injury.
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak: the fluid surrounding the brain can
escape through a hole in the dura lining the skull. In 1% of
transsphenoidal cases, a clear watery discharge from the nose,
postnasal drip, or excessive swallowing occurs; may require surgery
to patch the leak.

cerebrovascular insufficiency: an insufficient blood flow to the

brain. The most common cause of decreased blood flow is
atherosclerosis of the arteries that supply blood to the brain.

cervical: the neck portion of the spine made up of seven vertebrae.

chemotherapy: treatment with toxic chemicals (e.g., anticancer

drugs).

chiropractic manipulation: a system of complimentary medicine

that attempts to treat diseases and pain by adjusting alignment of
the bones, especially in the back.

cholesterol: a fat-like substance that is made by the human body

and eaten in animal products. Cholesterol is used to form cell
membranes and process hormones and vitamin D. High cholesterol
levels contribute to the development of atherosclerosis.

chondroma: a rare, slow growing, benign tumor arising at the base

of the skull, especially in the area near the pituitary gland.

chondrosarcoma: a rare, malignant bone tumor that grows from

cartilage cells.

chordoma: a rare, bone tumor arising from primitive notochord

cells; usually occurs at the base of the spine (sacrum) or at the skull
base (clivus).

chronic: a condition of slow progression and continuing over a long

period of time, opposite of acute.

closed head injury: brain injury from an external impact that does

not break the skull.

coiling: a procedure, performed during an angiogram, in which

platinum coils are inserted into an aneurysm.
collateral vessels: a branch of an artery or vein used as an accessory
to the blood vessel from which it arises; often develop to shunt
blood around a blockage.

coma: a state of unconsciousness from which the person cannot be

aroused; Glasgow Coma Scale score of 8 or less.

concussion: widespread injury to the brain caused by a hard blow or

violent shaking, causing a sudden and temporary impairment of
brain function, such as a short loss of consciousness or disturbance
of vision and equilibrium.

conductive hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the

eardrum or ossicle bones.

congenital: existing before or at birth.

contrast agent: a liquid (usually iodine or gadolinium) that is

injected into your body to make certain tissues more visible during
diagnostic imaging (angiography, CT, myelogram, MRI).

control group: the group that receives standard treatment.

contusion: a bruise to a specific area of the brain; caused by an

impact and broken blood vessels.

cooperative groups: networks of organizations and researchers at

academic hospitals and community practices that collaborate to
conduct research in their medical specialty.

corpectomy: a type of spine surgery in which a major portion of the

bony vertebral body is removed and is replaced with a bone graft.

cortical bone: outer layer of dense, compact bone.

cortical mapping: direct brain recording or stimulation to identify

language, motor, and sensory areas of the cortex.

corticosteroid: a hormone produced by the adrenal gland or

synthetically. Regulates salt and water balance and has an anti-
inflammatory effect.

cortex: the outer layer of the brain containing nerve cell bodies.
cranial nerves: the 12 pairs of nerves that originate in the
brainstem and carry sensory and motor information to organs in
the head and body.

craniectomy: surgical removal of a portion of the skull.

craniopharyngioma: a benign tumor that grows from cells near the

pituitary stalk.

craniotome: a special saw with a footplate that allows cutting of the

skull without cutting the dura mater.

craniotomy: surgical opening of a portion of the skull to gain access

to the intracranial structures and replacement of the bone flap.

CT (computed tomography) scan: a type of diagnostic X-ray that

views anatomical structures of the brain and spine, especially
bones, soft tissues and vessels. Images are viewed in "slices,"
similar

Cushing's disease: an endocrine disease caused by increased levels

of cortisol in the body; often from an adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH)-secreting pituitary tumor. Hallmark signs include a fatty
hump between the shoulders, a rounded face, and pink or purple
stretch marks on the skin. Also caused by excessive use of
corticosteroid medication.

cyst: a fluid-filled mass, usually enclosed by a membrane.

decompression: opening or removal of bone to relieve pressure and

pinching of the spinal nerves.

degenerative arthritis: the wearing away of cartilage that cushions

joints in the hands, feet and spine. Bone spurs can develop where
the joints rub together resulting in limited motion.

dendrite: the “arms” of a nerve cell that connect with the axons to
transmit impulses toward the cell body.

depression: a mood disorder characterized by feelings of extreme

sadness and hopelessness that interferes with a person's ability to
function, feel pleasure, or maintain interest.
diabetes insipidus: a disorder in which there is an abnormal
increase in urine output, fluid intake, and often thirst. Caused by a
decrease in vasopressin hormone due to damage of the posterior
pituitary lobe.

diathermy: the use of high-frequency alternating current to

produce heat in parts of the body. The heat generated increases
blood flow and can be used to treat deep pain associated with
rheumatic and arthritic conditions.

differentiation: refers to how developed cancer cells are in a tumor.

Well-differentiated tumor cells resemble normal cells and tend to
grow and spread at a slower rate than undifferentiated, which lack
the structure and function of normal cells and grow uncontrollably.

diffuse axonal injury (DAI): injury to the nerve cell axons from rapid
rotational or deceleration of the brain. DAI is often seen in motor
vehicle accidents or shaking injuries. The nerve axons, which
compose the white matter of the brain, are twisted or torn by
shearing forces.

diplopia: double vision.

disc (intervertebral disc): a fibrocartilagenous cushion that connects

any two adjacent vertebrae in the backbone or spine.

discectomy: a type of surgery in which herniated disc material is

removed so that it no longer irritates and compresses the nerve
root.

discogenic pain: pain arising from degenerative changes in the

intervertebral discs.

discogram: a type of diagnostic x-ray that views intervertebral discs

by inserting contrast agent into the disc space.

disconnection syndrome: the interruption of information

transferred from one brain region to another.

dopamine: a neurotransmitter in the brain that allows messages to

be passed from neuron to neuron across synapses.
Doppler ultrasound: a noninvasive test that uses reflected sound
waves to evaluate blood as it flows through a blood vessel.

dorsal columns: white matter tracts located in the posterior portion

of the spinal cord that transmit sensory information to the brain.

double-blinded study: a clinical trial in which neither medical staff

nor participants know which therapy the participant will receive.

dura mater: a tough, fibrous, protective covering of the brain.

dysesthesia: a numbness, crawling, or unpleasant sensation that a

person considers disturbing.

dyskinesia: abnormal involuntary movements caused by high levels

of antiparkinson medication.

dystonia: a movement disorder that causes sustained muscle

contraction producing repetitive movements or abnormal postures.
Spasms can often be controlled with sensory tricks to suppress the
movement.

EC-IC bypass: acronym stands for extracranial – intracranial bypass

procedure in which an artery from outside the skull is attached to
an artery inside the skull through a craniotomy.

edema: tissue swelling caused by the accumulation of fluid.

efficacy: the ability of a drug or treatment to produce a desired

result. A drug passes efficacy trials if it is effective at the dose
tested and against the illness for which it is prescribed.

Ehlers-Danlos IV: a genetic disorder in which connective tissue in

the intestines, arteries, uterus, and other hollow organs may be
unusually weak, leading to organ or blood vessel rupture.

electrode: a conductor that carries current. Can be used for

diagnostic testing to receive and record electrical activity of nerves
or can be used for therapy to deliver a heating current to destroy
nerve fibers.

electromyography (EMG): a test to study muscles and nerves for

abnormal patterns of electrical activity. Small needles, or
electrodes, are placed in your muscles creating light electrical
shocks are given to the muscle and the results are recorded on a
special machine.

embolus: (plural emboli) a blood clot or other substance such as air

or fat, which is carried in the bloodstream from another site until it
blocks a blood vessel.

embolization: the insertion of material, coils or glue, into an

aneurysm so blood can no longer flow through it.

endarterectomy: a surgical procedure in which material occluding

the carotid artery is cleaned out, thereby restoring normal blood
flow to the brain and preventing a stroke.

endocrinologist: a doctor who specializes in treating

hormonal/glandular disorders (e.g., pancreas, pituitary).

endorphin: a natural hormone produced by the brain that produces

a euphoric pain relieving effect similar to opiates.

endovascular: relating to a procedure in which a catheter

containing medications or miniature instruments is inserted
through the skin into a blood vessel for the treatment of vascular
disease.

ependymoma: a benign tumor that grows from the ependyma cells

lining the ventricles.

epidermoid: a benign, congenital tumor arising from ectodermal

cells; also called pearly tumor.

epidural hematoma: a blood clot that forms between the skull and
the dura lining of the brain; caused by torn arteries.

epidural space: the space between the walls of the vertebral canal
and the dura mater that is filled with fat and small blood vessels.

epidural steroid injection (ESI): an injection of both a long-lasting

steroid "cortisone" and an anesthetic numbing agent into the
epidural space of your spine. The epidural space is the area
between the protective covering of
epilepsy: a chronic disorder marked by repeated seizures causing a
sudden loss or change of consciousness and convulsions or muscle
spasms.

epileptologist: a neurologist who specializes in the treatment of

epilepsy.

essential tremor: involuntary rhythmic tremors of the hands and

arms occurring both at rest and during purposeful movement.

extramedullary: located outside the medulla substance of the

spinal cord.

facet joints: joints located on the top and bottom of each vertebra
that connect the vertebrae to each other and permit back motion.

facet rhizotomy: a procedure that uses a radiofrequency current to

deaden the nerves surrounding the facet joint and prevent pain
signals from reaching the brain.

facial nerve (the seventh cranial nerve): a sensory and motor nerve

that sends signals to your facial muscles, taste buds on the front of
your tongue, sublingual salivary glands, and lacrimal glands. A small
branch goes to your ear to help regulate hearing.

facial palsy: paralysis of the facial muscles on one side.

familial: tending to occur repeatedly in family members, but is not

genetic (inherited). Might indicate a susceptibility or a common
environmental influence.

fibromuscular dysplasia: abnormal cell growth in the artery walls

that causes narrowing and a “string of beads” appearance; usually
affects arteries of the kidneys and brain.

fistula: the abnormal channel between the artery and vein in an

AVM.

fluoroscopy: an imaging device that uses x-ray or other radiation to

view structures in the body in real time, or “live”. Also called a C-
arm.

focal: limited to one specific area.

foramen (intervertebral foramen): the opening or window between
the vertebrae through which the nerve roots leave the spinal canal.

foraminotomy: surgical enlargement of the intervertebral foramen

through which the spinal nerves pass from the spinal cord to the
body. Performed to relieve pressure and impingement of the spinal
nerves.

fractionated radiotherapy: delivering the radiation dose over

multiple sessions.

fusion: to join together two separate bones into one to provide

stability.

gadolinium: a type of contrast agent used during MRI.

ganglion: a group of nerve cell bodies located at the root of a nerve.

generalized seizure: a seizure involving the entire brain.

gigantism: excessive growth and height in children caused by

overproduction of growth hormone; often from a growth hormone-
secreting pituitary tumor.

glial cells: cells of the nervous system that support the neurons.

There are 10-50 times more glial cells in the brain than neurons.

glial scar: a physical and molecular barrier surrounding the injured

area of the spinal cord that may prevent axons from regenerating.

glioblastoma multiforme (GBM): these tumors, sometimes called

high-grade or grade IV astrocytomas, grow rapidly, invade nearby
tissue, and contain cells that are very malignant.

glioma: a large category of primary brain tumors that originate

from glial cells. There are many types of gliomas; see astrocytoma,
glioblastoma multiforme, mixed glioma, optic nerve glioma.

globus pallidus interna (GPI): nuclei in the brain that regulate

muscle tone; part of the basal ganglia.

glomus jugulare: a very rare, slow growing, benign tumor that

invades the temporal bone.
glossopharyngeal nerve: a nerve originating from the brainstem
that supplies feeling and movement to the tongue and throat.

glossopharyngeal neuralgia: A painful disorder of the ninth cranial

nerve (glossopharyngeal nerve). Irritation of this nerve causes
intense pain on one side of the throat near the tonsil area that can
radiate to the ear.

glutamate: a neurotransmitter that allows messages to be passed

from neuron to neuron across a synapse.

glucose: a simple sugar that is a source of energy for the body and
the only source of energy for the brain.

glycerol: a sweet, oily fluid that can be injected into a nerve to

destroy its pain-producing portion.

hamstring: a group of 3 muscles that run down the back of the

thigh.

hematoma: a blood clot.

hemangioblastoma: benign tumor-like mass that forms from blood

vessels and is often cystic; associated with von Hippel-Lindau
disease.

hemangioma: a benign tumor that forms from blood vessels in the

brain or spinal cord.

hemangiopericytoma: a rare tumor, grade II or grade III, different

from the meningioma, although rising from the same cells.

hemifacial spasm: an irritation of the seventh cranial nerve (facial

nerve) causing involuntary contraction of the muscles on one side
of the face, also known as tic convulsif. Can sometimes cause pain
behind the ear and loss of hearing.

hemorrhage: external or internal loss of blood from damaged blood

vessels. Hemorrhage is stopped by blood clotting.

hemorrhagic stroke: stroke caused by the rupture of a blood vessel

in the brain.
heparin: an anti-clotting medication.

herniate: to protrude through the wall of the cavity in which it is

normally enclosed. Rupture.

herniated disc: a condition in which the gel-like center of an

intervertebral disc ruptures through the tough disc wall irritating
surrounding nerves and causing pain.

hippocampal atrophy: a wasting or decrease in the hippocampus

size causing seizures.

hippocampus: a region in the temporal lobe of the brain that is

associated with learning and memory.

hormone: a chemical substance produced in the body that controls

and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs.

hunchback: see kyphosis.

hydrocephalus: an abnormal build-up of cerebrospinal fluid usually

caused by a blockage of the ventricular system of the brain.
Increased intracranial pressure can compress and damage brain
tissue. Also called “water on the brain.”

hyperextension: extending a joint or limb beyond its normal limit.

hypermetabolism: faster than normal metabolism.

hyperthyroidism: increased heart rate, weight loss, nervousness,

and sleeplessness caused by excess thyroid hormone; can be caused
by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)-producing pituitary tumor.

hypometabolism: slower than normal metabolism.

hypothalamus: a part of the brain that regulates pituitary hormone

responses by secreting releasing factors or inhibiting factors,
depending on the needs of the body.

ictal: that which happens during a seizure.

idiopathic: of unknown cause.

image-guided surgery: use of preoperative CT or MRI scans and a
computer workstation to guide surgery.

immunotherapy: treatment designed to improve or restore the

immune system's ability to fight infection and disease.

infarct: an area of dead tissue caused by a blockage of its blood

supply.

inherited: to receive from a parent or ancestor by genetic

transmission.

Institutional Review Board (IRB): a committee of scientists, doctors,

and consumers at each health care facility where a clinical trial
takes place. IRBs review and must approve protocols for all clinical
trials. They check to see that the study is well designed, does not
involve undue risks, and includes safeguards for patients.

intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT): the intensity of the

radiation beam can be changed during treatment to spare adjoining
normal tissue and increase the dose to the tumor.

interbody cage: a device made of titanium, carbon-fiber, or

polyetheretherketone (PEEK) that is placed in the disc space
between two vertebrae. It has a hollow core packed with bone
morsels to create a bone fusion.

interbody fusion: a procedure in which a device, packed with bone

fragments, is screwed into the space between two vertebral bodies.
The bone fragments join with the bone of the vertebrae to create a
solid joint and reduce movement at the painful segment.

interictal: that which happens between seizures.

interstitial radiation: implantation of radioactive seeds into a

tumor: also called brachytherapy.

intervertebral foramen: the hole through which the spinal nerve

exits the spinal canal.

intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH): bleeding directly into the brain

tissue; may cause a stroke.
intracranial: within the skull.

intracranial pressure (ICP): pressure within the skull. Normal ICP is

20mm HG.

ICP monitor: a device used to measure intracranial pressure inside

the brain.

intractable: difficult to control.

intradural-extramedullary: lesion located within the covering of the

spinal cord (the dura) but outside the substance of the spinal cord.

intramedullary: located within the spinal cord itself.

intrathecal space: the space surrounding the spinal cord through

which cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) flows; also called the subarachnoid
space.

iodine: a non-metallic element used in contrast agent that makes

vessels and tissues show up on diagnostic imaging (angiogram, CT,
myelogram).

ischemia: a low-oxygen state usually due to obstruction of the

arterial blood supply or inadequate blood flow leading to hypoxia in
the tissue.

ischemic stroke: stroke caused by an interruption or blockage of

oxygen-rich blood flow to an area of the brain; caused by a blood
clot, atherosclerosis, vasospasm, or reduced blood pressure.

kyphoplasty: a minimally invasive procedure used to treat vertebral

compression fractures by inflating a balloon to restore bone height
then injecting bone cement into the vertebral body.

kyphosis: abnormal curve of the thoracic spine, also called

hunchback.

labyrinth: part of the inner ear responsible for balance.

lamina: flat plates of bone originating from the pedicles of the

vertebral body that form the posterior outer wall of the spinal canal
and protect the spinal cord. Sometimes referred to as vertebral
arch.

laminectomy: surgical removal of the laminae or vertebral arch of

the vertebra to remove pressure on the spinal cord.

laminotomy: surgical cutting of the laminae or vertebral arch of the

vertebra.

laser: a device that emits a narrow intense beam of energy to

shrink and cut tissue.

LDL cholesterol: Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol is the primary

cholesterol molecule. High levels of LDL, nicknamed "bad"
cholesterol, increase the risk of atherosclerosis.

L-DOPA: a synthetic form of dopamine used in anti-parkinson

medication.

lead: a small medical wire that carries electrical current.

lesion: a general term that refers to any change in tissue, such as

tumor, blood, malformation, infection or scar tissue.

ligament: strong band of white fibrous connective tissue that joins

bones to other bones or to cartilage in the joint areas.

linear accelerator (LINAC) : a machine that creates a high-energy

radiation beam, using electricity to form a stream of fast-moving
subatomic particles.

lipoma: a rare, benign tumor composed of fat tissue, commonly

located in the corpus callosum.

lobectomy: surgical removal of a lobe of the brain.

lordosis: increased curvature of the lumbar spine that tends to

make the buttocks more prominent, also called swayback.

lumbar: lower portion of the spine made up of 5 vertebrae;

connects with the fused bones of the sacrum below.
lumbar drain: a catheter inserted into the subarachnoid space of
the spine to remove cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Used to treat
hydrocephalus or relax the brain during surgery.

lumen: the inside diameter of a blood vessel or hollow organ.

lymphoma: a rare tumor arising from lymph cells; may metastasize

to the brain from lymphoma tumor elsewhere in the body.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): a diagnostic test that uses a

strong magnet to view tissues in your body and displays "slices."

malignant: cancerous tumor that grows quickly, invades other

tissues, and has irregular boundaries.

Marfan's syndrome: a genetic disorder in which patients develop

skeletal defects in long bones, chest abnormalities, curvature of the
spine, and circulatory defects.

mass effect: damage to the brain due to the bulk of a tumor, the
blockage of fluid, and/or excess accumulation of fluid within the
skull.

medulloblastoma: a fast-growing, invasive tumor usually located in

the cerebellum that frequently spreads to other parts of the central
nervous system via the spinal fluid.

meninges: three membranes (pia mater, arachnoid mater, and dura

mater) that surround the brain and spinal cord.

meningioma: a tumor that grows from the meninges, the

membrane that surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

metastasis: in cancer patients, the spreading of malignant cells.

metastatic: cancerous tumor that has spread from its original

source through the blood or lymph systems.

microcatheter: a small catheter, about the size of a string of

spaghetti, used to discharge coils into an aneurysm.

micrographia: small handwriting seen in Parkinson's Disease.

microvascular decompression (MVD): a surgical procedure to relieve
symptoms caused by cranial nerve compression; a tiny sponge is
inserted between the compressing vessel and the nerve.

minimally invasive surgery: use of technology (e.g., endoscopes,

cameras, image-guidance systems, robotics) to operate through
small, keyhole incisions in the body.

monotherapy: treatment with only one drug.

morphine: a potent narcotic drug used to treat severe and

persistent pain.

Moyamoya disease: a narrowing of the internal carotid arteries at

the base of the brain that can eventually result in complete
blockage and stroke. To compensate for the narrowing arteries, the
brain creates collateral blood vessels in an attempt to deliver
oxygen-rich blood to deprived areas of the brain.

Moyamoya syndrome: a condition with moyamoya-like changes to

the internal carotid arteries but caused by a known disease.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging): a diagnostic test that uses a

strong magnet to view tissues in your body and displays them in a
series "slices."

multi-center trials: clinical trials that are conducted at many

treatment centers at the same time.

multiple myeloma: a cancer of plasma cells, the antibody-producing

cells normally present in the bone marrow.

multiple sclerosis: a chronic degenerative disease of the central

nervous system in which the myelin (sheath) surrounding the
nerves is destroyed.

MVD (microvascular decompression): a surgical procedure to relieve

symptoms caused by cranial nerve compression; a tiny sponge is
inserted between the compressing vessel and the nerve.

myelin: a fatty material that forms a protective sheath around the

axon of nerve cells.
myelogram: a diagnostic test in which a special dye is injected into
the space around the spinal cord causing the nerves to show up
white on an X-ray.

myelopathy: a broad term referring to spinal cord dysfunction of

any cause. Some processes that lead to myelopathy include:
transverse myelitis, injury, arthritis, vascular malformation,
vertebral fracture from osteoporosis infection or malignancy, or
syrinx an enlarged cyst within the spinal cord).

nasal splints: small, thin plastic material placed in the nose after
surgery to prevent adhesion scars from forming in the nose.

necrosis: dead cells.

neoplasm: a tumor, either benign or malignant.

nerve conduction velocity (NCV): a test to study nerves for

abnormal patterns of electrical activity. Small electrode pads are
placed on your skin along a nerve path. Light electrical shocks are
given to the nerve and the results are recorded on a special
machine.

neuralgia: severe nerve pain caused by nerve compression or the

breakdown of the protective myelin sheath surrounding a nerve.
This disrupts the normal signal of the nerve and causes pain which
begins as "pins and needles" followed by an intense burning,
jabbing, or electrical shock sensation that can

neurectomy: cutting of a nerve for the relief of pain.

neuritis: inflammation of a nerve or nerves.

neurofibroma: a benign tumor that grows from the fibrous covering

of a nerve. Related to the inherited disorder neurofibromatosis.

neurofibromatosis (NF1): a genetic disorder, also called von

Recklinghausen disease, in which patients develop café-au-lait
spots, freckling, and multiple soft tumors under the skin and
throughout the nervous system.

neurogenic claudication: a pain syndrome in the back and legs

aggravated by walking and relieved by sitting or bending forward.
neurogenic keratitis: inflammation of the cornea, which is the
transparent outermost layer of the eyeball.

neuron: basic unit of the nervous system, composed of a cell body,

dendrites, and axon; also called a nerve cell.

neurotransmitter: a chemical substance that allows for the

transmission of electrical impulses from one nerve cell to another
across synapses. Some neurotransmitters include: acetylcholine,
noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin, gamma-aminobutyric acid and
glutamate.

nidus: the central part of an AVM.

non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs): drugs used

to reduce inflammation and relieve pain. They mainly inhibit the
body's ability to synthesize prostaglandins.

nucleus (nucleus pulposus): soft gel-like center of an intervertebral

disc.

numbness: a lack of sensation or the inability to feel anything when

the skin is touched.

occlusion: an obstruction or closure of a passageway or vessel.

oculoplastic surgeon: a doctor who specializes in surgery of the eye

and face.

oligodendroglioma: a tumor that grows from the support cells

(oligodendroglia) of the brain that produce myelin, the fatty
covering around nerve cells.

open head injury: penetration of the skull pushing skull fragments

or  objects (bullet) into the brain.

orthotic: any device applied to or around the body in the care of

physical impairment or disability.

orthotist: a medical professional who specializes in making custom

molded braces and prostheses (artifical limbs).

osteoblasts: the bone-building cells in bone.

osteoclasts: the bone-removing, or resorption, cells in bone.

osteoporosis: a depletion of calcium in the bones making them

weak, brittle, and prone to fracture. Common in elderly women
after menopause. Can be prevented early in life with calcium and
regular exercise to stimulate bone metabolism.

osteophyte: bony overgrowths that occur from stresses on bone,

also called bone spurs. Often relates to osteoarthritis.

osteoblastoma: a non-cancerous bone tumor that grows in the

posterior portion of the spine. Symptoms include long-lasting pain,
swelling and tenderness. Pain stops when it is surgically removed.

osteoid osteoma: a smaller, non-cancerous type of osteoblastoma

that causes increased pain at night. This tumor is easy to treat with
surgery or radio-frequency ablation.

osteomyelitis: a bone infection caused by bacteria.

otologic surgeon: a doctor who specializes in surgery of the ear.

Paget's disease: also known as osteitis deformans, a bone disease in

which normal bone is destroyed and then replaced with thickened,
weaker, softer bone. This weaker bone easily bends and deforms.
Most often affects the pelvis, thoracic and lumbar spine, skull,
femur, tibia, fibula, and clavicles.

palliative: to alleviate without curing.

papaverine: a vasodilator drug used to relax blood vessels during

vasospasm.

paraplegia: paralysis of both legs and lower body below the arms
indicating an injury in the thoracic or lumbar spine.

Parkinson's Disease (PD): a degenerative, progressive neurologic

disorder that affects nerve cells in deep parts of your brain that are
responsible for relaying messages that plan and control body
movement. Symptoms include tremor, slowness of movement,
stiffness, and balance problems.
paroxysmal: an adjective used to describe the uncontrollable and
sudden twitching of the face.

pars interarticularis: the narrow strip of bone between the superior

and inferior facets of the vertebra.

partial seizure: a seizure involving only a portion of the brain.

pedicle: the thin, bony bridge that connects the vertebral body with
the outer processes.

percutaneous: by way of the skin. (e.g., injection).

perfuse: to force blood or other fluid to flow from the artery

through the vascular bed of a tissue.

peripheral nerve stimulation: a pain management system in which

specific nerves are stimulated rather than the general area of the
spinal cord.

pituitary adenoma: a tumor arising from cells in the pituitary gland;

tumor may be hormone-secreting (prolactin, adrenocorticotropic,
growth hormone) or not.

placebo: an inactive pill, liquid, or powder that has no treatment

value.

PNET (primitive neuroectodermal tumor): a tumor which appears

identical under the microscope to the medulloblastoma, but occurs
primarily in the cerebrum and most frequently occurs in very young
children.

polycystic kidney disease: a genetic disorder in which patients

develop multiple cysts on the kidneys; associated with aneurysms
of blood vessels in the brain.

positron: an electrically charged particle that has the opposite

charge as an electron. It reacts with an electron to produce gamma
rays.

positron emission tomography (PET): a nuclear medicine test in

which tissue function can be imaged. Damaged tissues have
reduced metabolic activity; therefore, gamma radiation from these
areas is reduced or absent.

posterior: from the back.

posterior longitudinal ligament (PLL): a strong fibrous ligament that

courses along the posterior surface of the vertebral bodies within
the spinal canal from the base of the skull to the sacrum.

posterolateral: behind and to one side.

postherpetic neuralgia: chronic pain that persists after shingles

rash and blisters have healed.

pressure sores: injured areas of skin or tissue caused by lying or

sitting in one position too long.

primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET) : a tumor which appears

identical under the microscope to the medulloblastoma, but occurs
primarily in the cerebrum and most frequently occurs in very young
children.

progressive supranuclear palsy: a degenerative, progressive

neurologic disorder that affects nerve cells in deep parts of your
brain causing motor disturbances similar to Parkinson's. Notable
symptom is the loss of ability to move the eyes to look downward.

prolactin: a hormone that helps regulate sexual function, including

stimulating milk production.

prolactinoma: a benign pituitary tumor that overproduces the

hormone prolactin. Too much prolactin causes abnormal milk
production in the breasts, lack of menstruation, infertility, and
decreased sex drive.

pseudomeningocele: an abnormal collection of cerebrospinal fluid

(CSF) that communicates with the CSF space around the brain or
spinal cord. Unlike a meningocele, the fluid has no surrounding
membrane but is contained in a cavity within the soft tissues.

quadriplegia: paralysis of both legs and arms indicating an injury to

the cervical spine.
radiation: high-energy rays or particle streams used to treat
disease.

radiation necrosis: death of healthy tissue caused by the delivery of

radiation to kill tumor cells.

radiculopathy: refers to any disease affecting the spinal nerve

roots. Also used to describe pain along the sciatic nerve that
radiates down the leg.

radiofrequency: radiation used in MRI whose waves are in the

frequency range of 300 MHz to 3 kHz.

radiofrequency rhizotomy: A procedure used to treat facial

neuralgias by using radiant energy of a certain frequency
(radiofrequency) to destroy the pain-producing portion of the nerve
(rhizotomy).

radiolabel: the technique of attaching, or "tagging", a radioactive

molecule to another molecule (such as a protein) so that it can be
identified in the body. The radiolabeled substance emits positrons

radiologist: a doctor who specializes in reading X-rays and other

diagnostic scans.

radiology department: rooms designated for examining and

imaging the body by use of x-rays or magnetic fields.

radioresistant: resistant to radiation therapy.

radiosensitive: responsive to radiation therapy.

radiotherapy: high-energy rays or particle streams used to treat

disease.

randomization: a method used to prevent bias in research. People

are assigned by chance to either the treatment or control group,
like the flip of a coin.

recurrence: the return of symptoms or the disease itself.

reflex: an automatic or involuntary reaction to a stimulus.

resection: surgical removal of a tumor or malformation.

residual tumor: tumor remaining after surgery.

revascularization: to restore blood supply to an organ by means of a

blood vessel graft.

rhizolysis: cutting or destroying of a group of cells (e.g., nerve cells)

for the relief of pain.

rhizotomy: cutting or destroying portions of nerve roots for the

relief of pain.

sacral: the five fused vertebrae at the base of the spine that provide
attachment for the iliac (hip) bones and protect the pelvic organs.

schwannoma (also called neuroma): a tumor arising from Schwann

cells that produce myelin.

sciatic nerve: nerve located in the back of the leg which supplies the
muscles of the back of the knee and lower leg and sensation to the
back of the thigh, part of the lower leg, and the sole of the foot.

sciatica: pain that courses along the sciatic nerve in the buttocks
and down the legs. Usually caused by compression of the 5th
lumbar or 1st sacral spinal nerves.

scoliosis: an abnormal side-to-side curvature of the spine.

seizure: uncontrollable convulsion, spasm, or series of jerking

movements of the face, trunk, arms, or legs.

seizure focus: a specific area of the brain where seizures begin.

sella (sella turcica): a depression on the upper surface of the

sphenoid bone, lodging the pituitary gland.

sensorineural hearing loss: hearing loss caused by damage to the

vestibulocochlear nerve.

seroma: a mass formed by the collection of tissue fluids following a

wound or surgery.
shingles (herpes zoster): a viral infection that causes a painful skin
rash and blisters along the course of a nerve; a reactivation of
chickenpox.

shunt: a drainage tube to move cerebrospinal fluid from inside the

ventricles of the brain into another body cavity such as the
abdomen.

single-center clinical trials: trials initiated by one researcher that

are only available at one center.

skull base surgeon: a doctor with special training to perform

complex craniotomies at the base of the skull.

spasticity: severe muscle rigidity and spasms caused by damage to

motor pathways; makes movement of the arms and legs difficult.

sphenoid sinus: an air-filled, mucous-lined cavity in the skull

located behind the nose and between the eyes.

spinal canal: the hollow space within the bony vertebrae of the
spine through which the spinal cord passes.

spinal cord: part of the central nervous system enclosed and

protected by the spinal vertebrae; conducts messages, or impulses,
back and forth between your brain and body to control sensation
and movement.

spinal hygroma: an accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid under the

skin, which produces a visible swelling, caused by leakage around a
catheter, drain, or shunt.

spinal instability: abnormal movement between two vertebrae that

can cause pain or damage the spinal cord and nerves.

spinal shock: immediately following spinal cord injury there is an

absence of movement, sensation, and reflexes below the level of
the lesion. It can last for hours to weeks and then may get better.

spinal stenosis: the narrowing of the spinal canal and nerve-root

canal along with the enlargement of the facet joints.
spinothalamic tracts: a group of nerve fibers that transmit the
feeling of pain through the spinal cord to the brain.

spondylolisthesis: when one vertebra slips forward on another,

usually at the fifth lumbar vertebra and sacrum.

spondylolysis: a weakness or fracture between the upper and lower

facets of a vertebra, an area called the pars interarticularis.

spondylosis: a spinal condition resulting from degeneration of the

intervertebral discs causing narrowing of the disc space and the
presence of bone spurs. Also called degenerative disc disease.

status epilepticus: a seizure that lasts more than 5 minutes and

requires immediate medical attention due to lack of oxygen to the
brain.

stent: a tube-like device that is inserted into a vessel or passageway

to keep it open.

stereotactic: a precise method for locating deep brain structures by

the use of 3-dimensional coordinates.

steroid: A large group of chemical substances related in structure to

one another and each containing the same chemical backbone.
Many hormones, body constituents, and drugs are steroids.
Examples: drugs used to relieve swelling and inflammation such as
prednisone, vitamin D, and the sex steroids such as testosterone.

striatum (corpus striatum): part of the basal ganglia involved with

the subconscious regulation of movement.

stroke: a condition caused by interruption of the blood supply to

the brain; may cause loss of ability to speak or to move parts of the
body.

subarachnoid space: the space between the pia and arachnoid

mater of the brain and spinal cord that contains cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF).

subarachnoid hemorrhage: bleeding in the space surrounding the

brain; may cause a stroke.
subdural hematoma: a blood clot that forms between the brain and
the dura; caused by torn veins.

substantia nigra: a group of cells in the brain where dopamine is

produced.

subthalamic nucleus (STN): a group of cells below the thalamus that

is linked to the basal ganglia.

swayback: see lordosis.

synapse: the tiny gap between two nerve cells; across which

impulses pass by release of neurotransmitters. Some brain cells
have more than 15,000 synapses.

syncope: a fainting spell caused by an abrupt reduction of blood

flow to the brain.

syringomyelia: a chronic progressive disease of the spinal cord

caused by an obstruction of normal cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) flow
that redirects the fluid into the spinal cord to form a syrinx.

syrinx: a cavity filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that expands

and elongates over time, destroying the center of the spinal cord.

target: area where the radiation beams are aimed; usually a tumor,

malformation, or other abnormality of the body.

telemetry: the method for adjusting the settings on an implanted

device by using radio or other remote signals.

thalamus: a relay station for all sensory messages that

thoracic: middle portion of the spine made up of 12 vertebrae.

thrombolysis: to break down or dissolve a clot.

thrombus: a blood clot

tic douloureux: French for trigeminal neuralgia.

tingling: a prickling sensation or “pins-and-needles” sensation,

tinnitus: ringing or buzzing noise in the ear. 

tissue plasminogen activator(t-PA): a thrombolytic "clot-buster"
drug used to reduce the severity of ischemic stroke if given within
three hours of stroke onset; can be given intravenously or by
arterial catheter, but not by mouth.

titanium: a strong, low-density, highly corrosion-resistant metal

alloy.

tomography: the technique of using rotating X-rays to capture an

image at a particular depth in the body, bringing those structures
into sharp focus while blurring structures at other depths.

tracer: a substance, usually radioactively labeled, which is injected

into your body and can be followed to gain information about
metabolic processes.

tracts: a group of nerve fibers that pass from one part of the brain
or spinal cord to another, forming a pathway.

traction: a method for relieving pressure on the spine by using a

system of weights and pulleys.

transcranial doppler (TCD): an ultrasound device used to measure

blood flow through arteries in the brain.

transient ischemic attack (TIA): a “mini” stroke caused when blood

flow to the brain is temporarily interrupted and then restored;
causes no permanent brain damage.

translaminar: through the lamina.

trigeminal nerve: a nerve originating within the brain that supplies

feeling and movement to the face. The trigeminal nerve has three
divisions: ophthalmic (V1), gives sensation to the forehead and eyes;
maxillary (V2), gives sensation to the cheek, under the eye, around
the nose; and mandibular (V3), gives sensation to the jaw.

trigeminal neuralgia: a painful disorder of the fifth cranial nerve

(trigeminal nerve). Irritation of this nerve can cause intense pain
that usually affects one side of the face usually in the forehead,
cheek, jaw, or teeth.
trigger zones: small areas that produce intense pain if stimulated,
usually located near the nose, lips, eyes, or ears.

tumor: an abnormal growth of tissue resulting from uncontrolled

multiplication of cells and serving no physiological function. A
tumor can be benign or malignant.

ultrasonic aspirator: a surgical tool that uses a fine jet of water,

ultrasonic vibration, and suction to break up and remove lesions.

ultrasound: soundwaves of extremely high frequency which reflect

off body structures to create a picture. Can also be used as a form
of medical treatment to break up kidney stones or treat joint pain.

vagus nerve: a cranial nerve that carries signals from the brainstem
through organs in the neck, chest, and abdomen.

vasospasm: abnormal narrowing or constriction of arteries due to

irritation by blood in the subarachnoid space.

ventricles: hollow areas in the center of the brain containing

cerebrospinal fluid. There are two lateral ventricles on each side of
the brain, one third ventricle, and one fourth ventricle.

ventricular drain: a catheter placed in the ventricle of the brain to

drain excess cerebrospinal fluid.

ventriculoperitoneal (VP) shunt: a tube placed in the ventricle of the

brain to drain excess cerebrospinal fluid into the abdomen.

venous malformation: abnormal tangle of veins.

venous sinus: a blood filled channel that lacks normal vessel walls.

vertebra (plural vertebrae): one of 33 bones that form the spinal

column, they are divided into 7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5
sacral, and 4 coccygeal. Only the top 24 bones are moveable.

vertebral body compression fracture (VCF): a break in the vertebral

body of the spine that causes it to collapse and produce a wedge-
shaped deformity.
vertebroplasty: a minimally invasive procedure used to treat
vertebral compression fractures by injecting bone cement into the
vertebral body; similar to kyphoplasty but does not restore
vertebral height.

vertigo: a feeling of spinning, whirling, or turning.

vestibulocochlear nerve: the eighth cranial nerve responsible for

hearing and balance.

video EEG monitoring: simultaneous monitoring of a patient's

behavior with a video camera and the patient's brain activity by
EEG.

weakness: a lack or reduction of strength in one or more muscles.

whiplash: an injury to the ligaments and muscles of the neck

resulting from rapid acceleration or deceleration (as in an auto
accident).

X-ray: electromagnetic radiation used in diagnostic imaging to view

shadows of tissue density in the body, also called roentgenogram.

ow let’s start building some vocabulary. Here’s a list of prefixes and

suffixes associated with the nervous system.

Prefix What It Means

Hemi- Half
Pachy- Thick
Para- Beyond, around, beside
Polio- Gray
Quadri- Four
Sub- Below, under
Suffix What It Means
-algia Pain
-itis Inflammation
-malacia Softening
 -paresis Partial paralysis
-plegia Paralysis
-schisis Cleft or splitting
-thenia Lack of strength or weakness
-us Condition
Now, check out nervous root words and their combining forms.

Root Word What It Means

Algesi/o Excessive sensitivity to pain
Cephal/o Head
Cerebell/o Cerebellum
Cerebr/o Brain, cerebrum
Crani/o Cranium (skull)
Dur/o Dura mater
Ech/o Sound
Encephal/o Brain
Esthesi/o Feeling, nervous, sensation
Gli/o Glue, supportive tissues of the nervous system
Kinesi/o Movement
Mening/o Membrane
Meningi/o Meninges
Ment/o, phren/o Mind
Myel/o Spinal cord
My/o Muscle
Neur/o Nerve
Phas/o Speech
Pont/o Pons
Psych/o Mind
Radicul/o Nerve root
Thalam/o Thalamus
 Ventricul/o Ventricle
Here it is: The potpourri, the mish-mash, the great melting pot of
nervous system terms. These are some of the most common phrases
you’ll hear in the doctor’s office and hospital:

 Anesthesia: Without or loss of feeling or sensation

 Anesthesiologist: Physician who administers an anesthetic (a drug that

reduces feeling)

 Ataxia: Lack of muscle coordination

 Coma: State of profound unconsciousness

 Convulsion: Sudden involuntary contractions of a group of muscles

 Dementia: Mental decline

 Disorientation: A state of confusion as to time, place, or identity

 Gait: A matter or style of walking

 Monoplegia: Paralysis of one limb

 Neurologist: Physician who specializes in neurology, the scientific study

of the nervous system; does not perform surgery

 Neurology: The branch of medicine dealing with the study of the

nervous system, functions and disorders

 Neurosurgeon: Physician who specializes in neurology and performs

surgeries on the nervous system
 Paraplegia: Paralysis of the lower half of the body

 Postictal: Occurring after a seizure or attack

 Psychiatrist: Physician who treats mental disorders

 Psychiatry: Branch of medicine that deals with treatment of mental

disorders (disorders often without any identifiable pathological cause)

 Psychogenic: Produced or caused by psychological factors

 Psychogenetic: Originating in the mind

 Psychologist: Specialist in psychology

 Psychology: The study of the mind, mental processes, and behavior

 Psychosomatic: Pertaining to the mind and the body

 Quadriplegia: Paralysis of all four limbs

 Seizure: Sudden involuntary contractions (convulsion)

A
ABSCESS- A circumscribed collection of pus.

ACOUSTIC NEUROMAS - Benign tumor of the hearing nerve (eighth nerve).

ACROMEGALY - Disorder marked by progressive enlargement of the head,

face, hands, feet and thorax, due to the excessive secretion of growth hormone.

ADENOMA - A benign growth formed of glandular tissue.

AGNOSIA - Absence of the ability to recognize the form and nature of persons
and things.

AGRAPHIA - Inability to write due either to muscular coordination issues or to

an inability to phrase thought.
AMAUROSIS- Loss of vision without a visible lesion in the eye structures or
optic nerve.

AMAUROSIS FUGAX - Temporary blindness occurring in short periods.

AMENORRHEA - Absence of the menses due to causes other than pregnancy

or age.

AMNESIA - Loss of memory caused by brain damage or by severe emotional

trauma.

ANALGESIA - Loss of sensitivity to pain, loss of response to a painful stimulus.

ANAPLASIA - In the case of a body cell, a reversion to a more primitive

condition. A term used to denote the alteration in cell character that constitutes
malignancy.

ANASTOMOSIS - A communication, direct or indirect: a joining together. In the

nervous system a joining of nerves or blood vessels.

ANESTHESIOLOGIST - Physician who administers pain-killing medications

during surgery.

ANENCEPHALY - Absence of the greater part of the brain, often with skull
deformity.

ANESTHESIA - Loss of sensation of a body part or of the body induced by the

administration of a drug.

ANESTHESIOLOGIST - Physician who administers pain-killing medications

and monitors complications and reactions during surgery.

ANEURYSM - Dilation of an artery, formed by a circumscribed enlargement of

its wall.

ANGIOGRAM - A medical imaging report that shows the blood vessels leading
to and in the brain, obtained by injecting a dye or contrast substance through a
catheter.

ANGIOGRAPHY - Radiography of blood vessels using the injection of material

opaque to X-rays to give better definition to the vessels.

ANOREXIA - An eating disorder marked by loss of appetite leading to

excessive weight loss.

ANOSMIC - Without the sense of smell.

ANOXIA - An absence of oxygen.

 ANTI-COAGULANT - A medication that prevents coagulation (clotting) of the
blood.

ANTIDIURETIC - An agent that reduces the output of urine.

APHASIA - Difficulty with or loss of use of language in any of several ways,

including reading, writing or speaking, not related to intelligence but to specific
lesions in the brain.

APNEA - Temporary cessation of breathing.

APOPLEXY - Often used as equivalent to stroke, this is a condition in which

there is bleeding into an organ or blood flow to an organ has ceased.

ARACHNOID - Middle layer of membranes covering the brain and spinal cord.

ARACHNOIDITIS - Inflammation of the arachnoid membrane, most commonly

seen around the spinal cord and cauda equina.

AREA - (Cortical) - A part of the brain having a special function as in

 Motor - The cortical portion of the brain controlling movement.

 Sensory - The cortical portion controlling sensation.

ARTERIOGRAPHY - See angiography.

ARTERIOSCLEROSIS - Thickening and calcification of the arterial wall with

loss of elasticity and contractility.

ARTERIOVENOUS - Relating to both arteries and veins.

ARTERIOVENOUS MALFORMATION - Collection of blood vessels with one or

several abnormal connections between arteries and veins, which may cause
hemorrhage or seizures.

ASTROCYTE - Cell that supports the nerve cells (neurons) of the brain and
spinal cord.

ASTROCYTOMA - Tumor within the substance of the brain or spinal cord made
up of astrocytes; often classified from Grade I (slow growing) to Grade III (rapid
growing).

ATAXIA - A loss of muscular coordination, abnormal clumsiness.

ATHETOSIS - A condition in which there is a succession of slow, writhing,

involuntary movements of the fingers and hands, and sometimes of the toes
and feet.
ATROPHY - A wasting of the tissues of a body part.

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - Involuntary nervous system, also termed

the vegetative nervous system. A system of nerve cells whose activities are
beyond voluntary control.

AVASCULAR - Non-vascular, not provided with blood vessels.

AXON - The part of a nerve cell that usually sends signals to other nerves or
structures.

B
BACTERICIDAL - Causing the death of bacteria.

BACTERIOSTATIC - Inhibiting or retarding the growth of bacteria.

BELL'S PALSY - Paralysis of facial muscles (usually one side) due to facial
nerve dysfunction of unknown cause.

BIOPSY - Removal of a small portion of tissue, usually for making a diagnosis.

BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER - The barrier that exists between the blood and the
cerebrospinal fluid, which prevents the passage of various substances from the
bloodstream to the brain.

BRADYCARDIA - Slowness of the heart rate.

BRADYKINESIA - Slowness in movement.

BROWN-SEQUARD'S SYNDROME - Loss of sensation of touch, position

sense and movement on the side of a spinal cord lesion, with loss of pain
sensation on the other side. Caused by a lesion limited to one side of spinal
cord.

C
CARCINOMA - Cancer, a malignant growth of epithelial or gland cells.

CAROTID ARTERY - Large artery on either side of the neck that supplies most
of the cerebral hemisphere.

CAROTID SINUS - Slight dilatation on the common carotid artery at its

bifurcation containing nerve cells sensitive to blood pressure. Stimulation can
cause slowing of the heart, vasodilatation and a fall in blood pressure.
CARPAL TUNNEL - Space under a ligament in wrist through which the median
nerve enters the palm of the hand.

CT SCAN - (computed tomography scan) A diagnostic imaging technique in

which a computer reads X-rays to create a three-dimensional map of soft tissue
or bone.

CATHETER - A small tube used to inject a dye to see the blood vessels, similar
to that used for looking at vessels in the heart. May also be used to facilitate
drainage.

CAUDA EQUINA - The bundle of spinal nerve roots arising from the end of the
spinal cord and filling the lower part of the spinal canal.

CAUDATE NUCLEUS - Part of the basal ganglia, which are brain cells that lie
deep in the brain.

CEREBELLUM - The lower part of the brain that is beneath the posterior
portion of the cerebrum. It regulates unconscious coordination of movement.

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID - Water-like fluid that circulates around and protects

the brain and spinal cord.

CEREBRUM - The principal portion of the brain, which occupies the major
portion of the interior of the skull and controls conscious movement, sensation
and thought.

CERVICAL - Of or relating to the neck.

CHIASM (OPTIC)- Crossing of visual fibers as they head toward the opposite
side of the brain. For each optic nerve most of the visual fibers cross to the
opposite side, while some run directly backward on each side without crossing.

CHOREA - A disorder, usually of childhood, characterized by irregular,

spasmodic involuntary movements of the limbs or facial muscles.

CHOROID PLEXUS - A vascular structure in the ventricles of the brain that

produces cerebrospinal fluid.

COCCYX - The small bone at the end of the spinal column , formed by the
fusion of four rudimentary vertebrae. The "tail bone".

COMA - A state of profound unconsciousness from which one cannot be

roused.

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT) SCAN - A diagnostic imaging technique in

which a computer reads X-rays to create a three-dimensional map of soft tissue
or bone.
CONCUSSION - A disruption, usually temporary, of neurological function
resulting from a blow or violent shaking.

CONTRAST MEDIUM - Any material (usually opaque to X-rays) employed to

delineate or define a structure during a radiologic procedure.

CONTUSION - A bruise; cerebral contusions often involve blood vessels that

leak into brain tissue.

CORONAL SUTURE - The line of junction of the frontal bones and the parietal
bones of the skull.

CORTEX - The external layer of gray matter covering the hemispheres of the
cerebrum and cerebellum.

CRANIUM - The part of the skull that holds the brain.

CRANIECTOMY - Excision of a portion of the skull.

CRANIOPHARYNGIOMA - Tumor arising from the embryonic duct between the

brain and pharynx.

CRANIOPLASTY - The operative repair of a defect of the skull.

CRANIOSYNOSTOSIS - Premature closure of cranial sutures, limiting or

distorting the growth of the skull.

CRANIOTOMY - Opening of the skull, usually by creating a flap of bone.

CSF - Cerebrospinal Fluid.

D
DEPRESSED SKULL FRACTURE- A break in the bones of the head in which
some bone is pushed inward, possibly pushing on or cutting into the brain.

DIABETES INSIPIDUS - Excretion of large amounts of urine of low specific

gravity. The inability to concentrate urine.

DIFFUSE AXONAL INJURY - Damage to the axons of many nerve cells that lie
in different parts of the brain.

DIFFUSE BRAIN INJURY - Damage to the brain that can affect many parts of
the brain, often in a subtle fashion; examples include diffuse axonal injury and
inadequate blood flow.

DIPHENYLHYDANTOIN - Dilantin; a medication used to control seizures.

DIPLOPIA - Double vision, due usually to weakness or paralysis of one or more
of the extra-ocular muscles.

DISC - The intervertebral disc - cartilaginous cushion found between the

vertebrae of the spinal column. It may bulge beyond the vertebral body and
compress the nearby nerve root, causing pain. The terms "slipped disc",
"ruptured disc" and "herniated disc" are often used interchangeably even
though there are subtle differences.

DOME - The round balloon-like portion of the aneurysm which usually arises
from the artery from a smaller portion called the neck of the aneurysm.

DOPPLER - A non-invasive study that uses sound waves to show the flow in a
blood vessel and can be used to determine the degree of narrowing (percent
stenosis) of the vessel. A wand is placed on the skin over the vessel that is to
be imaged. This study has no risks and is not painful.

DURA - Dura mater.

DURA MATER - A tough fibrous membrane that covers the brain and spinal
cord, but is separated from them by a small space. It is the outermost layer of
the three membranes.

DYSESTHESIA - A condition in which ordinary touch, temperature or

movement produces a disagreeable sensation.

DYSPHASIA - Difficulty in the use of language due to a brain lesion without

mental impairment.

DYSTONIA MUSCULORM DEFORMANS - An affliction, occurring especially in

children, marked by muscular contractions producing distortions of the spin and
hips.

E
EDEMA - An excessive accumulation of fluid generally in the extracellular or
intracellular areas of the brain.

ELECTROENCEPHALOPGRAHY (EEG) - The study of the electrical currents

set up by brain actions; the record made is called an electroencephalogram.

ELECTROMYOGRAPHY (EMG) - A method of recording the electrical currents

generated in a muscle during its contraction.

ENDARTERECTOMY - Removal of fatty or cholesterol plaques and calcified

deposits from the internal wall of an artery.
ENDOCRINE GLAND - A gland that furnishes an internal secretion, usually
having an effect on another organ.

ENDOCRINOPATHY - Any disease due to abnormality of quantity or quality in

one or more of the internal glandular secretions.

EPENDYMA - The membrane lining the cerebral ventricles of the brain and
central canal of the spinal cord.

EPENDYMOMA - A growth in the brain or spinal cord arising from ependymal

tissue.

EPIDURAL - Immediately outside the dura mater. Same as extradural. Also

form of local analgesia and anesthesia often injected into the outer section of
the spinal canal.

EPIDURAL HEMATOMA - A blood clot between the dura mater and the inside
of the skull.

EPILEPSY - Disorder characterized by abnormal electrical discharges in the

brain, causing abnormal sensation, movement or level of consciousness.

F
FALX (CEREBRI) - An extension of dura between the right and left
hemispheres of the brain.

FONTANELLE - Normal openings in the skull of infants; the largest of these is

the anterior fontanel or "soft spot" in the middle of the head.

FORAMINOTOMY - Surgical opening or enlargement of the bony opening

traversed by a nerve root as it leaves the spinal canal.

FUSIFORM ANEURYSM - a sausage-like enlargement of the vessel

G
GALACTORRHEA - The discharge of milk from the breasts unassociated with
nursing or childbirth.

GAMMA KNIFE - Equipment that precisely delivers a concentrated dose of

radiation to a predetermined target using gamma rays.

GCS - Glasgow Coma Scale.

GLASGOW COMA SCALE - The most widely used system of classifying the
severity of head injuries or other neurologic diseases.
GLASGOW OUTCOME SCALE - A widely used system of classifying outcome
after head injury or other neurologic diseases.

GLIA (Also termed neuroglia) - The major support cells of the brain. These cells
are involved in the nutrition and maintenance of the nerve cells.

GLIOMA - A tumor formed by glial cells.

GLIOBLASTOMA - A rapidly growing tumor composed of primitive glial cells,

mainly arising from astrocytes.

GLOBUS PALLIDUS - Part of the basal ganglia, which are brain cells that lie
deep in the brain.

H
HEMANGIOMA - An aggregation of multiple, dilated, blood vessels.

HEMATOMA - A collection of blood outside the blood vessels.

HEMIANOPIA - Loss of vision of one-half of the visual field.

HEMIATROPHY - Atrophy of half of an organ or half of the body.

HEMIPLEGIA - Paralysis of one side of the body.

HEMORRHAGE - Bleeding due to the escape of blood from a blood vessel.

HERNIATED NUCLEUS PULPOSUS (HNP) - Extrusion of the central portion of

an intervertebral disc through the outer cartilaginous ring. The material can
compress the spinal cord or nerves in or exiting the spinal canal.

HORMONE - A chemical substance formed in one gland or part of the body and
carried by the blood to another organ, which it stimulates to functional activity.

HYDROCEPHALUS - A condition, often congenital, marked by abnormal and

excessive accumulation of cerebrospinal fluid in the cerebral ventricles. This
dilates the ventricles and, in infants and young children, causes the head to
enlarge.

HYDROMYELIA - Expansion of the spinal cord due to increased size of the

central canal of the cord, which is filled with CSF.

HYPERACUSIS - Abnormal acuteness of hearing or auditory sensation.

HYPERESTHESIA - Excessive sensibility to touch, pain or other stimuli.

HYPERTENSION - High blood pressure.

HYPOTHALAMUS - A collection of specialized nerve cells at the base of the

brain that controls the anterior and posterior pituitary secretions, and is involved
in other basic regulatory functions such as temperature control and attention.

I
INFUNDIBULUM - A stalk extending from the base of the brain to the pituitary
gland.

INTRA-AORTIC BALLOON COUNTER PULSATION DEVICE – This device is

a pump that is inserted into the main vessel of the body (the aorta) to help the
heart deliver blood to critical organs such as the brain or kidneys.

INTRA-ARTERIAL CATHETERIZATION ANGIOGRAPHY - An invasive study

in which a catheter (a small tube) is placed in the artery and contrast material is
injected to which makes the blood vessels visible on an X-Ray image. The
catheter is inserted in the groin into the femoral artery (the artery to the leg)
through a needle, and is guided into the arteries in the neck and head.

INTRACEREBRAL HEMATOMA - A blood clot within the brain.

INTRACRANIAL PRESSURE (ICP) - The overall pressure inside the skull.

INTRAOPERATIVE CISTERNOGRAPHY - Administration of a contrast dye into

the ventricles, which are chambers in the brain that contain brain fluid.

ISCHEMIA - Inadequate circulation of blood generally due to a blockage of an

artery.

J
JUGULAR VEINS - The major veins on each side of the neck draining blood
from the head towards the heart.

L
LABYRINTH - The internal ear, comprised of the semi-circular canals, vestibule
and cochlea.

LAMINA - The flattened or arched part of the vertebral arch, forming the roof of
the spinal canal.

LAMINECTOMY - Excision of one or more laminae of the vertebrae.

LAMINOTOMY - An opening made in a lamina.

LEPTOMENINGES - Two thin layers of fine tissue covering the brain and spinal
cord: the pia mater and arachnoid.

LEPTOMENINGITIS - Inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and

spinal cord.

LEUKODYSTROPHY - Disturbance of the white matter of the brain.

LEUKOENCEPHALITIS - An inflammation of the white matter of the brain.

LINEAR ACCELERATOR - Equipment that precisely delivers a concentrated

dose of radiation to a predetermined target using X-rays.

LIPOMA - A benign fatty tumor, usually composed of mature fat cells.

LORDOSIS - Curvature of the spine with the convexity forward.

LUMBAR DRAIN - A device (usually a long, thin, flexible tube) inserted through
the skin into the cerebrospinal fluid space of the lower back; provides a method
of draining cerebrospinal fluid.

M
MAGNETIC RESONANCE ANGIOGRAPHY (MRA) - A non-invasive study that
is conducted in a magnetic resonance imager (MRI). The magnetic images are
assembled by a computer to provide an image of the arteries in the head and
neck.

MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (MRI) - Diagnostic test that produces

three-dimensional images of body structures using powerful magnets and
computer technology rather than X-rays.

MEDIAN NERVE - The nerve formed from the brachial plexus that supplies
muscles in the anterior forearm and thumb, as well as sensation of the hand. It
may be compressed or trapped at the wrist in carpal tunnel syndrome.

MEDULLOBLASTOMA - Tumor composed of medulloblasts, which are cells

that develop in the roof of the fourth ventricle (medullary velum).

MENINGES - The three membranes covering the spinal cord and brain termed
dura mater, arachnoid mater and pia mater.

MENINGIOMA - A firm, often vascular, tumor arising from the coverings of the
brain.

MENINGITIS - An infection or inflammation of the membranes covering the

brain and spinal cord.
MENINGOCELE - A protrusion of the coverings of the spinal cord or brain
through a defect in the skull or vertebral column.

MENINGOENCEPHALITIS - An inflammation or infection of the brain and

meninges.

MENINGOENCEPHALOCELE - A protrusion of both the meninges and brain

tissue through a skull defect.

MRA - Magnetic Resonance Angiography. A non-invasive study that is

conducted in a magnetic resonance imager (MRI). The magnetic images are
assembled by a computer to provide an image of the arteries in the head and
neck.

MRI - Magnetic Resonance Imaging - Scanning technique for views of the brain
or spinal cord. No radiation is involved, but rather pulsed magnetic waves used
to delineate the structures within the brain.

MYELIN - The fat-like substance that surrounds the axon of nerve fibers and
forms an insulating material.

MYELOGRAM - An x-ray of the spinal canal following injection of a contrast

material into the surrounding cerebrospinal fluid spaces.

MYELOPATHY - Any functional or pathologic disturbance in the spinal cord.

MYELOMENINGOCELE - A protrusion of the spinal cord and its coverings

through a defect in the vertebral column.

MYOPATHY - Any disease of muscle.

N
NEURALGIA - A paroxysmal pain extending along the course of one or more
nerves.

NEURECTOMY - Excision of part of a nerve.

NEURITIS - Inflammation of a nerve; may also be used to denote non-

inflammatory nerve lesions of the peripheral nervous system.

NEUROBLASTOMA - Tumor of sympathetic nervous system, found mostly in

infants and children.

NEUROFIBROMA - A tumor of the peripheral nerves due to an abnormal

collection of fibrous and insulating cells.
NEUROFIBROMATOSIS - A familial condition characterized by developmental
changes in the nervous system, muscles and skin, marked by numerous tumors
affecting these organ systems.

NEUROHYPOPHYSIS - The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland.

NEUROLYSIS - Removal of scar or reactive tissue from a nerve or nerve root.

NEUROMA - A tumor or new growth largely made up of nerve fibers and

connective tissue.

NEUROPATHY - Any functional or pathologic disturbance in the peripheral

nervous system.

NYSTAGMUS - Involuntary rapid movement of the eyes in the horizontal,

vertical or rotary planes of the eyeball.

O
OCCIPUT - The back part of the head.

OLIGODENDROGLIA - Non-nerve cells (see glia) forming part of the

supporting structure of the central nervous system.

OLIGODENDROGLIOMA - A growth of new cells derived from the

oligodendroglia.

OPHTHALMOPLEGIA - Paralysis of one or more of the eye muscles.

OSTEOMA - A benign tumor of bone.

OSTEOMYELITIS - Inflammation of bone due to infection, which may be

localized or generalized.

P
PAPILLEDEMA - Swelling of the optic nerve head that can be seen in the back
of the retina during eye examination.

PARAPLEGIA - Paralysis of the lower part of the body including the legs.

PERITONEAL CAVITY - Body cavity in which the abdominal organs are

situated.

PITUITARY- Gland at base of the brain that secretes hormones into the blood
stream. Those hormones then regulate other glands including the thyroid,
adrenals and gonads. The "Master Gland".
POLYNEURITIS - Inflammation of two or more nerves simultaneously.

PORENCEPHALY - Abnormal cavity within brain tissue, usually resulting from

outpouching of a lateral ventricle.

POST-ICTAL (POSTICTAL) - State following a seizure, often characterized by

altered function of the limbs and/or mentation.

PROPRIOCEPTION - Sensation concerning movements of joints and position

of the body in space.

PSEUDOTUMOR CEREBRI - Raised intracranial pressure, usually causing

only headache and papilledema. No clear underlying structural abnormality.

PUPIL - The black part of the eye through which light enters; enlarges in dim
light and decreases in size in bright light.

Q
QUADRANTANOPIA - Defect in vision or blindness in one fourth of the visual
field.

QUADRIPLEGIA - Paralysis of all four limbs.

R
RACHISCHISIS - Abnormal congenital opening of the vertebral column.

RADIATION ONCOLOGIST - A medical doctor who has received advanced

training in the treatment of persons receiving X-ray treatment for an illness.

RADIATION PHYSICIST - A person having a PhD degree trained in the science

dealing with the properties, changes and interactions of continuous energy.

RADIOLOGIST - A medical doctor who has received specialized training in

interpreting X-rays, CTs, MRIs and performing angiography.

RADIOTHERAPY - Treatment of a lesion with radiation.

S
SACCULAR ANEURYSM - A balloon-like outpouching of a vessel (the more
common type of aneurysm).

SCOTOMA - An area of decreased vision surrounded by an area of less

depressed or normal vision.
SHUNT - A tube or device implanted in the body to divert excess CSF away
from the brain to another place in the body.

SPINA BIFIDA - A congenital defect of the spine marked by the absence of a

portion of the spine.

SPINAL FUSION - Operative method of strengthening and limiting motion of the

spinal column that can be performed with a variety of metal instruments and
bone grafts or bone grafts alone.

SPONDYLOLISTHESIS - Forward displacement of one vertebra on another.

SPONDYLOSIS - Degenerative bone changes in the spine usually most

marked at the vertebral joints.

STENOSIS - Narrowing.

STEREOTACTIC - Originated from the Greek words stereo meaning three

dimensional and tactos meaning touched.

STEREOTACTIC RADIOSURGERY - The precise delivery of radiation to a

preselected stereotactically localized target.

STRABISMUS - Deviation of eye movement that prevents the two eyes from
moving in a parallel fashion.

SUBARACHNOID HEMORRHAGE - Blood in, or bleeding into, the space

under the arachnoid membrane, most commonly from trauma or from rupture of
an aneurysm.

SUBDURAL HEMATOMA - A collection of blood (clot) trapped under the dura

matter, the outermost membrane surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

SYRINGOMYELIA - A fluid filled cavity in the spinal cord.

T
TERATOMA - Tumor or growth made up of several different types of tissue (i.e.
fat, bone, muscle, skin).

THROMBUS - A blood clot attached to the wall of an artery.

THALAMUS - Brain cells which lie in the upper part of the brainstem.

TIC DOULOUREUX - (See trigeminal neuralgia.)

TRANSSPHENOIDAL APPROACH - Operative method of reaching the

pituitary gland or skull base traversing the nose and sinuses.
TRIGEMINAL NEURALGIA - Paroxysmal pain in the face. Pain may be so
severe that it causes an involuntary grimace or "tic". Also called Tic Douloureux.

U
ULTRASOUND - The use of high-frequency sound to create images of internal
body structures.

V
VALVE - Device placed in a shunt system to regulate the rate and direction of
CSF flow.

VASOCONSTRICTION - A decrease in the diameter of blood vessels.

VASODILATATION - An increase in the diameter of blood vessels.

VASOPRESSIN - A hormone secreted by the hypothalamus and stored in the

posterior pituitary that raises blood pressure and increases re-absorption of
water by the kidneys.

VASOPRESSOR - An agent that constricts the arteries and raises blood

pressure.

VASOSPASM - Spasm of blood vessels, decreasing their diameter.

VENTRICLE - The cavities or chambers within the brain that contain the
cerebrospinal fluid. There are two lateral ventricles and midline third and fourth
ventricles.

VENTRICULITIS - Inflammation and/or infection of the ventricles.

VENTRICULOGRAM - An x-ray study of the ventricles.

VENTRICULOSTOMY - An opening into the ventricles of the brain, achieved by

inserting a small, thin, hollow catheter. Serves as a means to relieve pressure
from the brain and spinal cord.

VENTRICULAR DRAINAGE - Insertion of a small tube into the ventricles to

drain cerebrospinal fluid, usually performed when pressure is increased.

VERMIS - Middle part of the cerebellum between the two hemispheres.

VERTEBRA- Any of the 33 bones of the spinal column.

VERTIGO - An abnormal sensation of rotation or movement of one's self or the

environment.
X
X-RAY - Application of electromagnetic radiation to produce a film or picture of
a bone or soft-tissue area of the body.

Synchronous psychological
interventions by
videoconferencing for
caregivers of people with
dementia: an integrative
review
INTERVENÇÕES PSICOLÓGICAS
SÍNCRONAS POR VIDEOCONFERÊNCIA
PARA CUIDADORES DE PESSOAS COM
DEMÊNCIA: UMA REVISÃO INTEGRATIVA
 The impacts of visual Art
Therapy for elderly with
Neurocognitive disorder: a
systematic review
OS IMPACTOS DA ARTE-TERAPIA VISUAL
PARA IDOSOS COM TRANSTORNO